Rhetoric:

The Art of Persuasion

What is an argument?

NOT a quarrel

Intended to draw people together to solve a problem

To clarify thought, not obscure it

An effort to find truth

Why learn to write arguments?

To be able to engage with others, through language, to solve problems and negotiate differences satisfactorily.

To succeed as a writer in college

To do well on the AP exam and receive college credit

What is truth?

After completing the brainstorm, you see that “truth” is dependent upon perception.

“seeking the truth” does not mean “finding the right answer” but rather thinking through a complex issue to gain further understanding

Psuedo-Argument

Rational arguments require 3 thingsAn issue question with alternative answers

Reasonable participants who operate within the conventions of reasonable behavior

Potentially sharable assumptions that can serve as a starting place or foundation for the argument.

Psuedo-Argument

Fanatical believers: they are right because they say so!

Might site The Bible or The Communist Manifesto as proof

Narrow reading and understanding of this text

Undeniable faith in the author

These underlie their arguments and all might not share these views

Psuedo-Argument

Fanatical skeptic: There is no real proof for anything

There is no proof that the sun will rise tomorrow (even though it has every day in recorded history)

Genuine argument is impossible with these types of participants.

Psuedo-Arguments

Lack of shared assumptionsSmoking should be banned b/c it causes cancer

Assumed premise: cancer is bad b/c death is bad

“So. What’s so bad about cancer?”

“Suffering and death are just a part of human nature.”

“We will all suffer and die.”

Rational or psuedo?Decide which questions will lead to reasonable arguments

Is Spike Lee a good film director?

Is postmodern architecture beautiful?

Should cities subsidize professional sports venues?

Is Justin Timberlake better looking than Demi Moore’s man?

What makes a good film director? Pseudo

What makes something beautiful? Pseudo

Rational: everyone pays taxes. How should that money be spent?

Again, beauty. pseudo

If audience doesn’t agree with my premise, does it make my argument faulty?

No. You may have to prove/support/defend your warrant/premise in your argument before defending your claim. Don’t expect to change any minds if you don’t share at least one belief/value.Won’t be effective or rational if no shared values. No real negotiation, domination or inquiry will occur with your audience.It is possible to resist a belief and still agree with the conclusion. See p. 35 Informed Argument

Classical Argument

The Toulmin model

The alternative to rigid logic

Syllogisms require each piece to be true

Toulmin saw a need for a “working logic”

These are used to show things that are “probably” true

The structure is similar, however.

The model

An audience-based courtroom model

Different from formal logic (syllogisms) in that it assumes:

All assertions and assumptions are contestable by “opposing counsel”

All final verdicts about the persuasiveness of arguments will be rendered by a neutral third party, judge or jury.

How it helps you as a writer

Gives usable language for talking about parts of an argument

Helps anticipate audience reaction/needs

Uses enthymemes as core of the argument and other parts as support for that core.

Terms

Warrant: the value the audience has to hold if the soundness of the argument is to be guaranteed or warranted.

Was the implied assumption or major premise in our work with the enthymemes

Terms

Claim: writer’s statement of beliefWas the conclusion when we were working with enthymemes

Is the point the writer is wishing to prove

Terms

Data: The evidence supporting the claimAka: the reasons.

Was the minor premise when working with enthymemes

Example

Major Premise:

Minor Premise:

Conclusion:

Warrant:

Data:

Claim:

A dark sky indicates rain

The sky is getting darker

Therefore, I it will probably rain, so I should shut the window.

A dark sky indicates rain.

The sky is getting darker

Therefore, I it will probably rain, so I should shut the window.

Example

Major Premise:

Minor Premise:

Conclusion:

Warrant:

Data:

Claim:

Gender stereotypes should be eliminatedThe image of women in combat would help eliminate gender stereotypesWomen should be allowed to join combat units.Gender stereotypes should be eliminatedThe image of women in combat would help eliminate gender stereotypesWomen should be allowed to join combat units.

Terms

Grounds: evidence used to support your data.

Backing: evidence used to support your warrant

Example

Claim:

Data/reason:

grounds:

Women should be allowed to join combat units.The image of women in combat would help eliminate gender stereotypes

Data and evidence showing that a chief stereotype of women is that they are soft and nurturing whereas men are stereotyped as tough and aggressive. The image of women in combat gear would shock people into seeing women as equal to men.

Example

Warrant:

Backing:

Gender stereotypes are harmful and should be eliminated.Arguments showing how the existing stereotype of soft and nurturing women and tough, aggressive men is harmful to both men and women(examples of how the stereotypes keeps both sexes stifled, examples of other benefits that come from this elimination, etc.)

Flaws in a writer’s reasoning

Logical fallacies: see p. 35-41

Evidence in Argument

Your grounds and backing will require evidence for support

Personal experience--Memory or observation

Interviews, surveys and questionaires

ReadingFacts and examples

Summaries of research

Testimony