A2 GEOGRAPHY REVISION GUIDE

EDEXCEL B

Topic 1: Energy Insecurity

What do I need to know? How energy sources can be classified and the advantages and disadvantages of these

Reasons for global variations in energy access and consumption

Factors effecting energy security – California Case Study

Impact of growing global energy demand e.g. China case Study

Impact of geopolitics on energy security

Energy pathways problems with these – Trans-Siberian Pipeline

How energy supplies can be disrupted e.g. Russia

Environment impacts of looking for more energy e.g. Tar Sands in Canada, Arctic Oil

Who they key players are in supplying future oil – OPEC, TNCs - Gazprom

Why we are uncertain about the future of energy

The advantages and disadvantages of the possible futures

How energy insecurity will lead to geopolitical tensions e.g. USA involvement in Middle East,

China and India

How can meet our future energy needs?

Key TermsEnergy Pathways Supply routes between energy producers and consumers e.g. pipelines or shipping

routesEnergy Poverty When a country or region has insufficient access to reliable sources of powerEnergy Security This is vital to the functioning of any economy – any country that is self-sufficient in

energy resources will be secure Energy surplus When a country or region has more than enough sources of power for its needs

and is able to export its surplus power to other countriesGeopolitics Political relations among nations, particularly relating to claims and disputes

regarding boarders and resourcesLow-carbon standard Initiative introduced in California in 2007 aimed to reducing the carbon intensity of

transportation fuel by 10% by 2020OPEC The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries e.g. Iran, Iraq, KuwaitPeak Oil The year in which the world or an individual oil-producing country reaches its

highest level of production, production declines afterSecurity Premium The extra cost built into the price of oil to allow for any disruption in supplyStrategic Something that is done as part of a plan that is meant to achieve a particular

purpose or to gain an advantageSupply shock A significant interruption to supply due to an environmental, economic or political

eventTar Sands Naturally occurring mixtures of sand or clay, water and dense form of petroleum

called bitumenEnergy crisis A serious shortage of energy which interrupts domestic supplies and impacts on all

sectors of the economyEnvironmental impact assessment

Details all of the impacts on the environment of an energy type or another project above a certain size

Fossil fuels Fuels consisting of hydrocarbons (coal, oil and natural gas) formed by the decomposition of prehistoric organisms

Renewable resources Sources of energy such as solar and wind power that are not depleted as they are used

Strategic Petroleum Reserve

The USA’s reserve supply of oil which should last for about 3 months in the event of severe interruptions to imported oil

Energy infrastructure The built environment constructed for the exploration, development and production of energy, and all the networks

Energy TNCs Transnational corporations that specialise in the exploration, development, production and sale of energy products

Resource nationalisation

When a country decides to place part or all of one or a number of natural resources e.g. oil under state ownership

Carbon credit A permit that allows an organisation to emit a specified amount of greenhouse gases

Carbon Trading A company that does not use up the level of emissions it is entitled to can sell the remainder to another company

Coal gasification A process which converts solid coal into a gas that can be used for power generation

Green taxation Taxes levied to discourage behaviour that will be harmful to the environmentMicrogeneration Generators producing electricity with an output of less than 50KW

How energy sources can be classified and the advantages and disadvantages of theseThe main way to classify energy is between renewable, non-renewable and recyclable sources

Renewable = can be used over and over again e.g. wind and solar power (also known as FLOW

RESOURCES)

Non-renewable = these are finite resources so as they are used up the stock that remains behind is

reduced (also known as STOCK RESOURCES)

Recyclable resources = fuel that has been used once can be used again to generate power e.g. nuclear

reprocessing can make uranium waste reusable

Energy source Type IssuesCoal Non-renewable Releases large amounts of Co2 contributing to

climate change e.g. 2 billion tonnes from USA plants per year

Carbon capture technology to remove Co2 is unproven

Natural Gas Non-renewable Releases Co2 on use Issues of security of supply

Nuclear Non-renewable (may be recyclable)

Health risks and accidents e.g. Chernobyl Disposal of radioactive material an issue

Oil Non-renewable Global supplies may have reached their peak Release Co2 when burnt

Solar Renewable Availability varies across the globe Expensive compared with fossil fuels

Tidal Renewable Only certain locations suitable Technology for large-scale generation unproven

Wind Renewable Only certain locations suitable Wind energy is variable so hard to manage power

supplyBiomass Renewable Acts as a carbon sink so combustion releases

carbon dioxide Limited potential for large sale generation

Geothermal Renewable Availability limited to a few locations e.g. IcelandHydro-electricity Renewable and recyclable Large scale schemes are expensive

Dam building creates wide scale flooding

OIL:In 2007 the Middle East = 30.8% of oil productionN. America = 16.5%Saudi Arabia dominates production 12.6% of world’s totalRussia accounts for over ½ of production for Europe and Eurasia

COAL:China produced 41.1% of global coal in 2007 USA produces 18.7%

NATURAL GAS:Russia and USA produce 40% of world’s total

WINDGermany world leader at 23.6%Germany, USA and Spain account for 58% globally

HEP:China, Canada, Brazil and USA account for 46% of global total

Reasons for global variations in energy access and

consumptionDistribution of energy reserves:

Why energy supply varies:

1) Physical: Deposits of fossil fuels are only found in a limited number of places Solar power needs a large number of days a year with strong sunlight Large power stations require flat land and stable foundations

2) Economic Onshore deposits of oil and gas are cheaper to develop then offshore deposits In poor countries foreign direct investment is essential to develop energy resources Most accessible and low cost deposits of fossil fuels are developed first

3) Political Countries wanting to develop nuclear power need to gain permission from the International

Atomic Energy Agency International agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol can influence energy decisions HEP schemes on ‘international’ rivers require the agreement of all countries that share the

river

Energy consumption

It is important to note that the use of energy in all countries has changed over time due to:

Technological developments nuclear power only been available since 1954

Increasing national wealth incomes increase resulting in increasing use of energy

Changes in demand Britain’s trains were powered by coal

Changes in price Electricity production in UK switched from coal to gas power stations are they

are cheaper to run

Environmental factors/public opinion can influence decisions made by governments

Factors effecting energy security

Energy security has a number of risks:1) Physical – exhaustion of reserves or disruption of supply lines2) Environmental – Protests about environmental change caused by exploitation of energy resources3) Economic – sudden rises in costs of energy forcing increased imports of higher-priced energy4) Geopolitical – political instability in energy-producing regions

The energy security of a country can be measured using the ‘Energy Security Index’ (ESI). This is based upon:- Availability – the amount of a country’s domestic oil and gas supplies and its level of reliance on imported resources

MEDCs: The USA shows huge demands

for energy resources Germany and UK have improved

their energy efficiency resulting in a modest increase in demand compared with NICs

NICs: China accounts for

1/3rd of the growth in global oil demand since 2000

Demand for oil in China is expected to rise by 5-7% year

Developing Countries: Most are struggling to pay for their energy

requirements Energy demand is influenced by rate of

economic development and rate of population growth

In the world 2 billion people lack access to household electricity

Traditional biomass in these countries accounts for 90% of total energy consumption

- Diversity – the range of energy resources used- Intensity – the degree to which the economy of a country is dependent on oil and gasThe higher the index, the lower the risk and therefore the greater the energy security

Case Study: Energy Security Issues: California Case Study

Facts: Largest state in the USA Lowest per capita energy consumption rate in the USA due to mild weather 16% of USA oil reserves, but only 3% of gas reserves Produces 5% of USA total electricity More motor vehicles that any other state

Why is the USA in energy crisis?

1) Consumption In 2007 USA consumed 23.8% of the world’s oil2) Reliance on imports Between 1960 and 2003 USA’s reliance on imported gas and oil increased

by 18% to 58% 9/11 terrorist attack highlight concerns on dependence on imports from the Middle East

3) Price In 2006 the price of oil had risen from $20 to $60 per barrel . In 2008 the oil was $140

4) Reserves of fossil fuels are being to run out reserves should last for between 40-65 years5) Global sources of energy are unevenly distributed most are concentrated in politically unstable

parts of the world6) Demand for energy is increasing the growth of economies in China and India has meant more

competition for resources

So why is California suffering an energy crisis?Due to the fact that the US energy market is privatised the market is driven by the desire to make most profit. Between June 2000 and May 2001 California experienced a series of blackouts due to various factors:

a. The weather: 2000 was the 3rd years of drought so less surplus energy due to lack of hydro-electricity from

surrounding states Summer was very hot so increased demand for air-conditioning Winter was unusually cold so increased need for heating

b. Insufficient generating capacity strong anti-pollution laws in the 1970s meant energy companies were unwilling to build new power stations that were expensive

c. Limited capacity of power lines to important more electricityd. Eron used supply and demand to ensure energy prices remained high enough when supply was

good

Therefore the two major power companies in California were forced to shut off electricity supplies to conserve limited stocks

Impact of growing global energy demand e.g. China case

StudyBackground:

In 2001, China accounted for 10% of global energy demand, in 2007 it was 15% Per capita energy demand is still relatively small due to its huge population (e.g. 2006 consumed less

than 7 million barrels/day a 1/3rd of USA) Controls 3% of world oil reserves (enabled China to be self-sufficient until 1995)

Causes of rising demand:1. Since 1949 China has been a communist country separate from the rest of the world, however in

1986 the government developed an ‘Open-Door Policy’ to overseas investment.2. 1990s became more of a capitalist economy allowing individuals to accumulate wealth = still not a

free-market economy as most companies are state owned (LINK TO SUPERPOWER UNIT)3. Rising energy demand is due to both economic growth and the demands of the new industry but

also rapid urbanisation and growing car ownership Rural-urban migration in China is 8.5 million people per year (45million expected to move to

the cities by 2012) Car ownership to grow from 16 cars per 1000 people in 2002, to 267 cars per 1000 people in

2030 (by 2020 expected to have 140 million private cars on the road) Only uses 10% of its energy for transport currently but will need huge amounts in the future

Where does the energy come from?Coal – Relies on coal for 70% of its electricity generation and the huge demand means China is building on average 3 coal-fired power stations a week. Creates environmental problems for them e.g. Beijing Olympics. Majority of the coal is located in the north and west, whilst industry is located in the south and east.HEP – Accounts for 16% of china’s energy production e.g. Three Gorges Dam and China aims to build HEP dams on all of its major riversOil – Oil production has now peaked and exploration into offshore fields has begun, however territorial disagreements in the South China Sea is making this difficult importing more oil

Future:China’s energy security problems matter to the rest of the world due to its size and the impact that an increase in demand would have on everyone else. However is energy dependency is only 12% compared with USA of 40% and Japan of 80%.

Potential Exam Question: Discuss how far economic development can be affected by energy security (15 marks)

Impact of geopolitics on energy securityEnergy security demands on resource availability, both domestic and foreign, and security of supply. It can be affected by geopolitics because there is little excess capacity to ease pressure on energy supplies if supply becomes disrupted. For example, following the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, the Arab nations reduced the supply of oil to the USA and Western Europe to reduce their support for Israel – this created a serious energy shortage.

Since then in 1977 the USA construction a ‘Strategic Petroleum Reserve’ with the initial aim to store 1 billion barrels of oil which could be used in the event of supply issues.

Energy pathways problems with these Energy pathways between producers and consumers highlight the considerable levels of risk involved in the energy industry.

Patterns:Oil has a complex global pattern of PATHWAYS and PLAYERS (exporters and importers). The Middle East exports around 15 000 barrels per day, mainly to Japan, Europe and CHINA. Substantial amounts flow from Africa, Canada and South and Central America TO the USA. Russia supplies some oil to CHINA, but the bulk of its exports now head to Europe.

Gas pathways are different in that they tend to be localised and regional rather than global.Traditionally gas is transported through pipelines, whereas oil has been transported by ship.A possible future is that as movement through pipeline becomes less dependable (for political reasons); there will be a switch towards shipping gas in tankers as LNG.

Physical and human causes of disruption: Long running tensions in the Middle East e.g. destruction of oil wells during Iraq war consumed

6 million barrels of oil a day for 8 months Hurricane Katrina in 2005 affecting oil production and refining in the Gulf of Mexico causing oil

and petrol prices to rise In 2005 – explosions and fires at Buncefield Oil Storage Depot destroyed fuel worth £10 million.

It supplies Heathrow and as a result had to ration fuel 2006 and 2008 disputes between Russian and Ukraine disrupted gas supplies to Western

Europe.

Trans-Siberian Pipeline

The pipeline project was proposed in 1978 as an export pipeline from Russia to Europe. The pipeline was constructed in 1982-1984. The pipeline runs from Siberia's gas field to Uzhgorod in Western Ukraine. From there, the natural gas is transported to Central and Western European countries. Trans-Alaskan pipeline crosses 3 mountain ranges and several large rivers. In these areas there are issues of permafrost and to avoid this pipelines are build above ground

How energy supplies can be disrupted e.g. Russia Background:• Tensions between Russia and Ukraine have been high

since 2004, when pro-Western forces led by President Viktor Yushchenko won control of the government over Viktor Yanukovych, a Moscow ally. Russia also opposes Ukraine’s desire to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the EU.

• The EU gets a quarter of its gas supplies from Russia - 80% of which passes through Ukraine

What sparked the crisis?

• Ukraine and Russia have faced negotiations over the renewal of gas supply contracts every year, but by midnight on 31 December 2008 they had failed to agree on the price Kiev should pay in 2009.

• This has happened 3 times before but this year, gas supplies were completely halted from 7 January, after Russia accused Ukraine of siphoning off gas meant for European customers, leaving more than a dozen countries without their expected supplies of Russian gas.

• The European Union called the supply cut "completely unacceptable", demanded immediate restoration and entered into shuttle diplomacy between Kiev and Moscow.

• A deal reached on 12 January, whereby EU and Russian observers would monitor supplies across Ukraine collapsed within hours. The EU said both sides had failed to meet its terms.

• The two countries also failed to agree on a price Russia would pay Ukraine for gas transit to Europe.

Impacts:• Some, like Bulgaria, Serbia and Bosnia, are almost completely dependent on supplies via Ukraine and

so were left with major shortages, during a very cold spell in Europe.

• In the meantime European countries had to shut down industrial plants and domestic heating systems, find alternative sources of gas or switch energy plants to oil. Schools were shut and people had to revert to using log fires to heat their homes.

Europe’s energy security – should they be worried?

Yes: The amount of gas Russia supplies to Europe means that any disruptions have large-scale impacts

No:Even during the Cold war the supply of Russian gas was stable and the Europe is now looking to enhance its energy security through:

• Reducing its dependence on Russia—building of the South Caucasus pipeline supplying gas from Azerbaijan via Turkey, bypassing Russian territory altogether

• Press Russia and Ukraine to sign long-term contracts, with accepted pricing formulae, similar to those that Gazprom already has with most EU countries.

• Diversify its sources of energy, something that it must do anyway if it is to meet its ambitious climate-change targets.

