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BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
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OUR JOB
Our major objectives are.
To understand the importance of research in
business.To understand the various terminologies related
to research.
To understand the process of business
research.To conduct research in area of your interest .
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An Example..
You want to know your Employees opinion
about having a health center in your organization.
Think of the steps that you would take to get theanswer .
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The things that would have struck your mindare.
You will be ( Who )
Asking your employees ( Whom )
Their opinion ( What )
Through interview OR questionnaire ( How )
While they are in the office ( Where )
During lunch time ( When )
To find out if they need a health centre ( Why )
The Steps..
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AND ONLY THEN WILL YOU TAKE
YOUR DECISION ABOUT THE
HEALTH CENTER.
This is RESEARCH .
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Functions of Research
Validation of Knowledge
Correction of Knowledge
Generation of Knowledge Diagnosis of the situation
Prediction of events
Evaluation of process /product /project
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RESEARCH AREAS..
Employee attitude
Leadership styles
Performance appraisals
Product innovations
Consumer complaints
Image building
Investment decisions
Dividend policies
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Alternate work patterns
Outsourcing
Management info systems
Brand building & positioning
Retirement policies
Diversification
Continued
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Check your Progress
You have been sent to another country
to study the feasibility of opening a
branch office of your organization.
Identify the research areas.
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BUSINESS RESEARCH
RESEARCH
AREAS
MARKETING FINANCEHUMAN
RESOURCE
INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
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Managerial Value of
Business Research
Identifying problems or opportunities
Diagnosing & assessing problems or
opportunities
Selecting & implementing a course of
action
Evaluating a course of action
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Every Business works in a variety of ENVIRONMENTS.
Economic ( Macro & Micro )
Social ( Human beingsAttitudes , Perceptions )
Cultural ( Socio-cultural changes , Value crisis )
Political ( National & International)
Knowledge ( Science ,Technology & Skills )
Legal ( National & International )
BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT
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There is a constant change in each of these
environments.
The people who run the business & their employeesalso undergo change continuously.
Hence there is always a generation of newer
problems, which need solutions.
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Hence there is always a
constant demand for
RESEARCH in BUSINESSBUSINESS ..
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Types of Research
Basic
Applied
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Basic Research
Basic research is also known as pure orfundamental research.
Objective is to extend the existing domain of
knowledge about certain subject or topic eitherin physical form like sales, or in abstract formlike human behviour.
The knowledge itself could be in the form of
trend, pattern or relationship. Individuals conduct basic research primarily out
of their curiousity, inquisitiveness, conviction etc.
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Basic Research - Examples
Relationship between intelligence and creativity
Relationship of analytical ability and verbal ability withthe scores obtained in various subjects
Relative impact of factors like salary, work environment,reward system affecting motivation of employees
Relative impact of advertisements on various mediasuch as newspaper, magazine and television
The BlackScholes model (mathematical model of the
market for an equity) McGregors Theory X and Theory Y (theories of human
motivation : Y are self motivated; X have to bemotivated)
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Applied Research
It is the research relating to specific
product, service or system or campaign.
A
pplied research aims at solving anyproblem or resolving any issue in a
scientific and systematic manner.
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Applied Research - Examples
A branch manager may like to streamline
the functioning of its customer counters to
reduce waiting time for the customers.
A company may like to evaluate impact of
its advertising campaign.
It may also be used to promote a product
or class of products through favourable
results obtained through research.
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Internal Vs External Research
Internal research is conducted by team ofexperts within the organisation.
External research is conducted for anorganisation by an outside agency like aconsultant, consultancy firm or a professionallike a Faculty in an academic institution.
Whenever a problem needs to be solved or aresearch study is considered desirable, in an
organisation, an issue arises as to whether itshould be conducted internally or through anexternal agency. Both strategies have certainadvantages and disadvantages.
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Advantages of Internal research
The internal team is well versed with theenvironment, systems and procedures,culture, etc in the organization.
