review of small scale harvesting - sustainable energy

A review of small-scale harvestingsystems in use worldwide and theirpotential application in Irish forestry

Fionan Russell a and Donal Mortimer b

a Fionan Russell, Purser Tarleton Russell Ltd. Email address: [email protected] Donal Mortimer, MC Timber. Email address: [email protected]

COFORD, National Council for Forest Research and Development

Arena House

Arena Road

Sandyford

Dublin 18

Ireland

Tel: + 353 1 2130725

Fax: + 353 1 2130611

© COFORD 2005

First published in 2005 by COFORD, National Council for Forest Research and Development, Dublin, Ireland.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, or stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,

electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying recording or otherwise, without prior permission in writing from COFORD.

The views and opinions expressed in this publication belong to the authors alone and do not necessarily reflect those of COFORD.

ISBN 1 902696 45 X

Title: A review of small-scale harvesting systems in use worldwide and their potential application in Irish forestry.

Authors: Fionan Russell and Donal Mortimer

Citation: Russell, F. and Mortimer, D. 2005. A review of small-scale harvesting systems in use worldwide and their potential application in Irish

forestry. COFORD, Dublin.

Contents

Réamhfhocal ........................................................................................................................................... v

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................... vii

Summary ..................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................3

1. The requirement for small-scale harvesting in Ireland...................................................................5

2. International trends in small-scale harvesting ................................................................................7

3. The harvesting decision ................................................................................................................11

4. Categorisation and demonstration of small-scale harvesting systems .........................................17

5. Agricultural tractor-based systems ...............................................................................................19

6. Cable logging systems ..................................................................................................................29

7. Horse logging................................................................................................................................31

8. Small-scale machinery..................................................................................................................33

Bibliography...........................................................................................................................................39

Appendix ............................................................................................................................................... 36

Réamhfhocal

Tá tionsclaíocht na foraoiseachta ag teacht chuig céim ina forbairt anois ina mbeidh cuid mhór dena luathphlandálacha foraoiseachta den earnáil phríobháideach ag teacht isteach ar chéim na bainte.Ó na luathochtóidí, tá an Stát, le cúnamh an Choimisiúin Eorpaigh, ag spreagadh úinéirí talaimhchun a ngabháltas talaimh go léir, nó cuid de, a fhoraoisiú. Bhí infheistíocht shuntasach ag an Státi gceist sa chéad scór bliain den tionscnamh seo i dtéarmaí dreasachtaí airgeadais, agus ag úinéirítalaimh i dtéarmaí a sócmhainne talaimh. Bainfear an príomhshochar amach don dá pháirtí nuair aéireoidh na foraoisí seo aibí agus nuair a thosóidh siad ag táirgeadh roinnt táirgí cruinnadhmaid agusbithmhaise adhmaid.

Is léir go mbeidh an sochar don duine aonair i bhfoirm ioncaim ó adhmad a dhíol. Beidh ansochar don Stát ag fabhrú, áfach, ón ghníomhaíocht eacnamaíoch spreagtha ag an ngníomhaíochtbainte agus próiseála mar a aithníodh sa dá thuarascáil leis an Dr Peter Bacon agus Comhpháirtithe.Agus é ag smaoineamh ar an sochar féideartha seo d’fhostaigh COFORD seirbhísí PTR Teo. letabhairt faoi léirmheas ar an trealamh bainte a úsáidtear le riachtanais na foraoiseachta ar anmionscála a sheirbhísiú.

Is léir ón tuarascáil seo, ainneoin go bhfuil tábhacht shofheicthe ag baint leis an trealamh agusbonneagar fisiceach, tá na córais bhainte/mhargaíochta níos leithne agus na hidirghníomhaíochtaíidir fástóirí, conraitheoirí agus ceannaitheoirí níos tábhachtaí fós.

Tá treoir cuimsitheach don trealamh bainte ar an mionscála curtha ar fail ag an mbeirtphríomhúdar, Fionan Russell agus Donal Mortimer. Glacaimid leis go mbeidh an foilseachán seoan-úsáideach ag úinéirí foraoise, agus conraitheoirí foraoiseachta agus bainte. Chomh maith leis sintáimid ag dúil le bheith ag obair le Teagasc, Institiúid Teicneolaíochta Phort Láirge agus grúpaí nachiad chun a oiriúnaí atá cuid mhór den trealamh seo do thosca na foraoiseachta in Éirinn a léiriú.

Is riachtanach go mbíonn gach earnáil den tionsclaíocht ag obair le chéile leis an táirgeadhfhéideartha a réadú ón earnáil phríobháideach ionas gur féidir linn bogadh níos deise donphríomhaidhm a ndearnadh cur síos imlíneach air i Ag Fás Don Am Le Teacht – tionsclaíochtforaoiseachta a chruthú atá iomaíoch ar bhonn idirnáisiúnta.

An tUasal David Nevins, An Dr Eugene Hendrick,

Cathaoirleach Stiúrthóir

Foreword

The forest industry is now at a stage of development that will see much of the early private sectorforestry plantations enter the harvesting phase. Since the early 80s, the State, with the assistance ofthe European Commission, has been encouraging landowners to afforest all, or part of, their landholding. The first two decades of this initiative involved significant investment by the State in termsof financial incentives, and by the landowners in terms of their land asset. The primary return forboth parties will be achieved when these forests mature and begin to produce various roundwoodproducts and wood biomass.

The return to the individual will obviously be in the form of timber sales revenue. However, thereturn to the State accrues from the economic activity stimulated by harvesting and processingactivity as identified in the two reports by Dr Peter Bacon & Associates. It is with this potentialreturn in mind that COFORD engaged the services of PTR Ltd to undertake a review of harvestingequipment used to service the needs of small-scale forestry.

It is clear from this report that while the physical equipment and infrastructure is of obviousimportance, the wider harvesting/marketing systems and the grower-contractor-buyer interactionsare of greater importance.

The two main authors, Fionan Russell and Donal Mortimer, have produced a comprehensiveguide to small-scale harvesting equipment. We trust that this publication will of great use to forestowners, forester and harvesting contractors. In addition we look forward to working with Teagasc,Waterford Institute of Technology and other groups in demonstrating the suitability of much of thisequipment to Irish forestry conditions.

It is vital that all sectors of the industry work together to realise the production potential fromthe private sector so that we can move closer to the principal aim outlined in Growing for the Future– the creation of an internationally competitive forest industry.

Mr David Nevins Dr Eugene Hendrick

Chairman Director

On the basis of an international review, this report haspresented a number of generic harvesting systems andcomponent operations suitable for use in theharvesting of small-scale forestry. One of the basiccriteria used internationally in the assessment ofsystems suitable for small-scale harvesting1 (and acriterion used in this study) is low capital cost ofequipment. Low-cost equipment facilitates owners inbecoming directly involved in harvesting operations,however its use presupposes competence andknowledge in timber harvesting systems andtechniques.

Throughout the countries reviewed in this studythe chainsaw is the only choice for cutting work forthe majority of self-employed owners with small andmedium sized properties. The most commonly usedsmall-scale timber extraction systems involve the useof modified agricultural tractors (skidding orforwarding). In most countries such equipment isreadily available to farmers. However, the skillsrequired to harvest timber using this equipment havebeen developed mainly by farmers in those countrieswhere there is a strong forestry culture.Internationally, commercial activity in small-scaleforests is often left to professional forestrycontractors.

Based on discussions with full-time forestrycontractors working in the Irish forest industry, themost suitable systems and machinery presented inthis report are modified agricultural tractors used inconjunction with either skidders or powered, driventrailers. Horses were also considered by many to havepotential for logging small timber lots. Cable systemswould most likely be used only by dedicated full-timecontractors. The potential for small dimensionmachinery was considered to be very limited since itlacked the versatility of larger, robust machinery.

Generally it is difficult to fully mechanise self-employed wood harvesting since the profitablepurchase of additional equipment requires such alarge annual volume of felled timber that individualgrowers seldom have the required volume. It isnotable that timber harvesting carried out by forest

owners has decreased in the Nordic countries asprofessional harvesting becomes more mechanisedand as profit earning capacity increases. In southernEurope, UK, and indeed Ireland, forest owners hardlydo any harvesting work in their own forests; mostwork is contracted. In countries where contractorwork dominates, advanced technology and adaptedorganisation as well as co-operation will be requiredin the profitable harvesting of small-scale forestry.

In countries where farmer forestry is relativelynew, farmers are facing a steep learning curve.Harvesting systems, codes of practice, productspecifications, occupational health and safety andknowledge of the market place are all matters thatfarmers need to appreciate. The importance of theentire wood supply chain must be recognised, alongwith the time it takes for such systems to develop.Evaluation is needed on all aspects of the system, andnot just the harvesting equipment and its application.

The competitive position of small or part-timeharvesting enterprises is difficult compared to biggercompanies. A lack of co-operation betweencontractors, timber owners and timber buyerscomplicates small-scale timber harvesting, and timbersupply tends to lack reliability and continuity. Co-operation between owners of small-scale forestry is akey factor in the exploitation of the small-scaleforestry resource. In different countries there is muchvariation in the organisational structures of ownersorganisations and in many cases these have evolvedin line with the natural development of the forestindustries in those countries.

The harvesting of small-scale forestry does notnecessarily preclude the use of large-scale equipment.In many of the Scandinavian countries harvestingtechnology used in small-scale forestry is the sameexpensive technology used in forestry in general inthose countries. The technology associated withsmall-scale forestry can be both large-scale (whenwork is carried out by contractors) or small-scale(when carried out by forest owners). This blurs thedistinction between small- and large-scale/conventional forestry. However, within optimal

1

Summary

Summary

1 For the purposes of this review, small-scale harvesting is that which may be applicable to the emerging structure of the private forestestate in Ireland, namely that with an average plantation of less than 10 ha.

organisational structures it demonstrates thepossibilities for the utilisation of conventional large-scale equipment and all the associated benefits.

Modern information technology especially in theform of the Internet could be developed to improveinformation dissemination to forest owners. One ofthe challenges for the future is to exploit technologies(communications and logistical) which will enableowners of small-scale forests to participate fully incommercial wood markets. In Ireland it may bepossible to fast-track the development oforganisational structures by capitalising on thewidespread availability of web-based technologiesand utilising current logistical technologies, andavailable sophisticated timber harvesting equipment,to facilitate cohesive management of the fragmentedsmall-scale timber resource.

The information given in this report is suppliedwith the understanding that no discrimination isintended and no endorsement by COFORD isimplied.

2

Summary

The primary objective of this study was to reviewsmall-scale harvesting technologies in use in othercountries and their suitability for use in Ireland.Specific objectives included:

• The compilation of a database of small-scaleharvesting systems currently in use in othercountries;

• Discussion with a wide range of industryrepresentatives;

• An assessment of the most promising systemssuitable for use in small-scale forest harvestingin Ireland.

