review of literature - inflibnetshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/4674/7/07_chapter...

Review of literature

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Progress in the limnology field since 1910, particularly the year 1918 has been

rapid and far reaching. Also during that period limnology become more completely an

integrated coherent branch of science. Birge and Juday (1911) can be regarded as the

pioneers of scientific limnology in N.America, which has today assumed the position

of eminence rivaling that of Europe.

The contributions to the field of limnology in the succeeding decades include

those of West and West (1912), who observed the periodicity of phytoplankton in

some British lakes. Pearsall (1921) worked on the development of vegetation of

English lake and considered it in relation to general evolution of glacial and rock

basins; Storm (1924) investigated the ecology and geographical distribution of

freshwater algae and plankton and Uspenskle (1927) made extensive studies on iron

as a factor in the distribution of lower aquatic plant. Howland and lucy (1931) made

extensive investigation on a pond at Hertfordshire; Pearsall (1932) observed the

composition of phytoplankton and in the dissolved substances in English lakes;

Hutchinson and Pickford (1932), made limnological observation on Mountain Lake,

Virginia. Prescott (1938) recorded the objectionable algae and their control in lakes

and reservoirs. Gojdics (1939) made extensive observation on Euglena sanguine.

Fresh waterbodies in India gained due scientific attention rather very late.

The important contribution to the science of aquatic biology in India include

those of Gonzalves and Joshi (1946) who worked on the seasonal accession of algae

in tank at Bandra, Bombay; Patrick (1948) observed the factor affecting distribution

of diatoms, Rao (1953) investigated on the distribution of algae in a group of six small

ponds. Krishnamurthy (1954) worked on diatomic flora of south Indian Lakes;

Gandhi (1955) worked on the fresh water diatoms of Pratabgarh, Rajasthan; Philipose

(1960) worked on the freshwater phytoplankton of Inland fisheries; Singh (1960)

recorded the phytoplankton ecology of inland water of Uttarpradesh; Talling and


3

Talling (1965) recorded the chemical composition of an African lake water; Khan

and Quajjum (1966) studied the ionic composition of tropic freshwater pond of

Uttarpradesh; Zafar (1967) worked on the ecology of algae in certain fish pond of

Hyderabad. Hydrobiological studies of a temple tank, Devi kund in Deoband by

Verma and Shukla (1968) was a breakthrough in the study of lentic water bodies for

the ecological characteristics. This encouraged Vyas (1968) for phytoplanktonic study

of Picchola lake. Later Seenayya (1972) studied ecological aspects of certain

freshwater ponds of India with special reference to its plankton composition.

Investigation on the ecology of freshwater bodies includes those of Santisi and

Salvatore (1979) on phytoplankton distribution in three lentic water bodies of

Montesirino (Brasilica) Italy, who observed the profound effects of phosphorous on

the cholorophyll content of algae. Simultaneously, Koschel and Rainer (1980) while

working on lake Meckolenburger sunplattle concluded that high phosphate content

limited the plankton composition. Later Chartlon (1980) observed hypolimnion

oxygen consumption in lakes of Laurention and Ewie (Canada). He observed that the

depletion of oxygen is related to chlorophyll thickness and temperature. Exhaustive

studies on phytoplankton includes those Yamamoto et al., (1980) in one of the lakes

of Japan who collected 129 species of phytoplankton except diatoms and studied their

distribution pattern. Imhoff et al., (1980) have investigated on the physic – chemical

and biological parameters of eutrophic desert lakes of Egypt and pointed out that

Sulphate, Carbonate, Chloride, Sodium and other trace elements like Magnesium,

Calcium and Potassium play a pivotal role in algal distribution.

The other noteworthy publications on Indian limnological studies include

those of Goel el al., (1980) on the impact of sewage on the freshwater ecosystem;

Purohit and Singh (1981) on the physico-chemical aspects of Nainital lake. Further,

Parra et al., (1981) observed the seasonal succession of phytoplankton in some lentic

water bodies of Chile and showed the complex inter-relationship between water

quality limnological conditions and planktonic organisms. King and Tyler (1981)


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studied on limnology of a lake in south-west Tasmania of Australia and found that the

oxygen of the hypolimnion declines late in the stratification period resulting lower

productivity environment. He also studied the seasonal changes of biomass in the lake

environment. Various other workers in the field of limnology include Schulz and

Liselotte (1981) who made investigation on nutrient input by bathers in Klagenfart

lake and Woerthersee pond.

Rai and Hill (1982) made extensive study on physico-chemical and

microbiological parameters of central Amazon lakes and classified them into

oligotrophic and eutrophic water bodies based on the bacterial density, electrical

conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, silica and phosphate content. Barroin et al.,

(1982) have described the physic-chemical and biological mechanism of eutrophic

lake Lemen, France; Goeltenboth (1982) studied on the physico-chemical and

biological parameters including macrophytes and heavy metal traces in lake Rewa

pening of central Jawa. Hosmani and Bharati (1982) classified the water bodies by

using algal populations. Prasad and Singh (1982) studied the indicator organisms of

water pollution.

Other noteworthy publications of lentic water bodies include those of Kaul

and Siddarth (1983) on Lalpari talab at Rajkot, India; a study by Pant and Sharma

(1983) on the primary producer s of lake Nainital. Work by Bharati and Hegde (1983)

on desmids of Karnataka and Goa states.

Schroeder et al., (1983) have recorded biogenic calcium carbonate production

in an oligotrophic lake Attersee, Salzkammergut, Austria. In continuation of the

worked on general characteristic features of 42 lakes of North eastern Polant; Forsyth

et al., (1983) on limnological aspect of Rotangaio lake of Newzealand. Koschel et al.,

(1983) pointed out the calcite precipitation decrease the phytoplankton population;

dissolve oxygen and total phosphate in lake Breiber, Lucin, Germany. The other

important investigations made in India include those of Dakshini and Gupta (1984) on


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the ecological characteristic of three lakes in the union territory of Delhi and

investigation by Singh and Rai (1984) on the ecology of Jabalpur lake

(Madhyapradesh).

Puttaiah and Somashekar (1985) studied the limnological aspect of Mysore

city ponds and Kanungo et al., (1985) worked on the physico-chemical characteristic

of some pond of Raipur city. Dokulil and Martin (1985) assessed the components

controlling phytoplankton photosynthesis and bacterial plankton production in

shallow alkaline and turbid lakes of Neusiedlersee, Austria. Blouin et al., (1985) made

a comparative study of phytoplankton and zooplankton distribution in relation to

water chemistry in the acidic lake of Novascotia, Canada.

A large number of investigators like Sharma et al., (1986), Chitranshi and

Bilgrami (1986) have investigated the lentic water ecosystem and discussed the

importance of physico-chemical characters of water in relation to the distribution

pattern of phytoplankton by and large they have considered pH, temperature,

potassium, sodium, dissolved oxygen and phosphate as the chief physico-chemical

characteristics which play a significant role either by increasing or decreasing certain

phytoplanktonic groups in different water bodies.

