The Rise of Nationalism/National Awareness in Post-war Brunei, Sarawak and North Borneo (Sabah)1945-1963

Introduction There was little semblance of nationalistic awareness and/or the idea of a nation-state in pre-war Sarawak, Brunei, or North Borneo, collectively designated as British Borneo, protectorates of Great Britain. All three territories were each under a different form of British colonialism.

To a large extent the emergence of national consciousness only became increasingly apparent during the late 1940s through the early 1960s.Developments from within and influences from without contributed to the rise of political consciousness, ethnic identity, idea of the nation-state and thereafter nationalism.

Objectives To understand the developments that subsequently led to the emergence of a sense of national consciousness in Sarawak, Brunei, and North Borneo during the post-war period (September 1945 to September 1963).

To examine and analyze the contributory factors towards the rise of national consciousness.To ascertain the main determinant of national consciousness.

ThemesAnti-colonial Expressions from the mid-19th century to 1941 in Northern BorneoThe Japanese Occupation (1941-1945)Post-war developments (1945-1963)

Anti-colonial Expressionsfrom the mid-19th century to 1941 in Northern Borneo

Iban opposition Rentap, Bantin, AsunChinese rivalry Bau Hakka miners attempt in eliminating James BrookeBrunei Malay anti-British/Brooke eliminating pro-British/Brooke (Hashim and Budruddin); Syarif MasahorSulu claims Mat Salleh

The Japanese Occupation(1941-1945)

Japanese wartime policies ethnic-based attitudes and differential treatment of the different ethnic communitiesWartime experiences of the multiethnic inhabitantsPerception real or perceived attitudes amongst the different communities towards one another

Post-war developments(1945-1963)

From withoutIndependence for India (1946) and Burma (1947)Philippine independence (1946) Indonesian Revolution (1945-1949)Mao and the Peoples Republic of China (1949)

From withinBritish Crown Colonies Sarawak and North BorneoBritish Protected State BruneiAnti-cession movement in Sarawak (1946-1949)The rise of the Left in Sarawak (1950s-1960s)

Brunei rebellion (1962)Malaysia (1961-1963)

ConclusionTo ascertain the contributory factors towards the rise of national consciousness To identify the main determinant(s) of the rise of national consciousness