From an early stage it was apparent that non-technical factors had a greater bearing on the likelyutilisation of small-scale harvesting systems than thetechnology itself. Such factors are cultural, social andtraditional and require due consideration in thetransfer of technology from one country or region toanother. Countries with a strong forestry tradition andextensive private ownership of forest land tend tohave a vibrant small-scale harvesting sector.

The main challenge for the private small-scaleforestry sector lies in the development of organisationstructures and the motivation of forest owners tobecome involved in the management of their forests.

The first stage of the project involved discussionswith industry personnel, and a literature review. Thishelped to formulate an understanding of issuesrelating to small-scale harvesting systems and howthey are, and can be, incorporated within the industry.Following this phase a workshop was held to discusspreliminary findings and to give further direction tothe project team. This was attended by a wide rangeof interested parties from within the forestry sector.

The workshop presentation reviewed therequirement for small-scale timber harvesting in thecontext of the Irish forest industry. The first phase ofthe presentation outlined the way in which timber iscurrently harvested in the sector and how the industryhas evolved in the context of the overall wood supplysystem. This system involves interdependence ofcontracting, harvesting, transport, purchasing andmarketing disciplines, with harvesting being only onecomponent of the system. The present wood supplysystem is tailored to suit the large forest owner; smallforest owners will experience difficulties in accessing

the system. The various stages involved in sellingtimber products was presented and this included anoverview of the market place, the product, operationalcosts, decision support tools, preparation for sale,planning procedures and harvesting operations.

The next phase of the workshop presentationconcentrated on harvesting systems and theircomponents. Four broad categories were presented:

• tractor-based systems; • cable systems; • horse logging and • small sized machinery and ancillary equipment.

The first stage of the project did not identify newsmall-scale harvesting systems which could to someextent be adapted to Irish conditions. All the systemspresented at the workshop have been used in Irishconditions; the consensus was that there was little tobe gained through further detailed assessment of thesesystems by the project team.

Not surprisingly, the debate raised a number ofissues relating to the supply chain and where small-scale producers feature in the current system. It wasapparent that evaluation was needed on all aspects ofthe system and not just the harvesting equipment andits application. The importance of the entire woodsupply chain must be recognised, along with the timeit takes for such systems to develop.

Direct farmer/owner involvement versuscontracted harvesting was also discussed at theworkshop. While it was recognised that owners needto be aware of the various possibilities availableregarding small-scale systems the likelihood was thatthe actual operations would be carried out by skilledand trained personnel. Owners’ involvement is thekey to the realisation of the small-scale timberresource and they need to be targeted in thedissemination of information.

In order to consolidate the findings of this projectthe project team attended the International ForestMachinery Exhibition (the APF show) in Scotlandfrom 25 to 28 September 2002 where many of themachines and systems described in the project wereviewed. This also afforded an opportunity to discussvarious systems and machinery with manufacturersand suppliers.

3

Introduction

Introduction

4

Introduction

The expected future increase in the number of privatesector roundwood suppliers to the processing sector,combined with the composition and structure ofprivately owned woodlands poses a number ofchallenges to the development and adaptation ofharvesting systems in Ireland. The current nationalharvesting fleet of highly productive harvestingmachinery has evolved in accordance with industryrequirements, with the capital outlay for many ofthese machines being subsidised by state and EUgrants. The fleet is characterised by capital intensive,purpose built, sophisticated harvesting andforwarding equipment working shortwood (alsoknown as cut-to-length) harvesting systems. Theapplication of such systems with their requirement fora continuous supply of work may be limited indealing with the needs of the smaller-scale privatetimber grower.

Forecasted round wood production estimatessuggest that while only 29% of recent entrants to theIrish forest industry (through the Afforestation GrantScheme) have plantations greater than 10 ha theyaccount for as much as 69% of the area planted.Grant-aided plantation forests over 10 ha will in alllikelihood, be viable stand-alone units and theharvesting infrastructure which is currently in placewill cater for these plantations (with better landhaving been planted in recent years this threshold areamay be less). Assuming targeted small-scale forestryplantations are most likely to be plantations less than10 ha, there will be many individual growers (approx6,000) falling into this category. Although thevolumes of timber to be harvested from these small-scale plantations will have relatively little impact onnational timber production over the next 10 years it isconsidered important to ensure such small-scaletimber growers maximise their investment in forestry.Also since most of the roundwood harvested fromprivate forests will be thinnings with small tree size,the economics of carrying out such operations arelikely to be marginal.

With such a large number of new growers fallinginto the small-scale category, increased awareness ofsmall-scale harvesting systems in use at home andabroad is desirable. There is also a need to develop

and adapt systems suitable for use in smallplantations. A threshold area of 10 ha was used as anapproximate guide in this study. Systems andmachinery identified may, however, be suitable onlarger areas. Larger tracts, consisting of widelydiverse tree species or uneven-aged forests mayrequire less conventional and more flexibleharvesting systems which may well fall into thesmall-scale harvesting category.

A database of harvesting systems/machinerycharacterised by their suitability for operation insmall-scale forestry plantations has been compiled.Systems/machinery considered for inclusion in thedatabase were categorised using the followingcriteria:

• Low capital cost (minimising capitalinvestment);

• Low transportation cost and overhead;

• High manoeuvrability;

• Minimal access requirements;

• Flexibility to deal with different material sizes;

• Compatibility with agricultural equipment.

Initial research revealed the extent and range ofequipment used in timber harvesting and extraction,along with the various configurations of equipmentand methods. From this it is clear that the compilationof a comprehensive list of all equipment and methodsavailable in North America, New Zealand, Australia,South Africa, Britain and Europe would be beyondthe resources of this project. However, the genericcomponents of the systems employed, and the typesof machinery utilised in these areas are discussed. Foreach generic system a range of available machineryand key machine parameters are presented. Thesedata have been compiled through discussions withforest industry personnel and by reference to relevantliterature and manufacturers’ specifications.

5

The requirement for small-scale harvesting in Ireland

1. The requirement for small-scaleharvesting in Ireland

6

International trends in small-scale harvesting

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There is a wide range of definitions for small-scaleforestry and this can make it difficult to compare andcontrast experiences in different countries andregions. In Finland for example, small-scale forestryhas been described as ‘forestry run by individuals,their ownership of forests not being integrated withthe wood-based industry or any governmentalownership’. In Scotland it has been defined as ‘thefarm woodland part of the community forestry sectorand that part of the estate forestry comprising smallerunits’. In Belgium small-scale forestry has beendescribed as ‘non-industrial forestry as practised byforest owners whose income from forestry is a smallproportion of their total income’. Australian literaturedescribes small-scale forestry as ‘forest ownershipand management by individuals, at a farm orindividual property level’.

In some of the literature, threshold maximumareas are applied to distinguish small-scale forestryfrom conventional or ’industrial’ forestry. Someexamples of the upper threshold limits for small-scaleforestry quoted in the literature are Germany 200 ha,Scotland 50 ha, Belgium 10 ha and Denmark 10 ha.The average size of forest lots in countries such asItaly and Spain is only 3 ha.

In many countries small-scale harvesting usuallyimplies the use of inexpensive machinery operated ona part-time basis. There is a wide variation in thetechnologies employed in small-scale harvestingbetween countries. The reasons include economic,cultural, and traditional factors as much as technicalones. In the assessment of harvesting systems anevaluation on all aspects of the system is required, notjust the harvesting equipment and its application.

2.1 Europe

Private forests have an important role in forestry inmost European countries. In many countries privateforestry supports employment in, and viability of,rural areas. Small-scale forestry can offer a basis forco-operation between forest owners. In manycountries co-operation through local forestmanagement associations has proved to be successfulin assisting small forest owners to capitalise on theirassets. In the Scandinavian countries there is an

identifiable advisory and technical support system,and a level of knowledge about small-scale forestryrelated matters, which does not exist in many otherEuropean countries

Generally in Europe chainsaws and tractors areused in self-employed timber harvesting. In theNordic countries professional forest machinecontractors use efficient and expensive harvestingequipment; this trend is spreading increasingly inEurope and around the world.

The number of sawmills and pulp and paper millshas decreased in Europe in recent years, althoughtotal wood production has increased. The need tomaintain international competitiveness hasnecessitated this increase in the size of productionunits, yet private forestry remains a major contributorto the total annual timber supply generally.Organisational structures provided by timber ownerorganisations facilitate co-operation between themills and the numerous growers. The main activitiesof owner organisations include: forest management,timber sales services, harvesting services, and generalsilvicultural advice. Since fewer and fewer forestowners have the skills needed to carry out forest workor the capital needed for expensive machinery, thenecessity for owner organisations becomes morepronounced.

In Scandinavian countries a significant proportionof the industry’s wood intake is sourced from farmforests. Wood is purchased directly by agents of themills or more commonly through farm-forestry co-operatives. Various contractual agreements betweenthe buyer and the owner have evolved which allowdegrees of involvement in the harvesting operation bythe owner. Provision is often made to allow thefarmer to do some work in collaboration with the co-operative or contractor. Much of the timber sold fromprivate farm forests is sold at roadside. Many ownershave direct involvement in the management of theharvesting and extraction operations.

In Sweden, where owner involvement is high,wood is mostly stockpiled at roadside, thus ensuringa continuous supply of material to the processors.This may be one of the key requirements for a highlevel of farmer involvement in harvesting operations.Forestry is part of the culture in the Scandinavian

2. International trends in small-scale harvesting

countries, with owner involvement in all aspects ofsilviculture, from planting to weeding, tending andpruning, as well as harvesting.

Small-scale forest owners on Sweden and Finlandhave a greater involvement in managing their foreststhan their counterparts in the rest of Europe. This isnot surprising given the national importance offorestry in these countries. It does, however,demonstrate the ability of small-scale forestry tosupply internationally competitive industries withlarge volumes of wood using highly developedharvesting transport and marketing systems. Farmworkers develop and practise forestry skills as anormal part of the annual farming cycle. Specialisedequipment, such as 4-wheel drive farm tractors andtrailers fitted with grapple loaders are widely used byprivate owners. However, harvesting operations arebecoming more capital and skills intensive, with atrend towards harvesting being carried out by farmerco-operatives or specialised contractors who have theequipment and skill to harvest the forests in aprofitable manner.

