Growing to

the last drop

How cities with a growing population can survive in areas with

declining water availability.

ISSUE IN BRIEF

Kelley Ribordy • Environmental Issues • April 22, 2014

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To many communities in the United States, water seems like and endless resource.

Countless other parts of the world are already acutely aware that it not only has limits, but those

limits are very clear. The population of the United States continues to rise, and with it the

demand for water. Already some metropolises, especially those found in arid climates, feel the

resource draining away and are creating plans to mitigate it. The following Issue in Brief will

outline three approaches to help cities meet their populations’ water needs when the resource is

becoming less available.

Approach 1: Cities can purchase water from outside sources.

Approach 2: Cities can recycle water already in use.

Approach 3: Cities can conserve water they draw from their historic source.

By themselves, these approaches have limitations and, though creating a substantial

difference, may not be lasting. However, the following Issue in Brief will cover each approach in

detail as well as list specifics on how, if chosen, the approach should proceed as well as common

criticisms of the approach.

Also included is a pre and post survey that should be distributed to forum participants in

order to gauge their initial thoughts, values, and knowledge and their reaction to the approaches.

In addition, a discussion guide has been provided to encourage participants to become involved,

as any decision made will undoubtedly affect their lives.

Water availability is a serious issue that has many approaches and options which a

growing city can chose in planning for their future.

Opening Statement Growing to the

last drop

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When you turn on your faucet, water immediately gushes out. For most of us, water has

come as we have beckoned all of our lives. Why would it ever cross our minds that one day it

might not? Millions of people in cities across the United States turn their faucet dials to call for

water and it continues to answer. But as populations swell, soon enough there will not be

sufficient water to meet our demands. We must make a choice of how we can continue to fulfill

the insistent needs of growing metropolitan populations as water availability shrinks.

Although water is seemingly abundant, there is actually a startlingly small amount we can

use. 97.5% of all water on Earth is salt

water, 2.5% is freshwater. Almost 70%

of the latter is frozen in icecaps and

much of the rest is present in

inaccessible underground aquifers or as

soil moisture (See Fig. 1). In the end,

.0007% of all water on Earth is

available for human use (Gleick, 2000).

Since 1950, the United States’

population has increased 99%. In

tandem with 127% increase in water use,

cities are finding that the water source they have historically used is no longer sufficient to

sustain residents. Compounding this issue is the greatest drought since the Dust Bowl plaguing

the country, especially in the Midwest and California. Water scarcity, which already affects 2.8

billion people worldwide, is soon going to become the primary environmental problem in major

metropolitan regions (See Fig. 2) (Wyler, 2013).

Introduction Growing to the

last drop

Figure 1: Distribution of Earth’s Water

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Imagining what the United States would be like if water availability becomes rare is not

difficult. We only need look at Africa, where access to sufficient water has been a crisis for

decades. Currently, Ethiopia and Egypt are at each other’s throats concerning the Nile River.

While Ethiopia is building a controversial dam to ensure water security for their citizens, Egypt

is claiming it will disrupt flow that they rely on for agriculture and the Egyptian population.

Military action has been threatened on both sides with occasional skirmishes (Hussein, 2014). As

both temperatures and tempers rise, continued water wars over the Nile are likely.

Though it has not come to armed conflict in the United States, there are already examples

of legal battles for water. Kansas is suing Nebraska claiming that the latter is not upholding their

responsibility as outlined in the Republican River Compact. Kansas is allotted a certain amount

of water from the Republican River but has not been receiving it because Nebraska farmers

upstream drain it. These farmers claim that they are not using any more water than they had in

the past, but because the river is drying, less is flowing into Kansas (Associated Press, 2013).

When it comes to ensuring water security for a city, there are several options. This

booklet will cover three: Purchasing water from another water source, recycling water used

within the city, and conserving water taken from the current water source.

Figure 2: U.S. Cities facing the highest potential water shortage

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Water is not like any other natural resource because we cannot live without it and it

cannot be substituted. It has been, sometimes unnecessarily, included into every aspect of our

lives and in the United States it seems almost unbelievable that we could ever live with less,

much less, of it. If we continue the trend with water usage that has been set for the last several

hundred years, will there eventually when be a point when sustaining large cities no longer

makes sense? Early civilizations were created because of access to water. Will the lack of access

destroy what has been created?

These are questions that we may one day need to seriously consider. The policy options

in this booklet seek to push that day further away by helping cities plan for their future.

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Approach One: Cities can purchase water from outside of their usual sources.

