review on criteria for sustainability of biomass.pdf

John Madathil Roy

Nr.Albumu:249644

Guided by: Prof.dr In Tadeusz Skoczkowski

Warsaw University Of Technology

Faculty of Power and Aeronautical Engineering

REVIEW ON THE CRITERIA FOR

THE SUSTAINABILITY OF

BIOMASS

Intermediate

Project

A Review on Biomass

Study in Biomass REVIEW ON THE CRITERIA FOR THE SUSTAINABILITY OF BIOMASS

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W A R S A W U N I V E R S I T Y O F T E C H N O L O G Y

FACULTY OF POWER AND AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Abstract

Background

The objective of this review was to summarize findings on biomass and possibly study

the criteria for the sustainability of biomass production and implementation

Methods

Studies were eligible if they were systematic studies focusing on the biomass industry

mainly in Europe and in North America. Papers published within the last 10 years were given

more importance while articles prior to that were used as benchmarks and as a point of

commencing the review.

Criteria for study inclusion

Types of studies

Systematic reviews based on randomized articles published or presented on the

biomass and its sustainability were eligible.

Types of participants

Studies were not excluded based on region or part of the world the article focuses on.

However they were not considered as more than references.

Search strategies

The search strategies used for all library or internet searches contained the following

keywords biomass or energy from biomass or biomass in Europe or sustainability of

biomass

Only keywords related to the subject were used for searching. First, titles and abstracts

of identified published articles were reviewed to determine the relevance of the articles. Next,

the references in relevant reviews and identified and were screened.

Key words: Biomass, sustainability of biomass, biomass in Europe


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Contents

1. Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

2. Energy Sources and Characteristics------------------------------------------- 7

2.1 Energy Crops----------------------------------------------------------------- 7

2.2 Organic Residues------------------------------------------------------------- 8

3. Harvest and Storage-------------------------------------------------------------- 10

4. Conversion Technologies-------------------------------------------------------- 11

4.1 Combustion------------------------------------------------------------------ 12

4.2 Gasification------------------------------------------------------------------ 13

4.3 Pyrolysis---------------------------------------------------------------------- 13

5. Obstacles to Implementation---------------------------------------------------- 14

6. Transportation--------------------------------------------------------------------- 16

7. Economics------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17

8. Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------ 20

9. Reference-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22


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Graphs and Tables

Graph 1: EU imports in comparison with the global trade------------------------------------ 10

volumes for the year 2012

Graph 2: Outlook for total EU demand for heating and

cooling demand from solid and gaseous Biomass-------------------------------- 13

Graph 3: EU Biomass consumption in electricity, heating and

transportation in the past and estimates for the future------------------------- 14

Graph 4: Share of the Vegetable oils processed in the

Netherlands in 2011 and 2012--------------------------------------------------------- 16

Graph 5: EU imports in comparison with global trade

of Wooden pellets, Biodiesel and ethanol from 2008 to 2012------------------ 18

Table 1: Market share of sustainability certification schemes

for oils and fats in 2011 and 2012------------------------------------------------------ 17


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Abbreviations

AEBIOM -------------------------- European Biomass Association

CHP -------------------------------- Combined Heat and Power

EU ---------------------------------- European Union

EU ETS ---------------------------- European Union Emission Trade System

GHG -------------------------------- Green House Gas

IEA --------------------------------- International Energy Agency

Mt ---------------------------------- Megaton

Mtoe ------------------------------- Million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent

MSW ------------------------------ Muncipal Solid Waste

NREAPs -------------------------- National Renewable Energy Action Plans

REN21 ---------------------------- Renewable Energy Policy Networking for the 21st Century

SRF -------------------------------- Short Rotation Forestry

VAT ------------------------------- Value Added Taxes


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1. Introduction:

Biomass is a critical part of fuel and energy generation and plays a major role in the

future of renewable energy sources. A vast number of information sources and articles on

the subject make the core elements of biomass to become obscure and vague while the

topics being discussed seem to waver away from their point owing to the varied subjects

that need to be highlighted along the way. This paper focuses on compressing a number of

articles and providing the gist of each article studied along with a critical review of the

subject.

