richard b. russell parkway · ideas of both what they wanted to avoid (mainly based on their...

R I C H A R D B . R U S S E L LP A R K W A Y

W A R N E R R O B I N S G E O R G I A

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN O PUBLIC SERVICE AND OUTREACH O LAND USE CLINICCOLLEGE OF ENVIRONMENT AND DESIGNO SCHOOL OF LAWU N I V E R S I T Y O F G E O R G I A

Warner Robins

1 Introduction 3

2 Process 5

3 Analysis 7

4 Charrette 9

5 Visions 13

6 Descriptions and References 23

7 Regulatory and Policy 25Solutions for Warner Robins

8 Appendices 38a. Agricultural Zoning Ordinancesb. Sign Control On Rural Corridorsc. Conservation Subdivision Model Ordinancesd. Mixed-Use Model Ordinancee. Walnut Avenue Overlay District Ordinancef. Model Ordinance Parkway Village Districtg. Advisory Committee on Trees (ACT)

o n t e n t sC

1 Richard B.

Credits

P r o j e c t C o n t r i b u t o r s

Studio InstructorJudith Wasserman (SED)

Charrette Organizers University of GeorgiaPratt Cassity (CCPD)Sarah McCullough (CCDP)

Charrette OrganizerCity of Warner RobinsJesse Fountain

Authors of ReportJesse FountainSection 1

Jamie Baker RoskieSection 7

Judith R. WassermanSection 2-6

Graphic Design, Layout andPhotographyJudith Wasserman

Production AssistanceEleonora Machado (CCDP)

S t u d e n t C o n t r i b u t o r s

Landscape ArchitectureTyler ColeyMargaret GoenKatharine LittleJacqueline ThompsonMartha YeagerSamuel BassettCalvin BroomeFrederick DoyleJoshua FergusonRobert ScottJames FranzenAndrew HardyRyan McCraryMeredity MuseJeffrey PetersonJuston PhippsThomas RoweOlin SmithJessica WebbWilliam Windham

LawBeth CavagnoloAndrew EcholsJim EdgeEmily FranzenLawton Zurn

I n s t i t u t i o n s

City of Warner RobinsWarner Robins, GA 31099Contact : Jesse Fountain

City Development Director478.929.1111 j [email protected]

Universi ty of GeorgiaSchool of Environmental Design (SED)College of the Environment & Design (CED)Contact : Judith Wasserman

Associate [email protected]

Center for Community Design &Preservation (CCDP)College of the Environment & DesignContact : Pratt Cassity

[email protected]

Land Use ClinicSchool of Law & CEDContact : Jamie Baker Roskie

Managing [email protected]/landuseclinic

Georgia2Russell Parkway

Warner Robins

For many years local elected officials, thestate legislative delegation, and communi-ty leaders worked diligently to get RichardRussell Parkway extended to Interstate 75and provide the Warner Robins area with asecond interchange to serve the City andRobins AFB. The project became a realityin the spring of 2002 when the GeorgiaDepartment of Transportation awarded aconstruction contract for the Parkway'sextension. During the spring of 2003, withconstruction work progressing toward anOctober 31, 2004, completion date, theMayor and City Council decided toexplore alternative development conceptsfor the Parkway.

Over the previous two or three years theidea of making Russell Parkway the "frontdoor" to Warner Robins had begun toemerge. A vision began developing ofhaving the corridor be more aestheticallypleasing than a typical arterial that con-nects cities to outlying interstate highways.With these thoughts at the forefront, theMayor appointed a committee to begin theprocess of examining development alter-natives.

The first activity was holding a meeting ofthe property owners or their representa-tives and other stakeholders. This meetingwas held in May of 2003 and the city's con-cept was generally well received by atten-dees. The second step involved asking theMiddle Georgia Regional DevelopmentCenter (MGRDC) for assistance. The staffand committee met with MGRDC repre-sentatives and secured their involvement.A short time later, the MGRDC suggestedasking the University of Georgia's PublicService and Outreach Office of the Schoolof Environmental and Design to assist withour visioning process and the develop-ment of standards for implementing theproject. In early December of 2003, a meet-ing was called and the staff of the PublicService and Outreach Office got the oppor-tunity to meet project stakeholders, theMayor, Council Members, and staff to dis-cuss the process to be followed and to hearthe thoughts and opinions of the stake-holders. From that meeting the processbegan in earnest and continued through itsconclusion.

Jesse FourntainCity Development Director

City of Warner Robins

Richard B.

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3

Richard Russell Parkway Design Charrette


Warner Robins

completing the charrette, studentsreturned to Athens to synthesize theirwork. Some students further developedthe project, adding greater detail to thespecific land use areas along the Russell B.Parkway. This was presented to city offi-cials and interested citizens, and feedbackwas solicited. This final report is a result ofthis process. The goal of this document isto highlight a number of different sce-nario's and potential directions of growthand marketing. Each of the ideas can beadjusted and modified according to thecommunities needs and budget. A sectionof strategies for implementations has beenadded to assist the City of Warner Robinsin prioritizing their needs and accomplish-ing their goals. It is hoped that the vision ofthe community becomes realized to createan entry corridor which is beautiful, mem-orable, and functional.

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In the Spring of 2004 the University ofGeorgia was invited to work with the Cityof Warner Robins to define an entrysequence for their city. This opportunityarose from the proposed extension of theRussell B. Parkway, stretching from the airforce base to I-75. Landscape ArchitectureProfessor Judith Wasserman assigned herfourth year urban design students the taskof examining the situation, and developingproposed alternatives for a new vision ofdevelopment along the new Parkway. Inorder to do this, the students engaged in adesign process that first involved extensivesite analysis, community interpretation,and precedent study. This material wasassembled for the ensuing charrette, whichtook place February 7 and 8th. During thecharrette, the students explored four possi-ble scenario's: Conservation/Preservation,Agricultural Landscape Preservation,Nodal Development Pattern, and SmartGrowth. In addition to the overall masterplan, students also identified eight specificland uses to consider along the route.Charrette participants were looking for anidentifiable theme. This led the students toconsider the uniqueness of Warner Robins,and ways to capitalize on that to encouragetourism and give a sense of pride. After

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W H AT I S A C H A R R E T T E ?A charrette is an intensive design processaccomplished with designers and commu-nity members in order to quickly derivealternatives for community growth anddevelopment.

Introduction

GeorgiaRussell Parkway 6

Warner Robins

The base was established during WorldWar II. In 1945, at the termination of thewar, the operations at the base were mini-mized. As a result, the city went into arecession. The outbreak of the Korean con-flict in 1950 revitalized the town, firmlyestablishing the Robins Air Force base andits associated urban counterpart - the Cityof Warner Robins.

The economy of Warner Robins and thesurrounding regions are determined bythe base. Billions of dollars are infused intoGeorgia’s economy from the base. It is theState’s largest employer.

A multitude of businesses are supportedby the base, and in turn provide services tothe military personnel stationed in WarnerRobins.

Warner Robins is a solid community withmilitary roots. The residents come from allover the United States, and most have trav-eled extensively abroad. Some have spous-es from other countries. This internationalflavor has enriched community life in thecity. For example, the international offer-ing of cuisines is notable, especially for atown this size. There is a great deal ofpotential for the city to develop a uniqueidentity based on this varied culturalmilieu. It is labeled Warner Robins“Central Georgia’s International City.”

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H I S T O RYIn 1941 the United States Air Force estab-lished a military depot in what was thenknown as the hamlet of Wellston. The AirForce was attracted to the area because ofits geographic assets.

3,100 acres of land were sold to the UnitedStates government for one dollar. The basewas built for 15 million dollars in 1941.

The city was named in honor of BrigadierGeneral Augustine Warner Robins, thefather of modern Air Force logistics. Thecity Warner Robins first chartered by thethe State of Georgia in 1943.

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Site Analysis and Site Observation

Georgia8

The population is rapidly growing. The2000 census accounted for 48,804 people inWarner Robins. The growth rate between1980 and 1999 was 9.9% and between 1990and 2000 it was 11.3%. Houston County asa whole grew tremendously within the last10 years - growing from 89,208 in 1990 to110,765 in the year 2000. This is a rise of24.2%.

LOCATIONWarner Robins is centrally located inGeorgia. It is 200 miles from the AtlanticOcean and the Gulf of Mexico. It is approx-imately 15 miles from Macon, Georgia, andtheir is a sizable population who commuteinto Macon for work, or conversely, holdjobs on the Air Force base and live inMacon.

Warner Robins holds the potential of beinga convenient tourist destination as peopleare traveling North from Western Florida.With careful marketing, the town has thepotential to profit from this choice locale.

FIGURE GROUNDThe figure-ground map shows spatial pat-terns of existing or proposed structures.This plan reveals a very finely texturedurban fabric, most of which is in the typi-cal suburban pattern of curving roads andcul de sac’s. The center reveals an interest-ing phenomenon - it contains a large areaof undefined space in its center. This isalong the corridor which will be occupiedby the Russell Parkway extension.

This pattern clearly suggests a need for acertain level of density along this corridor.This has the potential to create a “heart” inthe center of Warner Robins.

Russell Parkway

Watson Boulevard

Russell ParkwayI-75

Warner Robins

road signs. The students sought different possibilitiesfor a special identity and brand forWarner Robins. They included flight, agri-culture, urbanity and conservation. Thesewill be shown in the next section, Designs:Visioning the Future for the Russell B.Parkway.