The contribution of the private sector to the annualharvest in Sweden ranges from 50% to 70%.Although large-scale methods using purpose builtharvesters and forwarders are becoming moreprevalent in the private sector there is widespread useof systems involving grapple loaders with trailers andagricultural tractors with self-employed forestowners. Processors attached to a tractor’s 3-pointhitch have become popular among self-employedforest owners and small contractors. The latest step inthe development is to use an agricultural tractor as abase machine for a small crane-mounted harvesterhead. Also used are skidding winches and wirecranes. Old forwarders are becoming more commonwith self-employed owners. Other equipment usedincludes mini-skidders, mini-forwarders, ATVs andpedestrianised skidders. Horses are still in use, eitherwith traditional equipment or newly developedequipment like grapple loaders, powered by smallpetrol engines.

In Finland private forestry accounts for 60% of thecountry’s forest area and 80% of the annual harvest.In general the level of mechanisation is increasing inFinland. However, for roadside sales, whereharvesting is generally organised by the owner, motormanual felling is still used. Extraction is mainly byagricultural tractor, equipped with hydraulic cranesand bogie trailers. Horses and tracked ATVs are usedto a small extent; their use is often limited to

harvesting of firewood and harvesting in amenityparks and forests.

In Norway private forestry ownership accounts for40% of the country’s forest area and 85% of itsproductive area. There is widespread ownerinvolvement in roadside sales, although there is atrend towards the use of sophisticated systemsprovided through contractors.

Small-scale forestry is well developed in Estoniawhere forestry accounts for almost 50% of the totalland area. In the harvesting of small timber lotsfelling is generally carried out using chainsaws andextraction by means of agricultural tractor. Largerloggers use the more conventional harvesters andforwarders.

In the UK small-scale harvesting is less welldeveloped than in the Nordic countries. Themanagement of small tracts of woodland has beenmore related to their amenity value than theproduction of timber. There is very little involvementby private forest owners in the harvesting of their owntimber; these operations are usually contracted out tospecialists, most of whom will have access to state-of-the-art Scandinavian machinery. The decline in thenumber of small sawmills and a rapid process ofconcentration on sawmill capacity may haveundermined the utilisation of timber from smallforests.

Roughly 80% of Austria’s forests are privatelyowned and a large proportion of owners managesmall areas between 5 and 20 ha. Extraction ispredominantly carried out using skidders. Cableyarding is commonly used on more difficult andsensitive sites. Others methods employed includesmall sized machinery and horse logging.

Forestry covers approximately one third of thearea of the Czech Republic with one fifth of this landarea in private hands. Horse logging is usedextensively in extracting timber from small forests.Although small-scale forwarders and skidders andATVs are available they are not widely used.

In Denmark forestry accounts for 11% of the totalland area, with private forestry accounting for almosthalf. Areas less than 10 ha tend to be owner harvestedwith felling carried out using chainsaws andextraction by means of agricultural tractor. Most ofthe wood in this sector is used as firewood. In areasgreater than 10 ha work is generally carried out bycontractors using a variety of processors, which areeither tractor- mounted or purpose-built.

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Almost 30% of the total land area of Germany isforested, of which private forest ownership accountsfor 46%. Much of the timber harvested from smallforests is consumed by the owners, there is a largenumber of private individuals involved in harvesting.Chainsaws and tractors are the most commonly usedharvesting and extraction technologies.

In the Flanders region of Belgium 75% of theforest estate is privately owned. However, forestrycontractors are responsible for almost all timberharvesting, both private and public. Most contractingcompanies are small and utilise large robust allpurpose machinery and the use of specialisedharvesting machines is quite limited.

In France 70% of productive forestry is in privateownership with a large number of owners of smalltracts of forestry. As a result the harvesting and sale ofmuch of the private volume is handled by co-operative organisations, with harvesting being carriedout by contractors. Income from forestry is, however,not a significant proportion of the annual earnings ofprivate forest owners. Mechanised felling accountsfor less than 20% of harvested timber, much felling ismotor manual.

In Italy forestry accounts for just over 20% of thetotal land area and is situated mainly in mountainousareas. The average size of privately owned forestplots is very small and essentially private forestrydoes not contribute to the industrial timber industry.Motor manual felling is common, with extractionbased on adapted agricultural tractors and trailers.Cabling and animal extraction systems are alsocommonly used.

Although as much as 50% of the land surface ofSpain is considered to be forest, large areas are notcapable of producing commercial roundwood. Due toclimatic and soil conditions much of the country’sproductive forestry is concentrated in the north. Thereare many private forest owners in Spain but few ofthem derive an income from wood sales. Timberharvesting is generally undertaken by contractors;owner involvement is rare. Felling is mainly bychainsaw, adapted agricultural tractors are used asprime movers in the forwarding and skidding ofmaterial.

2.2 North America

The number of small tracts of forest land owned bynon-industrial private forest owners in North America

has increased in recent years and this, combined withincreasing restrictions on the availability of timberfrom federal forests, has focused attention on small-scale forestry. Current market structures, however, donot favour widespread adoption of these systems.Extensive use is unlikely until market conditions haveevolved to recognise new constraints in timbersupply.

Efficiency of small-scale equipment is moredependent on operator training and skill than is thecase with large harvesting equipment. Although thereis widespread recognition of the potential role ofsmall-scale equipment in the total timber supplypicture, the low productivity of small-scale systemsand reliability factors, pose the greatest challenge totheir future use. Production rates can only supportpart-time loggers with other sources of income.Although many American farmers own timberland,have farm tractors suitable for logging, and have aslack season during the winter, part-time farm tractorlogging in North America is uncommon.

Small-scale harvesting operations are moreprevalent in the eastern and southern US and the mostcommon systems tend to be tractor skidding (winchesor grapples) with chainsaw felling. Horse skidding ismaking a come back in some areas and the use ofATVs is becoming more conspicuous particularly insituations where timber production is not the primaryobjective. More wood is being cut by harvesters andprocessors, (in the American context this is oftenconsidered as small-scale), however much of thisequipment must be imported which has theconsequence of increased costs particularly inmaintenance and spare parts.

2.3 Australia

Small-scale private or non-industrial forestry has thepotential to make an important contribution to thenational wood supply in Australia and represents amajor opportunity for growth in Australia’s long-termwood supply. Owners of this private forestry appearto have little involvement in production and the desireby small-scale forest managers to conduct their ownharvesting operations has been the exception ratherthan the rule with most small-scale harvesting beingcarried out by contractors from the industrial sector.

Studies carried out in Australia on small-scaleharvesting describe the sector as pioneering, withimpoverished equipment, limited skills and short-term marketing arrangements. One study revealed ‘an

9


infant industry with harvesting costs, operationalimpacts and occupational health and safety fallingshort of the standards being achieved in industrial-scale operations’. Case studies identified a need forbasic forest management/business knowledge on thepart of the forest owner whether operations werecontracted or not.

To date forestry in Australia has focused onindustrial-scale operations and in contrast small-scaleforestry is at an early stage of development. It hasbeen recognised that if small-scale forestry is tocontribute to the national wood supply in an efficientmanner the development of economically efficientwood supply systems for small-scale forests will berequired. Forest industry log input demands are moreor less continuous throughout the year and these needto be supported by wood supply systems whichprovide a continuity of supply. Without a collective orco-operative structure private small-scale forestrycannot provide this level of service.

Equipment used in the harvesting of small-scaleforestry in Australia would typically include achainsaw for felling and delimbing with adaptedagricultural tractors used in timber extraction.

2.4 New Zealand

Experiences in NZ would suggest that while smallwoodland owners may attempt all or part of theirharvesting with their own equipment very few arecompetent in harvesting and for the majority of forestowners the most satisfactory option is to employ aforestry contractor. An increased supply of woodfrom small private owners has been recognised andskills and equipment needs have been met in partthrough targeted training and small-scale research anddevelopment programmes.

In recognition of the contribution of forestry to therural economy and the potential for timber supplyfrom private sector small-scale forestry, the Ministryfor Forestry and the New Zealand Logging IndustryResearch Organisation have developed literatureintended to guide owners in the management of theirsmall forests. Promotion and education areconsidered vital in order to encourage involvement bysmall-scale forest owners in the management of theirtimber crops. In recent years there has beenwidespread involvement by farmers in theestablishment of new forests however in the absenceof a forestry culture it has been recognised thatsubsequent management is unlikely without

educational and promotional intervention at anational level.

Tree felling in New Zealand, particularly in thesmall-scale forestry situation is generally carried outusing chainsaws and roundwood is extracted usingadapted agricultural tractors and winches althoughpurposed built processors and forwarders arebecoming more prevalent.

2.5 South Africa

The bulk of forest land in South Africa consists ofexotic plantation forests owned by large forestrycompanies the largest of which are Sappi and Mondi.Individual timber growers privately ownapproximately 10% of forestry. The democratictransition in South Africa in the early ninetieschanged management and ownership structures; 26%of the country’s forests are now owned by the stateand managed by the South African Forests CompanyLimited (SAFCOL).

There are a large number of individual small-scaleforest owners actively involved in the management ofsmall woodlots. Most grow exclusively for largecompanies such as Sappi and Mondi. Thesecompanies operate outgrower schemes providingmarketing and production services to farmers underpurchasing agreement contracts. Growers areprovided with physical inputs, loans and extensionservices for the planting and management of small,mainly eucalyptus woodlots and in return sell thefinal crop trees, grown on a 6 to 7 year rotation to thecompanies. The average size of woodlots in theseoutgrower schemes is 2 ha, growing broadleaf speciesfor pulp production. Harvesting is often carried outusing hand tools; chainsaws are also widely used.

Cut to length systems are generally employed inharvesting conifers in the larger blocks of mainlycompany and state owned forestry. Cable yarding andskidding (both cable and grapple) are commonlyused, as is animal extraction.

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The harvesting decision

Timber harvesting is an integral part of the forestmanagement cycle. Forest managers take the decisionto harvest timber in accordance with managementobjectives and good forest practice. Due to the agestructure of private forestry plantations in Irelandmany owners and managers of such crops are comingto a stage where decisions must be made in relation tomanagement and timber harvesting. The means bywhich timber is physically harvested and extractedrequires detailed consideration. However, beforeproceeding with harvesting operations there are anumber of factors which must be considered,including: the requirement for an understanding of themarket place, silvicultural management andassociated costs, timber sale procedures and harvestplanning.

In the following sections the various factorsreferred to above are developed in the context of thesmall-scale forest owner with particular emphasis onfirst thinning.

The inclusion of this chapter is important inaddressing the problems of the small timber growersince, as stated earlier, non-technical factors are likelyto have a greater bearing on the utilisation of small-scale harvesting systems than the technology itself.

3.1 The market place and the product

In order that growers bring their timber to the point ofsale they must have a reasonable understanding of themarket place, the products required and the relativeposition of small-scale concerns in the context of theindustry generally.