It may get a quick grasp and comprehendthe various aspects of he problem / study
The problem is solved quickly. Of course it
presumes that the requisite competent andskilled team is available within theorganization.
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Advantages of External research
Availability of Expertise
Pool of Expertise
Fresh Perspective and IndividualThinking
Acceptability
Quality
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Limitations of External research
The external team may not be well versed with
the environment, systems and procedures,
culture, etc in the organization
They may take time to grasp and comprehendthe various aspects of the problem / study
The selection of external agency plays a crucial
role, and has to be done carefully to ensure
credibility and acceptability of their research in
the organisation
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Criteria for Selection of External
Research Agency
Reputation
Record of completing assignments in time
Credibility in maintaining ethical standards.
Flexibility in the approach based on newdevelopments or new thinking
Quality of past assignments
Experience
Quality of Staff
Sharing of ideology and value systems
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Let us Revise..
Research is an important activity in anybusiness.
Its main purpose is to get solutions to
problems.
Research is the major contributor ofknowledge.
Managers of tomorrow will need to knowmore than managers of yesterday.
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RESEARCH AS A
SCIENTIFIC PROCESS
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Scientific Research
Scientific Research focuses on solving
problems and pursues a step by step
logical organised and rigorous method to
identify problems, to gather data, analyse
them and draw a valid conclusion.
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Characteristics of Science & Research
Purposiveness
Rigor
Testability
Replicability
Precision & Confidence
Objectivity
Generalizability
Parsimony
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Steps of Science & Research
Identification of a Problem
Theoretical framework
Defining Objectives Hypotheses
Tool construction
Data collection
Data analysis
Conclusion --- Generalization
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Research Scientific Process
We may conclude that ---
The characteristics of Science & Research
are same. The steps of a scientific process & thoseof a research process are same.
Hence we call Research a Science andResearch Process as a Scientific Process.
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What is a Good Research ?
Purpose clearly defined
Research process detailed
Research design thoroughly planned
High ethical standards applied Limitations frankly revealed
Adequate analysis done
Findings presented unambiguously Conclusions justified
Researchers experience reflected
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Sources of Knowledge
Customs & Traditions
Authority
Personal Experience
Logical Reasoning
Scientific Inquiry
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Types of Thinking
Inductive ----- From loose data touniversal relationships which are organizedin the form of Laws, Theories
(Derivation of theory)
Deductive ----- From Laws & Rules tofacts ( Application of rules to specific
situations)
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Components of Theory
Concepts
Constructs
Theory (Knowledge Generation)
Facts (Knowledge Generation)
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Research Process
The research process is the methodology of conductinga research assignment / project / study in a scientific andsystematic manner. It takes into account all the relevantfactors that are important in ensuring that the objectives
of the research study are achieved with optimumutilisation of resources. It also ensures that the approachis quite comprehensive with the involvement of all thosewho are
Experts in the area
Associated with the management of the project, and Associated with the execution or implementation of the
project with the help of research results or findings.
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Research Process
Specifyin
gA
rea &Objective
Defining &
Refining
Problem/Opportunit
y
Hypothese
s
Developm
ent
Research
Design * Collectin
g Data
Analy
se
Data
Interpreti
ng
Conclusi
on &
Report
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Research Process
Specifying the area and the objective of thestudy
Defining & Refining Problem Defining Problemand Refining Problem through LiteratureReview, Interviewing relevant people, Group
Discussion with relevant people, etc. Hypotheses Development
Preparing Research Design
Collection of data
Analysing the data Interpreting the results and drawing conclusions
based on data
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THE HIERARCHY
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MANAGEMENT DILEMMA (Level 1)
MANAGEMENT QUESTIONS (Level 2)
RESEARCH QUESTIONS (Level 3)
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LEV
EL 1 -- The top managementsconcerns about the business . These arethe symptoms of the actual problem .
LEVEL 2 -- The managers try to raise theissues underlying the symptom .
LEVEL 3 -- The researcher tries to
conceptualize the symptoms in the form of
basic issues or causes .