B E A U T I F I C AT I O NEveryone agreed that they wanted theRussell B. Parkway to be a beautiful road,in contrast to the current city entry ofWatson Boulevard. At all the meetingsthere was a strong presence of members ofthe organization “Keep Warner RobinsBeautiful”, and they were very vocal abouttheir concerns. Many participants hadideas of both what they wanted to avoid(mainly based on their current situation),and visions for what they wanted to seethat was better. Desire for more vegetationwas very prevalent, both in the form ofconservation areas and cultivated plants.Other ideas included a sense of unity in thedesign and more rigid architectural stan-dards. The concept of creating a “soul” forWarner Robins was introduced. Elementsto avoid include billboards, strip develop-ment and overhead wires. More things toavoid can be found in the chart to the right.

W E L C O M I N GParticipants in the charrette expressed adesire for this parkway to serve as a wel-come mat to the city. They wanted it to beinviting, new, and filled with surprises.Residents wanted to avoid anything thatwould degrade this image. Of grave con-cern were the presence of adult entertain-ment in the city. In particular, the exten-sive advertising for these establishmentsstretch for miles on I-75. The image theyevoke is one that many find offensive andwould seek to avoid. To counter this mar-keting, the City itself will need to establishits new image and market it along I-75 wellbefore the Russell Parkway entrance. Thiswill entice travelers well in advance of theturn off so they can make the decision toexplore Warner Robins.

T R A F F I C M O D I F I C AT I O NMany expressed an interest in changingthe experience of moving through WarnerRobins. Participants wanted to avoid traf-fic congestion, and interference with apleasurable trip. Suggestions includedreducing traffic lights, reducing pavementcover and fewer curb cuts.

Richard B.

h a r r e t t e - 4 -

I N I T I A L I N T E R V I E W SAfter accomplishing the site analysis, thestudents then participated in a two daycharrette process, from February 7, 2004 toFebruary 8, 2004. The first step in thatprocess was meeting with communityleaders, property owners, and other inter-ested citizens to garnish there input. Theyspent about three hours meeting in smallfocus groups with these individuals, andtook extensive notes.

T H E M I N GSome visions were reoccurring. One, inparticular, seemed to be of critical impor-tance - the search for a defining theme sothat this new entrance would create anidentity for the city. Theming is currently avery popular approach to tourism.Through careful planning, this tool canallow tourist an identifiable unity to thecity. Branding is a term associated with thetheming. Used in marketing, a brand namecreates a consistent logo to identify theproduct. This is now being applied totourism, with the theory that a catchy“brand” can entice visitors. If carefullycrafted, this can both reflect and create astrong identity and sense of place. This“brand” can be used for all tourism prod-ucts, such as brochures, web-sites, and

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Visions for the Parkway

V I S I O N F O R T H E PA R K WAY

T H E M E : U n i f o r m i t yF l i g h t a n d A i r F o r c eA g r i c u l t u r a l C o n s e r v a t i o nU r b a n N o d e s

B E A U T I F I C AT I O NI n c l u d e :M a i n t a i n e d P l a n t i n g sN a t u r a l A r e a sG r a n d e u r a n d C l a s s i c i s m“ S o u l ”A v o i d :B i l l B o a r d sW i r e s a n d U t i l i t y P o l e sS t r i p D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r sM o b i l e H o m e sH u g e S i g n sM a s s i v e C l e a r - c u t t i n g

W E L C O M I N GN e wS e n s e o f S u r p r i s eI n v i t i n gD i f f e r e n tP r e v e n t U n w e l c o m e A c t i v i t i e s

T R A F F I C C O N T R O LM i n i m u m T r a f f i c L i g h t sM i n i m a l P a v i n g A r e a sM i n i m a l C o n g e s t i o n

C H A R R E T T E A N A LY S I SIt is very difficult to imagine a vision for anew future design. Typically residents willreact either for or against something thatalready exists in their community. In thecase of Warner Robins, participants react-ed strongly against two elements - theexisting conditions along WatsonBoulevard and the negative portrayal ofthe city via billboards advertising adultentertainment.

Watson BoulevardIn order to create a new entry sequence forthe traveler, it is useful to look at whatdoes not work, in order to avoid it in thefuture. Watson Boulevard offers a richexample of what the city should avoid inthe future. And in fact, this was cited oftenas an undesirable place.

Watson Boulevard portrays the mostextreme form of strip development malls.In some case the stores are two layersdeep. This development pattern resultsfrom minimal development codes, withexcessive set-back requirements. As aresult of a number of factors, this develop-ment pattern typically negatively impactsthe experience of driving, cycling or walk-ing. This is due to a number of factors.

Anonymous ArchitectureWith the exception of a few notable cases,the buildings along Watson Boulevard arebland and often standard fast food build-ings. This detracts from any sense ofuniqueness or specialness in WarnerRobins.

Parking LotsThe parking lots overwhelm the experi-ence of driving down the Boulevard. Theparking lots are in front of the buildings,and so prevent any sense of enclosure andspatial definition.

Watson Boulevard Russell ParkwayCurrent Conditions Possible Future


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Warner RobinsRichard B. 11

C H A R R E T T E A N A LY S I S ( c o n t i n u e d )Parking Lots (continued)Excessive parking fronting the major thor-oughfare also has the effect of hinderingeasy traffic flow. This results from multiplecurbcuts leading onto the major arteryfrom the parking lot. If parking is shiftedto the rear of the buildings, then access toRussell B. Parkway can be minimized,encouraging smoother traffic flow.

Road frontage can the be designed toencourage pedestrian activity. Wide, treelined sidewalks with ample sitting areaswill create an amenity for the community.Delightful place-making elements can beincluded, such as fountains and public art.

Entry SequenceMost participants at the charrette consid-ered the building of Russell B. Parkway asan opportunity to create a new entry andidentity for the city.

Of grave concern was the billboards adver-tising adult entertainment. Many felt thatthis clouded the image of the city that theywere trying to create. While the billboardson I-75 are outside the scope of the devel-opment of a new parkway, they do have acrucial impact on the overall impression ofthe town. Many participants wereadamant about this.

These particular billboards were of con-cern, however, the idea of billboards ingeneral were considered counter to thevision for the parkway. There is a desire tominimize and/or eliminate them along theroute.

Well designed signage fitting in with thetheme and image of the city will be key incountering any negative images promul-gated by the existing advertisements.Consultation with a graphic design firm isan important step in ensuring that clear,readable, and imageable signage is devel-oped. This can also assist the visitor in

wayfinding upon arrival to the city.“New”, “A sense of surprise”, “Inviting”,and “Different” were all terms used todescribe the desired entry. Creating atheme will assist in defining this. Also, adesign competition is one way to city canget multiple ideas, many of them new andexciting.

GreeneryThe participants at the charrette agreedthat they wanted to see more greenery intheir city. “Keep Warner Robins Beautiful”were well represented. They were interest-ed in increasing manicured vegetation -that is, vegetation which is maintained,such as flower beds and shrubbery. Othersalso wanted to see more natural areas,such as woods and meadows, along theroute. Currently there is a generousamount of forest cover. There was aninterest in selective cutting to maintain anatural feel. Both interests can easily beaccommodated in the new parkway. Asyou will see, one of the student groupsproposed nodes of development andnodes of nature. In the developed areashigher maintenance plantings can be used.

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RUSSELL B. PARKWAY

PARKING

PARKING

ACCESS ROAD

Alternative Parking PlanINTE

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ACCESS ROAD

Visions for the Parkway

ThemeWarner Robins is a town in search of amarketable identity. This was discussedmultiple times throughout the charrette.However, this is sometimes difficult for acommunity to articulate, as they are toclose to their own experiences in a town.

During the charrette, the students formedfour groups with four different approach-es. These are as follows:

Vision One: Agriculture

Vision Two: Conservation and Scenic

Vision Three: Poly-Nucleated

Vision Four: Smart Growth

After the charrette was complete, anothergroup elected to continue the project.They incorporated ideas from othergroups, but mainly followed the smartgrowth model. They also carried out thetheme of aviation, relating to the Air Forcebase and the aviation museum.

These will be discussed at length in thenext section, Visions.


Warner Robins

The peach building sits in a peach orchard.As the visitor approaches, they get the feel-ing of being a farmer surveying theircrops. A hotel could be in rear, with fastfood and gas stations. The lot will bebacked by a pecan orchard, with a pinestandblocking views and noise pollution.

2. Large Scale DevelopmentThese are large commercial buildings setbehind a stand of pines. They would bebuilt around central parking area to reducepaving. Signage for this developmentwould be short. The style would be deter-mined by design guidelines.

3. Pine BufferA pine buffer would span the length of theparkway, creating a unified look to theentire stretch of road. It would also reducethe visual impact of large scale develop-ment. For the motorist the trees can reduceglare and eye strain.

4. Small Scale DevelopmentThis development is high density, with asmall town character. It would containstores that would service the neighbor-hood and tourists alike. The developmentwould not be set back from the road.Parking will be accommodated in the rear.

5. Church LandsThis is property owned by the church.They have developed extensive plans fordevelopment and recreation consistentwith this scheme.

6. Tree CropsThese areas would be primarily plantedwith pecan trees, as that is characteristic ofthis region of Georgia. Areas that are inpeach orchards would maintain that untilthe trees died, then they would be replant-ed with pecans.

7. Community ParkPark with bicycle paths, picnic areas,ponds and pecan trees. Wetland areasallows for ephemeral ponds (when itrains), creating rain gardens. Tall nativegrasses would be allowed to grow in thewetter areas. A bike path runs through thepark under the pecan trees and throughthe open greenway.