Golachowska and Jadwiga (1986) studied the diurnal fluctuations of

phosphorus forms in lake Plusee, Poland. Similar type of contribution have been made

by a number of other workers in the field of aquatic ecology which include those of

Basterrechea and Manuel (1986) on the limnological characteristics of lake Amatitlan,

Gutelmala; Lyubezhov et al., (1986) on phytoplankton of Kopet Dag storage Lake,

USSR; Kumagai et al., (1986) on vertical circulation and formation of anoxic layer of

southern basin of lake Biwa Japan.

Hegde and Bharati (1986) discussed the occurrence of euglenoid blooms in

ponds and lakes of Dharwad in relation to physico-chemical factors. Singh (1987)


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working on Ox-bow lake has investigated the phytoplankton primary production and

concluded that high temperature coupled with higher concentration of phosphate

enhance the higher rate of production of Microcystis aeruginosa a cyanophycean

algae. Later, Puttaiah and Somashekar (1987) pointed out that higher carbondioxide

and lower concentration of oxygen significantly contribute to the anundance of

Euglenoids in the water bodies of Mysore city. Singh and Mahajani (1987) discussed

the role of temperature, nitrate nitrogen and phosphorus for phytoplankton variations

in the lakes of Himachal Pradesh.

Kurata et al., (1987) observed the seasonal change of temperature, salinity,

transparency, nutrients and phytoplanktons in the lake Notoro Hokkaido, Japan. Other

note worthy publications during the same period include those of Schelske et al.,

(1987) who investigated the limnological aspects such as biogenic silica and bio-geo

chemistry of silica in lake St. Moritz and lake Zurich, Switzerland, June and Fred

(1987) who made observations on physic-chemical and biological characteristics of

lake Sharpe, South Dakota, USA.

Zutshi and Khan (1988); Anand (1988); Bhattacharya (1988); Saifullah et al.,

(1988) who did considerable work on the chemical composition of standing water

bodies concluded that both physical and chemical characteristic of water significantly

affect the algal population and they emphasized the importance of pH, total alkalinity

and carbon dioxide content of water on the succession of phytoplanktons leading to

eutrophication.

Jones (1988) observed the vertical distribution and migration of flagellated

phytoplankton in small lakes of southern part of Finland. Goel et al., (1988)

investigated the species diversity in phytoplankton communities in four freshwater

bodies of south-western Maharashtra. The year 1989 hearlded a new chapter in the

history of limnology. It stated with commendable hydrobiological work on Indian

lake by Ahluwalia et al., (1989); Ghosh and George (1989) and Parimala and


Page 27

Ayyappan (1989). All these researchers investigated the polluted water bodies and

inferred that Chloride, Sulphate and Organic carbon play a vital role in the formation

of blooms. They also concluded that the phosphate concentration in water has a direct

bearing on the development of water blooms.

Other noteworthy works on the ecology and taxonomy of lentic waterbodies

include those of Madhusudan et al., (1989), on the lake of Mayeni, Goa; Mansoor

and Tiwari (1989) on Hussain sagar lake; Pandey et al., (1989) on distribution of

nutrient in Chilka lake, East coast of India; Khatavkar et al., (1989) on limnological

aspect of lentic freshwater bodies of Kolhapur; Tripathi and Pandey (1989) on

Chandari pond and Rao and Durve (1989) on lake Rangasagar, Udaipur, Rajasthan.

Further investigations include those of Singh (1990) who stated correlation

between certain physico-chemical parameters and primary production of

phytoplanktons in Jamalpur, Munger. Characterization of 151 small lakes in eastern

Finland based on their water chemistry, land use on catchments and phytoplankton

communities by Llmavirta et al., (1990).

The succeeding contributions to the field of freshwater bodies with special

references to the distribution of phytoplanktons and water chemistry have been

recorded in the publication of Sarwar and Wazir (1991) on the physicochemical

characteristic of freshwater pond near Srinagar. They pointed out that, alkaline water

with calcium; bicarbonate; phosphorus and nitrate in higher concentration trigger

water blooms in the water bodies and together tend to increase the Eutropic nature.

Swarnalatha and Narasingrao (1991) revealed the fact that cyanophyceae blooms, by

and large, are common in highly polluted lakes and regarded the blooms of

cyanophyceae as indicators of pollution of water. Ushakumari et al., (1991)

investigating on Basman and Motihari Lakes, Bihar, could not establish any clear cut

correlation between temperature and plankton distribution. Kumar and Sharma (1991)

studied the Pichola lake and pointed out that the electrical conductance, pH, total


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alkalinity and nitrates at higher concentration increase the productivity status of lake

and these parameter could serve as indicators in assessing tropic level of the water

bodies.

Sager and Richman (1991) studied the functional interaction between

phytoplanktons and Zooplanktons along with tropic gradient in Green Bay lake,

Michigan. Molot and Dillon (1991) discussed about nitrogen and phosphorous ratios

and chlorophyll production in the lakes of central Ontario.

Other limnological investigations include those of Nygaard (1991) on the

seasonal periodicity of planktonic desmids in oligotrophic lake , Grane langso,

Denmark and the study by Kaushik et al., (1991) on the water quality and periodicity

of phytoplanktonic algae in chambantal, Gwalior Madhyapradesh. The study revealed

the merocuthermal condition of tank water and the alkaliphilous nature of the tank.

The further contribution to the field of freshwater ecology include those of

Vaishya and Adoni (1992) on Sagar lake, who inferred the lake as hyper eutropic

based on physico-chemical properties. Further they found out that whenever the pH

of water was alkaline , lake showed less range of transparency. Chatterjee (1992)

investigating on the lake Nandan kanan recorded that temperature with slightly

alkaline pH, conductivity, chlorides, calcium and magnesium do not seem to vary

much indicating the insignificant influence of organic and inorganic matter from

outside to the lake. Swarnalatha and Narasingrao (1992) discussed the occurrence of

cyanophycean bloom in Hyderabad lake and observed a permanent bloom of

Microcystis aeruginosa and pointed out that bright sunlight and high temperature wee

the factor responsible for the development of blooms.

Borkar et al., (1992) from Goa, studied the diurnal variation in physic-

chemical parmeter of lake near marmugoa, Goa and concluded that dissolved oxygen,

free carbon dioxide, pH, chloride and total alkalinity in higher concentration could


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accelerate the pollution rate in the lake. Adhikary and Sahu (1992) studied

distribution and seasonal abundance of algal forms in Chilka lake. Further they

extended their studies on the occurrence of Trichodesmium bloom in Chilka lake

during summer and concluded that the temperature above 20oC together with the

alkaline pH was responsible for the bloom.