Biomass is the oldest fuel used by mankind. Wood has been used as a fuel for

cooking and heating for over 500,000 years, but has suffered a decline in the last century

as the use of fossil fuels increased. However, the environmentally harmful effects of

burning fossil fuels coupled with the need to secure indigenous renewable sources of

energy has resulted in a return to using natural and clean sources of energy such as

biomass.

The term biomass encompasses a variety of fuels and technologies used to produce

renewable energy. Biomass refers to land and water-based vegetation, organic wastes and

photosynthetic organisms. [1] These are non-fossil, renewable carbon resources from

which energy can be produced and used as fossil fuel substitutes. Biomass can be burned

to produce heat that is used to create steam to turn turbines to produce electricity.

Therefore, energy from biomass can produce electricity and/or heat. Energy from biomass

and waste is often referred to as bioenergy. If biomass is processed efficiently, either

chemically or biologically, by extracting the energy stored in the chemical bonds and the

subsequent `energy' product combined with oxygen, the carbon is oxidized to produce

CO2 and water. The process is cyclical, as the CO2 is then available to produce new

biomass.[2] When plant material is burned for energy purposes carbon dioxide is released.

However, because plants absorb carbon dioxide during their life cycle, the net emissions

of carbon dioxide are zero. In this way, wood is said to be carbon neutral [1].


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The use of renewable energy sources is becoming increasingly necessary, to

achieve the changes required to address the impacts of global warming. Biomass is the

most common form of renewable energy, widely used in the third world but until recently,

less so in the Western world.[2] In the EU-25, electricity generation from biomass (solid

biomass, biogas and biodegradable fraction of municipal solid waste) grew by 19% in

2004 and 23% in 2005, [6]. Biomass energy encompasses a broad range of practices and

methods so it is important that we assess the viability of using biomass on a case-by-case

basis.

Soucre locally- this is important not only for reducing transportation emissions but also

for supporting local businesses

Research the extraction process- where has the biomass fuel come from? What has

been involved in its production? How energy-intensive are the processes?

Make the most of waste the best biomass systems make use of waste that would

have otherwise been sent to landfill where their decomposition releases potent

greenhouse gases like methane

Support sustainable land management avoid energy crops that are damaging the local

ecosystem or taking uo valuable space for growing food. Show your support for those

that encourage the healthy management of biodiversity and forests [3].

The EU is by far the biggest pellet consumer worldwide, burning some 15 million

tonnes in 2012. According the latest available figures from Aebiom, the European

biomass energy association, biomass accounted for 8.4 percent of the total final energy

consumption in Europe in 2011, while in some Baltic countries, such as Estonia, Latvia,

Finland and Sweden, the figure is above 25 percent. [7]

As a review on the criteria for sustainability with the assistance of the latest journals

and papers, this paper will follow the major steps involved in Biomass production from

source through harvest, methods of production and harvest until the economic factors

involved and provide citations for reference of proceedings.


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2. ENERGY SOURCES & CHARACTERISTICS

Lately much attention has been focused on identifying suitable biomass species,

which can provide high-energy outputs, to replace conventional fossil fuel energy sources.

The type of biomass required is largely determined by the energy conversion process and

the form in which the energy is required.[2] Considering environmental protection issues,

biomass is favorable fuel due to the closed circle of carbon-dioxide (carbon-dioxide,

produced in combustion processes, is used for oxygen production in photosynthesis).[6]

Biomass sources can be divided into two main streams:

Energy crops

Organic residues

2.1 Energy Crops

They are grown specifically for energy purposes Short Rotation Forestry (SRF)

this is the production of wood fuel through the cultivation of high-yielding trees at close

spacing on short time rotations. Species such as Willow and Poplar are ideal for SRF, as

they are easy to establish, fast growing, suitable for a variety of sites and resistant to pests

and disease. Land for short rotation forestry is likely to come from two sources, namely:

non-rotational arable set aside land and land outside the existing arable pool presently in

beef or sheep production. Other energy crops such as Hemp and Miscanthus (Elephant

grass) have been investigated for their suitability as a source of biomass fuel. Cultivation of

Hemp has the advantage in that being an annual plant, farmers experience of dealing with

annual tillage crops could easily be applied to it and existing farming machinery used for

harvesting etc.