8. SchoolBeing developed by Warner Robins.

9. Natural AreaAn existing flood plane, to include pines,wetlands and natural areas.

Richard B.

i s i o n s - 5 -

F o r e s t r y / A g r i c u l t u r e V i s i o nInitial Statement: Development that is clus-tered within and in-between more natural envi-ronments and agricultural production.

Approach: Dense development with imposedarchitectural standards set inside preservednatural landscape with a conscious effort toimprove visual character while providing eco-nomical and biological production.

This group recognized the rich agricultur-al production occurring in this region.Much of the land that the new parkway isspanning is currently in forest or agricul-tural production. They see this the preser-vation of this landscape as one approach tocreating a defining and special character tothe parkway. The plan on the right delin-eates the various zones where differentuses occur. These are as follows:

1. The Welcome CenterThe welcome center would advertise theagricultural theme through a memorablebuilding: the welcome center in the shapeof a giant peach. This can be seen from thehighway and serves as an enticement tovisitors to further explore this community.

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Welcome Center : Plan View Welcome Center : Perspective



2. Large Scale Development

1. Welcome Center

6. Tree Crops

4. Small Scale Development3. Pine Buffer

5. Church Lands

9. Natural Area (Flood Plain)

8. School (In Process)

2. Large ScaleDevelopment

Warner Robins

DEVELOPMENT ZONESAlternating zones is represented in the dia-gram. The vegetation “swoops” down,revealing a commercial center. The conser-vation areas thus offer a relaxing experi-ence for the motorist, and prevent drivinghazards, such as excessive glare. The natu-ral vegetation serve as a lovely entrysequence into the city, showing it off at itsbest.

The zones are as follows:

1. CommercialVegetation scaled back to view the com-mercial establishment. Built within a strictdevelopment envelope. Allow taller build-ings and restrict horizontal development.Commercial development pedestrian

friendly with sustainable details for park-ing lot construction.

2. ResidentialThis group spent a lot of time focusing onthe idea of incorporating the conservationsubdivision as a major form of residentialgrowth. Features of the conservation sub-division include major vegetated buffersfrom the road to the houses (see sectionbelow), smaller lot sizes and communitygreen spaces. For more detailed informa-tion on the conservation subdivision seepage X.

3. ChurchThe church plans are consistent with theconservation approach. They includeample green space for recreational use.

Richard B.

i s i o n s - 5 -

C o n s e r v a t i o nInitial Statement: Economically balanced,with passive recreation and preservation lands.Maintain scenic vistas, and create connectivityalong a greenway.

Approach: Maintain “green” buffer. Thebuffer would be an organic form bordering thenew Russell B. Parkway. Tall vegetation willbe planted in the natural areas, and smallervegetation will lead to the more developedareas. Extensive vegetated buffers will be plant-ed between the residential areas and the road.Conservation subdivisions will be planned inthis corridor.

The conservation group was interested inbalancing the needs for economic growthwith the very real desire for maintainingeco-system health in the region. Their planshowed how these two seemingly contra-dictory desires can be resolved. In a sense,their proposal was most reflective of theoriginal intent of parkway - a park with aroad through it.

Not only have the established a green cor-ridor along the entire length of theParkway, but they devised a system tohighlight each of the uses.

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Commercial Commercial

Conservation ConservationConservation

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Georgia16

Vision 2 : Conservation

Conservation Subdivision

1. Commercial

2. Residential

3. Church

4. Conservation Land2. Residential

1. Commercial 1. Commercial

4. Conservation Land

2. Residential

Russell Parkway

Warner Robins

This diagram highlights the major patternof the nodal scheme. It departs from theconservation approach in that it recom-mends clear definition between the builtenvironment and the green scenic land-scape. A further discussion on the differ-ences between conservation and scenicpreservation can be found on page X.

Another feature of this plan is the rhythmit sets up as one moves from I-75 into townalong the Richard B. Russell Parkway. Asone progresses east, the scale of the builtform grows, representing the move fromthe rural to the urban. This image can beseen in the above diagram.

The major area included in the nodal con-cept are as follows:

1. Welcome CenterAn inviting first impression that is openand airy (see drawing on right). It also con-tains a farmers market selling local pro-duce.

2. Market PlaceA mixed use area that contains markets,houses and schools.

3. Scenic CorridorHeavily vegetated, giving a delightfulentry into Warner Robins.

Richard B.

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M u l t i - N o d a lInitial Statement: Nodal development basedon a progression of developed urban and vege-tated spaces. The pattern is as follows:Developed: I-75, Nature, Developed: Retail/Residential Mix, Nature, Developed: Entercity.

Approach: Concentrate nodes of developmentat appropriate locations, such as intersections.Maintain a generous green buffer everywhereelse along the corridor.

Vision 3 shares many common ideas withthe conservation approach. Like the con-servation model, the nodal concept high-lights the possibility of alternating inten-sive development with natural landscapes.Functionally, this would serve the samepurpose as the conservation model, as itwould allow the city to maintain a naturalscenic corridor along the Russell B.Parkway. It departs from the conservationideas in one significant way: the conserva-tion approach included an intense land-scape buffer along the entire route, where-as the nodal model alternates the naturalsystem with intensive development -creating an urban ambiance.

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Commercial Public Use

Scenic Views Scenic ViewsScenic Views

WelcomeCenter

Conceptual Statement


4. End of Extension

3. Scenic Corridor

2. Marketplace

Views

Views

1. Welcome

Marketplace Welcome Center

Vision 3: Nodal


The image was drawn directly fromWarner Robins history and present dayfocus - the air force. All details incorporatea feeling of motion, and are constructedout of metallic reminiscent of aircraftmetal. The forms include graceful gracefularcs. All lamp posts, benches, and site fix-tures reflect this image. The details of thegateway pedestrian bridge and the naturecenter signage reveal the envisionedimage.

THE SCHEMEThe scheme shown at right is intensivelydeveloped, with significant “green” relief.This includes landscape buffers, andgreenway trail and nature center.

1. Welcome CenterWelcome center with information on thecity, and traditional interchange amenitieslike service stations, fast food restaurantsand hotels.2. Mixed UseDevelopment type as described on page X.

3. Landscape BufferNatural landscape buffer.

4. Pedestrian Bridge and GatewayVisual entry to the city reflecting the imageof Warner Robins. See right for image.

5. GreenwayNature trail system (refer to page X).

6. Farmer’s MarketThey also have provided for a farmer’smarket, which can serve as a weekend fes-tival ground for impromptu folk music. Afarmer’s market is an excellent land-use fora multitude of reasons. It can help promotelocal farmer’s and craftspeople by givingthem a place to sell their goods, it is a won-derful gathering place for the community,and it can foster tourism. Images and infor-mation can be found on pages X and X.

7. Airforce MemorialIn honor of the air force troops who werelost in action, an Air Force memorial isproposed. The design portrayed here is ofa lone jet flying in the (XXX) pattern -straight up in the sky. This is an evocativeand sensitive design. However, it is com-mon for memorials to be developed out ofa competition process. This not only servesthe town well by presenting numerousideas for consideration, but it also helps towiden interest in the town through adver-tising the competition and its winners.

8. Nature CenterThis nature center is furnished with a stagefor nature demonstrations.

i s i o n s - 5 -

S m a r t G r o w t hInitial Statement: The Smart Growth conceptis an attempt to direct the inevitable growthalong Russell Parkway with environmentallyand socially conscious principles while consid-ering the interests of all property owners onRussell Parkway. By providing opportunitiesfor commerce, education, and social interac-tion, Russell Parkway can become a thrivingcenter of public life in Warner Robins.

Approach: Use a mixed-use developmentapproach to create a sequence of viable urbancenters. Permit landowners to intensivelydevelop a portion of their land in exchange forleaving some of their land holdings either nat-ural or rural in character.

The students in this group were intent oncreating a scheme which was economicallyviable. It is the most intensively developedof the four schemes, with numerous cen-ters of interest along the route.

THEMEIn addition to the land use decisions, thestudents also developed an imageabletheme to tie the parkway together. Thiscan function to create a memorable andgives the town a sense of pride and identi-ty.

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Vision 4: Smart Growth

8. Nature Center

5. Greenway2. Mixed Use

1. Welcome Center and Commercial Center

2. Mixed Use

3. Landscape Buffer

3. Landscape Buffer

6. Farmer’s Market

7. Airforce Memorial

5. Greenway

2. Mixed Use

Nature Center SignageAirforce Memorial

4. Pedestrian Bridge and Gateway

Pedestrian Bridge and Gateway


i s i o n s - 5 -

Some of the students expanded the projectand developed specific ideas and struc-tures for the route. The rist one is the siteplan for the air force memorial (the eleva-tion is found on the previous page). Thebuilding footprint carries out the aerody-namic theme in it’s streamlined form.

The second plan is of the farmer’s market.This was based on Ithaca’s Farmer’sMarket in Upstate New York. Images of

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Airforce Memorial

Fiddler’s at the Farmer’s Market: Ithaca , New York Ithaca Farmer’s Market: Ithaca, New York

Farmer’s Market

stage

enclosed market

semi-sheltered market semi-sheltered market

courtyard courtyard

parking parking

air-force museum annex

air-force memorial (see previous page)



the market can be seen on your left.Information on the farmer’s market can beaccessed at www.ithacamarket.com/.Here you will find contact people to helpyou set up your own farmer’s market. Theplan also contains an outdoor theater area.