Other contributions to the limnological studies include those of Belsare et al.,

(1992), on numerical and volumetric variation in plankton population of a polymictic

tropical lake, Bhopal; Vanden et al., (1992) on the impact of hydrology on the

chemistry and phytoplankton development in flood plain lakes along the lower Rhine

and Meuse; Eckartz Nolden (1992) on the phytoplankton of lake Laachersee, species

composition and seasonal periodicity.

Biswas (1992) who investigated phytoplankton periodicity in Ogelube lake,

Nigeria noted that the maximum density of desmids occurred during warmest season.

Dixit et al., (1992) conducted extensive studies on diatoms and revealed that they can

be used as indicators of biological condition, used to address a wide variety of

environmental issues, including lake acidification, lake eutrophication and climate

changes.

The algal community of the lake Patzewaro, Mexico was studied as an

indicator of tropic status by Rosas et al., (1993). Nayak (1993) investigated Mathyatal

lake and recorded the physico-chemical characteristics and associated biological

components and opined that temperature and carbon dioxide are negatively correlated

with each other while there is an inverse relationship between water transparency and

bicarbonate content. Parvateesam and Mishra (1993), while working on manmade

lake located near temple town Pushkar, recorded 88 algal forms belonging to

chlorophyceae, euglenaceae and bacillariophyceae. They also identified pollution

indicator algae in that lake. Swarnalatha and Narasingrao (1993) studied Banjara lake

near Hyderabad and observed that Microcystis aeruginosa form a continuous bloom


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in summer and they attributed this to the factors such as pH, total solids and total

hardness responsible for the appearance of such bloom. Badve et al., (1993) worked

on physico-chemcial and biological characteristics of Lunar lake, Maharashtra and

categorized it as eutrophic based on the biological composition.

Rao et al., (1993) have analyzed various physico-chemcial and biological

factors in the storm water channel and Ooty lake, suggesting that the dumping of

cities sewage into the lake affecting the lakes purification properties. The spatial

distribution of temperature, oxygen, phytoplankton and fish was determined

simultaneously in lake Kinneret, Israel by Yacobi et al., (1993).

The year 1994 filled the lacunae in the filled of limnology by the contribution

of Shaji and Patel (1994) by highlighting phytoplankton ecology of polluted pond at

Anand, Gujarat. Begum and Hadi (1994) worked on comparative abundance of

phytoplankton, periphyton, pelagic algae and some related physic-chemical

parameters in two shrimp cultivated ponds; A long term study on tropic interaction in

a shallow lake with nutrients reduction was conducted by Perrow et al., (1994).

Alvarej et al., (1994) on the time course of phytoplankton biomass and related

limnological factors in shallow and deep lakes and Tryfon et al., (1994) on the

phytoplankton physical and chemical features of the shallow lake Mikri Prespa,

Macedonia, Greece.

Sreenivas and Rana (1994) studied the ecology and tropic status of Gomti

tank, Gujarat, pointing out that the tank was on the verge of attaining eutropic state.

Bratli (1994) who studied on lake Froylandsvatn, Norway, conducted analysis of

water for its quality wherein he observed that phosphorus input results in frequent

blooms of blue green algae which in turn produce toxins. Extensive studies carried out

by Mccormick and Cairns (1994) showed that algae can respond rapidly and

predictably to a wide range of pollutants and thus provide potentially useful early

warning signals of deteriorating conditions of water bodies of Florida. Miyajima et


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al., (1994) investigated lake Biwa Japan, and came to a conclusion that the diatoms

population density and concentrations of biogenic silica were higher in eutrophic lake.

Bajpai et al., (1994) discussed ecology and seasonal distribution of

phytoplanktons and their relationship with physico-chemical characteristic of

Govindpuri, a sewage fed and perrinial, pond at Gwalior. Goel et al., (1994) carried

out extensive studies on ten lake situated in western ghats of south western

Maharashtra and came to a conclusion that dominance of blue-green algae was

observable when TN:TP ratio was lower than 22:1. Recent limnological studies on

isolated and connected high mountain lakes were reported by Larson et al., (1995) in

Washington State, U.S.A. Macintyre and Melack (1995) worked on vertical and

horizontal transport in lakes linking littoral, benthic and pelagic habitats. Olila et al.,

(1995) studied the distribution of organic phosphates in sediments of two shallow

eutropic lakes of Florida. Agbeti and Smol (1995) studied chemical, physical and

biological characteristic of two temperate lake namely opinion and upper rock.

Mukerjee and Pankajakshi (1995) who assessed the impact of detergent on

plankton diversity in freshwater bodies concluded that Microcystis was dominant

throughout the year, and it form bloom as the temperature and detergent input were

increased.

Khan (1996) recorded the phytoplankton periodicities in two warm climate

lake subjected to marked seasonal variability. Holopainen (1996) recorded the tropic

state of lake Ladoga and described about the summer phytoplankton. Ravikumar and

Puttaiah (1996) studied the ecology of Hassan district lakes. Biological index of

pollution has been calculated and lakes were classified into septic zones. James and

Havens (1996) investigated algal blooms probability in lake Okeccchobee, Florida

and algal bloom occurrence was found to be strongly and positively related to the total

nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations


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Pizzolon (1996) studied the importance of Cyanobacteria as potential factors

of toxicity in aquatic ecosystem and stated that several biotoxins act as neuromuscular

blocking agents causing death of the livestock. Microcysitis spp, also formed a

continuous bloom over a period of three years, in a Germa Lake and recorded it

heaviest density in September and October months. The toxicity was primarily due to

heptotoxins.

The seasonal variations in physico-chemical parameters like dissolved

oxygen, chlorides, salinity and planktonic composition of Kurichi ponds were studied

by Arivazhagan et al., (1997). Sarojini et al., (1997) have studied pollution of water

resources of Kolleru area. Similar Pollution studies were reported with reference to

chemical oxygen demand and the total suspended solid by Sahoo et al., (1997).

Henriksen and Moestrap (1997) carried out experiments on 198 of 296

phytoplankton net sample collected from Danish fresh waters showing slightly higher

microcystin contents in September and October months. Takano and Hino (1997) who

investigated hyper tropic lake Barato, Japan, opined that high temperature might

promote diatoms growth. They also found that the lack of Orthophosphate might be

the reason for the absence of blue green algal bloom in summer.

Hegde and Sujatha (1997) investigated the distribution and abundance of

planktonic algae in relation to various abiotic factors in three freshwater bodies of

Dharwad.