In general, the characteristics of the ideal energy crop are:

high yield (maximum production of dry matter per hectare).

low energy input to produce.


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low cost.

composition with the least contaminants.

low nutrient requirements.

Desired characteristics will also depend on local climate and soil conditions. Water

consumption can be a major constraint in many areas of the world and makes the drought

resistance of the crop an important factor. Other important characteristics are pest

resistance and fertiliser requirements.[2] A research program aiming to evaluate the

agronomic, and energy sustainability of the biomass production by perennial non-food

herbaceous crops irrigated with different kinds of marginal waters. In four different sites

(Bologna, Padova, Reggio Calabria, and Catania) the same four species

(Arundo, Typha, Phragmites, and Lythrum), usually tested without irrigation, were planted

and monitored during 20082010. The results show that a planting density of 10 m2 is

necessary to obtain a maximum dry yield levels already from the second year of

transplanting. The maximum productivity was obtained with Arundo (close to

100 Mg ha1

y1

in Bologna and 86 Mg ha1

y1

in Padova, 5060 Mg ha1 y1 ). [13]

2.2 Organic Residues

Forest residues these consist of the tree tops and branches remaining after timber is

harvested. Some forest residues need to be left on the forest floor to decompose and return

nutrients to the soil and also to act as brash mats, which allow machinery to travel across

soft ground. However, a lot of this material could be harvested with suitable machinery and

used as a renewable fuel for energy production. Wood wastes or by-products from wood

processing industries e.g. chips, bark and sawdust. These are used within sawmills and

boardmills to provide heat for drying or space heating and to raise steam for the

manufacturing process. However, surplus quantities are actually being exported from some

Irish sawmills at present.


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Agricultural residues e.g. animal slurry and manure, chicken litter, spent mushroom

compost and straw. Disposal of some of these residues poses an environmental problem. It

is estimated that the total amount of agricultural waste in Ireland in 1998 was

approximately 65 million tons. Wet wastes such as cattle and pig manure are suitable for

anaerobic digestion, while wastes with a lower moisture content e.g. Chicken litter and

spent mushroom compost can be combusted.

Municipal solid waste (MSW), food processing waste, and sewage sludge all of

these wastes can be converted to energy, in the form of biogas, through the process of

anaerobic digestion. The organic fraction of MSW is collected from households and

commercial premises etc. It is estimated that over two million tonnes of MSW were

produced in Ireland in 1998*. Sewage sludge is a by-product of wastewater treatment.

With EU regulations influencing the treatment of waste, increased amounts of wastes are

available as a source of affordable biomass fuel.

Waste vegetable oil - from the catering industry. A portion of this goes into animal

feed production but the rest is dumped. Waste oil can be processed to produce biodiesel

and the successful use of this as a transport biofuel has been demonstrated in light vehicles

at Teagasc, Oakpark, Co. Carlow.

Tallow this is animal fat of variable quality. Previously, much of this would have

been used for animal feed production, but with restrictions regarding the use of bovine

offals due to BSE, increased quantities are available for alternative use. Investigation of the

possibility of using tallow as a biofuel has been conducted at Teagasc. While further

research is required, indications are that tallow can be used in small quantities in blends

with waste vegetable oil and camelina.

Raw biomass usually has high moisture content and chemical composition that

reduce the efficiency of coal plants and may generate corrosion. Various pre-treatments

can be applied to raw biomass to avoid these problems. Pre-treatment can also lower the

costs of handling, storage, and transportation, creating new opportunities for long-distance

trade. Finally, pre-treatment could reduce the need to invest in expensive co-firing


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technologies. [15] An analysis of the European Member State National Renewable Energy

Action Plans (NREAPs) concludes that the total contribution of bioenergy in 2020 will be

138.3 Mtoe, with heating by far the most important sector - accounting for 65 percent of

the total while transport accounts for 21 percent and electricity 14 percent.