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Some Examples ..
Management Dilemma .. (In terms of
observations on a general level)
Declining sales, Increasing employee
turnover, Large no. of defective
products, Large no. of consumer
complaints ..
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Continued..
Management Questions .. (In terms
of questions to be answered but not
suggesting kind of research to be
undertaken)
Why are the sales declining? Are we on
the right track? Are we meeting our
goals? Why are the departmental costson the rise?
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Continued..
Research Questions.. (In terms of fact
finding & information gathering questions
in the form of unstructured exploration)
What factors are contributing to the
failure of XYZ dept? How good is the
customer service? What kind of
complaints are recurrent? What is the
system of quality control in XYZ dept?
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Continued..
Investigative Questions .. (In terms of
more specific questions after a careful
informal exploration)
How attractive are our services? Which
region is receiving more complaints ? Is
there enough manpower to handle the
cases? What is the system of redressal?
Are there any specific factors influencing
employee performance?
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Continued..
Measurement Questions.. (In terms of
specific information to be sought)
How shall we measure the quality of ourservice ? Which areas (of quality) need
to be covered ? What information about
the employees is required (morale,
training, experience, health etc.) ? Howdo we get this info?
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MANAGEMENTDILEMMA
ManagementQuestion 1 ManagementQuestion 2
ResearchQuestion 1 a
ResearchQuestion 1 b
ResearchQuestion 2 a
ResearchQuestion 2 b
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CONCLUSION
When we proceed from Management
Dilemma to Research Questions we move
from -----
1) general level to a specific &
focused level.
2) symptoms to the root causes.
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Have we understood ?
The deposits in the bank are to be increased.
Computer department shows excessiveturnover among programmers.
New health insurance is not picking upsales.
New branch is to be opened in rural area.
Change in the advertising strategy is to be
brought about.
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FORMULATION OF
A RESEARCH PROBLEM
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Research Problem
Should be clearly stated.
Should be focused.
Should convey the right meaning.
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Research problem flows from theresearch question.
Its stated in a statement form.
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Some Examples
1) Effect of new packaging on the sales of aproduct.
2) Effects of downsizing on the brand image
of the company.3) Study of performance management
systems in IT industry.
4) Case study of SVKMs NMIMS University.
5) Evaluation of ABC Policy / Programme /Process.
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Objectives
These are specific, concrete &achievable goals of research. They
generally flow from
the research questions. They give thedirection to the research.
e.g. To study the consumer perception of theproduct.
To analyse the annual reports of thechosen
companies w.r.t. the chosen parameters.
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Exercise
Write the objectives for the
Research problems in slide no. 4
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Variables
It is an attribute that takes different
values (for the same object at different
times or different objects at the same
time).
e.g. age, attitude, absenteeism, profits,
production units, job satisfaction,attrition
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Types ofVariables
Independent Dependent
Extraneous
1) Control
2) Moderating
(Context)
3) Intervening
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Independent Variable
It influences the dependent variable.
It is manipulated by the researcher
in experimental research.
Also known as treatment variable inexperimental research.
Research may have more than one
independent variable.
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Dependent Variable
It is affected by the changes in the
independent variable. It is not manipulated by the
researcher.
Research may have more than onedependent variables.
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Extraneous variables
1) Control--- it is controlled by the researcher
by keeping the values constant in both the
groups especially in experimental research.
2) Moderating--- it is studied by the researcheralong with the other variables.
3) Intervening--- it can neither be controlled
nor studied. Its effect is to be inferred from
the results.
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Exercise Identify & classify the
variables in the given problem.
1. A study of effect of training on the performance of
employees.
2. A study of effect of celebrity endorsements on
the sales of a product.