The nature center is to be found below. Itfeatures an amphitheater and connectionsto the greenway.

The greenway entrance site plancontains small service building(with cold drinks and bathrooms),picnic shelters and trails.

Nature Center Greenway Entrance

Greenway

parking

entry

drop-off / turn around

nature center building

amphitheater

nature trails/ connection to greenway

parking

informational building/rest stop

trails throughoutpicnic

picnic

picnic

entry

Warner RobinsRichard B.

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Conserving land for preservation purposesimplies some inherent ecological value isbeing preserved. This could be for the pur-pose of a wildlife corridor, endangeredspecies preservation, or watershed protec-tion. These may or may not have a directscenic benefit for humans (for exampleswamplands are not often consideredbeautiful or scenic, however they containone of the most productive biotic commu-nities.) These landscapes have inherentworth, and can have side benefits, such asincreased interest for bird watchers.

Scenic lands are judged on different crite-ria. Determining scenic value is a some-what complex endeavor. Ones apprecia-tion of the landscape is, to a large part,determined by the landscapes they areaccustomed to. Certain values do seemuniversal, such as a subtle mix betweencomplexity and legibility. But within thatcriteria there is a wide spectrum. Some seethe rural landscape as being beautiful, andthe proliferation of painters portraying therural landscape attests to this aesthetic.Others prefer the wild and rugged land-scape, with specific focal points, such as adistinct old tree or rock outcropping.Rachael and Stephen Kaplan are environ-mental psychologist who have studiedlandscape preferences. Their work could

be useful in making decisions aboutpreservation of scenic corridors (see boxbelow).

MIXED USE DEVELOPMENTA major feature of this plan is the ideas ofmixed use development. This idea is not anew one, it is a copy of the older urbancenters, where apartment dwellers livedabove stores, and there is round the clockactivity in the area to insure safer streets.

These ideas have been resurrected andpopularized by the New Urbanist, led byindividuals such as Andreas Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and PeterCalthorpe, to name a few. There ideas arerepresented by the organization Congressfor the New Urbanism. This can be accessedon the following Web site: www.cnu.org/.Many of them have written books and arti-cles, which could be of interest, and theyhave accomplished a number of successfulprojects around the world.

CONSERVATION SUBDIVISIONSThe conservation is interested in the ideaof the conservation subdivision. This is aform of development, guided by zoningregulations, which creates more environ-mentally sound communities. Randall G.Arendt is one of the best authors to read onthis subject. Two very useful books areRural by Design: Maintaining Small TownCharacter, and Conservation Design forSubdivisions: A Practical Guide toCreating Open Space Networks (publishedby Island Press).

CONSERVATION vs. SCENIC LANDThere is often confusion about the distinc-tion between conservation and scenic landpreservation. It is subtle, yet important toknow when making land use decisions.

R e f e r e n c e sKaplan, Rachel and Stephen. 1989. TheExperience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective.New York: Cambridge University Press.

Kaplan, Rachel and Stephen. 1978.Humanscapes: Environment for People. N.Scituate, Massachusetts: Duxbury Press.

C o n s e r v a t i o n S u b d i v i s i o nG u i d e l i n e sDevelop 1/2 total acreage as a maximum, therest rest remain as conservation land or parkDo not develop on wetlands, floodplains orsteep slopesHouses face and share open spaceMaintain series of forested areas, meadowsand pondsDevelop a trail systemDesign in places for alternative transport (suchas bicycles)Lots are 1/2 - 1/4 of an acre


MIXED USE DEVELOPMENT(continued)

The ideas they espouse have inherent eco-logical implications. An important aspectof their message is to make cities more liv-able. One way to do this is to lessen thereliance on the automobile. This forcescities to condense and become more walk-able.

For more information refer to the follow-ing sources. There is also a great deal writ-ten in contemporary urban design, archi-tecture and landscape architecture journalson this topic.

GREENWAYSGreenways were promoted by FrederickLaw Olmsted. Boston’s Elmerald Necklaceis an excellent example. It works there andit can work in your town as well.

The basic concept is this: the greenspacesare connected along a pedestrian trail soone can easily experience nature no matterwhere one is. It promotes non-polluting

forms of transportation and hold otherecological benefits such as watershed pro-tection and wildlife corridor maintenance.

Greenspaces can vary along the corridor,at times being more urban, and at othertimes being left natural.

There is a great many references available.See below for a choice few:


R e f e r e n c e sCalthorpe, Peter. 1993. The Next AmericanMetropolis: Ecology, Community and theAmerican Dream. New York: PrincetonUniversity Press.

Calthorpe, Peter. 1993. The Next AmericanMetropolis: Ecology, Community and theAmerican Dream. New York: PrincetonUniversity Press.

Calthorpe, Peter, William Fulton, forward byRobert Fishman. The Regional City: Planningfor the End of Sprawl. Washington DC: IslandPress.

R e f e r e n c e s( c o n t i n u e d )Duany, Andres, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk andJeff Speck. 2000. Suburban Nation: The Rise ofSprawl and the Decline of the AmericanDream. New York: North Point Press.

Duany, Andres and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk;edited by Alex Krieger with William Lennertz;essays by Alex Krieger. 1991. Towns andTownmaking Principles. Cambridge Mass:Harvard University Graduate School ofDesign; New York: Rizzoli.

Van der Ryn, Sim and Peter Calthrope. 1986.Sustainable Communities; New DesignSynthesis for Cities, Suburbs and Towns.SandFrancisco: Sierra Club Books.

Warren, Roxanne. 1997. The Urban Oasis:Guideways and Greenways in the HumanEnvirnment. New York: McGraw Hill.

R e f e r e n c e sFlink, Charles A, LoringLaB. Schwarz ed.,Charles A. Flink and Robert M. Searns contrib-utors. 1993. Greenways: A Guide to Planning,Design, and Development. Washington, DC:Island Press.

Jongman, Rob, Gloria Pungetti, John Wiens,Lenore Fahrig, Bruce Milne, Peter Dennis,Richard Hobbs and Joan Nassauer editors.2004. Ecological Networks and Greenways:Concept, Design, Implementation. Cambridge,England: Cambridge University Press.

Little, Charles E. 1990. Greenways forAmerica. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press.

National Park Service Rivers and TrailsConservation Assistance. 1995. EconomicImpacts of Protecting Rivers, Trails, andGreenway Corridors. Washington, DC:National Park Service.

INTRODUCTIONThis Regulatory and Policy Solutions section isdesigned to give the City of Warner Robinssome potential legal tools and policies to effec-tuate any of the "Visions" prepared and present-ed by the CCDP during the Russell Parkwaydesign phase. Warner Robins currently has atraditional zoning code which encourages sepa-ration of uses and does not incorporate most ofthe tools suggested below. Therefore, this sec-tion provides general advice on how to createthese regulatory and policy solutions. Whereavailable and appropriate, model ordinancesand references to other sources are provided inthe appendices.

There are several regulatory tools and land usepolicies that can be used to fulfill any of thevisions presented during the design process. Infact, the City may find it desirable to "mix andmatch" some of the approaches to meet the eco-nomic development and environmental needsof the community, while promoting the desiresof landowners and community leaders for amore attractive, less congested, welcoming and"green" parkway as a gateway for the City. Forease of use the tools are listed in alphabeticalorder. At the beginning of each section is also adescription of which design scenarios might beserved by an individual tool.

TOOLS AND POLICIESAgricultural zoning andTools for agricultural preservationIn the "Agricultural Approach," pecan andpeach orchards are proposed at some pointsalong Russell Parkway, intermingled with com-mercial development. The land targeted forthis proposal is currently in productive agricul-tural use or orchards. Most of it is zoned in aresidential classification. Warner Robins doesnot have agricultural zoning, except for a"Residential Agriculture (R-AG)" designationthat allows residential development on 1 acrelots. The Future Land Use Map in the Year 2025Land Use Plan for the Warner Robins AreaTransportation Study indicates that this landwill be variously zoned commercial and resi-dential, with some "general agricultural/openundeveloped land." However, there is legiti-mate concern that once commercial uses beginto encroach on the land, it will become too valu-able to remain in agricultural production.

There are two potential approaches to retainingagricultural land along the corridor. First, theCity may adopt an agricultural zoning categorysuitable for continued production while allow-ing for some residential and farm-related com-mercial uses. Also, in order to maintain afford-ability of the land and ensure continued viabil-ity for agricultural production, the City can

encourage landowners to place permanent con-servation easements on the land. Conservationeasements can provide favorable income andproperty tax treatment on the land, with theeasement ensuring that the land will always beused for agriculture or open space uses. Forlandowners who cannot afford to voluntarilyplace easements on their land, a program topurchase easements may be put in place by theCity. Sometimes known as "Purchase ofDevelopment Rights," these programs use publicand private funding to purchase the right to placea conservation easement on the land, allowingthe landowner to afford to continue to farm orenjoy the open space uses of the property.

AGRICULTURAL ZONINGThere are two types of agricultural zoning:exclusive and non-exclusive. Exclusive agricul-tural zoning allows use of the land for agricul-ture only, permitting only a limited amount ofnon-farm development. However, exclusiveagricultural zoning is most effective in theMidwest, where large intensive farm opera-tions prevail. In Georgia, where farms tend tobe smaller, non-exclusive agricultural zones areusually more effective. These zones often allowresidential and farm-related commercial uses(1). This type of zoning may be an option inWarner Robins.