Blue Lake in Sitka, Alaska holds trillions of water so pure that it does not need treatment.

Less than 10,000 people fulfill their water needs from the lake, which means 6.2 billion gallons

of water remains idle (Interlandi, 2010). Many people would call that an embarrassment of

riches, especially those in metropolitan areas of over 100,000 people that struggle to meet their

water demands.

Water is the only natural commodity left that has not undergone full privatization. It is

often subsided, squandered, and taken for granted. Residents of huge metropolitan areas more

often than not have no idea where their water comes from, and find no need as long as it is

immediate and plentiful. Proponents of this approach believe the “invisible hand” of a free

market can harmonize supply and demand and is the ideal remedy to water scarcity (Interlandi,

2010).

The untapped abundance of water of Blue Lake illustrates proponents of purchasing

water for cities’ assertion that there is plenty of freshwater in the United States; it simply needs

to be distributed by need rather than geographic location. In a privatized market system, water

can easily be bought without the tedious negotiation between government agencies across water

basins (Knudson, 1987).

Supply & Demand Growing to the

last drop

Tract Housing in Phoenix, AZ

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Small communities, such as that in Sitka, Alaska or Aurora, Colorado, with water rights

hold a valuable resource that has the potential to result in massive amounts of revenue. In dryer

regions, cities will pay $100-$2000 per acre/foot for water (Richter, Abell, Bacha, Brauman,

Calos, Cohn, Disla & Friedlander O' Brien, 2013). In addition, treatment and distribution plants

installed in smaller communities create jobs and a steady source of economy-stimulating profits.

There are many places in the country that have natural water recharging systems (See Fig. 3).

Redistributing the water to

places in need will not be one-

time final sales; a recharging

system allows a community

that sells water resource

security.

It is not just the sale of

potable water which benefits all

involved parties. Many

communities, especially

industrialized ones, need to rid

themselves of wastewater. The cooling of thermoelectric power plants is the largest use of water

in the United States (See Fig. 4). Purchasing wastewater to cool the plants, rather than using

Figure 3: Mean Annual Groundwater Recharge in the U.S.

Figure 4: Total surface-water withdrawals in the United States, 2005

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water that could be treated for domestic use, would save 200,000 gallons per day, enough to

fulfill public water needs seven times over (Interlandi, 2010). To minimize their use of potable

water for industrial purposes, cities can buy others’ wastewater thus saving themselves time and

money creating a wastewater infrastructure from scratch.

Water does not need to be purchased so far away that it must be transported by pipeline

or truck, much of it can come from local regions. Agricultural irrigation accounts for one third of

all freshwater use in the United States. In cities located in water-poor basins with a population

over 100,000, such as Phoenix, AZ or San Antonio, TX, agriculture uses 90% of available water.

If farmers upstream of these cities cease using 5-10% of their water and instead sell their “saved

water” to downstream entities it could satisfy the water needs of an entire city (Richter, Abell,

Bacha, Brauman, Calos, Cohn, Disla & Friedlander O' Brien, 2013).

To residents of large cities, one of the clearest benefits to purchasing water is that they

are not required to significantly alter their lifestyles. As long as water continues to seem to flow

limitlessly, lawns can stay green, hydroelectric plants can keep electricity inexpensive, and long

hot showers need not be a luxury.

Specifics:

Purchase “saved water” from farmers upstream of cities.

Invest in transportation structures such as pipelines or truck fleets.

Organize compacts or water trade systems with industries and governments in nearby

water basins.

Purchase water rights or trade for financial incentives from private owners.

Pass city bonds for the purchase of water.

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Criticisms:

Individuals selling water will decrease entire community property values.

Buying water is a temporary fix until water runs out.

Expensive transportation infrastructure costs are paid by city or residents.

Water as a commodity will sell to highest bidder rather than highest need, poor will not

be able to afford it like huge companies like Coca-Cola can.

As scarcity grows, so will prices.

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Approach Two: Cities can recycle the water that is currently in use.

Nature has been powering the water cycle for billions of years. But since the age of man,

it has increasingly been manipulated and obstructed. Proponents suggest that water recycling is a

way to “speed up the natural process” while meeting the needs of a high population.

Water recycling is the treatment of wastewater (See Fig. 5) for advantageous purposes.

The level of treatment can be tailored to the proposed use (See Fig. 6). Recycled water can be

used for a multitude of functions. The most common use of recycled water is for non-potable

projects such as agriculture and

landscaping in public parks and

golf courses. There are industrial

uses too; power plants and oil

refineries use recycled water for

cooling while mills and

construction sites can use it for

processing (Yoshikawa, 2013).