Graph 1: EU imports in comparison with the global trade volumes for the year 2012. [20]

3. HARVEST AND STORAGE

Harvesting biomass represents one of the significant cost factors in the production of

biomass energy crops. The harvesting process is both energy-intensive due primarily to

transport fuel costs and can introduce contaminants, such as soil, which can subsequently

lead to operational problems during processing to produce energy. The moisture content of

the biomass varies with the time of harvest and for some crops can introduce additional

processing costs, due to the need to pre-dry, before processing further.[2] Bioenergy crops

are generally harvested when they are either dead or dormant. Unlike hay, crops for

bioenergy may be allowed to collect moisture at times, as long as they are dry at harvest[7]

and are allowed to re-dry before use.


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For tall herbaceous bioenergy crops harvested while living, such as switchgrass,

miscanthus, or canarygrass, harvesting should be done after at least one hard frost has

made the stems dormant. This will reduce moisture content and allow some P and K to

return to roots, rhizomes, and the soil from translocation and weathering of the plant.

Harvest can also be conducted in the winter, further reducing moisture and ash content of

harvested material. However, yields may suffer from a reduction in plant mass due to

weathering. Tall grasses for bioenergy are either baled for combustion as-is, chopped, or

converted to pellets for storage and transportation. Baling can be accomplished using a

typical hay baler. After harvest, bales can be stored covered at the field edge. They should

be kept dry and away from sources of ignition, much like feed hay. Storage requires a

tarpaulin, and can benefit from cracks which keep wood off the soil surface. Tall woody

plants for bioenergy should be harvested during the coldest months of the year, because the

moisture content is lower and any leaves have fallen off. [17]

4. CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

Biomass is one potential source of renewable energy and the conversion of plant

material into a suitable form of energy, usually electricity or as a fuel for an internal

combustion engine, can be achieved using a number of different routes, each with specific

pros and cons. A brief review of the main conversion processes is presented. [4]

Biomass can be converted to different forms of energy including heat, power,

combined heat and power (CHP) or liquid biofuels. There are a number of processes that

can be used to recover energy from biomass fuels. The two main technologies presently

used to convert biomass into energy are thermo-chemical and bio-chemical [4]

It should also be noted that in terms of the energy produced, or available, from a

biomass source, the maximum value is equivalent to the biomass CV i.e. as measured by


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combustion in air. While a given biomass source may be burnt in air, gasified, pyrolysed,

fermented, digested, or undergo mechanical extraction, the total energy available from the

resource is the same. In practice the actual amount of energy obtained and the form of that

energy will vary from one conversion process technology to another. [2]

Biomass also offers a key mechanism for the use of renewable energy in industrial

applications and has largely dominated the sector to date as far as renewables are

concerned. Though most often seen in applications where there is both a ready stream of

process waste materials and a considerable demand for heat and process steam - such as

bagasse from sugar mills or wood residues from the pulp and paper industries there is

evidence that technological developments are set to expand the use of bioenergy in

industrial settings. There are also opportunities for the chemical industry to utilise solid

biomass and liquid biofuels as industrial feedstocks for organic chemistry in the future. [7]

4.1Combustion

This is the simplest way to produce heat energy from biomass. The heat, often

in the form of steam, can be converted to electricity and/or it can be used for heating

houses and buildings. Technology used for combustion varies depending on the scale of

the plant. On a domestic scale wood stoves burn wood waste efficiently. For larger

industrial scale facilities such as wood processing industries or apartment complexes, the

use of a wood-fired boiler would be more appropriate to meet higher heat demands. Of

course, using combined heat and power (CHP) for such large-scale facilities would be the

most efficient method of producing energy (CHP facilities have efficiencies of over 85%).

Graph 2: Outlook for total EU demand for heating and cooling demand from solid and

gaseous Biomass.[21]


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4.2 Gasification

This is an advanced conversion process that offers a method of power

generation with higher efficiencies than combustion-based steam cycles. It is a process in

which biomass is converted to higher grade fuels prior to combustion. Basically biomass is

partially oxidised at high temperatures to produce biogas. This biogas contains a mixture of

carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane. The advantage of this process is that undesirable

particulate matter and pollutants are removed. A variety of gasification systems are

available e.g. fixed bed, fluidised bed gasifiers and pressurised gasifiers. Although not yet

demonstrated in places like Ireland, large-scale gasification of wood with subsequent use

of a gas turbine and combined cycle generating plants to produce electricity has been

demonstrated with success in Europe.