3. A study of relationship between motivation & jobsatisfaction.
4. A study of customer satisfaction at a retail outlet.
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Definitions of the terms
Types -----
1) Conceptual [ Theoretical basis ]2) Operational [ Research basis ]
O f
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Operational Definition
includes ----
Contents of the concept
Areas of measurement of eachcontent
Sources of data
Scoring / Categorizing
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Exercise
Define the terms / variables in
the
problems in the slide no. 12
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HYPOTHESES
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HYPOTHESES
A logical relationship between two or
more variables expressed in the form
of a testable statement.It is an intelligent guess of the probable
solution to the problem.
They are derived from the theoretical
framework formulated for the research.
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TYPES of HYPOTHESES
1) Null
2) Alternate ( Positive or Research )
a) Non directional
b) Directional
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Meaning Null Hypothesis
Null hypothesis assumes no difference
or no relationship between the twohypothesized variables.
It indicates unbiased attitude of the
researcher to the research.
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It is represented as Ho.
It is a statement which can be tested
Statistically .
When previous research literature is not
available sufficiently or it does not give a
clear cut direction, it is better to frame a
hypothesis in null form.
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Examples
1) There is nosignificant difference in thesales of the product before & after newpackaging. M1=M2
2) There is nosignificantrelationshipbetween TV viewership & aggression among
teenagers.
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Meaning Alternate Hypothesis
It assumes some difference or some
relationship between the hypothesized
variables.
When sufficient research literature isavailable indicating definite difference or
relationship, alternate hypothesis isformulated.
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It is represented as H1 .
It can be tested statistically as null
hypothesis.
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Examples
1) The performance of motivated
employees is significantly different than
those who are not motivated.
2) The sales of a product is significantly
related to the expenditure on the
advertisement.
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3) The debt equity ratio of org. ABC
is significantly higher than that of
org. XYZ .
4) The level of motivation of male
employees is significantly lower than
that of female employees.
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Types of Alternate Hypotheses
Examples no. 1 & 2 belong to one category
AND
Examples no. 3 & 4 belong to other category.
Can you differentiate between these two???
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Explanation
Examples 1 & 2 tell us that they do differ
from 3 & 4. But do not tell us which
variable in statement 1 & 2 has a
higher value than the other. It does nottell us the DIRECTION of magnitude.
Hence they are known as
NON - DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES.
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Whereas examples 3 & 4 not only tell us
that the variables mentioned therein are
not equal in magnitude but also tell us
which variable is having a highermagnitude . They provide us the direction
of the magnitude .
Hence they are known as
DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES.
Lets check our understanding
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Let s check our understanding..
Frame different types of hypotheses forfollowing problems
1. A study of relationship between e-shopping
habits & some demographic variables.
2. A study of relationship between interestrates & the investment habits.
3. A study of effectiveness of sachet & bottlepackaging of shampoo in terms of consumer
preference.
R l ti hi b t
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Relationship between
Hypotheses & Theory
Hypothesis ----- HYPO & THESIS
Hypo = Below or Less than
Thesis = Theory
Hypothesis means a proposition which isat a lower level than a theory.
Hypothesis which are tested & retainedmany times will lead to the formulation of
a theory. Theory which is proven truemany times leads to the formulation of a
law.
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Review of Related Literature
Literature survey is important because it
gives you the work done in the past.
helps you identify the variables studied before.
gives you the research designs previously used.
helps you to formulate the hypotheses.
cautions you about the possible problems in future.
avoids unnecessary repetition.
leads us to sound theoretical or conceptual framework.
helps you to identify research gaps.
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Sources of Literature Survey
Internet
Library ( books, journals, year books,encyclopedia)
Govt. Reports (commissions , Plan & policy
documents, census)
Unpublished research ( Degree level work)
Company documents ( annual reports,budgets, key note addresses , AGM minutes)
Conference proceedings
Other databases
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Related literature helps the researcher
in constructing a Concept Map which
is a schematic representation of therelationship of different variables
involved in the study.
CONCEPT MAP
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CONCEPT MAP
MOTIVATION
AGE
EDU & PROFQUALIFICATION
PERFORMANCE
SKILLSET
CONFIDENCE
MORALE
EXPERIENCE
TRAINING
JOBSATISFACTION
HEALTH
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SAMPLING
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SAMPLING
How would you know if the rice is properly
cooked ?