Baruah et al., (1998) worked on the water quality of ponds and assessed the

purity of potable water in Chandrapur area of Kamarup district, Assam; Swarnalatha

and Narasinghrao (1998) studied Banjara lake with reference to water pollution by

domestic waste and highlighted the state of eutrophication of the water bodies. Tarar

and Bodkhe (1998) studied Chlorococcales of Nagpur and discussed favorable factors

for the luxuriant growth of Chlorococcales, Pandey et al., (1998) worked on the Algal


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Flora and physico-chemical environment of Fatehsagar lake with reference to inflow

of nutrients, consequent algal growth which deteriorates the water quality.

Correl (1998) discussed the role of phosphorus in the eutropication of

freshwater lakes, resulting in the excessive production of autotrophs mainly

cyanobacteria.

Dixit et al., (1999) who investigated chrysophyte scale assemblages of

sediment sample of 146 lakes on north-eastern USA, discussed the importance of

planktonic chrysophyte, which could be used as early warning indicator in

environmental monitoring and assessment studies. Further assessment of water quality

changes in 257 lakes in the north eastern United States, carried out by the above said

authors enabled inference of current and past conditions of lakes.

Hylander et al., (1999) reported that phosphorus can be recycled from

wastewater and it can be reused as fertilizer by filter media. Zafaralla and Orozco

(1999) who conducted experiments on limnological features of lake Philippines came

to a conclusion that those lakes, which receive mine tailings, show diminished species

diversity, compared to other lakes.

Dixit et al., (2000) analyzed fossil diatoms and pigments to assess the past

trends in water quality of four prairie lakes of Canada, which were subjected to both

discrete urban and diffuse agricultural human impacts.

The works on limnological study was carried out by Nandan et al., (2001) who

worked on the Hartala lake of Jalgaon district of Maharastra. Their observation

revealed that the occurrence of blue-green algae was found to be greater as compared

to other groups of algae. They also noticed that abundance of blue-green algae was

due to the higher concentration of dissolved oxygen, carbonates, total alkalinity,

phosphate and chlorides. Rajkumar (2001) who studied phytoplanktonic seasonal


Page 34

distribution in the polluted freshwater pond of Pollachi in Tamilnadu observed that

minimum number of phytoplankton occurred in the colder months than in summer

and monsoon months.

Recent works on ecological study carried out by Pejaver et al., (2002) on

Ambegosale lake, showed that the value of phosphates was higher during monsoon

and lower in summer months. Carbon dioxide content was very high during post

monsoon and it was totally absent in monsoon month.

Although a considerable work has been carried out on the ecology of

freshwater bodies, much more needs to be done. Ecological studies on the pollution of

lakes and other waterbodies of India have yet to get their roots dug firmly. There is

ample scope for the study of umpteen numbers of water bodies, which are yet to be

investigated. Such thorough study would not yield vital data pertaining to those water

bodies, but also give planners and environmentalists valuable information so that they

can make use of it for conservation and preservation of such fast deteriorating water

bodies.

Davis (1955) has pointed out that pH is a good indicator of productivity.

Philipose (1959); Sahai and Sinha (1969); Verma et al. (1978) and Sharma et al.,

(1981) have reported that generally in India many small confined water pockets

particularly, are alkaline in nature. Further, according to George (1962) high pH

values were found to promote the growth of algae and results in blooms whole

McCombie (1953); Prescott and Vinyard (1965) and Nazneen (1980) observed high

pH values due to blooming of phytoplankton’s, i.e. blooms increase pH. Gonzalves

and Joshi (1946) also reported high pH of tank water in winter season. They

considered it to be due to the pressure of abundant flora and consequent increased

photosynthesis occurring at that time, during which the plants utilize dissolved CO2

and there by decrease acidity of water. Low pH of waters in the summer months


Page 35

(April – May) on the other hand was explained as due to the acidic condition arising

out of decomposition of vegetation existing there favored by high temperature.

According to Welch (1952) hard water has high buffer effect. Gupte (1960)

reported that higher concentration of Ca-Mg bicarbonates found in Chandola lake

could maintain the pH, acting as a buffer. Also it is due to biological decomposition

process, which releases acids, and increasing acidity tends to dissolve insoluble

bicarbonates into soluble forms thus imparting a buffer action.

Ball (1949) observed that alkalinity over 150 mg. L-1 has been found to

conducive to higher production. Waters (1957) found higher carbonates in water

giving higher production and further he remark that the annual average of alkalinity

(mg. L-1) was 150.37 ± 4.67, which reflects the good productive nature of water body

in Rabindra Sarovar. Moyle (1946) has classified water bodies into top nutrient

status, based on alkalinity levels according to which Ravindra Sarovar was, a nutrient

rich (more than 60 mg. L-1) aquatic body.

Ohle (1956) observed that carbon dioxide enters the water partly direct from

the atmosphere and partly with precipitation and other inputs, but largely due to

infiltration through the soil as well as by the metabolic activity of the organisms in the

water. (During the aerobic decomposition of organic residues, carbon is mineralized

to CO2; during anaerobic decomposition carbon dioxide and methane, both formed in

roughly equal amounts.

According to Welch (1952), higher value of free carbon dioxide generally

coincided with minimum dissolved oxygen. Bhatnagar (1984) mentioned that high

oxygen content indicates prolific algal growth and photosynthesis plays a very

important part in the re-aeration of waters. Vijayaraghavan (1971) has established a

direct relationship between photosynthesis and dissolved oxygen.


Page 36

According to Wetzel (1983) dissolve oxygen is essential for the metabolism of

all aerobic aquatic organisms and oxygen distribution is important for the direct needs

of many organisms, affecting the solubility and availability of many nutrients. The

factor affecting the oxygen balance in water bodies are, input due to the atmosphere

and photosynthesis whereas output due to the respiration, decomposition and

mineralization of organic matter as well as losses to the atmosphere. Thus the oxygen

balance in the water become poorer as the input of oxygen at the surface and the

photosynthetic activity decreases and as the metabolic performance of the

heterotrophic organism becomes greater. From this, a possibility of three situations

may arise.

Several worker Pearsall (1930); Phillipose (1959); Munawar (1970) and Singh

and Swarup (1979) have pointed out that cyanophycea member are capable of

growing rapidly in minimal quantities of nitrates along with phosphates,

Many worker like Laxminarayana (1965); Singh (1965); Verma et al., (1978);

Billore (1981); Venkateswarlu (1969) and Jana (1973) reported an increase in

chloride content of water during summer seasons. However Mishra and Yadav (1978)

could not find any definite pattern of fluctuation.

Billore (1981) reported that the amount of calcium increases during summer

season due to rapid oxidation /decomposition of organic matter. Zafar (1964) also

recorded higher concentration of magnesium during summer. Tripathi and Pandey

(1990) reported highly significant result of calcium and magnesium values of water.

Comparing the proportions of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium

existing in the surrounding rocks and soil, the lake water are expected to show them in

the order Ca > Na > Mg > K. Same type of result was observed in Mir Alam lake by

Rodhe (1949).