Modified Water Cycle Growing to the

last drop

A water recycling plant in Texas

Figure 5: The process of municipal water recycling

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With proper treatment, recycled water can become potable, the primary use of which is

for groundwater replenishment. Treated water is pumped into the ground to augment water

supplies. In coastal areas, this also helps prevent salt water intrusion. For example, the Indirect

Potable Reuse Reservoir Augmentation Project in San Diego, CA will supplement 12,000

acre/feet of water into the San Vicente Reservoir per year (Yoshikawa, 2013). Gray water is a

type of recycled water that is produced by residential and commercial sinks, shower drains, and

clothes washing equipment drains. It is mostly used on-site for landscape irrigation of which it

can meet 50% of landscaping water needs. In addition, it can be reused for toilet flushing

(Yoshikawa, 2013).

There has been no documented health problems associated with properly treated recycled

water. Not only does the EPA enforce regulations, but the National Science Foundation’s Water

Treatment Taskforce developed comprehensive standards for recycled water to meet before reuse

(Yoshikawa, 2013).

A city’s population directly, immediately, and continuously benefits from water

recycling. Agriculture has reduced diversion costs, a secure supply of water in case of drought,

and increased production. Urban benefits include massive savings in the costs of diverting,

storing, and transferring water as well as operation and maintenance costs ("San Antonio water,"

Figure 6: Uses of recycled water according to level of treatment

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2011). In addition, as not all wastewater needs to be treated extensively back into potable water,

savings in treatment facilities and chemicals are substantial (Yoshikawa, 2013).

Recycling water also has positive consequences concerning the environment. It decreases

the diversion of water from sensitive ecosystems. The plants and animals in these habitats

require sufficient water flow to live. Reusing water reduces the amount of water pulled away and

subsequently the weakening of the ecosystem. Plus, downstream flow increases and is of better

quality which maintains a healthy watershed and riparian areas (Anderson, 2000).

The transport costs alone of non-local water are staggering. With the addition of

extraction and full treatment costs, diverting non-recycled water is a huge expenditure. Recycling

water saves energy and cuts the greenhouse gases produced by the previously listed methods.

The savings from recycling water are equivalent to removing over 30,000 cars off of the road

each year (See Fig. 7).

Water recycling has

been implemented successfully

in many large cities. San

Antonio, TX has the largest

water recycling system in the

United States with over 100

miles of pipes and four

treatment centers. Wastewater

services are provided to over 1

million customers. Throughout

a drought of historic

proportions, the city’s

population continues to grow ("San antonio water," 2011).

31,261

38,736

19,736

4,689

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

45000

Removal ofCars off the

Road

Acres of TreesPlanted

Reduction ofTons of CO2

Heating ofAverage-size

Homes

Wastewater Energy Savings are Equivalent to:

Figure 7: Equivalencies of saved energy by using recycled water

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Specifics:

Outfit all new structures and refit old structures with drains for graywater systems.

Water price reductions for those who use recycled water.

Investment in recycled water treatment plants/conversion of existing plants to treat

wastewater.

Sewage and stormwater diversion into treatment plants.

Begin environmental impact reports.

Criticisms:

Using wastewater on our edible crops and into our groundwater seems hazardous to

health.

Costly upfront investment of water recycling infrastructure.

Parks are where children play should not be surrounded with non-potable water.

Wastewater/Sewage treatment sites are ugly, odorous, and will lower nearby property

values.

Effluent will enter the ecosystem.

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Approach Three: Cities can conserve the water they are drawing from their usual source.

There is no silver bullet to solve the problem of maintaining adequate water supply for

large cities whose population continues to rise, but there is silver buckshot, also called

conservation. Conserving water is the most successful way that cities are able to cope with

growing number, proponents say. If all the residents use less water, than there is more to go

around for a longer amount of time, a simple idea. Conservation practices can be started

immediately and continue indefinitely. The positive effects of conservation follow a similar

timeline.

One quantifiable benefit to conserving water is the substantial savings in capital from

operation and maintenance of wastewater and water treatment sites. Using less water means that

the systems do not need to use as much energy or chemicals, such as chlorine, to treat water. In

addition, the distribution system would be more efficient because less of the water flowing

through it would be wasted and flow directly back into the sewers. Financial savings continues

to the consumers as well, water utility bills significantly decrease as they use less water and as

the entire municipal water system becomes more efficient. A final economic benefit would be

the creation of water conservation jobs (Maddaus, 2000; "Drought restrictions," 2013).