Potential Exam Question: Russia uses its oil and gas as a political and economic weapon. Discuss

Environment impacts of looking for more energy

Tar Sands in CanadaThis place contains up to 2.5 trillion barrels of oil – that is more than Saudi Arabia’s reserves

Oil sands are made of sand, water and a hydrocarbon tar called bitumen. Since the rising oil prices and technological advances they have now become more feasible to extract.

Alberta’s tar sands produced a million barrels of oil a day in 2003 and expected to reach 3.5 million a day by 2011. By 2030 they aim to produce at least 5 million a day and export the surplus.

Problems: Oil in the shale is not easily separated out so immense amount of heat is needed usually through

burning natural gas

Process uses huge amounts of water e.g. every barrel of oil produced requires 4 barrels of water. The water then also becomes polluted where is can damage ecosystems

Issue of disposing of the shale once the oil has been removed Very expensive and only viable when oil costs over $30 a barrel (costs $15 per barrel compared

with $2 for convectional crude oil) Processes tar sands are a large source of greenhouse gas emissions 470km2 of forest have been removed and lakes of toxic waste cover 130km2

Benefits: Alternative source of oil during times of political or access issues By 2030 the tar sands could meet 16% of North America’s demand for oil ENERGY SECURITY Provide additional source of energy until more renewable sources can be found Mining companies are required to replant land disturbed by mining Oil is vital to Canada’s economy (2007= 20% of exports)

Players involved:1. Canada and Venezuela (countries containing Tar Sands2. TNCs e.g. Shell and BP3. Alberta Energy Research Institute 4. Environmental groups e.g. Greenpeace5. Local people (those employed by the companies or those affected by pollution)

Arctic Oil This place is estimated to contain up to 25% of the world’s undiscovered oil and natural gas. Issue regarding who can lay claim to which parts of the ocean – Russia has claimed nearly half of the Arctic but other interested parties e.g. USA, Norway failed to uphold their claim.

Problems: Oil companies have already destroyed large parts of

Alaska and Siberia so should be kept out of the Arctic New oil rush in the Arctic is only possible because of the

increased shrinking of the polar ice cap due to global warming

The Arctic is a pristine environment containing over 45 species of land and marine animals

Issue over who has the right to claim ownership of the natural resources – countries who have been conflicting over this have now agreed to sign the UN Law of the Sea Convection stating the 8 Arctic states are allowing to exploit offshore resources within 200 nautical miles of their territory

Benefits: At around $70 per barrel it makes drilling in the Arctic viable. (2007 prices reached $100). Contains up to 25% of the world’s undiscovered oil and natural gas

Players involved:1. Arctic States – USA, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Iceland2. UN – will decide the control of the Arctic by 20203. Local people4. Environmental Pressure groups

Who they key players are in supplying future oil Energy TNCs e.g. Shell

Historically the energy industries have been dominated by large TNCs such as Shell but the power of the TNCs has been challenged by OPEC and recently national energy companies. This is due to the fact that TNCs have come under attack from environmental groups and companies like BP have worked hard to establish a positive public image through investments in renewable energies.

Shell consists of a global group of energy and petrochemicals companies with a strategy to reinforce their position as a leader in the oil and gas industry in order. One of their focuses has been to explore for new oil and gas reserves.

Key Facts: Produce 2% amount of world’s oil Produce 3% amount of world’s gas 3.1 million barrels of gas and oil every day $2 billion spent on CO2 and renewable energy technologies over the last 5 years.  In 2009 greenhouse gas emissions were approximately 35% below 1990 levels.

OPEC

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a permanent intergovernmental organization of 12 oil-exporting developing nations

OPEC was formed in 1960 to protect the interests of oil-producing companies and have formed what some view as a CARTEL. Its sets oil production quotas for its members in response to economic growth rates and demand-and-supply conditions. It therefore aims to ensure fair and stable prices for its members.

At the end of 2006, the OPEC members had over 78% of the world’s total oil reserves and they produce around 45% of the world’s crude oil and 18% of its natural gas.

OPEC is criticised that it controls the price of oil as it is worried that increasing the supply of oil would mean investors would stop investing causing a collapse in the price.

Why we are uncertain about the future of energy It is hard to predict energy demand as it is strongly affected by economic growth rates, conservation of resources and the pace at which the world can switch to renewable sources of power. It is thought that world oil demand will grow by 32% by 2020 and global gas demand by 48%.

The issue of Peak Oil:The International Energy Agency predicted peak oil production to occur between 2013 and 2037, whilst USA Geological Survey predicted it is at least 50 years away.

The advantages and disadvantages of the possible futures

Business as usual If we do nothing forecasts predict that by 2030:

Global primary energy demand will rise by 53% Fossil fuels will remain the dominant source of energy worldwide Emissions from electricity generation will account for 44% of energy-related emissions Over 70% increase in the energy demand will come from developing countries due to rapid

economic growth and population growth

Nuclear By 2008, 439 nuclear reactors were supplying 15% of the world’s electricity Does not produce greenhouse gas emissions Uranium is relatively cheap to mine and reserves should last around 150 years Very cost effective to transport as only used in small quantities Produces 1% of global electricity supply 1986 Chernobyl incident highlights the issues Very expensive to build – several billion pounds Nuclear waste disposal is an issue as it remains radioactive for 10,000 years

Renewable energy with the emphasis on wind power Costs of generating wind today are about 10% of what they were 20 years ago In some areas first generation wind turbines are being replaced with modern turbines which give

better performance NIMBY – people are concerned that the turbines could blight their homes and views Turbines can kill birds Suitable areas are often near the coast where land is expensive

Global energy Uncertainity

The scale of the possible switch to renewable

energies

Discovery of new energy technolgies

Size of undiscovered oil and gas reserves

Impact of rising living standards Scale of global

population growth

Future performance of the global

economy

Emergent economies'

energy demands

Energy Conservation

a) Combined Heat and Power (CHP) power stations waste 65% of the heat they generate but CHP

plants can be up to 95% efficient as they can use different fuels in the same boiler including

biomass but also cut emissions and reduce fuel dependency

b) Green Taxation aimed at cutting the use of natural resources and encouraging recycling. E.g.

road tax increase in 2010 will see 9.4 million motorists pay more road tax aimed to punishing

heaviest polluting cars. The government will receive more that £1billion in additional revenue.

How energy insecurity will lead to geopolitical tensions

USA Involvement in the Middle EastIn March 2003 USA and allied forces invaded Iraq (4th largest oil reserves in the world); the then leader was considered to pose a threat to the security of Western oil supplies in the Middle East as he was making deals with Russian and Chinese oil companies. Before the invasion the USA put pressure on Iraq to admit it had stockpiled weapons of mass destructions or faces military action. The USA goal in invading Iraq was to reduce its dependence on Saudi Arabia for oil and increase its energy security by introducing a new supplier, Iraq. The USA hoped that its involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan would democratise the Middle East. However, America is excluded from deals between Russia, China and Iran and is fighting hard to secure oil by means of energy pathways running through friendly countries.

China vs. India India’s demand for energy has grown due to high economic growth rates, lack of energy-efficient technologies, reliance on heavy industry and widespread power stealing. In 2005 oil imports accounted for 2/3rds of India’s oil consumption and China is seen to be much more energy secure than India. In terms of investment India is also behind with only $3.5nillion in overseas exploration compared with $40 billion made by China. Various policies have been introduced:

India will have to rely on imported oil and gas in the short term required increased diplomacy with South Asia etc

Investing in offshore gas fields in VietnamHowever, India has strained relations with energy suppliers and the countries that the supplies have to pass through.

How can meet our future energy needs?Emissions controls – Kyoto Protocol adopted in 1997 aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Countries are required to achieve specific reductions in their greenhouse emissions (average of 5% against 1990 levels by 2012). The USA refused to signEmissions trading – EU emission Trading Scheme meant that heavy industrial plants have to buy permits to emit greenhouse gases over the limit they are allowed by government. Under the Kyoto Protcol carbon emissions are now tracked and traded like a commodity so that any excess reductions can be sold in the ‘carbon market’Green taxes – Taxes on individuals for using air transport and pollution charges on companies. Other ideas are aimed to reduce energy consumption such as removing stamp duty on carbon neutral homesOffshore wind turbines – Building offshore costs at least 50% more than on land but wind speeds are generally double those on land so they can generate more electricity.Carbon storage – this involves capturing the carbon dioxide released by burning coal and burying it deep underground, but it is not proved that the carbon dioxide will actually stay underground and it is very expensive.

Geothermal – In the Philippines 25% of the electricity is generated from underground heat which is free and available all day. However, the heat is often too deep to be economical.Bio fuels – algae – There are 3 main types; crops e.g. grasses, sugar, trees and algae. Algae are hard to grow but produce oil that requires less refining before it becomes a bio fuel.

What types of questions have been asked?Study Figure 1.(Explain why oil exploration in the areas shown could lead to high economic and environmental costs. (10)

Assess the relative importance of named players in the global supply of energy. (15)

The development of alternative energy sources is a possible response to future energy demands. Assess the possible costs and benefits of this approach. (15)

Explain how the world price of oil has a major impact on oil exploration by TNCs and governments (10)

Assess the potential environmental, economic and political risks in exploiting new energy resources (15)

Suggest how the contrasting distribution/pattern of major oil exporters and importers shown in Figure 1 could affect the energy security of some nations. (10)

Study Figure 1.Suggest the possible environmental consequences of the changes in electricity consumption shown. (10 marks)

Assess the degree of uncertainty over future global sources of energy supply (15 marks)

Topic 2: Water Conflicts

What do I need to know? Physical factors affecting water supply – Climate, river systems and Geology Example of

California to support How water stress can occur – Agriculture, Industry, Domestic use and supply Examples of

China and India to support 3 How Human activity can make water stress worse – pollution, over extraction and salt water

incursion How water supply is linked to development Water Poverty Index – examples of Canada and

Ethiopia Aral Sea case study – role of different key players here and impacts Conflicts over the same water source – examples of Middle East, Ganges and Nile Geopolitics of water supply within a country – example of Colorado River Basin USA and

Helsinki Rules What water future are going to be How different key players opinions on future water usage may conflict Dams as a solution – example of 3 Gorges Dam, China. Impacts of these Water transfer schemes as a solution. Learn the pros and cons of 2 of China transfer, Ebro

River, Snowy Mountain or Turkey to Israel How Restoration can solve the problems – example of River Kissimmee and Aral sea Role of Water Aid ( NGO) in solving problems How we can conserve water Role of technology in solving future problems e.g. desalinisation, drip irrigation, GM crops

Key TermsAquifer A rock, such as chalk, which will hold water and let it throughArid and semi-arid Describe conditions where rainfall is less than 250mm and 500mm of precipitation

per year respectivelyDesalination The conversion of salt water into fresh water Drought An extended period of abnormally dry weather that causes water shortages and crop

damage. A drought starts when total rainfall is well below average for several months.

El Nino A southerly warm ocean current, which develops off the coast of Ecuador, it is associated with major variations in tropical climates

Groundwater All water found under the surface of the ground which is not chemically combined with any minerals present, but not including underground streams

High pressure A region of high atmospheric pressure, otherwise known as an anticycloneInfiltration The process of the water entering rocks or soilIrrigation The supply of water to the land by means of channels, streams and sprinklers in

order to permit the growth of cropsLa Nina An extensive cooling of the central and eastern Pacific. Globally La Nina means that

parts of the world that normally experience dry weather will be drier and those with wet weather will be wetter.

Percolation The filtering of water downwards through soil and through bedding planes, joints and pores of a permeable rock

Potential Evapotranspiration

The amount of evaporation and transpiration that can occur given a sufficient supply of water

Precipitation The deposition of moisture from the atmosphere onto the Earth’s surface in form of rain, hail, snow, frost or sleet

Prevailing Most frequent, most commonPrivatisation The sale of a business/industry so that it is no longer owned by the governmentRain shadow An area of relatively low rainfall to the lee side of uplands (sheltered from winds).

The incoming air has been forced to rise over the highlands causing precipitation on the windward side

Relief Rainfall This forms when moisture-laden air masses are forced to rise over ground. The air is cooled, the water vapour condenses, and precipitation occurs

Riparian Relating to a river bank. Owners of land crossed or bounded by a river have ‘riparian’ rights to use the river

Spatial imbalance The uneven distribution/location across a landscape or surface of e.g. populationStream flow The flow of water in streams, rivers and other channels.Surface runoff The movement of over ground of rainwater. It occurs when the rainfall is very heavy

and when the rocks and soil can absorb no moreUrbanisation The migration of rural populations into towns and cities.Virtual water The amount of water used in the production of a good or serviceWater rights The legal right of a user to use water from a water source e.g. a riverWater Scarcity Can be divided into ‘apparent scarcity’ which exists when there is plenty of water but

it is used wastefully, and ‘real scarcity’ which is caused by insufficient rainfall or too many people relying on a limited resource

Water Stress Measured as annual water supplies below 1,700m3 per personWater wars International conflict as a result of pressure on water supplies.World Water Gap The difference between those people, who live in water poverty and those who have

ready and reliable access to water for drinking and sanitation

Physical factors affecting water supply – Climate, river systems and Geology

Climate

Regions near the equator recieve high levels of annual

precipitation Equatorial areas such as

Amazon have 2 distinct period of wet weather per year

Monsoon areas of Asia have 1 very wet season

River systems

The world's major rivers store large quantiies of water and transfer it across continents.River flow increases downstream as more tributatries feed into the main river

Geology

where rocks underlying a river basin are impermeable water will remain on the surface creating a high drainage densityAquifers can store huge amounts of water underground

Case Study: Factors affecting California’s water supplyGeographical Controls on water supply: Mountain chains run parallel to the coast and prevent moist air reaching inland Most rainfall falls in a coastal zone no more than 250km wide South and far east of California receive under 100mm of rainfall due to the rain shadow cast by the

Sierra Nevada mountains High pressure systems over the Pacific ocean block moist air currents reaching southern California Most of the major rivers are fed by snowmelt from the Sierra Nevada Mountains. In recent years extended droughts have meant groundwater and surface storage levels have decreased

Threats:a) Precipitation

Much of California is arid with annual average precipitation of between 200-500mm 65% of precipitation is lost through Evapotranspiration, 13% flows out to sea = only 22% for

human use 50% of the rain falls between November and March = seasonal shortages

b) Population Has grown from 2 million people in 1900 to 37.7 million in 2007 Spatial imbalance as three quarters of demand for water comes from areas south of the

Sacramento – 75% of the rain falls to the north Increasing demands for water exceed natural supplies

How water stress can occur – Agriculture, Industry, Domestic use and supply Water stress occurs when demand for water exceeds the amount available during a certain period, or when poor quality restricts its use. Therefore when a country’s water consumption is more than 10% of its renewable freshwater rate it is said to be water stressed.

During the 20th Century water consumption has increased by 600% due to population growth and economic development:

Farming uses 70% of all water and in LEDCs this is up to 90% Industrial and domestic use has to compete with farming needs as a country develops Daily domestic water use on average is 47 litres per person in Africa, compared with 578 litres in

the USA

This has lead to the development of a world water gap with 1.4 billion lacking clean drinking water and 12% of the world’s population consuming 85% of the world’s water.