Page 37

Ramasamy and Sridharam (1998) and Raj et al., (1996) observed that

tanning is one of the industrial processes that cause great deterioration of surface and

ground water quality. Whereas Bolton and Klein (1971) and Appa Rao, et al., 1991

suggested that various sub-processes like bating, picking, tanning, dyeing and fat

liquoring causes water pollution, because these untreated effluents are discharged into

low level areas in stream and lands which finally accumulate in the form of large

ponds and effect the environment both at surface level as well as the ground water

quality through seeping. According to Gilbert (1994) once the aquifer system that

supplies the ground water is affected, it is almost impossible to rectify.

Calcium and Magnesium are linked with hardness; however they are biogenic

salts also. Some workers like Palmer (1980) and Graham et al., (1974) have reported

the higher value of calcium in fertile water. Sahai and Sinha (1969) have pointed out

that high calcium content is an indication of eutropic water. Munawar (1970)

observed favorable response of blue green algae in Waters, which have high calcium

content. Zafar (1964) encountered calcium as an important factor, which influence the

distribution of diatoms in water bodies. Pearsall (1930) reported rich growth of

diatoms from a calcium deficient lake.

Hastler (1947) observed that the constant addition of even low levels of

nitrogen and phosphorous to an aquatic environment could greatly stimulate algal

growth.

According to Freeda et al., (2006) chlorides usually occur as NaCl, CaCl2,

MgCl2, and in widely varying concentration in all natural water. Rathin, et al., (1996)

observed that the excessive concentrations of chloride are harmful to agriculture as

well as to aquatic life. Singh (1965), Venkateshwarlu (1969), Munawar (1970), and

Mathew (1975) have suggested high nitrate values in monsoon months. This indicates

a state of no-nitrification. Ahluwalia (1999)reported that the probable cause of this

difference in distribution of nitrate may be due to decomposition processes as well as

an aerobic nitrate-ammonification of nitrate to ammonia


Page 38

The factors like photosynthesis, respiratory activity, temperature, exposure to

air disposal of industries wastes etc bring out changes in the pH. Oza (1996) observed

that the pH of Anna Sagar lake remained nearly constant, with slight changes because

of in-lake processes. Trivedi et al., (1989) reported that decomposition of organic

matter takes place in winter (or any time) resulting into the formation of weak acid

and lowering of pH. Season wise changes in values of water pH have also been

observed e.g. Venkateswarlu (1969) and Jana (1973) observed high pH values during

post-winter and summer months.

Chauhan and Thakur (2002) observed that chloride is used in paper industries.

It is believed that chlorine molecule react with aromatic compound forming

chlorinated aromatics. This is a major industrial toxicant that impair physiological

functioning of living organisms. Blum (1957) has pointed out that partial stagnation

during summers causes’ maximum alkalinity. The variation in pH is an important

parameter in water body since most of the aquatic organisms are adapted to average

pH and do not withstand abrupt changes as observed by George (1997)

Someswara Rao, et al., (1997) studied the Kolleru lake. It is the biggest fresh

water lake of Andhra Pradesh. It contributes to economic prosperity of more than one

lakh of people living around it. Agricultural runoff, industrial effluents, domestic and

aquaculture wastes from the surrounding areas are discharged into the lake resulting

to be the polluted environment of the lake.

Nitrogen and Phosphorus were found to be a factor limiting the algal growth.

Pedroz et al., (1993) and Vilaclara et al., (1993) studied the major ionic composition

of six main type carter lakes, as well as pond and found that salinity varies with

natural factors and not with nutrient inputs, they also observed that both Mg and SO4-2

precipitation was found to be more dependent on pH, Photosynthesis and evaporation

driven processes. According to Ahluwalia (1999) major ions and some other variables


Page 39

in umbrageous bogs Na+ concentration regulates Ca+ ion concentration and a fall in

pH, While K+ is directly related to uptake by plants and rainfall pattern of the area.

Kaushik et al., (1997) studied the Motijheel, Surajkund and Ranital of Gwaliar region

and they found that the water of above lakes have no contamination and was fit for

drinking purpose.

Higher salinity could be due to water especially during the summer and

premonsoon seasons, a feature reported earlier from other parts of the Indian coasts by

Nair et al., (1983) and Harikantra and Parulekar (1989). Lund (1957) investigated

some aspects of chemical analysis in ecology illustrated from lake district Tark and

Pakes with algal differences. Cholonky (1960) studied relationship between algae and

the chemistry of natural waters. Tandon and Singh (1972) studied effect of certain

physico-chemical factors on phytoplanktons of the Nangal lake. Misra and Yadav

(1978) have made a comparative study of physico-chemical characteristic of rivers

and lakes of central India. Belsare et al., (1990) made limnological studies on Bhopal

lakes with special references to seasonal changes in abiotic factors in the upper lake

and observed vertical distribution of temperature which indicates there temporary

thermal stratification.

Shastree et al., (1991) studied the Ravindra Sarovar in Goya and they found

that turbidity was lowest in May (38.00), where as the highest one of 77.00 was

recorded in August, Which was averaged annually as 55.66. Total solids (mg/l) were

as low as 240.00 in January and December, which became as high as 285.00 in June

with an annual average of 258.25 ± 4.88. Total dissolved solids “(mg. L-1) were at the

lowest level of 180.00 in January and December and became highest to 226.00 in

June, the annual average was 199.30 ± 4.79. Total suspended solids (mg. L-1) were

observed as minimum in January and December to the tune of 60.o. where as

maximum TDS was observed as 66.75 with annual Average of 58.65 ± 1.25.


Page 40

Gonzalves and Joshi (1946) observed maximum concentration of total

dissolved solids during summer, which decrease during rainy seasons due to dilution

of rainwater and minimum value were recorded during winter. In case of total solid

they observed that it varied in the proportions to the temperature and rarely varied

inversely to the water level. Later, Singh (1965) observed striking parallelism

between total planktons and suspended solids.

Periodic changes of pH especially season wise also depend on climatic regime.

Thus, for example, Nazneen (1980) reported higher pH value of water of Kinghar

Lake, Pakistan that was due to less blooming of phytoplankton’s.

According to Ahluwalia (1999) alkalinity of water is its capacity to neutralize

strong acid and is characterized by the presence of hydroxyl ions capable of

combining with hydrogen ion. In water total Solids, TDS and total suspended solids

are composed mainly by carbonates, bicarbonates, chloride, sulphates, PO4 , NO3 of

Ca, mg, Na, K, Mn and organic matter, salts and other Particles

A state of inverse relationship between CO2 and DO was observed, i.e. DO

minima withstand a higher CO2 profile; the same situation have been reported by

many workers like Whipple and Parker (1902); Birge and Juday (1934); Pearsall

(1930); Ganapati (1943); Gonzalves and Joshi (1946); Singh (1965) and Mandal and

Hakim (1975). Liberation of CO2 on account of decomposition of bottom deposit

probably results in the conversion of insoluble carbonate of calcium into soluble

bicarbonate and the increase in the total percentage. Such a relationship has been

described by Ruttner (1953) and Munawar (1970). According to De et. al., (1991)

higher DO in the river water suggest the abundant growth of phytoplankton and

related zooplankton leading to higher biological activity, were as low DO value

indicates the biodegradation of organic matter and decay of vegetation. Oxygen from

the atmosphere enters the water at the surface and is transferred to greater depths by

vertical water movements.