4.3 Pyrolysis

This is a means of converting solid organic material into a liquid biofuel by

heating at high temperatures in the absence of oxygen. The resulting pyrolytic or bio-oil

can be refined to products in a manner similar torefining crude oil and can be used for

electricity production in diesel engines. Pyrolysis oils are easy to transport and store.

However, some improvements in the properties of pyrolysis oils, followed by

standardization of the quality of oils, are needed for successful introduction to the

commercial market.


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5. OBSTACLES TO IMPLEMENTATION

Misconceptions can hinder development of biomass as a renewable energy source.

Demonstration of successful or best practice examples of biomass facilities will help to

build confidence.

The attitude of many electricity, heat and fuel supply industries to biomass

technologies is poor. These industries prefer to avoid risk, use familiar energy

technologies and maintain the status quo.

The following graph shows the demand that has been increasing and which must be

noted by major industries.

Graph 3: EU Biomass consumption in electricity, heating and transportation in the past and

estimates for the future.[21]

Initial capital costs of solid biofuel systems and the interest associated with these costs

are much higher than for liquid or gas fuelled systems. This can act as a significant

barrier to development of energy production from biomass.


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Uncertainty as to the availability of biomass resources e.g. farmers doubt the stability

of the biofuel market, resulting in a reluctance to change over to the production of

energy crops.

There is a need for an integrated biomass policy to incorporate the agricultural,

environmental, rural and transport sectors. Energy crops should be given the same

stability as conventional forestry and food crops and not used as part of set-aside to

counter surpluses in food production.

The low prices of fossil fuels make biomass fuels appear non-competitive. If biomass

technologies were to receive the same level of subsidies as fossil fuels this would

increase their cost competitiveness considerably.

Taxes on renewable energy systems. Value Added Taxes on renewable energy systems

and their components reduce the competitiveness of biomass technologies in relation to

fossil fuel technologies. In countries such as the Netherlands domestic consumers of

green energy pay a lower VAT rate, which enables renewable energy technologies to

compete well with fossil fuel technologies. The introduction of tax incentives such as

this, as well as the exemption of biomass-derived fuels from energy taxes will attract

investors.

Lack of subsidies for research, development and demonstration. Certain biomass

technologies e.g. anaerobic digestion are well established and therefore require support

for demonstration, while others are at an earlier stage of development e.g. growth of

Miscanthus as an energy crop and require support for research.

Lack of information, education and training, which is fundamental to overcoming all of

the above barriers.

However statistics can show that there has been a rise in the requirement and a

sustainability for various biofuels.


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Graph 4: Share of the Vegetable oils processed in the Netherlands in 2011 and 2012.[20]

6. TRANSPORTATION

Transport costs are largely a function of the distance travelled and the energy

density, e.g. MJ/m3, of the biomass being transported. In turn, the transport cost depends

also on the type of biomass and the form in which it is being transported e.g. chopped or

coppiced timber, compared with baled cereal straw.

Another example is for fuel delivered to a thermal power station operating on

biomass, indicates that road transport accounts for about 70% of the total delivered

biomass-fuel cost i.e. growing, harvesting and transport to the user end-point. The lowest

delivered cost is for cereal straw (as Hesston bales) at (dry matter), with forest fuel

systems costing between 32 and 37/t and SRC and Miscanthus at 47 and 54/t. [2]


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7. ECONOMICS

Biomass energy, when implemented appropriately, has the potential to offer a cost-

effective, low-carbon alternative to fossil fuels. With the financial support schemes like the

Renewable Heat Incentive biomass is an attractive investment opportunity for many people

looking to generate their own electricity on-site. When managed sustainably biomass fuel

can provide an economic incentive for the careful management of woodland biodiversity.