Agriculture some forms of farming are less water efficient than others e.g. a kg of beef is 10x more water costly to produce then a kg of rice. 17% of the global area used for growing crops is irrigated.

Industry 21% used for industry but rapid growth expected since the development of countries such as India and China. Industry is generally a more efficient user of water then farming.

Domestic Only 10% of world’s water is used for this purpose but this varies from country to country. Domestic demand seems to be doubling every 20 years.

Named Examples: India vs. ChinaIndia

4% of the world’s freshwater but 16% of the population Demand will exceed supply by 2020 Water tables are falling rapidly as 21 million wells are used

China 8% of the world’s freshwater but 22% of the population 2/3rds of cities do not have enough water all year round Stress levels expected to occur by 2030 Annual population growth rate is about 2.5% in Beijing Water table has been lowered in some areas by 40m

How Human activity can make water stress worse – pollution, over extraction and salt water incursion Key factors:a) Sewage disposal in developing countries is expected to cause 135 million deaths by 2020. In the UK

we add 1,400 million litres of sewage to our rivers daily although most of it has been treatedb) Chemical fertilisers contaminate groundwater as well as river and water supplies. These add nutrients

to the water leading to an increase in the growth of algae downstream.c) Industrial waste – every year the world generate 400 billion tonnes of industrial waste which is pumped

untreated into rivers, seas etc.d) Dams – trap sediment in reservoirs which reduces floodplain fertility and the flow of nutrient from rivers

into seas.e) Abstraction – removing water from rivers and groundwater sources can cause issues that in some arid

areas rainfall can never recharge these underground stores and the removal of freshwater from aquifers in coastal locations can lead to salt water incursion.

How water supply is linked to development Water Poverty Index Water insecurity means not having access to sufficient, safe water. Around 20 developing countries are classified as ‘water scarce’. Water scarcity occurs for 2 main reasons:

1) Physical scarcity – shortages occur because demand exceeds supply2) Economic scarcity - people cannot afford water, even when it is readily available

The Water Poverty Index was established in 2002 and uses 5 parameters: Resources – the quantity of surface and groundwater per person, and its quality Access – the time and distance involved in obtaining sufficient and safe water Capacity – how well the community manages its water Use – how economically water is used in the home and by agriculture and industry Environment – ecological sustainability (green water –freshwater taken from rainwater stores in the

soil as soil moisture)Each of these is scored out of 20 to give a maximum of 100

How water links to poverty:

Lack of water hampers attempts to reduce poverty and encourage development. Improved water supply can increase food production, bring better health and provide better standards of wellbeing.

Named Examples: Canada vs. EthiopiaThese 2 countries are at the opposite ends of the spectrum when looking at water and development.

Canada Ethiopia Each household uses 800 litres per person

per day Water used for lawns, parks and swimming

pools Issues of rising water bills and leakages Water poverty index = 78 Water use agricultural = 12% Water use industrial = 69% Water use domestic = 20% GNI ($ per person) = 33,170 Population in 2000 (millions) = 30

Each person uses 1 litre per day Water is fetched daily from a shared source Issues of water shortages, pollution and risk

of disease Water poverty index = 45 Water use agricultural = 93% Water use industrial = 6% Water use domestic = 1% GNI ($ per person) = 170 Population in 2000 (millions) = 62.9

What problems can the use of water sources create?Secure water supplies are needed to support irrigation and food production, manufacturing and energy generation. However the use of water resources can lead to various problems. E.g. the depletion of underground aquifers and salinisation of the soil.

Aral Sea case study – role of different key players here and impacts Location: north-western part of Uzbekistan and southern KazakhstanBackground: Formerly, one of the four largest lakes of the world with an area of 68,000 square kilometers, the Aral Sea has been steadily shrinking since the 1960s.

Causes: In the early 1960's, the Soviet central government decided to make the Soviet Union self-sufficient in cotton and increase rice production. Government officials ordered the additional amount of needed water to be taken from the two rivers that feed the Aral Sea. Large dams were built across both rivers, and an 850-mile central canal with a far-reaching system of "feeder" canals was created.

Impacts:

1) Over 30 years, the Aral Sea experienced a severe drop in water level, its shoreline receded, and its salt content increased. The water level has dropped by 16 metres and the volume has been reduced by 75%

2) The marine environment became hostile to the sea life in it, killing the plants and animals. As the marine life died, the fishing industry suffered. All 20 known fish species in the Aral Sea are now extinct, unable to survive the toxic, salty sludge.

3) The sea has shrunk to two-fifths of its original size and now ranks about 10th in the world.4) Drinking water supplies have dwindled, and the water is contaminated with pesticides and other

agricultural chemicals as well as bacteria and viruses. 5) Highly toxic pesticides and other harmful chemicals are blown from the dried-up sea creating dust

containing these toxic chemicals. 6) As the Aral Sea has lost water, the climate has become more extreme.

7) Respiratory illnesses including tuberculosis and cancer, digestive disorders and infectious diseases are common ailments in the region.

8) There is a high child mortality rate of 75 in every 1,000 newborns and maternity death of 12 in every 1,000 women.

9) The Aral Sea fishing industry, which use to employ 40,000 and reportedly produced one-sixth of the Soviet Union's entire fish catch, has been ruined

The stakeholders involved: The former soviet government – began the irrigation scheme designed to develop fruit and cotton

farming Fishing community – use to be a prosperous industry but now huge unemployment Local residents – health problems and highest infant mortality rates in the world Scientists – climate has now changed and extinction of species in the area International economists – people can no longer feed themselves as the land is infertile, could create 10

million environmental refugees

Conflicts over the same water source Water conflicts occur when the demand for water overtakes the supply and several stakeholders wish to use the same resource. Conflict is more likely where developing countries are involved as water is vital to feed their growing populations and promote industrial development. The UN reports there are around 300 potential water conflicts in the world. Some examples include:

China vs. India due to the Brahmaputra River Turkey vs. Syria and Iraq due to the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers India vs. Pakistan due to the Indus River

Case Study: Middle East Water conflicts

The Middle East is one of the most water-scarce regions in the world. Due to population growth, increasing affluence (demands for swimming pools etc) and the development of irrigated farmlands there are increasing pressures on the water supplies. Further instability is created due to:- Overall scarcity of water but also poor access- Declining oil reserves with future drop in oil revenues- rising youthful population and increasing demands

At the moment the Middle East uses revenue from their oil exports to pay for expensive desalinisation plants to provide extra water, but also pay for water and food imports. No single country in the Middle East can resolve its water problems without impacting on another country.

Potential conflicts:1) The Euphrates and Tigris rivers originate in Turkey but supply Syria and Iraq with water. Turkey wants

to dam these rivers to improve incomes in Anatolia (south-east turkey)2) In 1967, Syria and other Arab states objected to Israel’s National Water Carrier Project and tried to

destroy it. Israel then bombed their attempts to divert the River Jordan from Israel3) Droughts across the whole region between 1990-2005 increased fears of conflicts4) Bombing of Lebanese water pipelines by Israel in 2006

Geopolitics of water supply within a country Often when countries compete for water resources international agreements and treaties have to be drawn up on how best to manage shared water supplies. Under the Helsinki Rules there is an agreement that international treaties must include concepts such as equitable use and share. Therefore the criteria for water sharing should include: Natural factors – rainfall amounts, share of drainage basin Social and economic needs – population size, development Downstream impacts –restricting flow, lowering water tables Dependency – are alternative water sources available? Prior use – existing vs. potential use Efficiency – avoiding waste and mismanagement of water

Case Study - Geopolitics with the USA: The Colorado River

Background – The basin of the Colorado River is the most heavily used source of irrigation water in the USA. Original water rights were allocated in 1933. Since then a series of treaties between the 7 US states with water rights and between Mexico have been signed. A series of dams has been built to serve the water needs to 30 million people.

Agreements:1920s ‘Law of the River’ = divided the water between upper basin states or Colorado, Wyoming, Utah and New Mexico and their responsibility to supply the lower basin states. California was given highest proportion of water due to its large population and political power. (Around this time was a period of higher rainfall and water surpluses)

Stakeholders and conflicts

Issues of developing water pathwaysIn some areas with a shortage of water one of the solutions is to divert water from one drainage basin to another. However these can produce political risks

Conflicts

Farmers - 80% of the allocation and at 1/20th of

the cost.

City dwellers are increasing demands. In 2007 Arizonia for the 1st

time took full share of water for its cities

Envrionementalists - development of lakes for recreartion is effecting wilderness and wetland

areas

Indigenous groups - have claims to water gihts

based on treaties signed in the 1880s

Mexican people - 90% of water is used before it

reaches Mexico. Effecting local fisherman

US government - under pressure from own

politicians NOT to change water allocations

Case Study: The Snowy Mountains SchemeThis scheme involves 16 major dams, 7 power stations and a network of pipes and aqueducts.

Problems created: Creation of storage lakes has destroyed wildlife habitats Snowy River flow has fallen to 1% Groundwater salinisation results from low flow Water scarcity has lead to competition between users Political fallout meant governments had to restore some of the flow in the Snowy River and invest in

water-saving projects Record droughts due to El Nino have used up the water allocations

Water future s?The issues of future projections are that climate change is occurring but its exact impact cannot be predicted. Also continued economic growth may not be inevitable e.g. credit crunch, finally political and religious conflicts can create further issues.Alternative scenarios for water by 2025

Scenario Water Changes by 2025 Wider impacts

Bus

ines

s as

us

ual

Water scarcity will reduce food production Consumption will rise by +50% Household water use rise by +70% Industrial water demand in developing countries

will increase

Developing countries will rely on food imports but increased hunger

In parts of western USA, China etc water will be pumped out faster than can be recharged

Wat

er

Cris

is

Global water consumption will increase Demand for domestic water will fall Demand for industrial water will +33%

Food production will decline and food prices increase

Conflict over water between and within countries will increase

Sus

tain

able

W

ater

Global & industrial water use will have to fall Global rain-fed crop yields increase due to

improvements in water harvesting and sustainable farming

Agricultural and domestic water prices double

Food production could increase slightly

Investment in crop research and technology would increase

Unsustainable pumping of groundwater would end

Collects water and diverts water so that is can be used by power stations to create electricty

Water then flows west into the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers

Water used to irrigate farms and provide water for communities in

New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia

How different key player’s opinions on future water usage may conflict Different players and decision makers have key roles to play in securing future water supplies but their aims may conflict.

Category PlayersPolitical International organisations e.g. UN, regional and local

councils, pressure groupsEconomic (Business) World Bank, governments, utility companies e.g.

Thames Water, agriculture, industry, TNCsSocial (Human welfare) Individuals, residents, farmers, consumers, NGOs e.g.

Water AidEnvironmental (sustainable Development) Conservationists, planners, NGOs e.g. WWF

Alternative Strategies for managing water supplies in the futureHard engineering projects to increase water shortage and transfer

Case Study: China’s Three Gorges DamLocation: Yangtze River and is the world’s largest hydroelectric schemeBenefits Costs 18,000MW of electricity generated Will supply water to the region responsible for

22% of China’s GDP Flood protection will save lives and cut financial

losses Navigational improvements could open up

China’s interior to development

Dammed waters will down 100,000 hectares 1.9 million people will be displaced Pollution increases as abandoned mines and

factories are flooded Dam failure, earthquakes and heavy rain could

cause serious issues Ecological impacts on fishing and habitats

Case Study: China’s South-North Transfer ProjectProject began in 2003 and involves building 3 canals to run across the eastern, middle and western parts of China and link the country’s 4 main rivers.

Benefits Costs Transfer 44.8 billion m3 per year Central government to pay 60% of the cost Water conservation, improved irrigation,

pollution treatment and environmental project Will supply big cities like Beijing

Significant ecological and environmental impacts along the waterways

Resettlement of people will be needed Declining water quality Will cost $62 billion Will take 50 years to complete

Restoration At a local scale this can involve restoring meanders, replanting vegetation and using sustainable methods to manage watercourses for people and the environment.

Case Study: Restoring the Aral SeaIn 2007 the Kazakhstan government secured a $126 million loan from the World Bank to help save the northern part of the Aral Sea. The government has already built a dam to split the sea into 2 parts and the new loan is to be used to build a dam to bring the water back into the deserted port of Aralsk.

Fisherman have been able to resume fishing Rain has returned The southern part of the sea is still shrinking The waters from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya are controlled by other countries

Water conservationThis involves reducing the amount of water used (demand) rather than trying to increase water supplies. In the UK around 22% of water does not reach the end user due to leakage. Examples include:

1) Reducing domestic consumption- installing water meters in every home- reducing the amount of water used in lavatory cisterns- planting drought resistant species in ‘water-wise’ gardens- using grey water to flush the lavatory or water the garden

2) Reducing industry consumption- installing more efficient systems to reduce water costs- Agricultural irrigation = use of micro-irrigation techniques using drip irrigation from tubes reduces the volume of water used

Role of technology in solving future problems Technology can help increase both water supply and access. Examples include:

Desalination – provides 70% of Saudi Arabia’s water but it is the most expensive option for water supply due to its energy use

Towing flexible polypropylene bags will with freshwater has been propose e.g. Kielder to Essex USA uses reverse osmosis membrane technology to filter salt from brackish water In developing countries ore intermediate technology is more appropriate:

- Water collection e.g. catching rainwater or building small dams- Wells built by NGOs e.g. Water Aid- Using plastic or glass bottles filled with contaminated water exposed to the sun for 6 hours destroys micro-organisms

What questions have been asked?Using named examples assess the role of different players and decision makers in trying to secure a

sustainable ‘water future’ (15)

Referring to examples, assess the potential for water conflict in areas where demand exceed supply (15)

Referring to examples, explain why future water supplies for many regions are increasingly insecure (15)

Referring to examples, assess the validity of the statement that ‘water conflicts are as much to do with

water quality as quantity’ (15)

Suggest how water resources and human wellbeing might be affected by the data in Figure 2 (10)

Explain how physical and human factors have contributed to the variation in water scarcity shown (10) Jan 2010

Using named examples, assess the contribution of large scale water management projects in increasing water security (15) Jan 2010

Study Figure 2.Explain how human interference in the water cycle can affect water availability. (10)

Using named examples, assess the potential for water supply to become a source of conflict. (15)

Topic 3: Biodiversity under Threat

What do I need to know? Ways in which biodiversity can be defined

Key processes and factors that influence biodiversity

Global distribution of biodiversity and biodiversity hotspots

The value of ecosystems

The distribution of threatened areas

Global factors threaten biodiversity

The impact of these threats on ecosystem processes

The link between economic development and ecosystem destruction/degradation

The concept of sustainable yield

The role of different players in managing biodiversity

Spectrum of strategies and policies for managing biodiversity

The future of biodiversity

Key Terms:Biomass The total amount of organic matter Biome A major terrestrial ecosystem of the world.Ecosystem A system of which both the living organisms and their environment form

components (elements) - these components are linked together by flows and are separated from the outside by a boundary.