The effects of water conservation on the environment are both positive and plentiful. The

primary benefit is that municipalities draw less water from surface and ground sources.

Ecosystem health and resiliency depends on water. Even one highly functioning habitat impacts

Save & Save Again Growing to the

last drop

Naturalists plant native Californian shrubs

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others. If a stream is allowed to flow at its natural capacity than the surrounding riparian area is

strengthened which in turn filters pollutants, decreases erosion, and sustains wildlife population.

Conserving water reduces the amount of discharge of treated wastewater effluent. An indirect

benefit would be lowering construction impacts on the environment as more efficient city water

systems means decreased municipal development (Maddaus, 2000).

One common, yet unquantifiable, result of water conservation is the pride communities

have in working together to make their city better. Those who contribute to water savings have a

bond by appreciating each others’ sacrifices.

There are three ways that cities

encourage and enforce water conservation:

education and outreach, ordinances and

regulations, and financial incentives.

Education of the public is key to

water conservation. Creating rules without

plausible explanations often leads to

resentment and cheating. Some people are

not even aware of how much water they are

using (See Fig. 8). Once a consumer group

understands why it is important to conserve

water, how it benefits them, and methods they

can do, it creates a positive cultural system. Education programs, which include brochures,

advertisements, outreach, and assistance, can cover a variety of pertinent subjects: how to reduce

landscaping water use by xeriscaping and native vegetation, not to wash vehicles or use

chemicals on impervious surfaces, how to harvest rainwater, how to create a toilet displacement

device, and why fixing minor leaks will benefit the consumer.

Even when people do understand why conservation is important, ordinances help cities

maintain homogenous conservation contributions. The most common and beneficial ordinances

have to do with water saving engineering and appliances. Examples include: all new construction

must be water efficient and older buildings need to be retrofitted, industries based on water

Figure 8: Amounts of water common activities use

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consumption such as car washes and pools must close during hours of peak heat, and restaurants

may only serve water if requested ("Save water," n.d. ; Water: How to, 2012).

Financial incentives reward residents and companies that conserve water. For a resource

that has no alternative and is available in limited quantities, water is cheap. Many utilities

company’s prices do not reflect the real costs related to water. One way to change that is through

tiered pricing, time-of-day

pricing, and surcharges for

higher-than-average use.

Another is to offer rebates to

those who apply water

conservation practices such as

lawn removal, or water efficient

appliances. Pre-paid water cards

are becoming popular in

countries with booming

population growth. A resident

can buy water credits on a pre-

paid card, much like buying

minutes for a cell phone, and continue putting water credits into it to fulfill their needs ("Water

studies," 2012). Figure 9 illustrates a reduction in water use from 56 cubic meters per month for

a single family dwelling to 37.3 cubic meters even though the population in this Canadian city

grew by almost 20,000 people. The major reductions in water usage happened after this a user-

pay rate was implemented.

Figure 9: Reduction in water usage over 15 years during a

time of population growth.

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Specifics:

Create educational and outreach programs to reduce personal use.

Use programs and ordinances to reduce peak-day use.

Appoint a water efficacy coordinator for communities.

Provide free water efficient devices for personal retrofitting.

Require all civic buildings to be water efficient.

Offer rebate programs for xeriscaping, efficient appliances, and rain harvesting.

Implement alternative water pricing such as user-pay.

Criticisms:

Real results are long-term, 10-20 years.

People have to change their way of life.

Those without money will not be able to retrofit or have less availability to water.

Government programs and outreach will cost taxpayers.

If population grows, conservation is temporary fix, water will run out.

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There are two facts that create a reason for this Issue in Brief: the U.S. population is

growing and water availability is not. The contrast between these two statements is a major issue

that needs to be addressed immediately by cities, especially those in arid climates. There are

methods to meet residents’ water needs for the foreseeable future:

Approach 1: Cities can purchase water from outside sources.

Approach 2: Cities can recycle water already in use.

Approach 3: Cities can conserve the water they draw from their usual source.

Though none of the approaches are perfect, cities must start the discussion and plan for

the future. One approach may work better for some cities than others. That is why it is

imperative to incorporate a city’s specific values, resources, and landscape. The entire process

begins with a discussion between those parities in cities with growing populations who will be

affecting by decreasing water availability—everyone.