In comparison to fossil fuels, biomass is a renewable energy source that releases far less

atmospheric pollutants

Table 1: Market share of sustainability certification shemes for oils and fats in 2011 and

2012

Biomass energy production will increase in the next few years as a consequence of

the Kyoto Protocol, which has the main goal to reduce greenhouse gases [18] and because

of the opportunity to increase the relatively low profits of agricultural and forest sectors

through the development of renewable energy. In this context, a large scale introduction of

biomass energy could contribute to a socially, environmental and economically sustainable

development [6] and [7]. The cultivation of energy crops was also suggested by the

European Biofuels Technology Platform [8]


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Their analysis finds the business case for agricultural residues compelling,

concluding that compared with wood pellet co-firing, dedicated agricultural residue-fired

plants could save between EUR 15 million and EUR 63 million, before taking subsidies

into account.[8]

Over the last few years the global biomass trade have shown a slow growth due to

unfavorable global economic context. Many biomass commodities have experiences a

slump in trade volume in 2009, which however followed by a rebound in 2010. For

agricultural products, weather conditons also had an impact on the trade performance,

particularly maize and wheat.

Graph 5: EU imports in comparison with global trade of Wooden pellets, Biodiesel and

ethanol from 2008 to 2012.[20]

Note: Purple series = EU imports; Light Blue = other imports


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In the case of biomass based electricity in the EU, the carbon price appears as an

important driver, which can make profitable a high share of the potential biomass demand

from the power sector, even with high biomass prices. This aims to gain insights on how

biomass market may be impacted by the EU ETS and others climate policies.[14]

A study on the potential of biomass-based electricity in the EU countries, and

interactions with climate policy and the EU ETS was made. The CO2 abatement associated

with the co-firing opportunities in European coal plants was also calculated.

It was determined that the biomass demand from the power sector may be very high

compared with potential supply. Also determined was that co-firing can produce high

volumes of CO2 abatements, which may be two times larger than that of the coal-to-gas

fuel switching. When the biomass and CO2 breakeven prices for co-firing were calculated

it indicated that biomass-based electricity remains profitable with high biomass prices,

when the carbon price is high, [16].

By investigating the question of biomass usage in European electricity, and

interactions with climate policy and the EU ETS, estimates on the potential biomass

demand from existing power plants in the EU were made. This was matched to estimates

on the potential biomass supply, and thus the CO2 abatement from co-firing was derived.

This also allowed computing biomass and CO2 breakeven prices for co-firing. To date,

very few papers have investigated the question of how much biomass can be used in

European electricity. An estimate of the technical potential for biomass co-firing in Poland

was made, matching the potential biomass supply in Poland with estimated opportunities

for biomass co-firing in existing coal plants. [14]

The importance of bioenergy will continue to grow in Europe as it is one of the

cheapest renewable energy options, and one of few to supply continuous renewable heat

and power on a large scale. However, as the price of solid biomass increases, the search for

non-forestry alternative biomass options will continue to rise. [8]


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8. CONCLUSION

Biomass is an accepted form of renewable energy and is seen as a means of helping to

reduce global warming, by displacing the use of fossil fuels: up to 10% of the UK's

electricity needs is targeted to be generated from renewable forms of energy by 2010.

Renewable energy markets are projected to grow strongly in the coming decade and

beyond, led by policies such as European Commission 2020 Directives to Member

States, which are expected to accelerate the development of renewable heating for

example.[7]

Solid and gaseous biomass used for electricity, heating and cooling production is the

biggest source of renewable energy in the EU and is key to achieving the 2020

renewable energy targets and the EU long-term decarbonisation goals by 2050. [19]

The IEAs 2012 World Energy Outlook, projects that, by 2035, bioenergy use for

heating could grow by more than 60 percent. [7]

Energy policy will remain a key influence in the future development of bioenergy

markets. In particular, analysis such as REN-21s latest Global Financial Report

(GFR), [8] highlights a range of future policies to support renewable heating and

cooling in buildings as well those addressing the integration of variable output

renewables. Measures include the possible development of new market rules for

balancing services, demand response and other grid reliability services, which would

favor the development of controllable thermal generation, such as biomass.