In Ireland the forest industry has grown anddeveloped with one supplier, namely Coillte,dominating the industry and providing the vastmajority of roundwood to the processing sector. Theprocessing sector (sawmills and board mills) has beeninnovative in developing markets at home and abroadfor timber products and there has been considerablechange and rationalisation of the industry over theyears. Currently 14 sawmills, with a widegeographical spread, process approximately 90% ofall timber supplied in the country while twoboardmills buy pulp material in the round (material inthe form of dust and chips is purchased direct from

sawmills). Excluding small local markets there arepotentially 16 outlets nation-wide for roundwoodfrom private forests. When geographical distributionof these processors is taken into consideration thenumber of potential outlets for individual timber salesis further reduced.

Sophisticated sales and marketing systems havebeen developed between Coillte and the sawmillingsector in order to ensure continuity, fairness, securityand transparency in all aspects of sale and supply oftheir timber resource. Such systems rely onstandardisation in relation to the advertisement of thetimber, presentation for sale, log specification, thebidding system, timber harvesting and haulage,timber measurement and the invoicing of sales. Thislevel of sophistication and standardisation has not yetbeen achieved by the private sector as a whole (that isnot to say that individual growers have not beensuccessful in marketing, presenting and sellingtimber).

Various examples of forest owners’ organisationsexist throughout the world. These structures havegenerally developed as the timber industries havedeveloped and function best in countries with a strongforestry culture.

Timber harvesting can be an exacting operation. Inorder, therefore, to maximise the revenue potentialfrom a timber sale, growers must be aware of thevarious product dimensions or assortments that theprocessing sector requires. Log lengths required bymills are 2.5, 3.1 and 3.7 m for boxwood and 3.1, 3.7,4.3, 4.9 and 6.1 m for sawlog. Typically boxwoodlogs have a minimum small end diameter of 14 cmwhile sawlogs have a minimum small end diameter of20 cm. Many mills require flexibility in relation to logspecifications and as a result approximately half of allCoillte timber sales are harvested directly by millsallowing them the facility to cut to their ownrequirement. Smaller dimension timber may besuitable for stake material if straight, while smallerdimension crooked material will be sold as pulp.

While there is a demand for timber, privategrowers, and particularly those with small volumes,may experience difficulty in selling their product.Thinnings may present particular difficulties, and as aresult other potential markets are currently being

3. The harvesting decision

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investigated. Chipping systems and processesassociated with bioenergy are markets,which areconsidered by many to have particular promise. Thedevelopment of local markets and on-farm use oftimber products also warrants consideration.

The geographical location of a stand may haveimplications on marketability, since haulage is one ofthe main contributors to mill gate cost.

3.2 Silvicultural management and thecost of thinning

Costs associated with thinning may in certainsituations exceed the revenues generated from thesale of the timber. The likelihood of this occurringincreases as the volume and dimension of theharvested timber decreases. As a result forest ownersmay defer thinning on this basis alone. If plantationsare left unthinned their future timber potential andvalue will be reduced significantly. Where thinningsare being deferred as a consequence of an expectednegative income, this should be balanced byconsideration of future revenue loss as a result of notthinning.

3.2.1 Long-term financial implications

It is possible to estimate this potential loss using acombination of forest growth models and valuationmethodologies. There are a number of wellestablished techniques available for the evaluation offorestry; the most widely used is Discounted CashFlow (DCF). This uses discount rates to equalise orcompare future costs and revenues in terms of today’scosts and prices.

The choice of discount rate has a strong influenceon the outcome of the analysis. Typical interest ratesused in the private sector in Ireland for forest cropsrange from 3% to 7%. The valuation of a stand oftimber produces a Net Present Value (NPV). NPVvalues for stands with different management regimesusing a range of discount factors can be compared.

Where the financial viability of the thinningoperation is the overriding factor in taking thedecision to thin, consideration must be given to thelong-term financial implications of the decision.Since it is relatively easy to assess the yield class(YC) of a site and the Net Present Values for a rangeof yield classes and discount rates, such estimatescould be determined and used in the decision-makingprocess. The use of conservative figures in the model

will help to ensure prudent decisions. Alternatively areduction factor may be applied to the NPV figures toreflect the owner’s view of future developments.

For example, in order to illustrate the financialsignificance of thinning conifer crops a comparativeNPV analysis (assuming a 6% return) for a number ofthin and no thin scenarios for Sitka spruce plantationsare presented in the table below, over a range ofproductivity classes.

All scenarios presented assume crops havereached the age of normal first thinning. For examplefor productivity class YC16 at 22 years the differencebetween the thin and a no thin scenario is €560. Thusup to €560 can be spent per hectare (about €10/m3) onfirst thinning without diminishing the overall returnon the investment.

As the productivity of the crop increases so toodoes the difference between thin and no thin returns.For example for YC22 at 19 years the differencebetween the thin and a no thin scenario is €1,792, andup to this amount can be spent per hectare (about€27/m3) on first thinning without diminishing theoverall investment.

Further information on this topic is available inCOFORD Connects information notes Realising thepotential of private plantations and Thinning toimprove stand quality (Phillips 2004).

3.2.2 The effect of scale on harvesting cost

Relocation costs can make a very large contributionto the unit cost of harvesting (€/m3) timberparticularly when small volumes of timber are beingharvested. The following table illustrates howmachine relocation overheads contribute toharvesting unit costs of harvesting contractorsdepending on the volume of timber harvested afterrelocation (Source: COFORD OptiLog Project 2002).

This example demonstrates the importance ofdeveloping systems of workload allocation betweenforest owners that foster geographically focusedoperations to facilitate optimum machine utilisationwhere possible.

YC14 YC16 YC18 YC20 YC22

Thinnedcrop NPV/ha

€3723 €5494 €6318 €7384 €8954

Non-thinnedcrop NPV/ha

€3613 €4934 €6069 €6720 €7162

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Assuming harvesting operations are carried outusing harvesting contractors the following flow chartmay be of assistance to private growers in assessingtheir options.

Where owners are in a position to carry out someof the harvesting operations themselves this mayreduce harvesting costs which may influence thedecision.

3.3 Preparation of timber for sale

There are a number of steps involved in thepreparation of a sale of timber. The first entails aninitial inspection of the crop. In previously thinned ormature crops accessibility for inspection purposes isstraightforward while unthinned crops will requirethe cutting of brash paths. Following inspectionestimates of crop productivity and harvest volume

Figure 1: Flowchart for thinning decision.

and value are made to assist the owner in taking thedecision to harvest or not.

Assuming the decision is to harvest it may benecessary to estimate the standing timber volume andassortments, particularly if the timber is to be soldstanding. Such detail will be of benefit when applyingto the Forest Service for a Felling Licence, whichmust be secured prior to felling. These data may alsobe used in the preparation of a sale advertisement.

The measurement method employed, for paymentpurposes, may have implications regarding suchfactors as the sale price achieved for the timber, thecontrol of the movement of the extracted timber,timber security etc. Timber measurement methodsvary greatly from country to country however theymay be grouped into three main categories namely:standing measurement, roadside measurement andmeasurement at the final destination (sawmill). Afourth category used predominantly in Finland isharvester head measurement which utilises thecomputerised capabilities of sophisticated processorsto measure the timber as it is being cut. Given thenature of the Irish harvesting fleet this method mayhave possibilities here, however the main methodemployed in Ireland currently employs finaldestination or mill gate measurement. For more detailon timber measurement refer to the COFORD TimberMeasurement Manual.

Average standing timber prices for different treesizes in Ireland are published on a regular basis by theIrish Timber Growers’ Association (ITGA). Thesemay be used as a guide to the value of standingtimber. It should be noted that these are average costs,difficult harvesting/extraction conditions and longhaulage distances may reduce these considerably.Also small lots of timber may attract no buyers ifadvertised as standing sales, while roadside sales (i.e.harvested and extracted to roadside) may be moreattractive.

3.4 The harvest planning procedure

Following the decision to harvest there may be arequirement to develop a harvest plan for the site. Inthe case of small areas up to 10 ha, however, theharvest plan may be no more than an estimate of thevolume to be harvested and the extraction methodenvisaged. Reference should be made to the ForestService Forest Harvesting and EnvironmentGuidelines in this regard. The harvest plan willaddress silvicultural, environmental and operational

issues. This is the stage when the decision regardingthe harvesting system and the machinery to beemployed will be made.

When considering the harvesting system an initialsite classification using a Terrain Classificationsystem (refer to Forest Service Code of Best Practice– Ireland page 125) may prove useful in selectingsuitable machinery. The application of a terrainclassification system to a particular site may throw upa number of options relating to the choice ofmachinery suitable to the site. Costs associated withthe use of such machinery should be determined forthe particular site and the most cost-effective systemselected.

Many variables contribute to harvesting andextraction costs, and these will often be differentdepending on factors such as the size of theplantation, the type of machinery used and thecompetence of the machine operator.

The Irish Forestry Contractors’ Association(IFCA) provides a computerised rate mechanism,which facilitates their members in estimating rates percubic metre for particular jobs. The mechanism takesinto consideration such items as capital cost ofmachinery, business overheads, insurance, wages,profit margin sought, repair and maintenance and fuelcosts. It also takes into consideration crop factorssuch as the estimated tree size and timber volume tobe harvested, harvest type, ground condition, terrainclassification, average extraction distance, number ofproducts to be cut, species, environmental constraints,and site configuration.

Clearly criteria used by contractors to determineharvesting and extraction rates will be different thanthose used by forest owners who wish to becomeinvolved in the harvesting and extraction of their owntimber. Forest owners working on their own land maynot incur many of the costs incurred by contractors(e.g. relocation costs). Forestry work could be carriedout by farmer/foresters during slack periods and couldalso extend the usage of existing farm equipment.Such savings may, however, be offset by reducedproductivity and consideration should also be givento training and safety issues.

3.5 Harvesting operations

The principal forms of harvesting undertaken in thecourse of a rotation are thinning and clearfelling.Thinning involves the removal of a proportion of thecrop and is undertaken periodically throughout therotation. The objective is to improve growing

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conditions for the remaining trees and to provideintermediate yields of timber. Clearfelling is usuallycarried out at the end of the rotation when all trees areharvested.

Thinning type refers to the way in which trees tobe thinned are selected. Systematic thinning involvesremoval of lines of trees, normally from originalplanting rows, while selective thinning usuallyinvolves removal of suppressed, poorly formed, sub-dominant or competing trees to create an evendistribution and size of final crop trees.

The most suitable harvesting methods andmachinery are selected at the harvest planning stage.The choice of machinery and methods to be used willdepend on factors such as harvest type, environmentalconstraints, terrain classification, machineavailability and harvesting cost. On flat level sitesthere may be many options available while on moredifficult sites the options become limited.