Succession The gradual and predictable change in plant and animal species over time, for example bare ground is colonised by plants and there is a series of sequential replacements as one set of dominant plants replaces the other

Net primary productivity(NPP)

The difference between the rate of conversion of solar energy into biomass in an ecosystem and the rate at which energy is used to maintain the producers of the system

Biotic Living components of an ecosystemAbiotic The non-living parts of an ecosystemGoods and services ‘goods’ are direct products that can be derived from an ecosystem and

‘services’ are the benefits that the ecosystem providesEnergy flow The movement of energy through a community Nutrient cycle The movement of nutrients in the ecosystem between the three major stores

of the soil, biomass and litter. biodiversity The variability amongst living organisms from all sources including terrestrial,

marine and other aquatic systems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

conservation The protection of natural or man-made resources for later use.Habitat The place where a particular species lives and grows. It is essentially the

environment- at least the physical environment- that surrounds, influences and is utilised by a particular species.

Endemic species Exclusively native to a particular place of region. Endemic species tend to have a high conservation value.

Sustainable Yield Key part of sustainable management of ecosystems. It represents the ‘safe’ level of harvest that can be hunted/caught/utilised without harming the individual ecosystem

Genetic diversity The diversity of genes found within a species Species diversity The variety of plant/animal species in a given area (habitat)Ecosystem diversity The variety of different ecosystems and the habitats surrounding them in a

given area, it includes biotic and Abiotic components. Biodiversity Hotpot An area containing a huge number of species, a large percentage of which

are endemicWRI (World Resources Institute)

An economic scorecard which shows the condition of the world’s major ecosystems and their ability to provide future good and services.

MEA (millennium ecosystem assessment)

A multi scale assessment commissioned by the UN

Destruction Loss in quantityDegradation Loss in quality

W ays in which biodiversity can be defined Biodiversity is the total genes, species and ecosystems in a given area. It can be investigated by looking at diversity within species and also between ecosystems.

Definition Advantages DisadvantagesGenetic diversity – range of genes found within a particular species. Variation within genetic makeup makes it easier to adapt to changing environments

Allows accurate picture of the diversity within a population

Helps explain how isolated groups have adapted to new environments

Difficult to assess without high-level biological skills as DNA has to be analysed

Species Diversity – variety of plants and animal species present in an ecosystem

On a basic level areas can be compared

Many species are yet to be discovered

Need to compare similar size areas for it to be fair

Ecosystem Diversity – number of different ecosystems within a given area

Involves the interaction of species with each other and their environment = complex

Hard to know where to place the boundaries for each area

Needs a consistent set of criteria

K ey processes and factors that influence biodiversity

BIODIVERSITY

Hunting and direct exploitation of flora and fauna

Size of the area and topography

The level of recording of species within the region

Human effects e.g. pollution

EndemismRate of nutrient cycling

Amount of light

Temperature

Altitude

Latitude

More species can live and interact in a larger area

Humans are in competition with other species for space and resources. As human population increases = decrease in biodiversity

Found particularly on islands, species that are found nowhere else and this increases biodiversity

Lower latitudes = warmer climate – rapid nutrient cycling

Higher altitude = lower biodiversity

Temperature extremes = low biodiversity

The rate in which plants photosynthesise is measured. TRF have high GPP = high biodiversity

G lobal distribution of biodiversity and biodiversity hotspots

Main patterns:The top 5 countries with the highest diversity index are found around the EQUATOR or the TROPICS. Countries with the lowest diversity index are found in either cold countries or ones with large areas of desert. Greatest biodiversity is found in areas of TROPICAL RAINFOREST with +1/2 the world’s species, although they cover only 7% of the earth’s surface.

Biodiversity HotpotsThis is an area containing a huge number of species, a large percentage of which are endemic. They cover less than 2% of the earth’s surface but contain 44% of the world’s planet species and 35% of the animal species. They are divided into 3 categories:

1) Continental hotspots – richest in terms of biodiversity2) Large island hotspots – have distinctive species3) Small island hotspots – low in species number but contain a high proportion of endemics

Tropical Rainforests:Found in South and Central America, Madagascar, Malaysia and Indonesia

Coral Reefs:Corals with the greatest species are found in the Pacific Ocean and eastern edge of the Indian Ocean

Named Example: Continental Hotspot – Fynbos, South AfricaFynbos is the major vegetation type of a small region in South Africa known as the Cape Flora Kingdom. It is the smallest and richest area with the highest known concentration of plant species at 1,300 per 10,000km2. (TTF = 400 per 10,000km2). Home to +7700 plant species, 70% are endemic. This hotspot was created due to unusual geology and soils, topography and a distinctive fire regime. However there are a number of threats:

Spread of alien plants Commercial forestry using non-native species e.g. European pines Frequent bush fires

Construction of housing estates around Cape Town Increased farming

The value of ecosystems Value can be looked at through direct use values e.g. Uses humans put biodiversity to in terms of consumption or production and include food, medicines etc. Indirect uses include the services that biodiversity provides such as soil formation.

Provisioning services/goods - products

coming directly from

the ecosystem e.g. timber,

meat

Regulating services - vital to the functioning of the earth's systems e.g. forests remove carbon dioxide

and release oxygen into the atmosphere

Cultural services - include the aesthetic and spirtual enjoyment

people gain from recreation

Supporting services - processes such as nutrient

cycling, soil formation that are vital to the

wellbeing of the ecoystem

Ecosystem Services

Case Study: The Value of a global ecosystem - Coral ReefsCoral reefs are located in shallow seas (no deeper than 25m) with an average annual temperature about 18°c. Corals are extremely sensitive and the greatest concentration of coral reefs is found in South-east Asia (30%).Ecological Value Economic Value Cultural/Aesthetic Value

Coral reefs act as protection for the coastal, breaking the power of the waves before they reach the land

Highly diverse ecosystems

Aquarium trade Medicine – algae and sponges

contain bioactive compounds used by the pharmaceutical industry

Building materials – coral reefs are mined for lime and stone in developing countries

Tourism – some Caribbean countries gain ½ of their GNP from tourism

Food – in the far east, reef fisheries feed 1 billion people

Education and research – easily accessible from the shore

Coral and shells are used for traditional crafts

Recreational use

The distribution of threatened areas

There are various ways of measuring threatened ecosystems:1) Economic Scorecard shows the ability of ecosystems to produce goods and services2) The Living Planet Index monitors changes over time in the populations of representative animal

species in various ecosystems3) Ecological footprint measures the human impact on the planet4) Red List of endangered species shows species at risk of extinction5) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is a multi-scale assessment by the UN

The majority of areas under threat are located with the tropics and areas of lower biodiversity tend to have lower threat levels as these regions are not in demand for agriculture due to unsuitable climates.

Factors threatening biodiversity

Global Factors:a) Climate Change – expected that the climate will change so quickly that species will be unable to

adapt. Recent climate changes have shown impacts on the ecosystems:- laying and fruiting have been advancing by several days each decade- Coral bleaching due to warming seas has increased since 1980s- Ocean acidification caused by rising levels of carbon dioxide - Poleward’s migration of species by an average of 6km per decade

b) Deforestation – clearance of forest cover results in loss of biodiversity and resources but also has knock-on effects on the food web and nutrient cycling

c) Pollution can cause various issues:- Ozone depletion due to CFCs- nitrate pollution of lakes

d) Human population growth – this is forcing people to spread into more areas and is encroaching onto areas with high biodiversity

Local Factorsa) Fire – was used widely in Europe and N. America to clear forests for development. Controlled fire

as a management option is useful but large-scale burning for soya bean production causes loss of biodiversity

b) Habitat change – developing natural habitats for agriculture, minerals or urban growth e.g. overfishing in the North Sea

c) Recreational use – plants are vulnerable to trampling and animals to disturbance

The impact of these threats on ecosystem processesEnergy FlowPrimary producers (green plants) convert sunlight into energy through photosynthesis, as energy is lost through respiration at each stage, the amount of biomass at each trophic level decreases. Human action on one level of the chain has an impact on the others that are dependent on it e.g. the catching of tertiary consumers

Nutrient cyclingThis occurs alongside the flow of energy through an ecosystem and involves the feedback of miners from decomposed organic material back into the plants so that they can grow and continue the cycle. In hot climates of the tropics there is faster nutrient cycling then in cold regions. People can impact upon the cycle by adding nutrients via fertilisers, by reducing the biomass through overharvesting and deforestation, and by degrading the soil. Once deprived of nutrients, soils are vulnerable to erosion.

Litter

Soil

Biomass

Growth or uptake pathway

WeatheringLeaching

Runoff

Precipitation

Movement of species

The movement of species can occur by accident or deliberately but has a serious threat to ecosystems. Alien or exotic species can become established at any trophic level and often have:- enhanced survival rates as they are more efficient competitors- lack any native predator- Not susceptible to native diseasesDeliberate introductions include:

1) Game species such as pheasant and rainbow trout for hunting2) Hedgehog was imported from the Scottish mainland to the Outer Hebrides to deal with a plague of

garden slugs but have since effected the populations of ground nesting birds whom they eat the eggs of

Accidental introductions include:1) Alien species can arrive by ship e.g. Zebra mussel arrived in North America from the Caspian Sea

by clinging on the sides of ships. These were brought into the Great Lakes where the multiplied to 70,000 per km2

2) Air transport was responsible for introducing snakes to the Pacific Island of Guam which had huge impacts on the food web

Nutrient OverloadExcess nutrients are washed into the lakes and rivers but this has been increased by the human use of fertilisers etc. The extra nutrients cause increase growth in plants but also the growth of algal blooms which block out the light causing plants to die out. This uses up the oxygen in the water leading to further deaths and the food chain collapses The extra nutrients cause increase growth in plants but also the growth of algal blooms which block out the light causing plants to die out. This uses up the oxygen in the water leading to further deaths and the food chain collapses Eutrophication.

The link between economic development and ecosystem destruction/ degradation

The shift of countries from economies based on primary industries, to mixed industries including manufacturing and industry has put huge pressure on their ecosystems as natural resources are extracted

Rapid industrial development e.g. China has led to air pollution such as acid rain, which has an impact on forests. Expansion of agricultural land due to population growth

A country with a stable economy and education has the freedom to choose to support biodiversity without compromising its people’s ability to be fed and housed

Less development near pristine environments in which indigenous people live mainly due to lack of access and technology

Named Example: Udzungwa Mountains National Park: a pristine area

This national park has huge amounts of biodiversity with 276 tree species and 50 endemic species. The local villages are also reliant upon it for watershed protection, medicines and food. However their access is limited and highly controlled due to increasing pressures on the park such as population growth. The Tanzanian National Park authorities therefore decided to involve the local people in sustainable bottom up strategies for example, setting up tree nurseries and promoting ecotourism. This was the best way forward due to the issues of policing a vast area with a skeletal ranger force; instead the local people become responsible for the area.

Named Example: Masai Mara game reserve: a degraded areaThis reserve experienced a breakdown in management which has led to the decline to the grassland ecosystem. The park fees from tourists were meant to go towards management of the area and providing social services to the local tribesman. However the park rangers were not paid properly and lacked basic equipment so could do little to stop illegal hunting. In 2008 a private organisation called Mara conservation took over control and runs on a non-profit basis uses 50% of revenue to build roads and anti-poaching patrols and 50% to the local tribes. This is needed as the local people have to give up cattle grazing land for tourism but are having a hard time seeing the benefits.

The concept of sustainable yieldSustainable yield represents the ‘safe’ level of harvest that can be hunted/caught/used without harming the individual ecosystem. It is measured through:

1. Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) – the greatest harvest that can be taken indefinitely while leaving the ecosystem intact.

2. Optimum sustainable yield (OSY) – best compromise achieve in the light of all economic and social factors.

In order to manage wildlife etc models estimating carrying capacity have been developed – the maximum human population that can exist in equilibrium with the available resources.

Zone of overharvest – population begins to be threatened by overharvesting

MSY is halfway between 0 and the carrying capacity

OSY is lower than MSY as it enabled the ecosystem to have a high aesthetic value

Carrying Capacity

Named Example: Campfire Project, ZimbabweThis was developed in the late 1980s aimed to long-term development, management and sustainable use of natural resources. The responsibility for the area was placed in the hands of local people and therefore an example of a bottom-up approach. Some schemes made money from big-game hunting at sustainable yield levels and this was then fed back into the communities. Environmentalists disagreed with this approach as how was hunting endangered species helping to protect them? The scheme was then undermined by the economic collapse of Zimbabwe and lack of funding.

The role of different players in managing biodiversity

GLOBAL NATIONAL LOCALInternational Treaties:a) Ramsar Convention 1971 - to conserve wetlandsb) World Heritage Convention 1972 - protect outstanding cultural and natural sitesc) CITES 1973 - controlled trade in a range of species

TNCS - determine which goods and services are produced and how environmentally friendly they are.

International agencies e.g. World Bank, WTO - very top-down and often favour large short-term projects

NGOs e.g. WWF and Greenpeace - aim to stop degradation of the planet's natural environment

Governments:Regulation – establish and enforce laws to conserve and protect various areas and species.Preservation – preserve areas of biodiversity often through taxes and subsidies

Communities:Indigenous groups depend on biodiversity for basic survival e.g. spiritual significanceFarmers – strong views about conservation as it conflicts with their aims

Individual:In the developed world, ethical consumerism has led to people choosing to buy environmentally friendly products e.g. dolphin friendly tuna.Scientists and researchers – work for variety of organisations and monitor the state of the biodiversity

S pectrum of strategies and policies for managing biodiversity

Conservation strategies follow the idea of a spectrum from complete protection through to commercially exploited areas where limited parts are protected for publicity purposes.

Total Protection – was the main focus of conservation during the 1960s. Total protection has been criticised as:

- In developing countries there is a conflict between conservation and cutting people off from biodiversity- Totally protected reserves are often narrowly focused for scientific purposes so may fail to take into account social, economic factors etc- Many protection schemes are based around political boundaries and not the ecosystem natural boarders- These strategies rely on the co-ordination of outside agencies which often forget about the local people’s needs.

Biosphere Reserves – identifies a core area which is heavily protected with buffer zones around it. However some countries do not have finances to fully monitor or mange these reserves and the pressure from development may be difficult to control. These act at a number of different levels; locally they involve local people and the landscape they know in order to better serve the community and ensuring continued biodiversity e.g. community conservation schemes. On a national level they aim to inspire further conservation e.g. National Parks. Globally the biosphere designation of the Galapagos Islands helped implement a zoning strategy to solve the problems the area faces.

Restoration – this can include recreating wetlands or linking up small fragmented reserves to produce a large reserve. These can be very expensive and much of the success depends on how readily plants will reseed and how polluted the land is.