How would you know that the bunch of grapes
is good just by testing 1 or 2 grapes ?
This is S A M P L I N G in day to day life.
So.What is Sampling according to you ???
M i
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Meaning
A Sample is a part of the population which is studied
in order to make inferences about the wholepopulation.
Research needs the data to be collected from the
concerned people. If you collect the data from all theconcerned people you would be spending a lot on all
the resources human, money, time, energy etc. So
choose only a FEW .
But how to choose these FEW is the main concern ofthe researcher.
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The RIGHT people , objects
The ADEQUATE number
PROPER method of selection
must be followed if you want to make your
research more meaningful & valid.
S T D fi d
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Some Terms Defined
SAMPLING TRAIT: Characteristics used forselection.
POPULATION : Entire group of people or objectsof interest.
ELEMENT : A single member of the population. POPULATION : A list of all the elements in the
FRAME population from which sample isdrawn.
SAMPLE : A subset of the population.
SUBJECT : A single member of the sample.
SAMPLE SIZE : Total no. of subjects in thesample.
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Relation between Sample & Population
SAMPLE POPULATION
Statistics
Mean, S.D.,Variance
Parameters
Mean, S.D.,Variance
Estimate
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Why Sampling ???
To save on resources.
To reduce the errors.
To increase accuracy & precision.
To decrease data obsoleteness.
To avoid wastage of population .(Destructive Sampling .while testing
for quality you consume the entire
population)
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The objective of sampling is to draw accurateinferences about the universe or the population
parameters ( which are unknown ) from the unit
sample statistic ( which is known observed &
measured ) .
This helps the researcher to generalise about
the results .
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Advantages of Sampling
Smaller no. is handled
Increases accuracy of data
Ensures greater response rate
Easy supervision
Ensures greater co operation from
sample
Helps researcher go systematicallyResources efficiently utilized
Principles of Sampling
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Principles of Sampling
Sampling units must be ---
chosen in a systemic & objective mannerclearly defined & easily identifiable
units must be independent of each other
used throughout the studytrue representative of the population
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Sample Design
Sample design is a systematic plan for
obtaining a sample from the given population.
WHY Sample design?
To ensure precision & objectivity in
sampling .
To reduce sampling error.
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Steps of Sample Design
Finalize parameters of interest
Define type of the universe
Decide the sampling unit or unit of
analysis (house, person, object) Prepare the sampling frame (List)
Decide sample size
Finalise budget
Finalise sampling procedure (type &method)
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Good Sample Design
Truly representative
Smaller sampling error
Unbiased
Within budgetary provisions
Results generalizable
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Possible Errors
1) Sampling Error
(due to sample size)
2) Non Sampling or Systematic Error
(due to incorrect sampling frame, faultysample design)
Types of Sampling
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Types of Sampling
Probability Non-Probability
Every unit of pop. has
equal chance of being
selected.
Highly representative
Researcher decides onthe sample unit
Not representative
Types contd
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Typescontd..
Conditions :
Probability Non-Probability
Complete list is
required
Size of universe mustbe known
Each unit must have
an equal chance of
selection
Desired sample mustbe specified
No list is required
Size of universe may
not be known Each unit may not
have an equal chance
of selection
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Techniques of Sampling
PROBABILITY
Simple Random
Stratified RandomSystematic
Cluster
NON-PROBABILITY
Convenience
Purposive Judgment
Quota
Snowball
Volunteer
Sample Size
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Sample size depends upon the precision of
results expected.Sample should be sufficiently large to conclude
generalizable results.
For this matter we have to take into accountthe level of confidence (0.95 or 0.99).
Different formulae are used depending uponthe
constraints. Commonly used one is.S = n/ 1+n(e)2
Higher the sample size greater is thegeneralizability, but you lose on precision of
sampling.
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Prepare a sampling plan for the research
problem that you have selected.