Page 41

Ambasht (1971) observe that the lentic water bodies with complex

morphology, shows low level of dissolved oxygen. Tresh et al., (1944) suggested

that high chloride concentrations indicate the presence of organic matter, presumably

of animal origin. According to Blum (1957) and Zafar (1964) chlorides appear to be

present mainly during sewage contamination. Concentration of chlorides has been

related to purity or impurity of water. Thus for example chloride concentration

between 4 to 10ppm indicates the purity of water, where as Adoni (1975) has reported

that chloride concentration above 60ppm indicates heavy pollution.

Ahluwalia (1999) observed that the chloride is an influential in general

osmotic salinity balance and ion exchange. However due to metabolic utilization it

may not cause significant variations in the spatial and seasonal distribution with in an

aquatic body.

Oza (1996) reported periodical physico-chemical changes in water of Guwari

Dam, Rajasthan. She observed upper peaks for alkalinity, hardness, DO and free CO2

in rainy season. while at the same time conductivity, salinity, Cl, TN, PO4, P, DO and

Na were at lower level, upper peaks of DO and Mg but minimal values of alkalinity,

hardness, pH and Ca & K. Conductivity, salinity, Cl, pH, PO4, Na and K were in

Highest concentration during summer when DO, CO2 and Mg were lowest.

Physico-chemical limnology of pond studied by Verma and Mohanty (1995),

according to them the correlation among different parameters were determined.

Positive correlation of pH was observed with chloride, dissolved oxygen and

conductivity. Negative correlation of pH was observed with calcium, free carbon

dioxide and phosphate. Negative correlation of temperature was observed with

calcium, free carbon dioxide and phosphate. Positive correlation of temperature was

observed with chloride and conductivity.


Page 42

According to Mohan and Reddy (1987) the presence of enormously high

concentration of cation either, individually or collectively shows that the Mir Alam

lake is a hard water lake. Zafar and Seenayya (1980) had shown that the waters of this

region under the stress of evaporation had a tendency to get concentrated and

accumulate sodium with the passage of time, there by altering the ‘normal’ cationic

composition.

Spence (1975) has suggested that waters having hardness above 60ppm are

nutrient rich type. Singh (1965); Hussainy (1967) and Jana (1973) have recorded

highest value of hardness during summer. Tripathi and Pandey (1990) observed a

higher value of total hardness and stated that it may be due to polluted water of ponds.

Venkateshwarlu (1981) observed that the pH of unpolluted water ranges

between 7.7 and 8.7. But conductivity is related to the concentration of ions present in

water depending upon the inputs through incoming waters and either passing through

the rocks or as when polluted.

In Ravindra Sarovar, Gaya, Shastree et al. (1991) observed that the lowest

values of turbidity were recorded in pre-monsoon month of March and the highest

ones appeared in the monsoon month of July, this type of seasonal variation has also

been reported by Ajmal and Razi-ul-din (1988). Suber (1953) and Verma et al.,

(1978) reported that the higher turbidity affects the life indirectly as its cut of light to

be utilized by the plants for photosynthesis there by lowering the rate of primary

productivity and check the phytoplankton growth. Eddy (1934) observed that the high

level of turbidity may minimize the phytoplankton population Juday and Birege

(1933) and Rodhe (1949) reported that the conductivity of the common bicarbonate

type of lake water is closely proportional to concentration of major ions. Trivedy et

al., (1989) suggested that the seasonal variation in the conductivity values is mostly

due to increased concentration of salts because of evaporation; the dilution resulted

from precipitation brings down its values. According to Ahluwalia (1999) high level


Page 43

of conductivity reflects on the pollution status as well as trophic levels of the aquatic

body.

Otsuki and Wetzel (1974) observed that if once the concentrations of the

major ions are known, changes in the conductivity reflect proportional changes in

ionic concentration. Strom (1947) reported that there should be positive correlation

between conductance and pH and intermediate range of bicarbonates in fresh waters,

but this relationship decline among lake of low salinity and high dissolved organic

matter content.

In fresh water ecosystems the usual hydrogen ion concentration exerts little

differential effect on the majority of habitat. Wujek (1983) observed that the

distribution of many aquatic organisms is not related to pH over a wide range except

some organisms like chrysophyceae, which are highly pH dependent. Chrysophyceae

often exhibit a tolerance to pH value well above and below those occurring there in.

Ellis (1937) pointed out that fish and other aquatic organisms prefer pH value

between 6.7 and 8.4 and the pH value below the 5 or above 8.8 may be detrimental or

even lethal to aquatic life. Lower and higher pH ranging from 5.0 to 6.6 and 9.1 to

11.0 result in low productivity (Sreenivasan, 1969). Boominathan and Khan (1994)

reported that the low pH does not cause any harmful effect it may just lead to an

increased desorption of metal cations due to completion by H+ ions.

Beamish et al., (1975) observed that the pH remained well within a limit

throughout the period of investigation, and no trend, towards acidity was observed,

which is detrimental. Fluctuations in the pH have also been observed with references

to sampling sites. Fluctuations of pH values have also been reported by Tucker (1957)

and George (1962). Barlaup et.al. (1989) reported that the low pH of water causes a

reduction in the level of calcium in water, available to the aquatic biota. Water quality

parameter used to describe the effect of dissolve minerals (mostly Ca and Mg)

determining the suitability of water for domestic, industrial and drinking purpose


Page 44

(Gawas et al., 2006). Shastree et al., (1991) recorded a maxima of pH in summer

months and minima’s in winter with slight advancement in Monsoon month; similar

trends have been reported by Sreenivasan (1965); Vijayaraghavan (1971); Gupta and

Mehrotra (1986).

On site-wise analysis, comparatively low pH was observed where human

activities were low; this is in agreement with Zutshi and Vass (1973). Turbidity

depends upon the iron content. Iron removal will ultimately reduce the turbidity.

Mariappan and Vasudevan (2002) during their work reported that the high turbidity

shows presence of large amount of suspended solids. Fergusson (1982) observed that

the pH of the water was acidic because of the presence of iron in the water. The

changes in carbon dioxide and Hardness also tend to change the pH of the water.