For example first thinning on flat even sites withgood ground conditions (Forest Service TerrainClassification 1.1.1) will normally involve rack andselection thinning (systematic removal of trees alongracks with selective thinning of trees between racks).In these conditions a wide variety of machinery canbe used for the felling, processing and extraction oftimber to roadside. First thinning on steeper, roughersites with poor ground conditions (Forest ServiceTerrain Classification 3.3.3) may require analternative approach such as systematic rack andchevron felling, in order to facilitate extraction. Thechoice of machinery in such cases will often belimited to chainsaw felling with cable extraction.

3.6 Site access

Site access is a major factor when considering timberharvesting. Financial viability of harvestingoperations is often dependent on good site access.Forests are often planted in remote areas with poorpublic road access. Generally roundwood must beforwarded from the forest to a landing point forcollection by lorry. Regardless of the quality of theproduce, it is worthless if it cannot be extracted to apoint where a lorry can collect and transport it forprocessing. Clearly extraction distance has aninfluence on harvesting cost, this should beminimised whenever possible. Forest road layout andgeneral access to the site should be considered as partof the overall harvest plan.

Owners should be aware of the Forest Road Grantscheme which may contribute to the improvement ofaccess to the plantation.

3.7 Training and skills

Forest owners wishing to become involved inharvesting their own timber must acquire a basic levelof competence and skill. Almost all of the systemsexamined and presented in this report presuppose theuse of chainsaws to fell trees prior to processing andextraction.

Chainsaws are widely used in most countries andalthough there has been a dramatic increase in thevolume of timber harvested using sophisticatedfelling machinery, the nature of small-scaleharvesting is such that the chainsaw is likely tocontinue to have widespread usage. In spite of majorefforts and progress by regulators and manufacturersto improve chainsaws, they remain the single mostdangerous piece of machinery in forestry. Mostserious accidents and many health problems areassociated with their use. Motor manual fellingoperators must be well trained and equipped and havea clear understanding of how trees are felled, trimmedand cross cut.

Despite their inherent dangers, chainsaws are oneof the few pieces of forestry equipment for whichinternational regulations on safety features exist.Forestry machines on the other hand are less wellcovered by international standards and there is oftenno specific national regulation regarding requiredsafety features. Forestry machines may also havesignificant ergonomic deficiencies particularly wherethey have been adapted for use in forestry.

As with tree felling, operators involved in timberextraction must be trained and skilled in the particularextraction method being practised. More traditionalextraction methods such as tractor skidding require agood safe working knowledge of the tractor. Oftentractors will require modification for use in the wood.More sophisticated purpose-built forwardingequipment, although safer and ergonomicallydesigned, requires training to operate efficiently andis generally used by full-time contractors.

Mechanised harvesting is safer and moreergonomically attractive than chainsaw felling,however a high degree of training and skill is requiredto operate harvesting machines and their use isgenerally restricted to full-time contractors.

Safety is a prime consideration when operating inwoodlands and suitable training is a necessity. Studiesin this area suggest the incidence of accidents andindeed fatal accidents is much more frequent whereharvesting operations are carried out on a casual basisby forest owners. One such study compared theincidence of accidents in four European countries(Austria, Germany, Slovenia and Sweden) whichhave a tradition of forestry. The study found thatwhile the incidence of accidents involving casualoperators was considerably more frequent than forprofessional forest workers, there was a higherincident in countries where training and educationwas not available to the forest owning public.

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Categorisation and demonstration of small-scale harvesting systems

Four broad systems have been identified as havingpotential for use in small-scale forestry in Ireland andthese have been used as a basis for categorisingsystems reviewed in the course of this work:

• Tractor-based systems

• Cable systems

• Horse logging

• Small sized machinery and ancillary harvestingequipment

Within the broad categories each entry in thedatabase is further described under predefinedheadings. Under certain headings where data were notavailable or could not be attained directly from thesource, best estimates and the source of theseestimates are entered in the database. For certaindatabase entries additional information has beenprovided (e.g. safety features, interdependence onother machinery etc.) where this was considerednecessary, to describe the machine/system in a morecomplete context.

A detailed selection of machinery for each of theabove categories is presented in the Appendix. Foreach category, a number of specific machines arenamed with a brief description of key machineparameters along with supplier and manufacturerinformation. Guide prices which were available fromthe Association of Professional Foresters (APF) 2002,International Forest Machinery Exhibition which washeld in Lockerbie, Scotland in September 2002, havebeen included in the database.

Equipment presented in the Appendix wasselected with no intention to promote or exclude anyparticular equipment or supplier and the listing is notintended to be an exhaustive description of availablemachines. These tables of data are intended as aninitial reference guide in assisting potential users orpurchasers of forest harvesting equipment. A morecomprehensive reference may be found on the website generated by the SMALLFORE project team atwww.tts.fi/smallfore/smallbase/.

4. Categorisation and demonstration ofsmall-scale harvesting systems

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Agricultural tractor-based systems

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Due to their widespread use, farm tractors are oftenused as base machines in many forestry activities.Tractors have, however, been designed for useprimarily in an agricultural rather than a forestenvironment. Where farm tractors are to be usedregularly in forestry certain modifications will berequired. These should address environmental,trafficability and ergonomics issues. Clearly tractorsinvolved in full-time forestry will require substantialmodification while those used occasionally maymake do with minor modifications.

In Canada the most popular forestry implement isthe tractor powered skidding winch. In Nordiccountries farm tractors are still used extensively inforestry, particularly in farm woodlots. Nordicmanufacturers have developed many forestryimplements for farm tractors such as skiddingwinches, wire cranes, grapple loaders, processors andharvesters. These attachments for general-purposefarm tractors can make mechanisation moreaffordable to the small-scale operator.

5.1 Tractor features important for use inforestry

Forestry work can be very demanding on tractors.Basic modifications such as window and radiatorprotection screens/grills, belly pans, deflector barsand cab protection bars, valve stem protectors and

front weights will be required. When PTO-drivenattachments are used due care must be observed incovering the PTO. For some equipment the 3-pointhitch is sufficient, while heavier equipment such asloaders require a firm attachment to the tractor.

One of the major problems in using the farmtractor in forestry is the orientation of the operator’scab. Almost all tractor cabs are designed exclusivelyfor a forward facing operating position. Manyforestry implements such as grapple–loader trailers,skidding and forwarding grapples, winch processorsand processors require the operator to face the rear ofthe tractor. In most tractors operators have to twisttheir bodies or kneel on the seat in order to reach thelevers. If a tractor has a less ergonomically suitablecab it is important that the operator tries to diversifythe workload to minimise the time spent in awkwardworking positions. Reversible seats and controls andincreased space at the rear of the cab can overcomethis difficulty; some tractor manufacturers providethese features as standard.

Weight distribution ratio between front and rearaxels and tractive power vary significantly between 2-wheel and 4-wheel drive tractors. Ideally a 50:50front end to rear end weight ratio is desirable forforestry machinery. Weight distribution of 2-wheeldrive tractors (with a front to rear ratio of 30:70) canbe improved by adding weight to the front of thetractor. Weight distribution of 4-wheel drive tractors

5. Agricultural tractor-based systems

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(with a front to rear ratio of 45:55) improves stabilityand pulling power.

The ground clearance of most farm tractors is 35-45 cm while at least 50 cm is needed in forestrysituations (mainly to prevent tractors getting hung-upon tree stumps). The drawbar is generally the lowestpoint on a tractor and sometimes it is possible tomodify the drawbar bracket to increase the groundclearance marginally. Larger tyres help to increaseground clearance (they do however increase theheight of centre of gravity and thus reduce thestability of the tractor). Farm tractors with fourwheels of equal size tend to be very suitable for awide range of sites.

The hydraulic pump capacity of modern tractorswith power ratings greater than 37 kW (50 hp) rangesfrom 40 to 100 l/min. A tractor to be used in forestoperations should have a hydraulic pump capacity ofat least 50 l/min (grapple loaders). A separate PTO-driven pump and hydraulic system can be installed toincrease hydraulic oil flow.

Tractors which are to be coupled with implementssuch as winch processors that perform multiplehandling and processing functions require a ratedPTO power of at least 60 kW (80 hp). Single gripharvesters have very large tractor power (75 kW;100 hp) and weight (for stability). Powerrequirements for commercial chippers are evengreater.

Three-point hitch systems allow attachments suchas winches, skidders, grapples or processors. Stabilitydeficiencies associated with 3-point linkage has beenovercome using a 4-point hitch which are most suitedto grapple-loaders, winch processors and double-drum winches.

5.2 Forestry implements for farmtractors

It is important that forestry implements are matchedto tractors of appropriate size and power rating. Forexample it is not practical to mount a high capacityimplement such as a processor on a small 30 kW(40 hp) 2-wheel drive tractor since the tractor wouldbe unstable and the engine or the hydraulic systemwould be unable to power the machine. Thesuitability of forestry implements for their intendeduse must be clearly thought through; the requirementsof the part-time operator versus the dedicatedcontractor will be quite different.

The cost of adapting an existing agriculturaltractor for forestry use can vary depending on theintended use of the adapted implements. Adaptationsshould not preclude farm use unless it becomesdedicated to forestry. Purpose built farm-forestrytractors, particularly those manufactured in theNordic countries are designed for dual roles and thismay be a consideration for farm-foresters in Irelandwhen deciding to purchase a tractor. With theattachment of suitable implements, tractors arecapable of carrying out a wide range of forestryoperations from skidding and forwarding to loadingand processing.

5.2.1 Equipment for terrain transport and loading

Extraction is the process of transporting whole treestems or logs from the felling site in the forest to alanding or roadside for subsequent transport to theprocessing mill. Timber may be skidded, whichinvolves transporting trees or logs with one enddragging along the ground, or forwarded whichinvolves transporting logs clear of the ground.Various tractor implements used in timber extractionare described in the following sections.

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Implement SKIDDING BAR AND PLATE

Description The notched skidding bar is a devicewhich is attached to the tractor’s 3-point linkage and used for skiddinglogs which are choked and attached onthe bar. This is a very simple piece ofequipment and with the exception ofincreased front-end weights, requiresvery little modification to theagricultural tractor. Heavier steel platesor butt plates are larger and allow ahigher pulling point, which is moreeffective at raising logs off the ground.Most wire cranes and skid winches areequipped with skidding bars.

Power Requirement Suited to a range of tractors (22 to 37 kW; 30 to 50 hp).

Advantages Low cost.Suited to a wide range of tractors.

Disadvantages Productivity is low. Limited application in thinning. Weight distribution of many farm tractors may present safety risks.Not suited to more difficult or wet sites.

Implement SKIDDING WINCH

Description Skidding winches use a cable and chokerto pull one or more trees to a tractor. Theskidding winch is normally attached to the3-point hitch and receives its power fromthe tractor PTO.