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There are several varieties of non-exclusiveagricultural zoning based upon density limita-tions on residential development. Local gov-ernments usually require large minimum lotsizes. These density limitations typically mustcorrespond to the minimum size of commercialfarms in the area in order to be effective. InWarner Robins, orchards require 5 or moreacres to be viable, and so minimum lot sizesmight be in that range.

The other option for non-exclusive agriculturalzoning is the area-based allocation. Unlike theminimum lot size method, this system bases theamount of development allowed upon the totalsize of the parcel. Under this system, thelandowner is still permitted to build a certainnumber of houses per amount of acreage, asunder the minimum lot system. However, thenumber of houses permitted decreases as thesize of the landowner's parcel increases. Forexample, an ordinance with the sliding scalesystem might permit two landowners, oneowning a 50 acre parcel and the other owning a100 acre parcel, to both construct three dwellingunits and four dwelling units, respectively, ontheir properties (2). The idea behind this systemis to save larger parcels for productive agricul-tural use.

Finally, some localities permit developmentonly in areas where the soil is of marginal qual-ity for farming. This zoning type allows thelandowner to create a certain number of lots,regardless of lot size, and, in this way, it is sim-ilar to cluster zoning in agricultural areas.

Attached as Appendix a are summaries of agri-cultural zoning ordinances promoted by theAmerican Farmland Trust. Some of these ordi-nances allow agricultural zones in which "pickyour own" farms and limited commercial usessuch as farm markets and "eco-tourism" farmsare allowed by right. This blend of commercialdevelopment with agriculture might be suitablein some areas along Russell Parkway.

CONSERVATION EASEMENTSA conservation easement is a voluntary agree-ment between a property owner and the ease-ment holder in which the property owneragrees to forgo developing the property. TheGeorgia General Assembly has authorized thecreation of conservation easements in theUniform Conservation Easement Act (3) for usein preserving the natural, scenic, or open spacevalues of land.

There are many incentives for landowners todonate conservation easements. Some of thebiggest incentives are tax advantages. The

donation of a conservation easement can beused to reduce the landowner's income, estate,and property taxes (4). The property ownerretains title to the land and can continue to live

S o l u t i o n s f o r W a r n e r R o b i n s


1. Examples of some other non-farm uses that are per-mitted in some non-exclusive agricultural zoningschemes include: forestry uses, nurseries/greenhouses,wildlife refuges, fish hatcheries, schools, beekeeping,non-commercial recreation (such as family pools and ten-nis courts).

2. The Shrewsbury Township and York County, PA ordi-nance is an example of a sliding scale, area-based ordi-nance:

3. O.C.G.A. section 44-10-1 et. seq.

4. A property owner in Georgia who grants a conserva-tion easement is entitled to a revaluation of their proper-ty for tax purposes (O.C.G.A. section 44-10-8). The dona-tion of an easement may also qualify for a charitablededuction for income tax purposes and a reduction inthe value of the owner’s taxable estate. See the GeorgiaEnvironmental Policy Institute website at:http://wwww.gepinstitute.com/concease.htm#TAX for infor-mation on conservation easements and their tax implica-tions.

Size ofParcel

0-5acres

5-15acres

15-30acres

30-60acres

90-120acres

120-150acres

# ofDwellingsPermitted

1 2 3 4 5 9

on it, sell it, or bequeath it by will.Conservation easement agreements are writtento allow certain uses on the land, such as farm-ing, fishing, or hunting. Unlike zoning, whichmay be altered by future zoning board deci-sions, conservation easements can be perpetual(5). The local government can therefore beassured that the land will remain undevelopeddespite any future zoning changes.

Conservation easements are currently beingused by many jurisdictions in Georgia to pre-serve land. The Oconee River Land Trust hasbeen accepting conservation easements forproperty along the Oconee River for over adecade to prevent development in this water-shed (6). The Altamaha Scenic Byway project,a combined effort among McIntosh and GlynnCounties, the City of Darien, the St. Simon'sIsland Land Trust, and the NatureConservancy, will use conservation easementsto help preserve a 17 mile stretch of historic andscenic land along the Georgia Coast that is fac-ing development pressure.

If Warner Robins decides to use conservationeasements to preserve undeveloped land, theCity should take the following steps (7):

1) Identify or create easement holdingorganizations.A local government may designate itself as aland trust for purposes of accepting and hold-ing conservation easements or choose to part-ner with an existing non-profit land trust orother organization that holds conservationeasements (8). Often non-profit land trusts willhave funding, staff, and experience to aid ineffectively managing a conservation easementprogram.

2) Prioritize the properties that need to bepreserved.Acceptance of conservation easements shouldbe in line with the goals of the local govern-ment's land preservation plan. If, for example,the goal is to preserve land along RussellParkway, properties located on or near the cor-ridor should be given the top priority. Thismay be accomplished by soliciting propertyowners to donate a conservation easement overtheir land. If a landowner responds positively,the managing group should assess the propertyto be certain that it meets the goals of the mas-ter plan before accepting the easement.

3) Negotiate with landowners to developconservation plans for properties.Once the easement offer has been accepted, theparties should negotiate to develop a conserva-

tion easement agreement for the property thatfits the needs of the landowner as well as theconservation goals of the local government (9).Once a satisfactory agreement has beenreached, the parties should close the deal andthe easement holder should promptly recordthe conservation easement in the county record-ing office. The easement holder should alsotake responsibility for monitoring the propertyto be sure that the protective covenants con-tained in the easement agreement are not vio-lated.

Conservation easements have many advan-tages as tools for protecting property fromdevelopment. If used in combination with PDRand acquisitions, conservation easements canhelp a local government attain its goals of pre-serving land along a scenic corridor, agricultur-al district, or other key conservation area.

PURCHASE OF DEVELOPMENT RIGHTSPDR programs are helpful for agriculturalpreservation, environmental conservation, orprotection of open space. The most commontype of PDR programs buy development rightsto protect agricultural land facing pressurefrom encroaching urban areas. PDR programsin Georgia are authorized by state statute andadministered at the county or municipal gov-ernment level (10). They are created by a local

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ordinance authorizing PDR, and often creatinga land trust or advisory board to administer theprogram (11). The ordinance should also pro-vide for the membership of the administrativebody and funding sources, and should outlinethe process and methodology to be used formaking PDR decisions.

Membership of the administrative body typi-cally consists of at least one member of the localgovernment's planning department. Othermembers often include land preservation spe-cialists, and members of the agricultural com-munity. These boards oversee the applicationprocess for the PDR, solicit offers to prospectivesellers, administer the PDR ranking and valua-tion processes, conduct the PDR transactions,and monitor the properties once the develop-ment rights have been purchased.

A PDR program also needs a system for deter-mining the purchase price of the developmentrights. Two common methods are appraisaland point based valuation. Appraisal involveshaving a certified appraiser determine thedevelopment value of the land and the value inits preserved state. The difference betweenthese two figures is the value of the develop-ment rights. Appraisal has been disfavored bysome jurisdictions because of the cost of hiringa private appraiser increases the cost of the PDR

transactions. Points systems are anothermethod of appraising property values.Howard County, Maryland used a point basessystem utilizing factors such as acreage, soiltype, and proximity to urban areas to formulatea per acre price for development rights (12).Point based systems have the advantage oflower costs and reduced disparity betweenappraised prices of similar properties.

PDR programs can be funded in a variety ofways. One of the most common ways is byvoter-approved bond issues. Other options areproperty or sales tax revenues. Often this isaccomplished by getting voter approval toincrease property tax millage rates or to imple-ment a Special Purpose Local Option Sales Tax(SPLOST) for the purpose of funding the PDRpurchases and program administration (13).Some jurisdictions have found unique ways offunding their PDR programs. LancasterCounty, Pennsylvania, which has one of themost successful PDR programs in the nation,initially used a cigarette tax to fund a portion oftheir program's financial needs. Farmland


7. See: Georgia Department of Community Affairs,Toolkit of best practices, available at:http://www.dca.state.ga.us/intranonpub/Toolkit/Guides/ConsEasmt.pdf

8. According to O.C.G.A (sec) 44-10-2(2), the holder of aconservation easement may be a government entityempowered to hold interests in land or a charitable organ-ization whose purposes comply with the statute. Refer tothe Georgia Environmental Policy Institute website(http://gepinstitute.com) or the Georgia Department ofNatural Resources website (http://www.gadner.org) for alist of conservation organizations in your area.

9. Conservation easement agreements may be tailored tofit the needs of both parties by adding provisions thatallow certain activities such as development of only one ora few additional structures, environmentally friendly tim-ber management practices, and hunting and fishing. Asample conservation easement agreement is available athttp://www.gepinstitute.com/consease.htm#DEED.

10. O.C.G.A 36-66A-1 et seq.

11. A helpful example of a PDR ordinance is the Dunn,Wisconsin ordinance 4-3, which can be accessed online athttp://www.userpages.chorus.net/towndunn/pdordinance/htm.

12. Howard County’s pricing guidelines for developmentrights available at: http://www.co.ho.md.us/DPZ/DPZDocs/criteria&pricing/pdf.

13. Athens-Clarke County (GA) recently authorized aSPLOST in order to help provide funding for a greenwayon the Oconee River. For authorized uses of SPLOSTfunds, see O.C.G.A. section 48-8-11.

5. According to O.C.G.A section 44-10-3 (c), conservationeasements are assumed to be perpetual unless the dura-tion is limited by agreement.

6. The Oconee River Land Trust has helpful informationon land trusts and conservation easements available on itswebsite at http://www.orlt.com.