Conservation – this can involve ex-situ conservation where an endangered species establish a captive population away from its natural habitat. This includes captive breeding with release schemes and biodiversity banks such as genetic and seed banks in zoos and botanical gardens. For example – giant panda

Named Example: The Galapagos Islands Zoning Strategy (Hot-Spot Management Strategy)

Location: found on the Equator 1,000km off the coast of Ecuador

Key facts:Nearly one fourth of the Galapagos marine life is endemic - found nowhere else on earthThere are 13 large islands and six small, which were formed by oceanic volcanoes some three to five million years ago

Threats facing the islands: Extensive migration from mainland Ecuador – from 1982-1998 population growth was around 6%

but in the last 10 years the number of people on the islands has more than doubled to take it to 16,000.

absence of a quarantine system to avoid the introduction of foreign species illegal fisheries that apply great pressure on the islands’ marine resources (until 1990s only a few

hundred fishers were involved but by 1999 660 were registered as global over-fishing grew due to demand for seafood and speciality products e.g. shark fins)

lack of an adequate legal framework to ensure the long-term preservation of the islands Tourism – since 1969 charter flights began bringing people to the islands and it became the main

economic activity employing 70% of the active population. In 1998 - $75 million was generated through tourism. However out of this only around 1% is used to support conservation.

Conservation1936: the Galapagos National Park (GNP) established 1968: Boundaries finally established; effective park administration began1984: Recognized as a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program1986: The Galápagos Biological Marine Resources Reserve (GMRR) established to include all waters within 15 nautical miles 1992: Zoning plan for Marine Resources reserve – included 4 zones:

General Use Zone for sustainable use of the reserve Recreational Fishing Zones for the benefit of residents National Marine Park Zones for human activities where natural resources are neither damaged nor

removed Strict Nature Reserves where human access is not permitted.

2002: Poza de las Diablas on Isabela I. declared a Ramsar Site of International Importance

.

The future of biodiversity

The Millennium Ecosystems Assessments (MEA) identified 4 scenarios predicting rapid conversion of ecosystems to farmland and urbanisation.

Global Orchestration All trade barriers and subsidies are removed to

allow for free trade Economic growth is high and standard of living

in developed countries improve As wealth increases there will be more money to

deal with environmental problems = too late? High biodiversity loss

Order from Strength Protection of national boundaries will see rich

countries close their boarders to protect their own standard of living

Problems of ecosystem degradation in developing countries

Ecosystem collapse – huge biodiversity loss

Adapting Mosaic Will manage ecosystems locally and regionally =

more sustainable Lower biodiversity loss than 1 and 2 People working together to develop

economically but also maintain ecosystems

Techno garden Using technology to help provide ecosystem

services Excellent sharing of ideas at a global level May become over reliant on technology Wealth increases in poor countries as

knowledge and technology is shared

WWF’s Living Planet Report – looked to model ways of ending ecology ‘overshoot’ (the amount by which the ecological footprint exceeds the biological capacity of the space available to that population). They also showed 4 possible scenarios:

1) Business as usual – increased ecological footprint and no reduction in overshoot2) Slow shift – gradually reducing the ecological footprint by developing many sustainable policies

so that ecosystems can recover by the year 21003) Rapid reduction – radical policies to control ecological footprints lead to elimination of overshoot

by 20404) Shrink and share – breaking the world into regions in order to share responsibility for controlling

the overshoot problem

Case Study: Named Global Ecosystem- Daintree Tropical Rainforest

Location: North east coast of Australia in Queensland

Why is Daintree so special? World Heritage site measuring ½ the size of Wales 135 million years old Greatest number of threatened species of plant and animals in the

world ½ of Australia’s bird species 65% of all butterfly and bat species

Threats1) Tourism

- In 1983, 17000 tourists visited Daintree but by 2002 this had grown to 436000 visitors

2) Destruction of ecosystem to cope with demand- tarmacking of roads has lead to small areas of forest being divided into plots for sale- Occupied plots are often bulldozed and turned into cattle ranches

3) Development - Increased numbers of tourists had lead to the development of Port Douglas changing the village’s character

4) Climate Change – a global temperature increase could threaten the distinctive ecosystems environment5) Logging – the commercial timber industry in began in Daintree in the 1930s. The rainforest acts as a carbon store so the removal of these releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere adding to the greenhouse effect

Impacts

Short-term Medium-term Long-termEconomic Money spent by tourists $147 million per year

3500 jobs createdInfrastructure improved e.g. tarmac roads

Social Impact on tribesLocal people suffer from congestion and overcrowdingIncrease in population

Destructive of native tribes as they lose their land and move awayCultures westernised

Australian heritage lostIncrease in population = increase in house prices = local people move outTourism could decline

Environmental Soil erosion from deforestationLoss of habitatsDisruption of native speciesLitter

Breeding patterns affectedFood web disrupted

Release of C02 from treesExtinction of speciesInvasion of alien species

Management of Daintree

Key players:a) Wet tropics Management authority = formed in 1990 to research and monitor the state of the wet

tropics. Looks at developing management agreements with land holders and native tribes.b) Cairns Regional council- aimed to gradually reduce population in Daintree. Increased ferry

costs to reduce number of visitors and rejected plans for a bridge across the river as more people would endanger the rainforest.

c) Australian Rainforest Foundation – operation ‘BIG BIRD’ – the cassowary given a wildlife corridor to protect it. Money given to buy back land from developers and return it to rainforest

d) Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland – community based looking at a sustainable future for people and wildlife. They are for a ban on development in the area.

e) Australian Tropical Rainforest Foundation – build visitor centres and education facilities to highlight the global importance of the tropical rainforest ecosystems.

f) Rainforest co-operation research council – community development allowing up to 1400 people to live in the area but must conserve the land. Looks to identify hotspots for conservation where no development is allowed. Aims to recognise the rights of native people to own land and promote their culture in the forest.

What kinds of questions have been asked?

Explain the distribution of the world’s terrestrial and marine hotspots (10 marks)

Evaluate the relative advantages and disadvantages of the ‘hot-spot’ approach to biodiversity management (compared with other strategies) (15 marks)

Evaluate the relative importance of global and local threats to one named global ecosystem (15 marks)

Assess the role played by different players in managing areas in which biodiversity is under threat (15 marks)

How far is it possible to reconcile the desire for development with the need to manage biodiversity (14 marks)

Referring to examples, discuss the threats to biodiversity hotspots and why these threats could prove critical (15)

Explain how human activities have contributed to the condition of ecosystem goods and services. (10)

Using named examples, evaluate the success of global actions designed to protect biodiversity. (15)Explain the pattern of alien species invasions, and suggest the possible impacts of alien species on ecosystems. (10)

Topic 4: Superpower Geographies

What do I need to know? How to define the idea of superpower How patterns of power change over time Theories for the growth of Superpowers How power can be maintained Role of superpowers on international action and decision making Nature of trade and who controls it. Does this maintain global power? Superpowers cultural influence The impacts on Water, energy, environment and land demand of the rising superpowers The impacts of the rising new superpowers on the old superpowers Implications for the Majority world (Less developed countries) of the new superpowers –

good or bad? Shifting power may lead to tensions

Key Terms

Capitalism An economic system in which all or most of the means of production and distribution are privately owned and operated in a relatively competitive environment

Cold War A state of political tension and military rivalry between nations that stops short of full-scale war e.g. US vs. Soviet Union following World War II

Colonialism The system or policy in which a country maintains foreign coloniesCommunism A form of political development that aims to create equality and a classless

society. Cultural Imperialism Promoting the culture of one society into another e.g. Tea to IndiaDependency theory Notion that resources flow from a ‘periphery’ of poor and underdeveloped

states into a ‘core’ of wealthy statesDevelopment theory A number of theories outlined how desirable change is best achieved Direct influence The power of persons or things to affect others by means of power based on

wealth Disparity The inequality or difference International Monetary Fund

An international organisation established by the UN to promote monetary cooperation, international trade and stability

Market economy An economy in which prices are determined by buyers and sellers with a relatively high degree of freedom

Modernisation theory The socio-economic development and process that evolves from a traditional society to modern economies e.g. USA

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation founded in 1949 for the purposes of opposing communism during the Cold War.

Neo-colonialism Describes the ways in which rich countries dominate the economy of poorer countries through economic imperialism rather than political control

Privatisation The process of moving from a government controlled system to a privately run system

Purchasing Power Parity The value of gross national income related to local pricesSuperpower A nation that is able to project its power and influence anywhere in the worldTariff A government tax on imports or exportsUSSR Soviet Union – a former communist country in eastern Europe and Northern

Asia established in 1922. Was dissolved in 1991World Bank UN agency created to assist developing nations by issuing loans World Trade Organisation Set up in 1995 to open up and ensure fair play in international trade.

How to define the idea of superpower e.g. USA and USSR

Criteria USA USSRSize – countries with a large land area tend to have greater natural resources and extend their influence over a larger number of neighbours

USA is the 3rd largest country with land over 9 million km2

World’s largest country with land area over 22 million km2

Economic strength – in 2007, the 12 largest economies earned around 2/3rds of the world’s GDP and control investment- determine economic policies which effect the globe

Managed as a democracy and had a free-market (capitalist) approach to the economyContains 776 of the largest TNCsDollar is the world reserve currency

Promoted communism and the economy was state controlled

Culture – spread of Americanisation across the globeReligion – religious leaders can influence politics through their beliefs e.g. contraception

Rapid growth in film and television industry helped to convey a positive image on USA and its high standard of living.

Tried to sell itself as high culture with ballet, music and art. Very tight censorship so no criticism allowed.

Population – countries with a large population are important as economic growth cannot be sustained without sufficient number of workers- cheap workers can help promote economic growth- large populations encourage economic growth through markets

250 million live in USA World’s 3rd largest with over 285 million at the time of its breakup

Resources – countries with resources necessary for economic development should have significant power

Land contained valuable minerals, metals, forests and a modern agricultural and industrial system (World’s greatest economy)

Huge amounts of oil and gas (2nd largest economy)

Military strength – countries with a large military force are seen as more power but also the types of weapons are important e.g. nuclear weapons

The world’s largest and most powerful navy and one of the two most powerful air forces in the world

Had the largest land based army and the world’s largest stockpile of nuclear weapons

How patterns of power change over time

Named Example: The rise and fall of the British EmpireThe British Empire was founded on exploration and sea power as its royal navy dominated the seas from 1700-1930s. There were 3 key phases:

Phase 1: Mercantilist (1600-1850) = small colonies set up on coastal islands e.g. Jamaica with focus on trade including slaves. Phase 2: Imperial (1850-1945) = whole conquest of territories, religion and culture spread e.g. cricket. Governments set up to rule the colonies and complex trade networks.Phase 3: Decolonisation (1945 - ) = After 2nd World war the UK was bankrupt and could not support the empire as before. Growth of anti-colonial movements e.g. India – some colonies granted independence.

Britain still maintains a superpower legacy and has control over 14 overseas territories e.g. Falkland Islands. The Commonwealth contains 53 states (former British colonies) that cooperate in common interests.

Named Example: collapse of CommunismThe causes of the collapse were reforms in the USSR in 1985 by President Gorbachev which increased freedom of speech and allowed private ownership of small businesses. As these reforms spread there was soon an open revolt against the communist system and the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 ended the symbol of separation of the Cold War superpowers. The USSR collapsed in 1990 when the communist party gave up its monopoly on power. This led to the breakup of the entire country as countries such as Latvia and Georgia broke away into independent nations.

Named Example: The Rise of the BRICsThese are Brazil, Russia, India and China as they show:- Strong economic growth- Large populations- Access to key resources e.g. fossil fuels- Market economies- Regional power and influence

It is expected that the USA will see a decline in its power, especially in relation to China

Theories for the growth of Superpowers

Modernisation theory – Rostow 1960sAimed to explain the dominance of the British Empire and USA. Rostow believed that as these were the first countries to experience the Industrial revolution this gave them an initial advantage over other regions. He believed that countries moved through 5 stages of develop.

Dependency Theory – Frank 1971Countries become more dependent upon more powerful, frequently colonial powers, as a result in interaction and development. This is because the colonial power often exploits the resources of its weaker colony as the colony becomes more dependent upon it. However, the rise of the NICs argues against this as they are examples of countries that have developed, however some of these did receive huge economic support and aid from the USA.

World Systems Theory – Wallenstein 1974This treated the whole world as a single unit broken down into the core (MEDCs), periphery (LEDCs) and the semi-periphery. It also allowed change to take place as countries began to develop.

Named Example: China vs. India

World Systems theory would suggest that industrial capitalism was born in Europe and that the rise of India and china is another stage of the growth and spread of the global economy. Dependency theory however would see the current growth as a shift back to an older world order when India and China were powerful economic forces as Frank believed Britain and other European powers were the first NICs.

Path to development:China – state-led industrialisation and intensification of agriculture but largely cut off from the rest of the world.India – Home-grown technology with high import tariffs, still however mainly a rural society.

How power can be maintained

Superpowers have shifted the maintenance of their power from colonial rule to indirect neo-colonial rule. Following the end of the colonial rule, decolonialisation occurred but brought about conflict rather than immediate freedom for 3 main reasons:

1) Colonial boarders did not match religious or ethnic boundaries2) Colonies had a government but indigenous people were excluded from running them so therefore

when the colonial rule was removed there was not enough experience3) As colonial powers left, insurgents pushed them out = violence

Named Example: Colonialism- IndiaIn India today there are still symbols of colonial power such as the residence of the governor-general of India in Delhi. Culture was also spread through British traditions such as cricket, tea drinking and the English language. India became modernised so that the economy could serve Britain more effectively e.g. the building of railway system improved transport and trade but allowed efficient military transport to put down rebellions. Independence was granted in 1947 but this plunged India into a period of chaos.

Neo-colonialism refers to a form of indirect control over developing countries, most of them former colonies. In this direct political control decreased whilst economic control increased through:- Economic dependence on primary goods – issues created with trade as these goods have low export prices compared with high prices the developing world must pay for manufactured goods- Economic dominance of multinational companies – foreign direct investment e.g. manufacturing located in developing world allows for big profits for TNCs but low wages and skills for the developing world- Impact of foreign aid and debt – developing nations pay huge sums in interest which often exceed aid receipts - Strategic alliances – USA for example allied with many developing nations to spread their global influence, often by means of foreign aid- Aid – often given with ‘strings attached’

Named Example: Neo-colonialism in Ghana

In 1957 Ghana gained independence from British colonial rule and in recent years has been seen to be making progress in economic and social indicators. For example GNP has risen from $5.7 billion to $14.9 billion in the last 20 years. However Ghana is still very much influenced by external factors, perhaps identifying an example of neo-colonialism?

External factors:1) Commodity markets in London and New York

- Cocoa prices depend on global demand which may vary

- Competition with Ivory Coast for cocoa. If prices in Ghana are too high, buyers will purchase for lower-priced countries

2) Overseas Tariffs- EU import tariffs are much higher for processed cocoa than for raw beans. This means Ghana is better off exporting raw cocoa beans as import costs are lower and they would make more money- Means that Ghana is unable to develop its own processing industries as most of this is done in Europe = loses out on value added

3) WTO- Before 1995 Ghanaian government subsidised its farmers to encourage them to stay on the land and grow food for their growing cities- Ghana then joined the WTO in an attempt to increase its global trade- WTO imposed joining condition that the Ghanaian farmers could no longer be subsidised - Farmers could no longer compete with imports of heavily subsidised foreign food e.g. EU tomatoes are cheaper to buy then home-grown ones

Role of superpowers on international action and decision making

Organisation Function MembersInternational Monetary Fund (IMF)

Monitors the economic and financial development of countries. Lends money to countries facing difficulties

44 governments originally now 185. USA = 17%, EU=25.7%, Africa =1%Reflects USA concerns so lent to countries threatened by communism. Can impose conditions

World Bank Gives advice, loans and grants to reduce poverty and promote economic development

Similar to IMF. USA = 16%. Bad reputation in 1970s for financing projects that caused environmental damage and created debt. MDGs!