Palmer (1980) observed that the pH rise as algae increases their photosynthetic

activity during day light hours and then pH also decreases at night when the algae are

not carrying on photosynthesis but are releasing carbon dioxide in respiration. The pH

of the water body indicates the degree of deterioration of water quality.

Yentsch and Ryther (1957) have suggested a decline in chlorophyll content for

such lower values in summer times. Gonzalves and Joshi (1946); Bagde and Verma

(1985) reported that the decomposition of organic matter may be an important factor

in consumption of DO, which become more vigorous in warm weather.

Ajmal et al., (1985) has reported lowest value of nitrate during winter and

highest during summer in Kalinidi. Shyamsunder (1988) observed minimum nitrate

during July to September and maximum in the month of January in river Jhelum.

Comly (1945); Ridder and Ochme (1974) and Walton (1951) observed that the

concentration of nitrates reported in the sample of 100 borehole, from 20 different

villages was analyzed and from this it was estimated that in only two villages the

nitrate concentration in the ground water had less than 10ppm, the desired level for

portability WHO (1971) , above which it causes health disorder in infants and adults.


Page 45

Although significant variations in the nitrate concentration were found in the water

samples analysed from different villages. But the study of water quality and

monitoring in India were mainly confined to cosmo politans cities and towns. Pande

et al., (1979), Lakshmanan et al., (1986) where even higher concentration of nitrate

do not pose health risk, since ground water is used here only to augment municipal

surface water during water scarcity.

Several workers Bilgrami et al., (1985); Chakravorty et al., (1959); Rai (1974)

and Bhargava (1985) have extensively studied the physico-chemical characteristic of

the river. Higher value of pH, BOD and lesser value of DO create a problem for the

survival of aquatic life. Upadhyay and Rana (1991) reported that the high values of

alkalinity indicate the pollution of river water by sewage. Singh et al., (1991)

observed that the lower DO in summer may be due to higher temperature and low

solubility of oxygen in water consequently affecting the BOD.

Hannan (1979) observed that with the progress of winter, DO increase to its

highest value which may be due to circulation by cooling and draw down of DO in

water. Sharma and Agarwal (1999) after comparing the observation table with the

permissible limits given by BIS (1982) it was noted that the water of Yamuna is

neither fit for drinking or bathing purpose , even survival of aquatic life is not

possible. Prasannakumari et. al., (2003) reported that the seasonal fluctuation of D.O

with high values observed during monsoon may be as a result of the increased

solubility of oxygen at lower temperature. According to Kaufman (1993) and Warner

(1965) disposal of sewage water and effluents from various industries into fresh water

aquifers is the main cause of ground water pollution. The industrial effluents

generally contain large amount of organic compound along with inorganic ones. Some

of these water soluble compounds percolate into the contaminating ground water

resources. The disposal of hazardous and toxic industrial wastes some time

accomplished by mean of deep injection wells that placed the fluids into saline water

formations far below developed fresh water aquifers.


Page 46

Jameson and Rana (1996) suggested that the DO content plays a vital role in

supporting aquatic life in running water and is susceptible to environment changes.

Park and Park (1986) after considering the hardness as the main criteria, the analyzed

samples were classified as soft, hard and very hard water. Further they reported that

the hardness has no known adverse effect on health, however some evidence has been

attributed about it role in heart disease.

The low DO value indicates the biodegradation of organic matter and decay of

vegetation. Alkalinity is due to presence of carbonate and bicarbonate ions. Increase

in temperature may alter the concentration of DO (Karthikeyani et al., 2002).

Tiwari et al. (1986) studied the correlations among the physico-chemical

factors of groundwaters of 50 wells located in and Meerut city, Uttar Pradesh. Tiwari

et al (1986) has obtained a linear relationship between COD and BOD for river ganga

at kanpur, subsequently, Tiwari and Manzoor (1989) find out the regression analysis

of water quality parameters of groundwater of Nuzrid town, Krishna district of

Kanpur. Singh and Choudhary (1996) attempted to obtain some correlation among

physico- chemical parameter of Nagpur district and concluded saying that large

positive correlation between chloride and total dissolved solids, and electrical

conductivity at 25oC and total dissolved solids are obtained. Mariappan et al. (1998)

have correlated the total dissolved solids with other chemical parameters

Correlation of pH was observed with calcium free carbon dioxide, and

phosphate. Positive correlation of pH was observed with chloride, dissolved oxygen

and conductivity. Ali et al. (1983) observed positive correlation of pH with

conductivity and chlorides. Freiser and Feranando (1966) reported positive correlation

of pH with alkalinity. Mohanty (1981) had reported negative correlation of pH with

calcium in some of the Bhubaneshwar water bodies while positive correlation may be

due to more carbonate formulation by the element reacting with bicarbonate. Atkin


Page 47

and Harris (1924) had reported negative correlation of pH with magnesium, calcium

at pH 9.0 and 8.1 respectively and with DO. The negative correlation with CO2 is

because at high carbon dioxide concentration it reacts with water of the sediment

forming H2CO3 which ionizes to H+ and HCO-3. This causes increases in the hydrogen

ion concentration and pH becomes low. The reverse is true when carbon dioxide

concentration is less and carbon dioxide demand of the phytoplankton is high. Such

negative correlation between this two variables have been reported in lakes of

Kashmir by Kaul and Handoo (1981).

Gawas et al., (2006) reported that the value of alkalinity provides evidence of

natural salts present in water. Mohapatra (1991) reported that several Bhubaneshwar

water bodies did not show significant correlation due to the interference of other

acidic and alkali ions. Positive correlation of temperature was observed with chloride

and conductivity. Magnesium and dissolved oxygen show positive correlations with

temperature. Muni and Mohanty (1985) observed positive correlation with

temperature and dissolved oxygen in Vani vihar lake.

Natural water are usually alkaline due to presence of high concentration of

carbonates, however considerable fluctuation in pH can be observed in natural water

during day month and year cause by exposure to air and biological activity. Verma et

al., (1978) and Sharma et al., (1981) have reported that generally in India many small

confined water pockets particularly, are alkaline in nature. The water was alkaline in

nature which could be due to solutes, which may show a buffering action i.e. H+ ions

are compensated with OH1- ions (Vora et al., 1998).

Vijayaraghavan (1971) has established a direct relationship between

photosynthesis and dissolved oxygen. Measurement of dissolved oxygen is a primary

parameter in all pollution studies. Dissolve oxygen value is higher in those plants

where there was good aquatic life Vijayan (1991). Sangu and Sharma (1987) observed

that DO value is more in Monsoon and the value ranged from 7.94 to 8.26. The DO


Page 48

content of water was low in summer because of its enhanced utilization by

microorganism in decomposition of organic matter.