Looking ahead, in a recent Aebiom forecast scenario, in 2020 the overall share of

renewable energy in Europe will have reached 20.7 percent, with biomass, including

transport, covering 56.5 percent of total energy.[7]

According to study about 4 Mt of CO2 can be abated each year in Poland through

biomass co-firing in coal plants.[14]

increasing competition for solid biomass, such as wood pellets, will create space for

relatively novel biomass sources to enter the market.


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It is arguable that the practical challenges of using agricultural residues such as straw

and stover will be overcome because their supply costs will be among the lowest.

Consequently agricultural residues may have an increasing role in the use and

potentially trade of biomass for energy by 2020. [8]

However it must be noted that a number of biomass pathways can lead to negligible or

negative GHG savings or other sustainability impacts. Further research and analysis is

therefore needed to assess the future role of such pathways in the EU energy sector and

to gain better information on overall biomass availability for the EU in the period post-

2020.[19]


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9. REFERENCE

1. http://www.seai.ie/Archive1/Files_Misc/REIOBiomassFactsheet.pdf

2. Energy production from biomass (part 1): Overview of biomass by Peter Mckendry

3. http://gmienergyexpert.wordpress.com/2013/03/13/how-sustainable-is-biomass-as-a-

renewable-energy-source/

4. Energy production from biomass (part 2): Conversion Technologies by Peter Mckendry

5. http://www.erec.org/fileadmin/erec_docs/Documents/Publications/Renewable_Energy_

Technology_Roadmap.pdf

6. Biomass Gasification with CHP Production. A Review of the State-of-the-Art

Technology and Near Future Perspectives by Goran G. Jankes, Marta R. Trnini,

Mirjana S. Stameni, Tomislav S. Simonovi, Nikola D. Tanasi, and Jerko M. Labus

7. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2014/02/burn-it-up-is-

biomass-about-to-go-bang

8. REN-21s latest Global Financial Report (GFR)

http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/activities/gfr/REN21_GFR_2013.pdf

9. E.A. Heaton, J. Clifton-Brown, T.B. Voigt, M.B. Jones, S.P. Long Miscanthus for

renewable energy generation: European union experience and projections for Illinois

Mitig Adapt Strat Gl, 9 (2003), pp. 433451

10. C.N. Hamelinck, R.A.A. Suurs, A.P.C. Faaij International bioenergy transport costs

and energy balance Biomass Bioenergy, 29 (2) (2005), pp. 114134

11. D. Anderson, J.P. Holdren, M. Jefferson, E. Jochem, N. Nakicenovic, K.N. Amulya

Energy and the challenge of sustainability. Word energy assessment UNDP/UN-

DESA/WEC (2000), p. 508 New York

12. European Biofuels Technology Platform Strategic research agenda & strategy

deployment document CPL Press, Newbury (2008)

13. Energy characterization of herbaceous biomasses irrigated with marginal waters


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Giovanni Molari, Mirco Milani, Attilio Toscano, Maurizio Borin, Giuseppe

Taglioli, Giulia Villani, Demetrio Antonio Zema

14. Biomass for electricity in the EU-27: Potential demand, CO2abatements and breakeven

prices for co-firing Vincent Bertranda, b,

, Benjamin Dequiedta, Elodie Le Cadre

(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421514003796 )

15. Le Cadre, E., Lantz, F., and Farnoosh, A., 2011. Bioenergies Usages in Electricity

Generation Utility Means through a Modeling Approach: An Application to the French

Case. Working Paper. IFP Energies Nouvelles.

16. Innovative biomass to power conversion systems based on cascaded supercritical

CO2 Brayton cycles.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953414003493

17. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs141p2_023114.pdf

18. Kyoto protocol to the United Nations framework convention on climate change

http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf

19. http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/bioenergy/doc/2014_biomass_state_of_play_.p

20. http://www.bioenergytrade.org/downloads/iea-task-40-country-report-2013-nl.pdf

21. http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/bioenergy/doc/2014_biomass_state_of_play_.pdf