Power Requirement Winches are made to suit a very widerange of tractors (22 to 75 kW; 30 to 100hp).

Advantages Low to medium cost.Suited to a wide range of tractors andsites.When using winches in difficult terrainthe load can be dropped and tractor canmove to more favourable terrain andwinch the log from a distance.

Disadvantages Limited application in thinnings.Skidding often produces dirty logs, which can cause difficulties at the processing stage.Can contribute to both soil and residual tree damage.

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Implement SKIDDING AND FORWARDING GRAPPLE

Description Large hydraulic grapples mounted on the 3-point hitch can be used equally well fortransporting cut-to-length logs or full polelength timber. The operator reverses up to thelogs or timber stack and ‘grapples’ the load,which can then be hydraulically lifted fortransportation.

Power Requirement Tractors need good front to rear weight ratio andtherefore best suited to 4-wheel drive tractorswith compensatory front weight attachments.The actual size of the tractor depends on the sizeof the implement and the weight of the wood tobe carried/skidded but minimum sizerequirement would be approximately 41 kW(55 hp).

Advantages Relatively inexpensive.Shortwood can be extracted clean.Operator does not need to leave the cab.

Disadvantages Requires good presentation of material and does nothave the flexibility and versatility of skidders.Needs good sites, detailed planning and site layout isrequired especially in thinnings.

Implement BACK FORK

Description These are low cost extraction implementsmounted on the 3-point hitch to allow logs to beforwarded from the site. Suits shortwoodforwarding.

Power Requirement Tractors need good front to rear weight ratio andtherefore best suited to 4-wheel drive tractorswith compensatory front weight attachments.

Advantages Can be used for both forestry and agriculture.Wood held off the ground and therefore staysclean.Low cost.

Disadvantages Requires manual loading.Needs fairly even site to ensure load stability.

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Implement GRAPPLE LOADER

Description These are hydraulic cranes with a grapple, whichcan be used to pick up single trees, or bunches oflogs for loading or unloading a trailer. They canbe mounted on the tractor itself, its 3-point hitchor on the trailer.

Power Requirement The hydraulic pump capacity requirement of 25to 50 l/min can be easily supplied by mosttractors.

Advantages Allows fast efficient loading and unloading oflogs and eliminates manual handling.When used with trailers larger payloads can bemoved than by skidding systems.Suits shortwood extraction.Can be used for both forestry and agriculturaloperations.If mounted on the trailer, tractor stability is not affected.

Disadvantages High cost.

Comments The position of loaders on tractors should be considered. A longer loader reach isrequired if the loader is mounted on the tractor but a shorter trailer drawbar may be usedgiving a tighter turning ability. Loaders mounted on the trailer drawbar may needstabilising legs, which are susceptible to damage when moving off. Loaders on thetractor (3-point linkage) have flexibility for use in non-forestry operations.

Implement WIRE-CRANE LOADER

Description The wire crane comprises a PTO poweredwinch with a high A-frame and stabiliserlegs. Wire cranes are commonly used with aforestry trailer for winching, loading andforwarding wood. The operator walks up toeach bundle, puts a wire around it andfollows the bundle as it is winched back tothe tractor.

Power Requirement Suited to nearly all tractor sizes.

Advantages Suitable for thinnings with widely spacedracks.Shortwood can be extracted clean.Wire-crane loaders are the least expensive mechanical loading system available.

Disadvantages Operator safety is a consideration.Substantial wood handling and walking is required.Productivity tends to be lower than for grapple loaders.Requires well trained operators.

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5.2.2 Harvesting and processing equipment

Generally speaking the difference between aharvester and a processor in forestry terms is that aharvester fells, delimbs and cross cuts trees intoproducts while a processor takes previously felledtrees and delimbs and cross cuts them. There are twocategories of processor: grapple and wire. The firstuses a grapple loader to bring the tree to theprocessor, while the wire processor uses a winch.

A double grip harvester is a grapple processor witha harvesting head on the end of the loader boom. Atree is felled using the felling head, and brought inand placed in the processor where it is processed. Asingle grip harvester has a felling head loaded at theend of the loader boom. The harvesting head not onlyfells the tree but also delimbs and cross cuts the tree.Single grip harvesters are most commonly used inIreland.

Implement FORESTRY TRAILER

Description There is a wide range of timbertrailers available for agriculturaltractors from non-driven units tomore sophisticated power driventrailers. Most popular tractor drawnmodels may have a pay loadsranging from 3 to 8 m3 with 5tonne models being most common.3-5 tonne trailers are suitable forlower powered tractors (< 37 kW;< 50 hp) and part-time usage.Forestry trailers are of skeletalconstruction in order to maximisepayload capacity. The smallestcapacity trailers may have only 2wheels but usually most forestmodels have a 4-wheel ‘bogie’construction.

Power Requirement Most tractors can be used with forestry trailers.

Advantages High load capacity to remove large volumes at once.Shortwood can be extracted clean.Can be used in agricultural applications.

Disadvantages Detailed planning and site layout is required especially in thinnings.Can be expensive particularly for more sophisticated ones.

Comments Driven trailers increase trafficability greatly. One common design entails hydraulicallydriven rollers, which can be put in contact with tyres on demand. The investment levelfor a tractor and trailer is substantially lower than for a conventional forwarder.However, although the tractor is often narrower than the forwarder the tractor/trailerdoes not have the flexibility of the forwarder and is less suited to narrow thinning racks.

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Implement WINCH PROCESSOR

Description Winch processors combine a winch and aprocessor to winch in, delimb and cross cuttrees which have already been cut by achainsaw operator. Most winch processorsare designed to have an operator standingbeside the machine.

Power Requirement The minimum tractor horsepowerrequirement is a 37 kW (50 hp) tractor witha hydraulic oil flow capacity of at least 50l/min. Larger processors require in excess of60 kW (80 hp) tractors and 80 l/minhydraulic oil flow capacity.

Advantages Reduces the workload on chainsaw fellers dramatically.Brash mats on extraction racks minimise soil compaction and rutting.Moving costs between sites can be lower than for forwarder which often needs to bemoved by lowloader.

Disadvantages Expensive, particularly for part-time operation.Requires skilled operators.Unsuited to heavily branched trees.

Implement GRAPPLE LOADER PROCESSOR

Description Uses grapple loader mounted on the 3-point hitch to present trees to theprocessor. Stroke type processors use astroking motion to delimb trees whileroller feed processors propel the treethrough delimbing knives by means offeed rollers.

Power Requirement A 4-wheel drive 60 kW (80 hp) tractor isrequired, due mainly to the weight of theimplement.

Advantages Reduces the workload on chainsawfellers dramatically.Safe operation from within the cab.

Disadvantages Expensive, particularly for part-timeoperation.Continuous use will require alterationsto the cab for ergonomic reasons.

Comments Operator’s seat should rotate to allow ease of operation. Front balancing weights will berequired.

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5.3 Purpose-built forestry forwarders

Buying used forwarding equipment offers aninexpensive way for small or entry-level owners toovercome high capital costs associated withconventional systems. The low fixed cost of usedequipment can help to compensate for its lowerproductivity and may result in increased net revenueper harvested unit. Additionally forwardingequipment may have a use in carrying out agriculturaloperations such as slurry spreading; this dual-purposeuse may increase their utility for farmer-foresters.Clearly when buying used machinery the owner mayforego reliability, sophistication and productivepotential of a new machine.

The operation of second-hand machinery bywoodland owners themselves may further reducecosts associated with productivity since suchoperations may be carried out in less busy times. This,however, assumes owners have a certain level ofcompetence and skill in carrying out these oftendemanding operations. Older machinery also requiresmore maintenance. However, the use of second-handforwarders is quite common in farm forestry inSweden.

5.4 Chippers

There is a growing interest in the use of chippingsystems in Irish forestry particularly in the context ofthe projected increase in the volumes of pulp materialcoming on stream over the next decade, and in lightof an increased awareness of the potential of usingthinnings as an energy assortment. Since the aim ofthe European Union is to increase the share ofrenewable energy in total energy use the demand forenergy wood should grow considerably in the future.With a limited number of outlets for pulp (refer tosection 3.1) there are clear advantages to the growerin the development of such markets.

The extent and nature of wood fuel chipproduction in Ireland was summarised at a recentCOFORD conference: Wood Energy Conference2002 – White Coal Green Energy. In his paper‘Technology for wood fuel chip production inIreland’ Seamus Hoyne from the Irish BioenergyAssociation separated wood chipping technologycurrently in use into three categories namely

• Small-scale chipping;

• In-forest chipping;

• Large-scale chipping.

Implement SINGLE-GRIP HARVESTER

Description Single-grip harvesters have a head mountedon a loader boom, which both fells andprocesses the tree.

Power Requirement Needs large 75 kW + (100 hp+) tractors.Hydraulic power flow requirements will rangefrom 70 to 100 l/min.

Advantages Reduces the workload on chainsaw fellersdramatically.Safe operation from within the cab.Potential for high productivity.

Disadvantages Requires highly trained and skilled operators.Very costly.

Comments Operators seat should rotate to allow ease of operation. Front balancing weights will berequired. Single-grip harvesting heads are generally mounted on purpose builtmachinery and these outfits are the mainstay of the national harvesting fleet in Ireland.They are expensive machines and generally require all year round operation to justifypurchase.

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Small-scale chipping is used mainly by treesurgeons when disposing of individual trees. The chipis generally used for landscaping or mulching. Thereis a wide range of small-scale chippers currently inuse in Ireland, many of which can be powered byagricultural tractors.

Mobile in-forest chipping is not currentlypractised in Ireland, however it is considered by manyto have real potential. Technology developed in theNordic countries could be adapted to Irish conditions.Large-scale chipping occurs where the chips arebeing used and involves large, static machinery.

Implement CHIPPER

Description Mainly disc chippers mounted on the 3-point hitch and powered by the PTO.

Power Requirement Depends on the diameter of the tree to bechipped. A 37 to 45 kW (50 to 60 hp)tractor will chip logs up to 15 cm indiameter.

Advantages Can produce fuel chip fromunmerchantable timber.Leaves sites neat and tidy and allowsunwanted material to be transportedefficiently off-site.

Disadvantages Expensive.Feeding chippers by hand is hazardous.

Comments Use in forest plantations will be dependent on policy in relation to renewable energy.

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Cable logging systems

29


Also known as yarders or cable cranes, cable loggingsystems involve the transport of logs within the forestby means of a carriage moving along suspended steelcables, the load being partially or wholly lifted off theground. In its most basic form cable logging consistsof a fixed winch with two cables – one to pull the lineout to the trees and the other to pull the logs in onceattached to the line. Much more sophisticated systemshave been developed using winches driving four orfive lines. In such cases quite complicated riggingsystems may allow the load to be lifted clear of theground.