Turbidity increases due to the growing of aquatic vegetation and also by

lowering the volume of water. Higher concentration of total solid also increases water

turbidity. Kumar and Ravindranath (1998) suggested that some time harmful

hazardous and lethal heavy metal and are also found in form of total solid which may

be toxic to aquatic organism. Gonzalves and Joshi (1946) observed maximum

concentration of total dissolved solids during summer, which decrease during rainy

seasons due to dilution of rainwater and minimum value were recorded during winter.

According to Sawyaer and McCarty (1978) the matter that remains as residue upon

evaporation and drying at 103 to 1050C is solid.

Magnesium was found in various salt and minerals, frequently in association

with iron compound. Magnesium is vital micronutrient for both plant and animal. It

presence in water up to 50ug/L is considered harmless (Train, 1979) as no

objectionable taste, etc is imparted below this level.

Shortt et al., (1937) were the first to report the excessive fluoride in the

groundwater of Andrapradesh state in India. In India an estimated 62 million people

including 6 million children suffer from fluorosis because of consuming fluoride-

Contaminated water (Susheela, 1999). In some part of India, the fluoride levels are

below 0.5ppm, while at certain other places values as high as 20ppm have been

reported (Handa, 1975).

The water temperature increased during warmer months and decreased during

colder months was observed by Surve et al., (2005). Devaraju et al., (2005) have

reported transparency ranging from 36.00 to 55.00 cm in Naktara reservoir and from

131.86 to 339.66 cm in Maddur lake, respectively Garg et al., (2006) reported in Harsi

reservoir from 48.75 to 114.25 cm.


Page 49

Olsen (1950) classified the name for water bodies having conductivity values

greater than 500.00 μS/cm as eutrophic. Dagaonkar and Saksena (1992) and Garg et

al., (2006) have also reported high turbidity during rainy season. According to

Esmaeili and Johal (2005) dissolved solids are composed mainly of carbonates,

bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, phosphates, nitrates, calcium, magnesium, sodium,

potassium, iron and manganese in natural waters.

Klein (1972) has reported that the excess amount of TDS in waters disturbed

the ecological balance and caused suffocation of aquatic fauna. Sreenivasan (1976)

has demonstrated that a large variation in pH of water is an indication of a highly

productive nature of the water body. Das (2000)reported that if the dissolved oxygen

concentration is more than 5.00 mgl-1 then it favours good growth of flora and fauna.

Tewari and Mishra, (2005)reported that the dissolved oxygen ranged from

3.41 to 6.21 mgl-1 in Seetadwar lake from 5.30 to 9.00 mgl-1 in Deoria tal (Rawat

and Sharma, 2005) and from 3.00 to 6.00 mgl-1 in Kandhar dam (Surve et al., 2005).

Thus, the dissolved oxygen varies greatly from one water body to the other.

In summer season, dissolved oxygen decreased due to increased temperature

of water (Naz and Turkmen, 2005). Like Harsi reservoir (Garg et al., 2006), the

dissolved oxygen in this reservoir also was quite enough to support biological life.

Free carbon dioxide liberated during respiration and decay of organic matter is highly

soluble in natural waters. According to Sakhare and Joshi (2002) the carbon dioxide

content of water depends upon the water temperature, depth, rate of respiration,

decomposition of organic matter, chemical nature of the bottom and geographical

features of the terrain surrounding the water body. Rai (1971) reported that high

hardness of aquatic ecosystem points out towards eutrophication. Sawyer (1960)

classified water on the basis of hardness into three categories that is, soft (0.00 - 75

mgl-1), moderately hard (75.00 - 150.00 mgl-1) and hard (151.00 -300.00 mgl-1).


Page 50

The salts of sodium, potassium and calcium contribute chlorides in waters.

Large contents of chloride in freshwater is an indicator of organic pollution

(Venkatasubramani and Meenambal, 2007). The representation of higher members of

Cyanophyta in the rainy season is consequent of several factors which include

increased temperature, low N/P ratios and low vulnerability to grazing by zooplankton

(Kadiri, 2000).

In aquatic environment, calcium serves as one of the micronutrients for most

of the organisms. On the basis of calcium richness, Ohle (1938) classified water

bodies into: (i) poor (ii) medium and (iii) rich water body with regard to calcium

content. Magnesium is often associated with calcium in all kinds of waters, but its

concentration remains generally lower than the calcium. Dagaonkar and Saksena

(1992) reported that magnesium is essential for chlorophyll growth and acts as a

limiting factor for the growth of phytoplankton. Therefore, depletion of magnesium

reduces the phytoplankton population.

Under low potassium concentration, the growth rate and photosynthesis of

algae especially blue green algae becomes poor and respiration is increased (Wetzel,

1983). Even when TDS is determined it does not tell us the exact type of materials or

elements that make it up. One can always deduce that the first rains result in relatively

high nutrient load in streams. In addition, higher values of EC, TDS and Nitrate-

Nitrogen in the rainy season are as a result of surface runoff. This agrees with the

work of Kemdirim (2005) on the hydrochemistry of Kangimi reservoir, Kaduna state

(Northern) Nigeria and disagrees with that of Chindah and Braide (2004) on the

Lower Bonny River, Niger Delta (Southern) Nigeria. Higher dissolved oxygen (DO)

supports more phytoplankton than low DO as the case between the dry and rainy

seasons in this investigation. The consequence of higher phytoplankton population

may have urged up the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the water body to a

level higher than that in the rainy season.


Page 51

Cyanobacteria exhibit in addition to the above adaptability to regulate

buoyancy, as well as the regulation of pigment pools in response to both quantity and

quality of light (Klemer et al., 1996; Zimba et al., 1999, 2006). Hence it could be said

the presence of higher number of species of the Chlorophyta and Cyanophyta in the

dry and rainy season, respectively is indicative of the water quality in the two seasons.

The rainy season was the period with the highest Nitrate-Nitrogen concentration

which is known to support the formation of blooms (Blomqvist et al., 1994; Anderson

et al., 1998; Zimba et al., 2001).

The occurrence of higher number of species of desmids is characteristic of low

nutrient of the stream. It is a well established fact that desmids are characteristic of

fresh water environments with poor ionic composition (Kadiri, 1996, 1999;

Nwankwo, 1996). Cetin and Yildirim (2000) that reported that the seasonal pattern of

algal growth showed a clear relationship with the water temperature.

The presence of more number of species of Chlorophyta and Bacillariophyta

in the stream is indicative of a relatively clean water body in the dry season (Whitton

et al., 1991). Tiseer et al., (2008) observed that Samaru stream is oligotrophic in

nature with circumneutral pH and significantly varied physicochemistry. The water

chemistry is affected mainly by domestic activities around the catchment. The

occurrence of algae indicates higher numbers of green algae in the dry season and

blue green algae in the rainy season, respectively which can be said to be a clear

representation of the stream physicochemistry in the two seasons.

review of literature - inflibnetshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/4674/7/07_chapter...

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