Protection Program grants from the UnitedStates Department of Agriculture may be avail-able to match local PDR program funds. Lastly,donations from private individuals, conservan-cies, and Land Trusts may help provide fund-ing for PDR programs (14).

ARCHITECTURAL STANDARDSDESIGN GUIDELINESThis tool relates to all four of the "Visions." Theidea of creating uniform architectural standardswas mentioned throughout the design process,due to the desire to develop a standardized"look" for buildings along the corridor.

Architectural standards and design guidelinesare used to promote aesthetics and appropriatearchitecture, and to provide a unique sense ofplace to the community. Wherever they areused, architectural design guidelines shouldhave a clearly defined purpose. This serves toinform builders of the reasoning behind requir-ing such standards and to give credence to theirenforceability. The creator of a design ordi-nance should consider the community's uniquecharacteristics in its recommendations and pro-posals. Compatibility with historic sites, natu-ral features and existing buildings (to the extentappropriate) should be taken into considerationwhen creating architectural design guidelines. Typically, local governments adopt an ordi-

nance describing how the design guidelines areapplied, along with text and graphical designguidelines used when projects are reviewed.The more successful design guidelines do notfocus on dictating style, but on illustrating spa-tial elements such as building type or form, pro-portion, scale, height, and setback, as well asdelineating acceptable and unacceptable build-ing materials.

Illustrations are important in a design ordi-nance, to give visual representations of thetypes of acceptable and unacceptable develop-ment. For example, to the right is a potentialillustration of an "appropriately" designedstorefront.

(Source: Caleb Racicot: Tunnell-Spangler-Walsh &Associates, Atlanta, Georgia.)

INCLUDE:SetbacksMinimum setbacks requiring buildings to"address the street."

Building Shape and HeightBuildings should be proportionally designedand in context with their surroundings.Requirements for upper stories and attractivefaçades are highly recommended for gooddesign and relationship to the street.

Roof Line and OverhangFor example, buildings with flat roofs shouldhave cornices or decorative bands to "cap" thefaçade.

Window and Door Proportions and GroupingGenerally, there should be more glass and lesswall at the storefront level, which these "fenes-tration" requirements help achieve.

Storefront StandardsStorefront design should not be allowed tostray out of its natural place within the façade.Storefronts should be as transparent as possi-ble.

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Lighting StandardsLighting should be appropriate for the context,and balance visibility and safety against lightpollution problems.

Landscaping Standards and Greenspace Requirements Landscaping and requirements for green areasand "pocket parks" help create aestheticallypleasing sites and encourage pedestrian use.(For more on this topic see the Tree and land-scaping ordinance section.)

Parking Lot DesignRequirements that parking be place behind andbeside retail and office buildings minimizes the"acres of parking in front" phenomenon.

Site GradingGrading should be minimized to reduce envi-ronmental damage and to encourage "contextsensitive" design. (See the "Better Site Design"section.)

Signage requirementsShould balance visibility with aesthetics. (Seethe "Billboard and Signage Requirements" formore on this topic.)

To implement the design guidelines, communi-ties often create a design review board,

although smaller communities tend to have theCity Council oversee the design review process.Creation of design review board is often prefer-able because experts or those with architecturalexperience or training can be appointed to over-see the review process. This strengthens theauthority of the board and defensibility of itsdecisions. Normally the design review boardshould be an advisory body which makes rec-ommendations to the Council. Also, the designguidelines should be objective in nature, andthe board should be required to approve allprojects that meet those objective standards.This will help avoid charges that the board'srecommendations are arbitrary or capriciousand therefore open to legal challenge. Like anyadministrative process, the board must ensuredue process by following its procedures andmaking justifiable decisions based on a rea-soned-and well documented-application of thedesign guidelines to the proposed project.There should also be an appeals process.

Since design guidelines are unique to each com-munity, model ordinance language is generallyunhelpful in creating and implementing theseguidelines. An additional helpful resource is"Making Your Design Review ProcessDefensible," available at www.planning.org/thecommissioner/summer01.htm.

BILLBOARD AND SIGNAGE RESTRICTIONSBillboard regulation was listed as a desire oflandowners and community leaders during thecharrette process. Reduction of billboards andappropriate signage is key to improving aes-thetics along any roadway with commercialdevelopment. Sign regulation is also a verycontentious and complicated issue.

Two resources can be very helpful. The first,Sign Control on Rural Corridors: ModelProvisions and Guidance, was developed bythe Land Use Clinic for the Department ofCommunity Affairs, and is attached as Appendixb. Although it was developed for a NortheastGeorgia Regional Advisory Council for use inpreservation of scenic rural corridors, its adviceis equally applicable to the Russell Parkway. Itis a step-by-step guide to designing a billboardordinance that is both effective and constitu-tional.


14. For information on conservation organizations inter-ested in partnering with local governments in managing aPDR program or providing funding, contact the GeorgiaLand Trust Service Center (http://www.gepinstitute.com) orthe Georgia Department of Natural Resources(http://www.dnr.state.ga.us/greenspace/pdfs/sources.pdf).


The second resource is the American PlanningAssociation's Context-Sensitive Signage Design.It is an excellent resource on all aspects of signregulation, including community involvement,the history of sign regulation, the economicvalue of signs, and legal issues. To gain access,visit the American Planning AssociationPlanning Advisory Service - www.planning.org/signs/Login.asp - and pro-vide a name and company information to log in.

CONSERVATION SUBDIVISIONSConservation subdivisions are a key compo-nent of the "Conservation and ScenicApproach." Unlike conventional subdivisions,conservation subdivisions preserve a signifi-cant portion of their total area as common openspace by clustering houses on smaller lots. Thisopen space is typically preserved using a con-servation easement. Benefits to developersinclude lower infrastructure costs and higherproperty values. Benefits to homeownersinclude proximity to open space, which can beused for passive recreation such as hiking.

The purpose of a conservation subdivision ordi-nances is to permit flexibility of residentialdesign in order to promote environmentallysensitive and efficient uses of the land, to con-serve open space and open space networks(including public trails and greenways) in per-

petuity, to protect sensitive natural resources,water quality, wildlife habitat, and importanthistorical sites, and to reduce infrastructureconstruction and maintenance costs by provid-ing for clustering of houses and structures.

Planner and conservation subdivision advocateRandall Arendt has written the seminal guide,Conservation Design for Subdivisions: APractical Guide to Creating Open SpaceNetworks, (1996), which contains model ordi-nance provisions. Conservation subdivisionsare becoming increasingly popular in Georgia.Laurie Fowler and Seth Wenger of the UGAInstitute of Ecology have created a model ordi-nance for Georgia, which is attached asAppendix c. This ordinance is part of an AtlantaRegional Commission Quality Growth Toolkit,along with a guide to conservation subdivisionsand case studies. The entire document is avail-able at www.atlantaregional.com/ quality-growth/planning/Toolkits/CONSERVA-TION_SUBDIVISION_TOOL.pdf.

“GREEN” DEVELOPMENT AND REDUCTION OF PAVINGThe ideas of reduction of paving and design ofbuilding sites that are "green" were mentionedby property owners and community leaders asvalues to be promoted in the developmentprocess. These tools relate particularly to the

"Smart Growth," "Conservation and Scenic,"and "Poly-Nuclear" Approaches.

Better Site DesignBetter site design employs a variety of designtechniques to reduce impervious cover,increase the amount of natural, vegetated landsset aside for conservation, and use "perviousareas" for more effective stormwater treatment(15). Streets, parking spaces, setbacks, lotsizes, driveways, and sidewalks are all reducedin scale to reduce paving and increase greenareas. At the same time, better site designincludes use of creative grading and drainagetechniques that will reduce stormwater runoffand encourage more infiltration.

While use of better site design practices have ahugely beneficial impact on communities, theyare often hard to implement because existingzoning ordinances, subdivision regulations,street and parking standards, and drainage reg-ulations hinder rather than help the implemen-tation of better site design. Furthermore, devel-opers are often not willing to change old prac-tices because doing so may risk delay or rejec-tion of site plans that are expensive and timeconsuming to create (16). However, manyresources exist to help change that regulatorypicture.

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For example, in 2001, the Center for WatershedProtection (CWP) published Smart SitePractices for Redevelopment and Infill Projects,containing specific practices and programs thatlocal governments, developers, and communi-ties can implement (17). Smart Site Practicesmakes several broad recommendations to pre-serve greenspace and decrease imperviouscover. These recommendations can be adoptedin whole or in part.

First, at the planning stage, governments canrequire an environmental site assessment, tohelp identify opportunities for natural resourcerestoration, reclamation and preservation.Also, the developer's site plan and designshould preserve naturally vegetated areas, and,when feasible, include plans for re-vegetation,soil restoration, and use of native or non-inva-sive plants. Developers should also utilizeexisting impervious cover as efficiently as pos-sible and minimize the size of parking lots andstreetscapes.

Smart Site Practices also includes many recom-mendations for improving stormwater manage-ment and encouraging public transit and othernon-automotive transportation forms. Parkinglots should be designed to reduce, store andtreat stormwater runoff using techniques suchas functional landscaping and incremental min-

imization of lot size. Streets should minimize,capture, and reuse stormwater runoff.Governments can accomplish this by mandat-ing narrower streets, and requiring landscapedareas and/or trees along street front. Also,source control of pollutants is a simple andcost-effective way to reduce stormwater pollu-tion at many commercial sites, and techniquesinclude designing better loading docks, cover-ing potentially polluting materials stored out-doors, and containing dumpsters and fuelingareas. Finally, local governments can encour-age alternative transportation forms by increas-ing non-automotive connections to adjacentland uses, providing links to mass transit, andusing alternatives to traditional sidewalks.