United Nations (UN)

Prevents war and arbitrates on international disputes.

192 members in 2008. Most influential international alliance in the world

World Trade Organisation (WTO)

Trade policy, agreements and settling disputes. Promotes global free trade

All countries get 1 vote but votes never actually just through mutual consent with biggest markets deciding outcome. Allows subsidies for USA and EU!

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

Military alliance between European countries and the USA

The G8 Meetings about global policy direction for western democracies

Represents 65% of global GDP but 14% of population. Very restricted membership

Davos Group Swiss based non-profit foundation to discuss business and profits

Business CEO’s, political leaders, Media, celebritiesNo official status but attended by presidents

Nature of trade and who controls it. Does this maintain global power?The WTO established a series of trade agreements since the 1950s which have resulted in huge growth in trade and wealth:

Removal of taxes and tariffs on imports Removal of quotas on imports Removal of subsidies for domestic producers

This has therefore seen the growth of areas such as Asia e.g. China and India but the decline in Africa’s share of world trade as the international trade is mostly in the hands of TNCs who have decided not to invest in Africa and in Asia they have developed free trade zones which attract more investment.

However the idea of free trade for some countries is an illusion as trade takes place between trade blocs e.g. EU and NAFTA. Thos countries not a member of a trade bloc still have to pay tariffs and quotas etc.

Finally developed nations also control innovation and technology which are not shared with developing nations. 75% of fees/royalties go to three main powers, USA, EU and Japan.

Superpowers cultural influence AmericanisationGlobal culture has been seen as a way to spread a superpowers influence. The USA is seen as the most powerful force in cultural globalisation.

Named Case study: McDonaldisationOpened in Des Plaines in 1955 with a profit for the 1st day at $366.12 and has grown to having $41 billion in sales

Adapting to different cultures: Portugal – only country where soup is served Pakistan – McArabia and the spicy chicken burger Saudi Arabia – no pork products sold as against Islamic law. All meat is halal China – all drinks were in china cups

Problems:1) Encourages developing nations to export their crops when most children are undernourished2) Use lethal poisons to destroy vast areas of the Central American rainforest to create grazing

pastures for cattle (800 square miles of forest per year needed to keep McDonalds supplied for paper for 1 year)

3) Workers in catering do not have a specific union so little help with disputes4) Forcing indigenous tribes from their native lands

However, McDonalds have also donated over $180 million to McDonald’s Children charities and claim to donate more money than any other commercial enterprise in the USA ($50 million each year)

The impacts on Water, energy, environment and land demand of the rising superpowers e.g. ChinaImpact on resources:

Energy – rapid rise in oil prices in 2007 and 2008 leading to oil being pumped out quicker than new reserves can be found = PEAK OIL

Environment – China and India’s ecological footprint may be similar to those of the EU and USA by 2040

Named Case Study: China – an emerging superpowerRapid economic growth in China has been achieved at high environmental and social costs:

Environmental Costs Social Costs

China is going through industrial revolution in a compressed timeframe resulting in it being the largest contributor to C02 emissions

16 of the top 20 most air-polluted cities 2003 – air pollution blamed for 400,000 deaths 30% of China suffers from acid rain due to

emissions from coal-fired power stations C02 emissions in 2006 more than 6.2 billion

tonnes (increase of 9%) 70% of China’s rivers and lakes are polluted Beijing’s pollution levels are 3x higher than safe

WHO levels

Rural population still in poverty 20% of population live on less than $1 a day Child labour used in some factories Housing in some parts of Beijing were

demolished to make way for Olympic facilities (300,000 evicted)

During the Olympics the authorities banned non-residents from being in the city e.g. beggars, mental illness

1/12th of people rely on the polluted Yangtze river for drinking water

Although China’s stature and power are growing it needs to look to resolve some of its environmental and social costs to ensure long-term sustainability. China is however one of the few countries trying to tackle their issues e.g. rapidly increasing their forest cover, wind turbines and solar panels.

The impacts of the rising new superpowers on the old superpowers Recently the emergence of the new superpowers has been seen as an opportunity as the EU, Japan and USA have experienced economic growth and falling consumer prices due to the explosion of economic activity in NICs and RICs. It is thought however, in the future that the USA will become less dominant and that shortage of fuel, food and water will lead to conflicts.

Named Example: Russia – the rebirth of a superpowerIn the past 20 years Russia has uncovered significant reserves of both oil and gas which adds to Russia’s global power. Russia currently supplies 25% of EU gas and is the largest producer of natural gas in the world. Russia has also developed links with China as Asia’s cities need to switch to less polluting natural gas. Russia’s nature resource reserves have also allowed it to growth in confidence:

In 2006 Russia cut off gas supplies to the Ukraine for 3 days and in March reduced supplies by 25%

In August 2007 Russian submarines planted 2 flags on the Arctic seabed claiming sovereignty over a large area

Russian gas supplies to Ukraine and EU cut off in 2008-09

Named Example: USA car industryThe USA car industry has shrunk since 1970s due to lack of investment and a failure to compete with Japanese car technology. In 2000, car sales in the USA were at 17 million but this has declined in 2007 to 13 million. In 2008, the top five best selling cars in the USA were Japanese. Chinese car industries are also beginning to launch themselves onto world markets and it is thought that by 2015 Geely will produce 1.7 million cars per year.

Implications for the Majority world (Less developed countries) of the new superpowers Some periphery nations have gained economic independence through 2 ways:

1) Nationalisation – state has taken control of the company or its land owning2) Cartels – formation of cartels e.g. OPEC

Named Example: OPEC – an oil cartelThe organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was created in 1960 to counter oil price cuts from American and European oil companies. In 1979, the OPEC countries produced 65% of the world oil but only 35% by 2007. There were concerns that they had reached peak oil but it has allowed them to

control the price of oil within a range of $22-28 per barrel. This means they control the amount of crude oil they export to avoid flooding or squeezing the international marketplace. The profits made from oil have allowed member countries to invest and diversify their economies and to generate wealth over the past 40 years. It has also ensured that countries maintained favourable relationships with the OPEC countries and that the Middle East would be involved in economic cooperation and development with industrialised countries.

Named Example: China’s investment in Africa – Colonisation or development?The growth of the emerging powers has been seen by many to provide the developing world with new opportunities to develop. Chinese companies are investing in Africa to help exploit and export raw materials:- Around 30% of all used in China comes from Africa- In 2007 Chinese investment in Africa totalled $30 billion

However many believe that China has little interest in developing Africa; they are just wanting its resources. This is because most investment goes to the governments, TNCs and Chinese companies, and not to the local people. Much of the infrastructure has also been built by Chinese nationals and not local people. China now has:- 45% ownership of oil field in Nigeria- Minerals investment in Zimbabwe- $175 million invested in copper mining in Zambia

Shifting power may lead to tensions

Although the USA and Europe are allies there still remain cultural tensions between them. USA attitudes tend to focus on individual provision of healthcare and education, are more overtly religious and are concerned about being number one! Europe has a stronger emphasis on the welfare state, more liberal attitudes and is more family orientated.

TerrorismThis is a growing feature of the 21st Century and tends to be located in areas where the involvement of the USA and other countries are seen as directly opposed to the interests of Islam and Muslims by extreme Islamic groups. It is mostly directed toward the USA, with the biggest attack being the 9/11. Many people in the world believed the USA deserved the attack as they ignored international agreements for example the world criminal court in which they refuse to have its own citizens stand but wanted war criminals prosecuted. They had reduced its aid to the poorest nations and supported political regimes where it suited them e.g. Kuwait.

WarIn 2002 the invasion of Iraq was thought by many Europeans to be less about removing Saddam Hussein and this alleged weapons of mass destruction but about ensuring the USA had access to Middle East oil supplies. The USA drawn-out attempt to restore a form of peaceful, functioning government in Iraq undermined the USA’s international status.

The FutureThere are 4 main cultural world views which are present in the emerging powers; American corporate capitalism, European liberalism, the Islamic world and Chinese Confucianism. There are various possible scenarios

1) Multi-polar world – USA remains the most powerful but less dominant superpower but rise of China and India

2) Arms race – possibly nuclear in the middle east and east Asia if tensions cannot be resolved3) Resource nationalisation – rising tensions as oil and water run short and there is a dash for new

resources4) Decline of Europe and Japan – due to rapidly ageing populations

5) Resource –rich powers (Russia, Middle East) will challenge the political and economic order

What questions have been asked?

‘The tensions between today’s superpowers are economic rather than political’ Discuss. (10)

To what extent have the ways of maintaining power changed over time (10)

Suggest and justify a set of criteria for defining what a superpower is? (10)

Examine ways in which superpowers exert their influence (10)

Evaluate the factors which lead to superpower status (15)

Using examples, assess the view that the relationship between the developed and the developing world is a neo-colonial one (15)

Assess the view that economic development in not possible without causing environmental degradation (15)

Using figure 4 - explain how membership of International Organisations gives some countries political and economic power (10 marks)

Referring to examples discuss the factors that cause power to shift between superpowers over time (15)

To what extent is the USA’s superpower status threatened by the emerging power of the BRICs (Brazil, Russia, India and China)? (15)

With reference to Figure 3 and your own knowledge, explain how the USA maintains its superpower status. (10)

Figure 3 The USA abroad: aid, McDonalds and military bases

US overseas aid: the top 20receiving countries

McDonald’s restaurantsaround the world

USA military presencearound the world

Topic 5: Bridging the Development Gap

What do I need to know? How the development Gap can be measured

Theories on why the gap exists

The role of different Key players on development

General physical, economic, political and social causes of the gap

Role of trade and investment in the development gap

Social, economic and environmental impacts of the development gap

Impacts on minority groups

Impacts on Megacities

The positive and negative impacts of countries trying to close the gap on migration and the

environment

Theoretical ways of reducing the development gap

The advantages and disadvantages of methods of closing the development gap

Key Terms:Aid Refers to gifts or repayable loans made by one country to anotherApartheid Meaning segregation, used to describe a political and legal system used in

South Africa to separate different ethnic groups Bilateral aid Foreign aid (in the shape of money, expertise, education or technology)

from a single donor to a countryBottom-up development Occurs at a community level – people’s needs are indentified and local

projects are designed to meet themCapital-intensive High-cost industries such as mining where machines do most of the work

and few jobs are createdDebt service Payments of interest, plus a proportion of the original loan, which are

required in order to pay back a debt over a given period of timeDevelopment Means ‘change’ and implies change is for the betterDevelopment gap The social and economic disparity between the wealthy and the poorFormal economy The economy that is regulated by the state so is taxed and monitored by

the government. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The value of goods and services produced in a country over a year.

Gross National Product (GNP)

Like GDP but includes overseas investment such as shares and earnings for overseas companies and branches.

Human Development Index (HDI)

Created by the UN to provide a measure of life expectancy, education and GDP for every country in the world.

Informal economy All economic activities that are neither taxed or monitored by the government

Investment Refers to repayable loans used to develop a country but with an expectation of a share of the profits e.g. when TNCs invest in a factory

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

Agreed at the UN summit in 2000, 8 goals were agreed to provide a set of development goals for the world to reach by 2015

Multilateral aid Aid given from alliances for several countries or organisations to anotherMultiplier Effect An effect in economies in which an increase in spending produces an

increase in the national income and consumption greater than the amount originally spent

Neo-liberalism Idea that market exchange is capable of acting as a guide for all human action. State interventions are minimized including the obligations for the state to provide for the welfare of its citizens

Out-sourcing The employment of people overseas to do jobs previously done by people in the home country

Per capita Per personPurchasing Power Parity (PPP)

Shows what per capita income will purchase when the cost of living is taken into consideration

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP)

Re-scheduling loans to make them more affordable

Tied Aid Where foreign aid benefits the donor in the shape of interest repayments, access to new markets or political allegiance.

Top-down development Development projects are made by governments or large organisationsTrade liberalisation Also known as ‘free trade’, removing barriers such as duties or customs

How the development Gap can be measured Gross Domestic Product – total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year. Does

not take into account the way in which the cost of living may vary between countries. Also only average figures which do not tell the way in which wealth is distributed within a country or how the government invests the money it has.

Human Development Index (HDI) – measures life expectancy, educational attainment and GDP per capita. These are converted to an index which has a max value of 1.0

Gender related development index (GDI) – measurement of overall achievement for both men and women in the 3 factors measured in the HDI

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) – established in 2000 to reduce global poverty substantially by 2015. Measurement of progress is based on 1990 figures.

Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Achieve universally primary education Promote gender equality Reduce child mortality Improve maternal health Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Ensure environmental sustainability Develop a global partnership for development

Development Cable – identified that in order for a country to develop there are key developmental factors that interact. The outer strands are the outcomes of development and are integral to development

Theories on why the gap exists Rostow’s model (Modernisation Theory)Stated that a country passes from underdevelopment to development through a series of stages of economic growth. He thought that capital should be transferred from developed to developing countries to assist development. Did not take into account factors such as high rates of population growth or political changes

Poverty CycleIdea that less developed countries are trapped in a continually cycle of poverty because of a lack of money and low incomes. Did not take into account the rapid economic growth of countries like China, India and South Korea. Also does not consider the amount of foreign aid or loans from international banks.

Dependency Theory (Frank)Countries like the USA control and exploit less developed areas of the world. This produces a relationship of dominance and dependency which can lead to poverty and underdevelopment.

GlobalisationCountries are becoming increasing connected and interdependent at a global scale. Global flows that connect places involve the movement of people, capital, technology, ideas and information.

DebtIn the last 50 years, many poor countries accepted loans from rich countries and interest payments on loans affect development as they put pressure on the financial situation in the country. Debt is also an issue due to corruption within developing countries’ governments which divert loan money from the intended target and trade barriers imposed by developing countries which make it hard for poorer countries to export their goods.

The role of different Key players on development

Type Example Impact on development in developing countriesInternational organisations

International Monetary Fund

Aim to prevent the disruption of international financial system so countries can renegotiate through the IMF the terms of debt and impose conditions called ‘stabilisation programmes’ which often hinder the development

World Bank Provides investment for economic and social projects to improve standards. Conditions attached to the loans hinder development and promote dependency and increased poverty

World Trade Organisation

Can promote trade between developed and developing nations. Can encourage trade dependency and create barriers to free and fair trade agreements

International Commercial

TNCs e.g. Nike

Provide employment and investment in a country/region. May exploit workers to maximise cheap labour and stay competitive. Leakage of funds back to parent company

National Political

Governments Regulate the economy to make the most of market opportunities and attract inward investment. Provide physical infrastructure e.g. roads and public services e.g. education. Decisions can be affected by politics and existing alliances

NGOs Unicef, Oxfam Non-biased help to development projects or relief programmes. Bottom-up approach takes account of local peoples needs. Rely on funding that may not be available

General physical, economic, political and social causes of the gap

Role of trade and investment in the development gap InvestmentSome NICs have benefited from high levels of foreign direct investment e.g. China and South Korea. However there are 2 billion people who live in countries that have become less globalised as trade has falled iin relation to national income including most of the African countries.