Generally speaking, cablesystems do not fit the criteria forsmall-scale harvestingequipment as set out in Section1. However since they may bethe only means by which timbercan be harvested on difficultsites they have been included.

Cable logging systems mustbe operated by trained operators.Safety is a major consideration,particularly since cablinginvolves the use of tensionedcables and heavy loads. Hazardsoccur during installation,operation and dismantling. Theutilisation of cabling systems asa means of timber extraction is aspecialised operation and shouldonly be undertaken by dedicatedtrained and certified operators.

The commonest systems are:

• Highlead – Simple twocable system requiring onlytwo winch drums with a tailrope to pull out the block(to which logs are attached)and a main rope to pull thelogs in. Both lines form anendless cable, which canmove clockwise andanticlockwise.

• Skyline systems – Usually have a third cablealong which a carriage runs, the carriage beingpulled in and out by the tail and main ropes.Logs are attached to the carriage in variousways. Where the skyline is fixed at somedistance above the ground the logs can be liftedup to the skyline before being winched in. Thecarriage travels along a pre-tensioned, staticcable known as the skyline.

• Skylines with motorised carriages.

6. Cable logging systems

30


6.1 Trends in the use of cable systems

Cable systems have been used traditionallythroughout the world to extract timber from difficult,steep sites. Expertise has been developed, notsurprisingly in countries such as Austria, the CzechRepublic, Japan, Norway and Scotland, where a largeproportion of forestry is located on steep terrain.

There has been a decline in recent years in the useof cable systems in Ireland and indeed throughoutEurope (with the exception of Austria where theutilisation of cabling systems has doubled over thepast 10 years). This has been due mainly to thecheaper cost and increased capability of harvester andforwarder combinations on steep terrain.

The relatively low productivity of cable systemswhen compared to ground-based systems cansignificantly reduce profit margins. Some feel theutilisation of cabling systems will increase as morestringent environmental constraints are imposed onsensitive sites. Additional harvesting costs will haveto be met if operations are to be carried out in such amanner.

In 1999/2000 there were six skylines in operationin Ireland with approximately 20 lying idle. TheTimbermaster skyline is the most commonly used inIreland. The average age of the national fleet isaround 20 years. These systems are however veryrobust, maintenance is relatively straightforward andthere is a ready supply of spare parts.

6.2 Cost and innovation

Since cabling systems are generally costly to operateplanning the operation is vital particularly roading.Road construction should take the extraction systeminto consideration. Set up costs can be highparticularly when harvesting small sized material, asis often the case when harvesting first and secondthinnings.

Recent innovation in relation to continuousprocessing and delayed processing techniques hasmade cabling systems more productive. Excavator-based yarders are often considered to be cost effectivealternatives to conventional yarders. Excavator-basedunits are converted into cabling systems by addingwinches to the excavator and modifying the boom toact as a tower. The main advantages of excavator-based yarders are fast set-up times, ease of operationand good off-road ability.

Timbermaster Skyline EX350 Excavator-based skyline

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Horse logging

Animals were the main source of power used toextract timber throughout the world until the adventof the farm tractor and its widespread usage. Betweenthe 1940s and the 1960s the predominance of animalextraction in forestry shifted to mechanised extractionmainly through the use of tractors fitted with skiddingwinches. The decline in the use of horse extractionhas continued, while the once popular tractor andwinches have in turn been replaced with purpose builtforwarders and processors.

Horses provide a solution for the small woodlandowner in relation to timber extraction in that they arehighly manoeuvrable, have the flexibility to handle avariety of timber sizes and lengths and have lowtransportation and capital costs. Horse logging ishowever a physically demanding operation which,coupled with the unavailability of skilled operators,has limited its use.

Horse extraction can be cost-effective inappropriate circumstances and can work alongsideand complement forwarders, processors and skylines.It is used in areas that are too sensitive for, orinaccessible to, tractor skidding and/or conventionalmachinery, and in areas too small to be harvestedusing conventional methods.

As the forest size decreases and landowners’concerns about environmental issues and aestheticsincrease, horse logging may have a niche, workingsmall and sensitive areas, which would not be feasiblefor mechanised logging.

Many different breeds of horse are used in timberextraction. For example in Finland the traditionalbreed is the Finnhorse, while in Sweden the NorthSwedish or Mountain Ardennes breeds are preferred.The Dole horse or the Norwegian Fjord horse is usedin Norway. The Ardennes horse from Belgium isconsidered to be a breed very suitable to horselogging. A recent report carried out by the IrishForestry Contractors’ Association (IFCA)recommended the introduction and registration of thisbreed with the Irish Horse Board.

The following are some of the advantages anddisadvantages of horse logging:

Advantages• Low overhead and investment costs.• Lower move in costs.• Lower rack density.• Damage to residual stand is light.• Stands do not have to be thinned as heavily as

normal.• Soil disturbance is low.• Beneficial in pulling down hung-up trees.• High level of acceptability with the public.

Disadvantages• Takes longer to log an area.• Horses are limited to working with smaller logs.• Limited availability.• Limited extraction distances.• Continuous attention required for the horse.

A renewal in the interest and the utilisation ofhorse logging has been assisted through the efforts ofdedicated organisations such as the British HorseLoggers Association (BHLA), Skogshasten inSweden, Interessengemeinschaft Zugpferde (IGZ) inGermany and Forening Arbeidshesten in Norway.Such organisations provide training courses in horselogging with recognised certification.

A survey of horse logging in Ireland was carriedout by the IFCA in 1999. The number of businesses inoperation was three full-time and five part-time, withnine operators interested in resuming work ifeconomic conditions became more favourable. Thus apotential pool of 17 operators existed throughout thecountry in 1999. Clearly with such a small number ofoperators the likelihood of owners of small area offorest using horse logging is limited.

7.1 Specialised equipment

Ground conditions, crop type, product type andextraction distance all have a significant part to playin selecting the appropriate equipment. Many loggershave built their own attachments or have modified olddesigns to meet their needs under certain terrainconditions. Equipment such as harness and chainswith a spreader bar has been used to extract largevolumes of timber. The Scandinavians havedeveloped arches and sledges of different types. Aselection of implements used in horse logging isdescribed below.

7. Horse logging

32

Horse logging

Implement WHEELED LOGGING ARCH

Description This simple apparatus is used to transport logs. The arch is reversed over the load andthe log(s) are secured to the arch (usually using a hand winch) and skidded to thelanding.

Advantages Minimises the effect of skidding on soil and vegetation.Low cost.

Disadvantages -

Comments The Norwegian Arch has been used by contractors in Britain.

Implement FORWARDER

Description There is a wide range of timber trailers available for horses,from non-driven units to more sophisticated power driventrailers. Trailers tend to be of skeletal construction in orderto maximize payload capacity.

Advantages Suitable for longer extraction distances than skidding.Shortwood can be extracted clean.Can be used in non-forestry applications.

Disadvantages The more sophisticated ones can be expensive.

Comments The EP Wagen is an example of a horse pulled trailer that has been used by contractorsin Britian. It has good safety features such as swivel mechanism connected to the shaftsallowing the horse to remain upright should the trailer turn over. It is extendable fordifferent log lengths and has four pairs of independently suspended bogies to facilitatesmoother forwarding.

Implement WIRE CRANE LOADER

Description The wire crane comprises a mechanically powered winch with a high A-frame andstabiliser legs. Wire crane loaders can be used in conjunction with horse drawnforwarding trailers. They are commonly used with a forestry trailer for winching,loading and forwarding wood. The operator walks up to each bundle, puts a wire aroundit and winches it back to the trailer.

Advantages Wire-crane loaders are one of the least expensive mechanical loading system available.Good manoeuvrability.

Disadvantages Requires a degree of manual loading.Operator safety is a consideration.Needs well trained operatives.

Comments Suitable for timber extraction on sensitive sites (e.g. riparian zones).


Description These are hydraulic cranes with a grapple, which can beused to pick up single trees, or bunches of logs forloading or unloading a trailer. They can be mounted onthe trailer and the loader is powered by a separate powerpack driven by a petrol engine.

Advantages Allow fast efficient loading and unloading of logs.Eliminates manual handling.Suits shortwood extraction.Can be used in non-forestry applications.

Disadvantages -

Comments This method of horse extraction is often employed in the Nordic countries.

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Small-scale machinery

Small-scale machinery is often equated with small-scale timber harvesting, and there has been a growinginterest in both in recent years. The interest in Britainand Ireland in small-scale machinery may be as aresult of the use of ATV type machinery inrecreational, agricultural and horticulturalapplications and the possibilities they have for use inforestry. The versatility and relative low capital cost,low transportation costs, and high manoeuvrability ofthese machines, increases the likelihood of privateforest owners acquiring and using them for variousapplications.

In Scandinavian countries the tradition of small-scale forestry management and the advent of lowcapital cost, small-scale machinery has evolved toprovide numerous possibilities in relation to timberharvesting of small areas of forestry. For variousreasons however, such machinery and systems are notalways readily transferable to other countries. Part ofthe reason is undoubtedly the variation in siteconditions between different countries. However,tradition and the well developed forestry culture ofScandinavian countries has a large part to play in themanagement and harvesting of small-scale forests.

Small-scale machinery tends to be considerablysmaller and lighter than agricultural tractors andalthough this may have positive environmentalimplications, operational factors must be consideredwith small machinery working in physically difficultconditions. Planning is therefore very importantparticularly in thinning situations where apredetermined rack system can help to maximiseproductivity through the avoidance of obstacles andthe facilitation of directional tree felling towards thebest point of access for the forwarder.

The use of small-scale machinery requires specificskills, and training is essential to provide operatorswith a good knowledge from which to develop theirskills and to ensure all aspects of health and safeoperation of equipment are addressed.

A number full-time harvesting contractorsinterviewed during the course of this study were ofthe opinion that small-scale machinery was notsufficiently robust for use in the types of conditions inwhich they were operating in Ireland. This opinionwas based on both first hand experience gained in the

use of small-scale equipment particularly throughoutthe late eighties and early nineties, and on anappreciation of site conditions and the demands thesehave on machinery. Also since there is limitedexperience in the use of certain small-scale machineryin this country those considering purchasingspecialised equipment need to take account of theextent of back-up services and maintenance and theavailability of spare parts.

8.1 All-terrain vehicles

All-terrain vehicles (ATVs) are 3- or 4-wheeledmotorised vehicles designed primarily for off roaduse. They have handlebars like a motorcycle, and therider straddles the body of the vehicle. With large,soft tyres, ATVs have a relatively high centre ofgravity. Some can reach speeds of 50 mph. ATVs areapproximately 1 m wide and typically weigh from200-300 kg. ATVs have been developed mainly asrecreational vehicles but have found widespread usedue to their versatility and low price tag.