Because better site design impacts so many dif-ferent development practices, the best way todetermine which types of land use regulationneed to be changed, and what the community isalready doing right, is through the use ofCWP's "Code & Ordinance Worksheet," avail-able at www.cwp.org/COW.pdf. This work-sheet allows in-depth review of zoning, subdi-vision, and other local codes.

ParkingAnother, less ambitious way to reduce pavingis reduction of parking lots through better park-ing planning. As with many communities,

Warner Robins has fairly high minimum park-ing requirements for new development, partic-ularly commercial development. Industrystudies show that parking requirements can beset lower, and made maximums instead of min-imums, to make important reductions in pavingand improvements in aesthetics and environ-mental protection. The following are sugges-tions for achieving the optimal level of parking.

Identify Parking Demand: Parking demandsvary. The best way to make a determination ofparking needs is a periodic survey of currentand planned land uses, local travel patterns,and parking problems at different locations inthe community. This type of community-spe-cific data collection can help Warner Robinsadjust its parking requirements over time.


15. Pervious areas are streets or parking lots paved withpervious materials that permit water to enter the groundby virtue of their porous nature or by large spaces in thematerial. See: City of Austin’s Green Building Program,Sustainable Building Sourcebook, available at: http://www.greenbuilder.com/sourcebook/PerviousMaterials.html.

16. Center for Watershed Protection, An Introduction toBetter Site Design 1. 2003. Available at:http://www.cwp.org/Downloads/ELC_PWP45.pdf

17. The full text can be found athttp://cwp.org/smartsites.pdf.


Parking Plans: One way to ensure that parkingissues have been fully considered for a particu-lar development is to require a parking plan besubmitted with development permit applica-tions. A parking plan incorporates site-specificdata and explains how the development planmeets existing parking regulations. Developerscould also be asked to submit plans that varyfrom existing parking requirements to reducethe amount of on-site parking.

Parking Structures: When land is at a premi-um or walking distances from parking spacesare too great (generally more than 1,000 feet),parking structures should be considered.Although parking structures are more expen-sive than surface parking (sometimes morethan five times as much per space), parkingstructures can add aesthetic, environmental,and overall cost-saving features if placed in anideal location. In addition, depending on thesite and purpose of the parking structure, thestructure may house additional uses. For exam-ple, a large shopping center could include aparking structure with small shops on theground floor and parking on the upper levels.

Other helpful sources on parking include: Tri-State Transportation Campaign, ParkingManagement: A Brochure, http://www.tstc.org/pricing/parkman;

Urban Land Institute, The Dimensions ofParking, 4th ed. (2000); Institute ofTransportation Engineers, TransportationPlanning Handbook, John D. Edwards, ed., 2nded. (1999); and T.P. Smith, Flexible ParkingRequirements, Planning Advisory ServiceReport No. 377, American Planning Association(1983).

GREENWAYSGreenway is a term for a linear open space thatprovides connections and fosters movement.The Greenway concept is used in the SmartGrowth Approach, and could also be an elementof the Conservation and Scenic Approach.

There are many different approaches to green-way development, from multi-million dollarprograms with significant infrastructure tofootpaths along local streams. Creating agreenway requires planning, creation of publicand private partnerships, building public sup-port, organizing funding, and creating appro-priate regulation and management practices.One resource designed to guide communitiesthrough the entire process is The ConservationFund's Greenways: A Guide to Planning,Design, and Development, Loring Schwarz, ed.(1993).

MIXED-USE ZONINGLike many communities in Georgia, WarnerRobins has a traditional zoning scheme thatseparates commercial, office, and residentialuses in separate districts. However, there is agrowing trend to create Mixed-Use develop-ments to reduce traffic, make options for devel-opment more flexible, and generally create acommunity that brings people closer to work,play, and shopping options. This encouragesmore pedestrian activity and increases conven-ience for residents and workers alike. Conceptsrelated to mixed-use development are heavilyreferenced in the Russell Parkway planningprocess. For example, the Smart GrowthApproach includes mixed-use facilities provid-ing housing, restaurants, and stores in the samebuilding, to create an active pedestrian popula-tion, increase revenue for developers, andreduce the impacts of development on sur-rounding land. The Agricultural Approachincludes a "high density small town commercialcenter" which allows surrounding residents towalk or bike to the store and creates opportuni-ties for neighbors to interact. The Poly-NuclearApproach is at heart a mixed-use approach, clus-tering the uses around key intersections to cre-ate a retail/residential mix surrounded by nat-ural spaces.

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The implementation of mixed-use districtsessentially requires the replacement of existingzoning regulations with a new scheme.Fortunately, as mixed-use zoning gains accept-ance in communities, more planning guidanceand model resources are available. For exam-ple, the Atlanta Regional Commission has anexcellent section on mixed-use development inits "Community Choices Toolkit." The Mixed-Use Model Ordinance from that toolkit isattached as Appendix d. This model ordinance isflexible and may be used by Warner Robins tocreate one to four zone districts with varyingcharacteristics, from neighborhood centers tocommercial corridor districts. The entire docu-ment is available atwww.atlantaregional.com/qualitygrowth/toolkits.html#mixed. It covers concepts such asusing mixed-use development to reduce overallparking requirements, relating mixed-use zon-ing to the community's comprehensive plan,appropriate height and scale of development,the legal framework of mixed-use zoning andmany other topics. It also contains a compre-hensive list of additional resources and casestudies of how communities implement mixed-use zoning.

NODAL DEVELOPMENTNodal development and mixed-use zoning areclosely-related topics, as development nodes

usually contain a mix of uses. The "Poly-Nuclear Approach" developed during theRussell Parkway charrette is derived from anapproach also known as "development pulsing"or "nodal development." This planning conceptis often used to prevent uncontrolled strip-styledevelopment along a corridor. Growth is con-fined to dense, interconnected clusters ornodes, with open space or residential areas inbetween (18). By concentrating a wide mix ofcommercial and residential uses at the nodes,consumers are placed within walking distanceof offices, stores, and transit stops. A grid-stylestreet system within the nodes allows travelingconsumers to exit main thoroughfares, park,and walk to their desired locations instead ofdriving from store to store. This cuts down onvehicular traffic congestion and pollution, andimproves the appearance of commercial dis-tricts, attracting consumers, new businesses,and increased sales and property tax dollars.Zoning the land between pulse points for lowdensity residential or open space can create orconserve green space.

Nodal development is becoming popular inGeorgia. For example, the City of Atlantaemployed development pulsing in its Donald L.Hollowell/Bankhead Highway RedevelopmentPlan (19). For this strip corridor redevelop-ment project, eight pulse points were chosen to

serve as commercial and mixed use centersalong the corridor. The criteria for choosingpulse points included population density anddemographics, proximity to MARTA stations,and ability to handle traffic, as well as inputfrom the community expressed at public meet-ings.

Similarly, the City of Dalton is implementingnodal development at several key intersectionsalong the Walnut Avenue corridor, near resi-dential areas. The purposes of the ordinanceare to reduce cluttered, strip-style developmentalong the corridor, and reduce traffic by creat-ing pedestrian destinations and live-workareas. Their nodal development ordinanceshould be ready by July, and might be an excel-lent model for development at a similar scale toWarner Robins and the Russell Parkway.Dalton's Quality Growth Director GaileJennings is willing to provide that ordinance,and answer any questions, if contacted [email protected].


18. For more information on development pusling,please see the Urban Land Institute’s “Ten Principles forReinventing America’s Suburban Strips” by Michael D.Beyard and Michael Pawlukiewicz. This article is avail-able online at: http://www.uli.org.

19. Information on the Donald L. HollowellRedevelopment Project can be found online at:http://apps.atlantaga.gov/citydir/DPCD/Bureau_of_Planning?BOP/Plan_Study/Hollowell_Draft.


OVERLAY ZONINGThe design concept ultimately chosen forRussell Parkway can be implemented throughan overlay district. Overlay districts are specialzones placed "on top" of existing zoning andplanning regulations. The overlay district con-tains requirements that either supplement orreplace the underlying regulations. Thisapproach allows local governments to maintaincurrent codes while addressing the specialneeds of particularly sensitive areas. This is anattractive option for communities wishing torevitalize a particular corridor without moreextensive amendments to the jurisdiction'sunderlying zoning ordinance.

The overlay district is a tool that is widely usedby local jurisdictions in Georgia. No additionalstatutory authority beyond state-granted zon-ing and planning powers is required. However,creation of an overlay ordinance is a zoningaction, and the appropriate state and localnotice and hearing requirements should be fol-lowed. The mapped boundaries of the overlaydistrict do not necessarily have to coincide withother zoning district boundaries, and may notfollow parcel boundaries. Instead, natural fea-tures, roads, etc. often define the perimeter ofthe overlay district.

Two sample overlay ordinances are attached asAppendix e and Appendix f. The first, which wasdeveloped by the Land Use Clinic for Dalton,Georgia, is designed to encourage strip corridorredevelopment, and contains some provisionssimilar to those suggested in this document.The second, also created for regulating a roadcorridor, is part of the "Uses of OverlayDistricts" portion of ARC's Quality GrowthToolkit. This document is available atwww.atlantaregional.com/qualitygrowth/OVERLAY_DISTRICTS_TOOL.