Trade

PhysicalWater availabilitynatural soil qualityFarming potential

SocialPopulation levelsBirth ratesEducation levels

Economic

location of TNCsTrade linksEconomic groupings e.g. G8Dependency on particular industries e.g. farming

Political

Level and conditions of overseas investmentsLevel of debtCorruptionLegacy of colonaialism

Africa in 2002 if it increased its share of world trade by just 1% would earn an extra $49billion, 5x the amount it receives in aid. Traditionally north-south trade flows have focused on developing countries exporting primary products. In the last 20 years developing countries have moved into manufacturing (80% of exports now manufactured products). Globalisation has led to large increases in trade in places such as China, India. Importantly ‘terms of trade’ is the ration between currencies earned from its exports and the prices of imports. This means that any countries exporting natural resources and importing manufactured goods will have declining terms of trade.

Named Case Study: Cotton

Background information Impacts of cotton Link to the development gap

Mali Cotton 10 million small-scale cotton growers suffering from falling prices

Small scale farmers can earn up to $1000/year

3 million Malians rely on cotton to survive

2001 US aid = $37.7 m 2001 = Mali lost $343 million

due to American subsidises = 6% of GDP

Breathing problems due to cotton fibres

Farming cotton gives a farmer 3x the average annual income

Plans to privatised the cotton industry

4% of population driven into poverty

Subsidies lea to overproduction of cotton forces cotton prices down Mali cotton farmers earn less decline in living standards

If cotton subsidies to USA farmers were scrapped prices would have risen for African farmers by 3.5%

USA Cotton 25,000 cotton producers receive $4 billion/year in subsidies

Up to 20% of cotton farmer’s income comes from subsidies

USA spends 3x as much on subsidies for cotton then it does on aid for

whole of Africa The US is the second largest

cotton producer US currently accounts for

more than 50% of the worlds exported cotton.

Large scale production e.g. 1 16,000 acre farm makes enough cotton for 200,000 t-shirts

The slack in world production of clothing has been taken up by China and Pakistan

In countries that subsidise their farming, only 5% of the population are farmers

Reduced cotton prices by 15%

Law passed banning export subsidies on cotton

WTO ruled in March 2007 that cotton subsidies were unfair

Social, economic and environmental impacts of the development gap

Urban and rural areas are effected differently by the development gap, rural communities are often the worse effected due to an inability to produce enough food.

Named Case Study: The impact on the development gap in UgandaKey Facts:

Population of 31 million Resources – copper, cobalt and hydro-electric power, coffee, tobacco, sugar cane and tea

Social Economic Environmental

Infant mortality rates 106 per 1000 live births for the poorest and 20 per 1000 live births for the wealthiest

24% of families are undernourished Lack of money from exports means

government has limited funding for healthcare and education

2005 life expectancy was 49.7 years Only 60% have access to safe water Only 43% have access to sanitation First government in Africa to attract

international aid for a HIV/AIDs education programme = only 6% of population infected

Only 17% of girls attend secondary school Women marry at the age of 15 High fertility rate – 6.8 children per woman

In 2005 – GDP per capita was $1454

Economy based on export sale of primary goods = low prices

In 1992, debt was $1.9 billion

Early 1990s debt repayments exceeded export earnings

2000 the World Bank cancelled most of the debt through the HIPC scheme totally $1.5 billion increased spending on public services by 20% 10% more of the population now have access to clean water

Widespread malaria and cholera

At risk from droughts especially linked to climate change

Raw material exploitation has led to destruction of the natural environment e.g. mining, removal of trees for agriculture

Impacts on minority groupsThe development gap can create differences between groups such as castes in India or between males and females in the same country. The caste system is a religious and social class system in India, where classes are defined by birth and family. The Dalits or untouchables (16% of population) work in unhealthy, polluting jobs and suffer from social prejudice and extreme poverty. They are not allowed to obtain water from the same source as other people and must have their own segregated area. Scheduled tribes consist of tribal groups (7% of population) and other backward classes (52% of population). This enables them to discriminate positively in education and jobs for the most disadvantaged.

Women in developing countries are more likely than men to be unpaid family workers or occupy low-status jobs and have lower earnings. 64% of adults are illiterate women and 57% of children who receive no primary education are girls.

Impacts on Megacities - – General examples and 1 in detail e.g. Mumbai from AS or Dhaka in book

8% of the world’s urban population live in ‘megacities’ which have populations over 10 million. In developing countries a variety of push factors in the countryside have encouraged out-migration to the cities; population pressure, unemployment, poor housing, famine etc. People are then attracted to the urban areas due to pull factors; better education, housing, improved medical facilities etc.

Location of megacities

Named Case Study: Dhaka, Bangladesh: a megacity under stressKey facts:

By 2015 population expected to reach 21 million with one of the highest population densities in the world

Caused by high rates of natural increase and large volumes of rural-urban migration.

Housing: New migrants don’t have any

money so end up in ‘temporary’ settlements on unwanted land e.g. marshy, polluted, along transport routes

Deprivation: Limited access to employment

and income Reliance on informal economy Overcrowded housing Limited access to health and

education Unhealthy environments

Environment: Air pollution due to traffic,

power plants that are old and badly maintained

Water pollution leaking sewers, landfill sites and lack of sewerage systems

Waste disposal contamination and health hazards due to waterborne diseases

Water supply aquifers become depleted due to huge population demands

FACTORS AFFECTING MEGACITIES

Challenges created:Challenge Solution/recent developments

Employment Unemployment of 23% 33% of city workforce is self-employed Child labour high in poorest households Home to 80% of the 2 million garment

industry employees

2 export zones created to encourage export of goods

Bashundhara City created with high-tech industries and businesses

Urban Poor 28% of population classed as poor, 12% extremely poor

Only 5% live in permanent housing 4.2 million live in slums

Improvements in drains and sanitation Back to home programme encourages

people to return to villages with help Local community health volunteers

Environmental quality

Only 27% connected to public sewer Poor water management cost $670

million each year Poor air regulation = air pollution above

national standard 100 days per year Polluted water sources = disease spreads

quickly

Ban on leaded petrol Work in improve water quality, supply

and sanitation cost $100m Public information on causes and

impacts of poor air and water quality Promoted clean gas-powered cooking

stoves

The positive and negative impacts of countries trying to close the gap on migration and the environment

Migration: increased migration flows are a vital part of development and include both international (into the country e.g. business, technicians and out of the country as they seek a better life) and internal flows from rural to urban areas.

Source area/country Host area/countryBenefits Natural increase slows as

young adults leave Less pressure on resources Remittances sent home

Declining populations boosted by migrants

Labour force filled Multicultural society

Costs Populations become older Loss of skilled workers Westernisation of returning

migrants

Racial/social tensions Gender concentrations e.g.

only males Increased pressure on

resources

Environment: as a country develops its environmental pollution and ecological footprint becomes larger. Economic development raises demand for resources and countries tend to exploit them as quickly as possible without thinking of the environmental costs e.g. SYNOPTIC LINK TO CHINA CASE STUDY

Theoretical ways of reducing the development gap - Neo Liberal, Marxism, Populism, Non development

Neo-liberal 1980-1990s – looked to remove tariff barriers to encourage international trade. This allowed countries to develop through trade and governments should look to privatise and reducing state intervention in the economy. This however, tended to make the rich richer and the poor poorer. Examples e.g. World Bank, world Trade Organisation

Marxism – idea that capitalism is based on the exploitation of workers by the owners and that history has mainly been a conflict between these 2 classes. Sought to replace existing class structures with a system that managed society for the good of all

Populism – idea that supports ‘the people’ in the struggle against society’s ellite. Also known as ‘grassroots action’ it is an important element of ‘bottom-up’ planning e.g. NGOs

Non-development – some people are against the idea of development as it creates and widens inequalities, undermines local cultures and is environmentally unsustainable.

The advantages and disadvantages of methods of closing the development gapSolution Definition Benefits Negatives ExampleAidMultilateral Provided by

many nations and organised by international bodies e.g. UN

Enables overview to see where the money will be best used

Equal share of aid can be given to a number of different countries

Fails to reach the poorest people Benefits are short-lived Often a number of disasters occur in a

short period so people give less money The WB notorious for implementing

conditions that consequences for recipient countries

Brandt Report suggested each country should give 0.7% of its GNP towards. However most countries do not get close to reaching that target

Bilateral Given directly from one country to another

Fosters links between countries Often the country receives more

aid in this way

Often ‘tied’ to the purchase of goods and services from the donor country

Use of aid on large capital intensive schemes can worsen the conditions of the poorest people

Can create a culture of dependency Interest repayments

See Pergau Dam example

Voluntary Run by NGOs or charities such as Oxfam, Action Aid

Work with communities to provide for their long-term needs

Often help during natural disasters

They rely on the generosity of the public as well as donations from governments for their funds. This means that their cash flow isn’t always guaranteed

See Barlonyo example

Top-down Capital intensive and government lead.

Major disaster areas benefit from short-term aid

Areas with historic ties between the donor and recipient countries receive lots of aid

Countries often use the aid to support their existing systems

Criticised as inappropriate way of helping poor countries

Aid often fought over by different interest groups = lack of investment in productive business activities

Often money diverted to rich people rather than the poor

Pergau Dam, MalaysiaBegan in 1991 and set up without consulting local people.Malaysia around the same time bought £1 billion worth of arms from the UKOnly £234 million in aid actually given = ‘tied aid’

Bottom-up Involve the local people in the decision making

Analyses the local’s needs and looks for solutions

Uses appropriate technology

They rely on the generosity of the public as well as donations from governments for their funds. This means that their cash flow isn’t always guaranteed

Barlonyo, UgandaSupported by national and international NGOs local farmers have formed a democratically run cooperative. Enables all farmers to share the cost of hiring a truck to transport their goods to market. In 2008 able to sell their sesame

seed crop for 3 xs than in 2007. Extra income gone into schooling and healthcare. NGOS gave ox ploughs, high-yield seeds to improve efficiency.

Fair Trade Aimed to improve the terms of trade between North and South through the Fair Trade Foundation

Obtains a fair price for a wide variety of goods exported from developing countries to the developed world

Works with small-scale producers and makes them more economically secure

Fair-trade sales valued at $2.3 billion worldwide in 2006

The products sold in the developing world are more expensive than other brands e.g. Cadbury’s so there is a reluctance to buy them

UgandaBiggest export crop is coffee worth $350 million in 2007. Gumutindo Coffee cooperative has 3000 members – 91% depend on coffee for their main income. Money helps pay for school fees and raise the standard of living

Debt cancellation

Examples include ‘make poverty history’ in 2005 or Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs), HIPCs initiative

14 heavily indebted poor countries (HIPCs) have had their debts written off

Allows countries loans to be rescheduled to make them more manageable

Improves FDI by removing trade or investment restrictions

Reduces government debts through cuts in spending

Reduces government spending by cutting social programmes e.g. health and education

Privatisation of state assets to cut debt often sold to TNCs

Increases pressure on countries to generate exports to pay off debts

Some developed countries accused to protecting their own interests

In December 2000, the UK government agreed to cancel debts owed to the UK by 26 countries, but debts owed to other creditors, such as the Inter-American Development Bank, have not been cancelled

Tourism Belief that the biodiversity and scenery in many poorer countries can attract long-haul tourism from developed countries

FDI and technology brought in by TNCs

Mass tourism from wealthy nations

Tourism needs the development of infrastructure e.g. roads which benefit the local people

Generates local employment and wealth

Multiplier effect – profits from tourism trickle down to the local economy

TNCS control tourism so leakage of money

Can spoil the natural environment Local culture can become westernised Too much pressure on local resources Exploitation of cheap labour

Technology Access to Does not require the same levels Access to technology is limited in many Mongolia

mobile phones in the developing countries could help bridge the digital divide

of literacy as a computer Cheaper way to access

information Africa now the fastest growing

mobile phone market in the world Allows leapfrogging of

technology

areas of the world due to the lack of funding

Should money be spent on phones when there are larger issues to be addressed?

The Asia-Pacific Development Organisation Programme (APDIP) has developed ‘citizen information centres’ which function as training centres which visitors can learn basic computer skills and access the internet. Remote rural areas can connect to the central government and apply for grants. Aims to encourage business and collages to use IT and counteract the issue of the periphery

South to South Links

Hope that more appropriate, low cost and sustainable solutions could be developed

Encourages recipient governments to spend aid more effectively

Workers are learning new skills Employing local people New trading links developed

Economic migration to recipient countries to earn higher wages

Wages often remain low in recipient counties

Large-scale projects can lead to displacement of people

Ignoring health and safety regulations

China in AfricaChina increased its aid to African governments, cancelled $10 billion debts. China hopes that by doing this it will open up new markets and find new raw materials. Africa has 50% of the world’s gold and is also rich in diamonds. China now buys 1/3rd of its oil from Africa

MDGs Provide a framework for monitoring the development gap and measuring any progress towards reducing it

Success stories e.g. 41 more children enrolled in primary education

2 million more receiving aid treatment

6% economic growth in sub-Saharan countries in 2008

Over 500,000 women died from treated, preventable conditions of pregnancy and childbirth

980 million still live on less than 1$ per day

Bangladesh Progress1) Eradicate poverty = poverty

reduction rate of 1.2% a year2) University primary education =

3.4% increase3) Gender equality = gap in

education levels closed4) Reduce child morality =

reduced by 2.8%

What questions have been asked?

Study Figure 4.Using information in Figure 4, and your own knowledge, explain why it is difficult to measure development. (10)

Evaluate the role of different global organisations in narrowing the development gap. (15)

Using Figure 4 and your own knowledge, explain why some groups of people within a country have a lower level of development than others. (10)

Using named examples, assess the advantages and disadvantages of top-down and bottom-up development strategies (15)

Evaluate the role of trade in bridging the development gap (15)

Examine the role played by debt in maintaining the global development gap (15)

Examine the barriers that exist against the expansion of trade in some developing countries (15)

How far are patterns of global trade responsible for maintaining the development gap? (15)

Assess the view that economic development is not possible without causing environmental degradation (15)

Topic 6: The Technological Fix

What is technology and how has it developed and spread?

Geographical distribution of technology use

Reasons for inequality of access

Link between economic development and technological change

Technological leapfrogging – a way to overcome barriers to development?

The impacts of technological innovation

Externalities of technology

Different types of technological solutions

Technology vs. sustainable future

What will have to technology in the future?