In forestry ATVs can be used primarily fortransporting individuals or materials such as plants,fertilisers, tools etc. With appropriate attachmentsATVs can also function as prime movers in theextraction of timber. ATVs used for logging relatedactivities should have at least 300 cc engine capacityand 4-wheel drive. Desirable modifications mayinclude the addition of tracks or traction chains,weighting tyres and placing counterweights on thefront of the vehicle. Other equipment that may beadded to an ATV include a front bumper, a protectivebellypan under the engine, foot guards and a recoverywinch.

The characteristics of an ATV for forestry workwill vary depending on the terrain conditions and thetype of work it will be required to perform. Timberextraction is one of the most demanding forestryoperations undertaken by ATVs and their limitationsmust be taken into account when deciding on the jobto be done and the choice of equipment. Generally thetotal load hauled should not exceed the weight of theATV and its driver and operators are advised tofollow the manufacturers’ recommendations in thisregard.

8. Small-scale machinery

34



Description These are lightweight hydraulic cranes with agrapple, which can be used to pick up single trees, orbunches of logs for loading or unloading a trailer.They can be mounted on the trailer. The loader ispowered by a separate power pack driven by a petrolengine.

Advantages Shortwood can be extracted clean.

Disadvantages Needs separate power source to the prime mover.

Comments -

Implement WIRE CRANE LOADER

Description The wire crane comprises a mechanically powered(or electrically from the battery of the ATV) winchsecured to the body of the trailer (headboard) forstability. The winch enables one person to conductthe loading and unloading with the minimum ofphysical effort. The winch can also be used forwinching in wood that is inaccessible to the ATVitself.

Advantages Minimises manual handling.Good manoeuvrability.

Disadvantages Requires a degree of manual loading.Operator safety is a consideration.Needs well trained operatives.

Comments It may be quicker and more convenient to unload manually.

Implement SKIDDING ARCH

Description This simple 2-wheeled apparatus is used to transport logs. Thearch is reversed over the log and a chain choker is passed roundthe log and secured to a notched bar. When the assembly ispulled forwards the arch rises from the inclined to the verticalposition and is held against metal stops in front of the wheels.Reversing the assembly lowers the log.

Advantages Minimises the effect of skidding on soil and vegetation.Low cost.

Disadvantages Load size may be limited by the power capabilities of the ATV.

Comments -

ATVs can be transported from site to site on atrailer pulled by a car or jeep. Also they can bebrought home every evening, which is an importantconsideration in light of the susceptibility of forestrymachinery to vandalism. Safety and training aremajor considerations when using ATVs particularly inforestry conditions. There has been a high incidenceof accidents with ATVs mainly on public roads andmany countries where these vehicles are popular haveenacted regulations relating to their use. Whereaccessories or attachments are used theircompatibility with the ATV and the safety

implications should be considered. Track conversioncan greatly improve ATV traction, flotation andstability.

Many accessories and attachments have beendeveloped for use with ATVs and some of those usedin timber extraction are described in next section.

8.2 A selection of accessories for usewith ATVs

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8.3 Mini-tractors/forwarders

These purpose-built machines are commonly used inScandinavian countries. Trials of this type ofmachinery in Britian and Ireland are limited. Mini-tractors have good built-in safety features such asroll-over protection systems (ROPS) and a PTO, 3-point linkage and a towbar to facilitate the attachmentof a wide variety of accessories which give thesemachines a clear advantage over ATVs.

Like ATVs many of these small sized machinesare light enough to be transported from site to site ona trailer pulled by a car or jeep. They can therefore beeasily transported between sites and be available forimmediate deployment on arrival. Also they can bebrought home each evening.

Preliminary studies conducted by the ForestryCommission in Britain suggest mini-tractors/forwarders can compete on a productivitybasis with heavy duty modified tractors, particularlyin smaller, less uniform thinnings. An additionalbenefit of such lighter machinery is their reducedenvironmental footprint. Mini tractors and forwarders

have greater terrain and load capabilities than ATVswith timber trailers. This is mainly achieved throughthe use of power driven trailers where the maindriving force, when laden, comes from the driventrailer itself. Also there is much greater control of thetrailer load when descending slopes because thebrakes act on the trailer. Due to their small size theiroperation on rough sites may present difficulties andcarrying a winch to assist in debogging operations isrecommended.

There is a wide range of machinery on the marketfrom the 12 kW (16 hp) VIMEK minimaster to the62 kW (83 hp) Riko MARS 8.90RS, to the purpose-built Terri ATD, equipped with its single gripharvesting head. Some of the main accessories usedin forestry with mini tractors/forwarders aredescribed in the following section.

(Mini-tractors/forwarders can also be used asprime movers with attachments such as wire craneloaders and skidding arches as described in Section8.2.)

Implement TRAILER

Description There are a number of manufactures providing timber trailers for use with ATVs.Trailers tend to be of skeletal construction in order to maximise payload capacity whichtypically would be approximately 1.0-1.5 tonnes.

Advantages Suitable for longer extraction distances.Shortwood can be extracted clean.Can be used in non-forestry applications.

Disadvantages Payload is small.

Comments ATV manufacturer’s recommended towing capacities are likely to be exceeded if trailersare at full capacity. Generally ATVs and trailers are not suited to off-road/trackforwarding and their use in the wood (to extract from the stump) is limited. Forestrytrailers need good clearance, need to be same width as the ATV and need loading aids.

Vimek Minimaster101 Terri ATD with AM280 Head

36


8.5 Other small-scale harvestingequipment

There is a variety of other timber harvestingequipment which may be considered as ‘small’ andwhile some of the main equipment/accessorycategories have been covered in previous sectionsthere are a number of ancillary devices which havenot been covered. A selection of ‘other’ small-scaleequipment is described in this sub section.

Proper techniques employed in the motor manualfelling of trees can be greatly assisted through the useof various hand tools such as felling levers, fellingwedges and small winches. Techniques employed indelimbing and crosscutting can be assisted throughthe use of lifting hooks, tongs, cant hooks and loggertapes (for measuring log length). Other tools such as

thinning rollers may be used on flat sites to provide acomfortable working height for delimbing andstacking of timber. The efficient use of these handtools will be greatly dependent on the skills andtechniques employed by the operator.

Fetching arches are manually operated archeswhich can be of assistance in taking down trees whichget hung up in thinning and for skidding full poles orlogs in early thinnings.

Skidding cones are used to assist the extraction oftrees or logs by reducing ground friction and thelikelihood of the load getting caught or snagged indebris, stumps etc. Skidding cones can be used with avariety of small-scale prime movers such as Minitractors/skidders, ATVs, pedestrianised skidders,horses and winches. They are particularly useful

Implement HARVESTING HEAD

Description Single grip harvesting heads developed for use specifically with small dimensionpurpose built forest machinery.

Advantages Eliminates the necessity for chainsaw felling.

Disadvantages -

Comments This machinery has been developed for use in the Scandinavian countries and has notbeen tested in British or Irish conditions.

Implement TRAILER

Description Suitable trailers tend to be purpose-built for use with mini-tractors, most of which tendto be power driven. Trailers tend to be of skeletal construction in order to maximisepayload capacity which typically would be 2-4 t.

Advantages Shortwood can be extracted clean.Can be used in agricultural applications.

Disadvantages -

Comments Good thinning rack layout and planning can effect productivity. This machinery hasbeen developed for use in the Scandinavian countries and has not been extensivelytested in British or Irish conditions.


Description These are lightweight hydraulic cranes with a grapple, which can be used to pick upsingle trees, or bunches of logs for loading or unloading a trailer. They can be mountedon the 3-point hitch or on the trailer itself. The loader is usually powered directly fromthe tractor hydraulics.

Advantages Allows fast, efficient loading and unloading of logs and eliminates manual handling.Suits shortwood extraction.

Disadvantages The designs of some mini-forwarders are ergonomically poor and require the operator tokneel on the seat to operate the loader.

Comments -

8.4 A selection of accessories for use with mini-tractors/forwarders

37


Implement MOTORISED WINCH

Description Small motorised winches, which can be attached or anchored to a suitable ‘winchingtree’ (an individual standing tree) and all produce can be pulled towards this point.

Advantages A low cost skidding option.

Disadvantages Some of the more powerful winches are heavy, making this work very labour intensive.

Comments Some of the larger motorised winches are boat shaped for easy transportation around thewood.Many winches are fitted with capstan systems which ensure tractive force and cablespeed are kept constant.Positioning of the winch on the ‘winching tree’ can affect the accumulation of extractedproduce.Chainsaw winches attached to the chainsaw by substituting the chain bar can proveversatile and useful. The use of a skidding cone at the smaller end of the log is generally considered to bebeneficial.

Implement PEDESTRIANISED SKIDDER

Description Pedestrianised skidders are small tracked machines, guided by a handle, which are usedin the transportation of wood. They are operated by a person walking in front of theunit. It can support one end of a log(s) for skidding or alternatively pull a trailer.

Advantages Can be operated by an individual operator.Often used in other applications such as carrying and distribution of fencing materials,fertiliser etc. In Scandinavia a special attachment is available for hauling moose or otherbig game out of the woods.

Disadvantages Logs must be felled using a chainsaw and then lifted (winched or felled) onto theskidder.

Comments In Scandinavia pedestrianised skidders are often used in conjunction with a trailer or asleigh. Many are fitted with wire loaders or winches. Some incorporate a broad rollerbench onto which trees are felled and this allows for trees to be delimbed without theoperator having to bend over and the logs can be advanced over the trailer for cross-cutting.

when winching in loads to a central point whensubsequent loads can be winched up and on top ofothers to form a stack. Skidding cones or pans aregenerally made from fibreglass.

Regardless of the equipment employed planning iskey to successful operations in small-scale harvestingand good route planning particularly in thinningsfeatures largely in efficient practices. Regularmaintenance and machine inspection is essential inmaintaining safety standards and good workingcondition of machinery.

38

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Tiernan, D., Owende, P.M.O., Kanali, C.L., Spinelli,R., Lyons, J., Ward, S.M. The ECOWOODproject (Cable Systems). Selection andoperation of cable systems on sensitive forestsites.

Updegraff, Karen and Blinn, Charles R. 2000.Applications of small-scale forest harvestingequipment in the United States and Canada,March 2000.

Wang, Lihai. 1999. Environmentally Sound TimberExtracting Techniques for Small TreeHarvesting, July 1999.

41

Appendix

AP

PE

ND

IXTa

ble

A: S

elec

ted

data

for

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ract

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Impl

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42

Appendix

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each

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43

Appendix

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review of small scale harvesting - sustainable energy

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