When enacting an overlay district, it is impor-tant to consider the language of Warner Robinscomprehensive plan. Well-written comprehen-sive plans should provide goals, objectives, andpolicies to substantiate the need for, and publicpurpose of, overlay districts. It may even beadvisable to amend the comprehensive plan tofurther reflect the purposes of the overlay ordi-nance.

TREE AND LANDSCAPE ORDINANCEThe "Agricultural Approach" suggests the useof pine stands along Russell Parkway as buffersfrom commercial development. Also, the use oftrees and landscaping in general are often partof corridor regulation. Similar to sign regula-tion and architectural standards, a tree andlandscaping ordinance could be beneficial for

any of the design scenarios. Warner Robinscurrently has no tree or landscape regulations.The critical elements of a tree ordinance are dis-cussed below. Also, the Greensboro, NorthCarolina tree ordinance is attached as Appendixg. Another extensive source of sample treeordinances is on the website of the ForestService's Southern Region at www.urban-forestrysouth.org/ordinances/index.asp.

Street-Side Planting AreasTo create an appealing and pedestrian friendlyatmosphere, it is important to require plantingareas along the street. Many tree ordinancesrequire only that a development include a cer-tain number of trees, usually calculated basedupon the total acreage. This type of ordinanceis not sufficient to develop and maintain a tree-lined streetscape. Therefore, within the overlaydistrict the tree requirements should call forstreet-side planting strips. These plantingstrips should be along the right of way, when-ever possible, and allow for reasonable entryand exit to properties along the corridor.Whenever possible, existing mature treesshould be preserved and included in the land-scape plan for the property.

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Size and Quantity of PlantingsWhen developing guidelines for tree planting,it is helpful to take a long term perspective. It isrecommended that tree placement and designbe determined by the prospective ten-yeargrowth of the tree species being planted.Planting trees without adequate space mayresult in added future cost, as the trees willneed to be pruned more frequently or possiblyreplaced. The size of the tree may vary depend-ing on the type of native species. The goalshould be to maximize canopy coverage with-out endangering the health of the trees. Also, itis important that the tree ordinance allow forflexibility in cases where buildings or aboveground utilities must be accommodated in thelandscape plan. By using various sizes of treesand requiring shrub planting, the goal of con-tinuous street-side vegetation can be accom-plished.

Canopy TreesLarge, street-side canopy trees are the mostappealing aesthetically and environmentally.They provide large amounts of shade to peopleand buildings, while helping reduce the envi-ronmental impact of development. A canopytree is one with a height of 40 feet and a crownof 30 feet at maturity. For canopy trees withinthe street-side planting strip, it is recommendedthat a planting density be set, and the number

of trees determined by the street frontage ofeach lot. For example, an ordinance might say,"street-side planting areas shall include twocanopy trees in the first forty feet and onecanopy tree per forty feet thereafter or fractionthereof, if the remaining distance is twenty feetor more." Best practices require a width of atleast 8 feet for the planting strip, with an opti-mum width of 12 feet. A canopy tree shouldnever be planted in a strip with less than 4 feetof separation from an impervious service,because this could prevent the root system fromhaving adequate access to soil and water. Also,it would increase the likelihood of root systemsdamaging the sidewalk or roadway.

When possible, "water wise" tree species shouldbe used. as they require minimal watering forhealth growth. A water wise canopy treeshould be a minimum of 2 inch caliper, meas-ured six inches above grade, when planted. Allother canopy trees should be a minimum ofthree inch caliper, measured six inches abovegrade. The difference encourages propertyowners to plant water wise species (21).

Understory TreesWhen buildings or utilities come into conflictwith larger trees, smaller understory treesshould be substituted. When mature, an under-story tree should be 25 to 40 feet high (22).

Understory trees may be used in areas whereoverhanging utility lines make the planting ofcanopy trees impracticable. For every onecanopy tree required, two understory treesshould be substituted (23). A water wise under-story tree should be a minimum of 1 inch incaliper, measured 6 inches above grade, whenplanted. Other understory trees should be aminimum of 2 inches in caliper, measured 6inches above grade, at time of installation.

ShrubsRecommended species of shrubs should be of alocally adapted nature so as to limit mainte-nance costs and avoid the introduction of inva-sive and/or foreign species. To minimize theneed for watering, an arborist should develop arecommended list of water saving species.Shrubs can help large trees around them bylowering the amount of evaporation from thesoil. Also, shrubs can provide an eye-pleasingbuffer along the side of the roadway. A recom-mended density for street-side planting strips is17 shrubs per 100 feet of frontage, becausemaintaining street level vegetation is importantto create the desired aesthetic effect.


20. See, e.g. Zoning Procedures Law, O.C.G.A. 36-66-1 etseq.

21. Greensboro, N.C. Tree Ordinances, section 30-5-4.9(2003).

22. Id.

23. Id.


Above Ground UtilitiesPlanting tall growing trees under and nearoverhead lines will ultimately require the utili-ty company to prune the tree in order to main-tain safe clearance from the wires. Frequentpruning may give the tree an unnatural appear-ance and shorten its life span, as frequentlypruned trees are more susceptible to insects anddisease (24). To avoid these hazards, the size ofthe tree at maturity should be considered.Proper selection and placement of trees in andaround overhead utilities can eliminate poten-tial public safety hazards, reduce expenses forutilities and their rate payers, and improve theappearance of landscapes.

Underground UtilitiesIt is increasingly common for utility lines to beburied underground. The large undergroundroot systems of street-side trees will rarelyinterfere with utility lines. Most commonly,conflict between trees and underground utili-ties occurs at the time of planting. This can beavoided through proper planning and use ofreasonable care. When making repairs tounderground utilities, it will be important forlocal utility companies to be cautious so as tonot damage the root systems of street-side trees.

Trees in Parking LotsRequiring shade trees to be planted in andaround parking areas has aesthetic and envi-ronmental benefits. Un-shaded parking lotsretain a large amount of heat in warmer cli-mates. This contributes to both the urban "heatisland" effect (25) and increased air pollution(26). Also, a vehicle parked in shade requiresless air conditioning and is less susceptible togasoline evaporation. Finally, providing shadeover parking areas will provide a more pleasantand environmentally friendly atmosphere.

For maximum environmental benefit, propertyowners should be required to maintain a treecanopy that will provide 50% shade coverageover the parking surface. The amount of shadecoverage provided should be calculated basedupon the predicted size of the tree crown fifteenyears after installation. It is important thatshade falling outside of the parking area not becounted. Also, within the parking area, over-lapping shade should only be counted oncetowards total coverage.

Maintenance and Public AwarenessProperty owners should be responsible formaintaining healthy trees and shrubs, since fewlocal governments have the budget to fund anextensive tree maintenance program.Maintenance may include periodic pruning,

replacement of mulching, or even replantingdead trees and shrubs. It is important thatproperty owners are educated on how to prop-erly care for the trees on their lots. An arboristshould develop proper care guidelines and rec-ommend preventative maintenance measures.Without adequate guidance, property ownersmay end up incidentally harming trees inefforts to maintain them. This is especially truewhen it comes to pruning a maturing tree. Tocounter this problem, some local governmentshave adopted provisions that allow for the gov-ernment to perform tree maintenance, fundedby the property owner. The size of the jurisdic-tion may determine whether these steps areeconomically feasible.

Every effort should be made to make the publicaware of the benefits that trees provide andencourage citizen participation in monitoringthe condition of existing trees. This can beaccomplished through the establishment of avoluntary local tree board. The tree boardserves as an advisory committee on the needs ofimproving and maintaining the urban forest.Other responsibilities may include assisting thelocal arborist in selecting proper species for thearea. Some jurisdictions ask the tree board foradvice when determining budget issues forparks and other tree related services. Whetheror not the tree board has these types of author-

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ity, it is beneficial to have an organized bodydevoted to monitoring the status of the trees inthe district.

ComplianceTo achieve compliance, it is important to clear-ly delegate the authority to enforce the provi-sions of the tree and plant ordinance. In asmaller jurisdiction this duty may fall upon theplanning department when reviewing the siteplan or issuing permits. Approval of landscapeplans might be required when issuing buildingor occupancy permits.

Another problem is that many times the treesand plants reflected in the plan are never plant-ed or are removed by property owners afterreceiving the necessary permits. Penalties forviolations will depend largely upon budgetingfor enforcement. Penalty provisions in treeordinances range from nominal dollar fines tocomplete revocation of building or occupancypermits when a violation is discovered.Whatever method is chosen, it is important thatcompliance measures provide adequate deter-rence from violating the planting provisions.

Regulatory and Policy Chapter Prepared by:Jamie Baker Roskie, Managing Attorney, UGALand Use Clinic on behalf of the UGA Centerfor Community Design & Preservation

Student Authors:Beth CabagnoloAndrew EcholsJim EdgeEmily FranzenLawton Zurn


24. More information from the International Society ofArboriculture (ISA) about managing tree growthamongst utilities can be found at :http://www.treesaregood.com/treecare/avoiding_conflicts.asp.

25. On warm days, a city can be 6-8 degrees fahrenheithotter than surrounding areas. These cities are called“urban heat islands.” The cause is believed to be thelarge amount of impervious cover in certain areas, whichabsorbs large amounts of heat from sunlight. Shade treescan greatly reduce the problem.

26. Scott, K.I., Simpson, J.R., and E.G. McPherson. 1999.Effects of tree cover on parking lot microclimate andvehicle emissions. Journal of Arboriculture 25(3):129-142.Online at: http://www.wcufre.ucdavis.edu/effects_of_tree)cover_on_parking.htm.


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