Key TermsBiotechnology Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms to

make or modify products or processes for specific useDigital Access Index (DAI)

The gap between the digital ‘haves’ and ‘have not’s

Digital Blackout Where people are without some or all of the following; email, internet, television and telephone connections. This can be due to either a malfunction or because of a switch to new technology

Digital Divide The gap between the richer and poorer parts of the world in terms of ICT access.DNA The chemical in the cells of animals and plants that carries genetic informationEnvironmental determinism

The view that the physical environment, rather than social conditions, determines culture

Extended polluter responsibility

Holds manufacturers and traders responsible for the environmental impacts of their products throughout the product life-cycle, from extraction of natural materials, through the manufacturing process and product use, to their disposal

Externalities Third-party effects that can be positive or negative. They occur when the actions of one group, organisation or individual affect the standard of living or quality of life of another party without direct interaction between the two

Genetic modification The manipulation of DNA by splitting the DNA module and then rejoining it to form a hybrid molecule

Global Shift Transfer of manufacturing from western Europe and North America, to newly industrialised countries and the growth of trade around the Pacific Ocean

information and communications technology (ICT)

Blanket term to cover all technologies involves in the manipulation and communication of information

Intellectual property Cover the ownership of creations of the mind both artistic and commercialIntermediate technology

Labour intensive and small scale technology

Pandemic A disease that spreads over a whole country or over the whole worldPatent Sole and exclusive rights for a number of years to the proceeds from the sales of

an inventionPolluter Pays Principle

Intended to make those who cause pollution pay for the damage they do to the environment

Technological Leapfrogging

Describes how some newer technologies, such as mobile phones and the internet, are penetrating developing countries much faster than older technologies such as landline telephones

Technology poor Places and people who lack access to a regular and reliable source of electricity Technology rich Places and people who have access to reliable electricity and to a good

communications infrastructure

What is technology and how has it developed and spread?Technology results from innovation and the ability of people to innovate and find new and better ways of carrying out a task. It also increases the ability of people to satisfy their own needs. It is generally believe that for every problem there is a technological fix:

Technological fix examples include geo-engineering to reduce incoming solar radiation to reduce global warming and pharmaceutical research to find a vaccine for HIV/AIDSAttitudinal fix examples include education and tax incentives to reduce people’s carbon footprints and public health education to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS

Development of Technology

Over time people have used technology to control nature, so that their lives are less controlled by environmental factors e.g. an umbrella when it is raining. Generally people will accept new technology if they think it will improve their quality of life. Techies embrace new developments to the ‘luddites’ who are opposed to technological change. In the USA Amish Christians reject modern technology for religious reasons.

Geographical distribution of technology useThe Digital Access Index (DAI) was introduced in 2003 to measure the access to ICT of people in 178 countries. It outlined that technology can be seen as pervasive, as it is found in some form or other wherever you find people living on the planet

When comparing the HDI and DAI North America, Western Europe, Japan, and Australia countries are high in both human development and digital access. This clustering and relationship is not unexpected.

Those counties with a high HDI score but middle/low DAI scores include Cuba, Iran, Maldives, Saudi Arabia, Thailand and Turkey.

Reasons for inequality of access

Link between economic development and technological change

Countries with higher levels of development tend to have greater access to communications technology. Those countries with a digital access index of over 75 are hyper connected and these include the triad of economically wealthy countries East Asia, North America and EU. Countries with scores less than 15 are mainly in Africa and they will be slow to move forward as a range of other technologies need to be in place first e.g. reliable power source.

Also linked to this is the developing world’s ability to access technology to exploit and burn fossil fuels, meaning they are reliant upon capturing energy directly e.g. solar and wind power. This therefore restricts their development.

The developed world has also gained an ‘initial advantage’ through continual technological innovation. This has meant that the use of patents and copyright has enabled the funds from these innovations to be returned to the developed countries. The USA accounts for nearly 40% of technology patents.

Technological leapfrogging – a way to overcome barriers to development?

This can help countries to develop by providing a quick fix such as the use of mobiles has allowed places to develop as they are wireless and nodes such as mobile phone masts and solar power systems can be built quickly and almost anywhere. This therefore allows long-distance communication to develop in places that were in the past on the periphery.

Named Example: India

In 1998 India had 22 telephone landlines per 1000 people and was seen as excluded from global communications due to the expense and waiting list for telephones to be installed. Mobile phones were introduced in 1994 and since 2000 mobile phone use has grown from 3.5 mobiles to 230 per 1000 people. This has brought many benefits to the people:

Families separated by rural-urban migration can stay in touch

Wealth- 2/3rds of all those infected by HIV live in Sub-Saharan Africa but cannot afford the annual treatment costs

Politics- 31 countries operated nuclear power plants in 2007- Western powers that used military force, economic sanctions and tied aid to prevent countries gaining access to nuclear technology e.g. Iran

Communications- In North Korea the government banned people from having private phones and mobiles since 2004

Religion- The Catholic Church bans the use of contraception on religious grounds- In some developing catholic countries access to contraception in severely limited

Farmers can now check prices before going to market to buy fertilisers or sell crops ensuring they get the best prices

Small businesses can keep in touch with customers and services Information such as weather forecasts and hazard warnings can be sent to remote areas

The impacts of technological innovation

Green Revolution Gene RevolutionWho developed the crops?

Research institutes e.g. International Rice Research Institute

TNCs and bio-tech companies

Which crops are grown?

First crop ‘IR8’ was rice but other varieties now replace it as more resistant

Bt maize and Bt cotton and herbicide resistant soybean

Where are the crops grown?

HYV rice grown in Asia HYV wheat grown in Latin AmericaHYV crops in Africa

GM soya bean most widely plantedUSA, China, Latin America and Canada have large areas of GM crops

Benefits? Rapid growth allows 2 crops per year

Yields 10xs traditional rice Now bred to be disease and pest

resistant India been self-sufficient in rice

since 1980s

Some varieties have been bred for nutrient e.g. Golden rice contains vitamin A

Crops are resistant to herbicide so weeds can be killed without crop damage

Have they increased food production?

Yields of wheat, rice and maize grew by 2% year between 1967-1996

Most GM crops are fed to animals

Unforeseen consequences

1 ) Solar polarisation – larger farmers could afford fertilisers etc so benefited the most2) Monocultures – HYVs are vulnerable to new strains of disease3) Dependency – needs high inputs of fertilisers, water and machinery to maintain yields4) Environmental problems – widespread use of agrochemicals lead to Eutrophication

1) Led to export boom which helped Argentina to recover from serious crash in 20012) Number of farms has fallen by 60,000 as area of GM soybean x33) Decline in areas of maize and sunflower by 5 million hectares reducing food security among the poor

Named Example – DDT

From 1938 the synthetic pesticide was used to control malarial mosquitoes and became a farm pesticide. In 1964 environmentalists Rachel Carson publish ‘Silent Spring’ which blamed DDT for a growing toll of wildlife deaths. DDT was ingested by creatures and restricted their ability to lay viable eggs. DDT was banned in the USA in 1972 and the UK in 1984.

Externalities of technologyFor every technology there are unexpected consequences of its use which can be both positive and negative. There are various different approaches to externalities and their impacts:

Polluter Pays Principle – way of accounting for the pollution which is a negative externality. It quantifies the cost of pollution and passes it back to the producers, or user of a technology. It can be implemented through 2 approaches:

1) Command and control – new technologies are introduced to limit pollution. In the USA all cars built since 2004 must be fitted with a catalytic converter to reduce their emissions

2) Market based – governments introduce pollution controls, carbon trading permits and product labelling e.g. British government introduced Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) bands based on the amount of C02 that a vehicle emits. This aims to encourage people to drive cars which produce less carbon dioxide.

Pollution Sink – the carbon dioxide we produce from burning fossil fuels is released into the atmosphere. It was assumed that the sink was large enough to cope but the WWF living Planet Index suggested that using the environment as a sink for pollution has serious consequences that will need to be addressed

Capturing pollutants – for single-point polluters such as power stations the use of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology can be used.

Different types of technological solutions Type Aim Benefits Negatives Example

Appropriate Designed with special consideration to the environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, and economical aspects of the community it is intended for.

It is appropriate to the level of income, skill and needs of the local population

Fewer resources are needed

Easier to maintain Less impact on the

environment

Takes tremendous study of the region’s climate, resources, location, and people to ensure it fits in with local cultures etc

long term effects are unknown Pose more problems for large

scale applications

Free play wind-up radioCost around $40 which is human powered so no pollution or energy costs. Has an integrated torch and can be used to hear news, weather forecasts and hazard warnings.Increases independence and access of critical information in isolated rural areas

Intermediate Refer to relatively low, usually labour intensive technology that can be mastered by local people, especially in the developing world

See above See above Sri Lankan Pumpkin Storage systemGutters collect rainwater and it is stored in a tank built from locally available materials (cost to build £200). Water is then collected from the tap at the bottom of the tank, supply clean fresh and regular water supply

Civil engineering

Also known as large-scale megaprojects which reflect a top-down approach

Provides quick path to development e.g. China

Can help solve issues such as energy production and flood control

Very expensive e.g. Three Gorges Dam cost $25 billion to build

Huge environmental impacts e.g. pollution and flooding of land

Social impacts e.g. displaced people

Often money comes from tied aid or loans which have conditions or high interest repayments

ChinaHave favoured megaprojects as a quick way to modernise the Chinese economy and most of the leaders are trained engineers. Gained a 8% GDP annual growth ratee.g. Three Gorges Dam- Increased pollution as the river can no longer regulate itself- 4 million people displaced- Several species threatened with extinction

Alternative Refer to technologies that are more environmentally friendly than the functionally equivalent technologies

Control energy costs and reduced greenhouse gas emissions

Collect methane gas which if released into the atmosphere is 20x more global warming potential than carbon dioxide

Issues over practicality of widespread use

Are they cost-effective? Will widespread adoption would

produce negative impacts on the economy, lifestyle or environment

Landfill gas – South DakotaLandfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane. The gases produced within the landfill can be collected and flared off or used to produce heat or electricity. The City of Sioux Falls, South Dakota installed a landfill gas collection system which collects, cools, dries, and

dominant in current practice.

compresses the gas into an 11-mile pipeline. The gas is then used to power an ethanol plant operated by POET Biorefining. This energy production offsets almost two million tons of coal per year.

Micro Technology

Includes providing developing nations with connections to ICT and mobile phones

Enables developing countries to become part of the globalised network of communications

Leapfrogging of old technologies enables fast development in certain areas

Is this an effective way to spend aid money?

See India Named example

Nano technologies

See GM/Green revolution table

See GM/Green revolution table

See GM/Green revolution table See GM/Green revolution table

Geoengineering Looks to engineer our own planet than rather attempting to find a new one

Could provide long term, large scale solutions to some of the world’s most serious issues e.g. global warming, land degradation and energy demand

The effectiveness of the schemes proposed may fall short of predictions.

Techniques that do not remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere may control global warming, but do not reduce other effects from these gases

The full effects of various geoengineering schemes are not well understood.

Performance of the systems may become ineffective, unpredictable or unstable as a result of external events, such as volcanic eruptions, El Niño, solar flares

The techniques themselves may cause significant foreseen or unforeseen harm

MaldivesBuilding of a $32 million artificial island of Hulhumale between 1997-2002. It is built 2 metres above sea level and it designed to reduce overcrowding on existing islands and also replace them if they are drowned by rising sea levels

Space mirrorsAttempt by Russia in 1999 to launch giant mirrors into orbit to reflect solar radiation away from Earth to create a cooling effect. Costs expected $1 trillion

Solving global issues with technology

Named Example: Fixing Global Warming Improving energy efficiency in vehicles and machinery Changing transport patterns from air and road to rail, reducing distances travelled by goods Extending renewable sources e.g. tidal, wind, solar Producing bio fuels from crops Using natural gas in place of coal to generate electricity Constructing greener buildings e.g. double glazing, solar panels etc Carbon sequestration – storing carbon underground Seeding oceans with iron to encourage growth of phytoplankton Injecting sulphate particles into the upper atmosphere to reflect solar radiation Constructing giant mirrors in space to reflect sunlight Social controls – population control, lifestyle changes, tax credits for electric cars International agreements e.g. Kyoto Protocol

Named Example: Fixing land degradation Increasing organic content in the soil by adding manure and crop wastes to improve structure and

drainage Leaving land fallow allows soil to recover Crop rotations balance out the nutrient budget and prevents pest taking long-term hold Planting shelterbelts – prevents soil being washed or blown away Alley-cropping alternates crops with trees and bushes providing shade and reducing water loss by

evaporation Magic stones – used to slow runoff and prevent soil erosion

Technology vs. sustainable futureIn order to judge whether technologies we use might help to solve global environmental and resource problems, the sustainability quadrant allows us to assess technology against well-know criteria

Should produce minimal wasteMaterials used should be recyclable at the end of life

People must be involved in the decision makingChoosing to adopt a technology is better than being forced to

If a technology needs replacement after a few yars it uses up resourcesLow income groups need technology they can maintain

Technology must be cheap or grants available for low-income groupsNegative externalities should be minimised

EquityDoes it benefit

everyone?

FuturityWill it last?

Environment

Is it eco-friendly?Public

participation

Is it bottom-up?

What will happen to technology in the future? Business as usual – likely to lead to further increases in greenhouse gas emissions, land degradation and water shortages. Global inequality will grow leaving some areas of the world technology poor. Countries such as Bangladesh face the added issue of climate change impacts as there are 10m people who live on land less than 1m above sea level. Therefore a country like Bangladesh can only use technology to cope with the frequent flood disasters that afflict it but longer-term solutions to prevent the disaster lies in the hands of the developed world

Technological Convergence – the spread of the motor vehicle is an example of this and they allow individual mobility, road transport which is key in development as it allows markets and networks to operate and transport in an industry accounts for up to 10% of the GNP providing jobs and income growth. The launch of the Tata Nano in India priced at $2500 will allow the poorer people to access transport. Also leads to other problems such as increases in Co2 emissions.

Energy efficiency – The Automotive X Prize is a global competition to find a 100mpg four-passenger car. The winner will receive $7.5 million and aims to encourage technological breakthroughs. Other examples include; electric cars, hydrogen cars and bio fuel cars.

Technology transfer – IMF report concluded that education was the key to ensuring people in less developed parts of the world could benefit from new technologies. The commitment to development technology index shows the developed world’s willingness to allow this technology transfer. Technology transfers do occur but often rely on NGOs to provide the funding required to purchase and install the technology e.g. Practical Action

What Questions have been asked?

Using information in Figure 5, and your own knowledge, explains how farming technologies might have different consequences for human and ecosystem wellbeing. (10)

Evaluate the contribution technology might make to tackling global environmental problems such as land degradation and global warming. (15)

Using named examples, discuss the extent to which there is a widening technology gap between the developed and developing world. (15)

Technology can be seen to have unforeseen consequences. Discuss this with reference to examples (15)

Some are able to access new technology to solve environmental problems while others are left to suffer from environmental determinism. Referring to examples, assess the validity of this viewpoint (15)

Examine the importance of technological leapfrogging for developing countries (15)

The development of technology is a possible response to future resource shortages. Assess the possible costs and benefits to this approach (15)

Assess the view that economic development is not possible without appropriate technologies (15)

Explain how both taxing and subsidising petrol can have impacts on human and ecosystem wellbeing. (10)