Closing Growing to the

last drop

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The following are questions intended to encourage discussion about the three approaches listed

in the Issue in Brief: Growing to the last drop.

Approach One: Cities can purchase water from outside their usual source.

Will the “invisible hand” of the market keep water prices reasonable? In other

words, when organizations or corporations are allowed to sell water will they

actually compete in such a way that keeps water prices low?

Is access to water a human right? Or, like other commodities, should it be

parceled, bought, and sold? Is it fair to take it from other communities?

How much are we willing to pay to continue our lifestyle, as it relates to water

use? Is there a monetary value of our lifestyle? Is there a maximum value that, if

costs were to breech it, we would willingly change our lifestyle?

Approach Two: Cities can recycle water that is already in use.

What sort of stigma or feelings do we have towards using, and possibly drinking,

water that we once saw as waste? Even if we are guaranteed by reputable sources

that it is not hazardous?

If we agree that water recycling is the best approach, how we will decide where

the sewage treatment plants should be located?

Is there an extent we will allow partially treated wastewater to enter the

ecosystem? Or, because it is not complete sewage, are we willing to allow it

indefinitely?

Approach Three:

To what extent are we willing to change our lifestyle, as it pertains to water use,

to conserve water? With no incentive other than valuing conservation? With

financial incentive? With legal incentive?

How would we measure conservation of our source? In the amount of water we

use? Or the amount of water remaining in the source?

Some people will have to sacrifice more to conserve than others due to location,

needs, and lack of technology. Is it fair to ask some to do more than others?

Discussion Questions Growing to the

last drop

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Growing to the last drop forum will discuss how cities with growing populations can meet their

residents’ water needs though water is becoming less and less available. Before reviewing the

Issue in Brief or participating in the guided discussion, please complete this survey. Your

responses will help community planners understand your values and desires.

Read the following statements. Indicate with an “X” if you either Agree, Do Not Know

(Neutral), or Disagree with the statement. Then, please fill out the remaining questions.

1. Water is scarce in my community.

2. The price of water is too high.

3. I am aware of how much water my daily activities

use.

4. I try to minimize my water use.

5. I am comfortable with recycled toilet water being

used for other toilets.

6. I am comfortable with recycled toilet water being

used on my lawn.

7. I have not heard anything about water scarcity.

8. I think water is a human right.

9. I talk about water use with my family and/or peers.

10. I am comfortable with my lifestyle as it pertains to

water.

11. What is the current rate you pay for water? _____________________________________

12. What is the maximum rate you would pay for water? _____________________________

13. Please list some water conservation methods you employ:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

14. What have you heard in the media about water conservation or scarcity?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

15. Do you feel that your community planners are affective at making plans for the

community? _____________________________________________________________

Agree Neutral Disagree

Pre-Forum Survey Growing to the

last drop

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Thank you for participating in the Growing to the last drop forum. After hearing three different

approaches and discussing the limitations and benefits of each of them according to your values,

your opinion is of utmost importance. Your responses will help community planners decide what

methods and approaches are best for your community.

Read the following statements. Indicate with an “X” if you either Agree, Do Not Know

(Neutral), or Disagree with the statement. Then, please fill out the remaining questions.

1. I notice water scarcity in other cities.

2. I notice water scarcity in my own city.

3. I am aware of how much water my daily activities

use.

4. I try to minimize my water use.

5. I am comfortable with toilet water being recycled

into other toilets.

6. I am comfortable with recycled toilet water being

used on my lawn.

7. The price of water is too high.

8. I think water is a human right.

9. I talk about water use with my family and/or peers.

10. I am comfortable with my lifestyle as it pertains to

water.

11. Do you believe that purchasing water is the best approach to satisfying your city’s water

needs? Why?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

12. Do you believe that recycling water is the best approach to satisfying your city’s water

needs? Why?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

13. Do you believe that conserving water is the best approach to satisfying your city’s water

needs? Why?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Agree Neutral Disagree

Post-Forum Survey Growing to the

last drop

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Retrieved from website:

http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1218&context=jcwre

Richter, B. D., Abell, D., Bacha, E., Brauman, K., Calos, S., Cohn, A., Disla, C., & Friedlander

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(2012). Water: How to conserve it and use it effectively. (Chp. 3). Retrieved from

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last drop

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realize. Business Insider. Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/us-drought-

water-scarcity-2013-5

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water_US_Map.jpg

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beta.s3.amazonaws.com/journey/4fec66330f11530003000033/description_background/

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er_WWTP.jpg