Explain why you will follow the technique
you have selected.
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RESEARCH DESIGNS
Research Designs
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g
Meaning :
A detailed plan & structure of investigation so
conceived as to find answers to the researchquestions.
A blueprint for the smooth conduct of research.
Henry Manheim --- RD not only anticipates
and specifies the countless decisions
connected with data collection , processing &
analysis but it presents a logical basis for
these decisions.
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Why Research Designs ?
It provides a blueprint.
It limits the boundaries of research.(Delimitations)
It enables the researcher to anticipate thepotential problems & can prepare him totackle the same.
It ensures better co ordination among themembers of the research team.
Manheim feels
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Manheim feels
Goals of RD ---
To amass more & more evidence in support of
given hypo. & eliminate alternative hypo.
To make the study replicable( worth repeating if
the results are significant).
To determine if pilot study is needed.
To associate variables with one another.
To plan appropriate strategy for data collection.
Contents of Research Proposal
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Contents of Research Proposal
Need for study
Review of Related Literature Objectives of the study
Definitions of the terms
Delimitations of the study
Concept Map
Hypotheses
Research Design
Tools & Techniques of data collection
Sampling design
Data collection procedures
Proposed techniques of data analysis
Budget Time schedule
Types of Research Designs
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Types of Research Designs
1) EXPLORATORY--- undertaken to understand the
problem when not much is known about the problem
or not much research evidence is available.
(identification of variables involved).
2) DESCRIPTIVE--- undertaken in order to ascertain &
describe the characteristics of variables involved.
3) EXPLANATORY--- undertaken when relationship
among different variables is to be established.
EXAMPLES
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EXPLORATORY---- Feasibility studies are
exploratory in nature. New areas of research
eg. ethnic culture & its effect on org. , diversity in
org. etc.
Descriptive--- Customer profile, Market trend,
Consumer perception etc.
Explanatory--- Cause & effect relationship is estd.
through these studies. eg. Relationship between
expenditure on advertising & sales
Relationship among three types
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Every subject passes through all the three types of
research. Initially when either nothing or very little isknown ,one goes through the phase of exploration.
Once the variables are identified then the subject takes
a turn to descriptive studies & tries to get a profile ofdifferent concerned attributes.
After getting a clear description of the variables the
researcher goes to establish the relationship of these
variables. This is culminated by the testing of various
hypotheses which ultimately leads to the formulation of
a theory.
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EXPLO-RATORY
Study
DESCRI-PTIVE
Study
EXPLANA-TORY
Study
PHASEI PHASEII PHASEIII
Relationship ..
Steps of an Exploratory Study
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Steps of an Exploratory Study
1) Identify the problem
2) Gather preliminary info. through interviews
3) Form focus groups
4) Arrive at conclusions
Steps of a Descriptive Study
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Steps o a esc pt e Study
( SURVEY)
1) Identify the problem2) Formulate objectives
3) Review literature
4) Identify variables
5) Draw Concept Map6) Formulate hypotheses (if any)
7) Construct tools
8) Collect data
9) Analyse data ( Descriptive Statistics )10) Test hypotheses (if any)
11) Arrive at conclusion
Steps of an Explanatory Study
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1) Identify the problem
2) Formulate objectives
3) Review Literature
4) Identify variables
5) Draw Concept Map
6) Formulate hypotheses7) Construct tools
8) Conduct experiment ( if any)
9) Collect data
10) Analyse data (Descriptive & Inferential Statistics)11) Test hypotheses
12) Arrive at conclusion
Types of Explanatory Study
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Types of Explanatory Study
Explanatory studies are conducted to arrive at the
nature of relationship among differentvariables.They try to establish cause & effect
relationship between variables.this is done in
two ways.
1) Ex-post facto study
2) Experimental study
a) Field expt.b) Lab expt.
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EXPLANATORY STUDIES
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Explanatory studies are also known as
CAUSAL STUDIES
1) Ex Post Facto Studies
2) Experimental Studies
Types of Explanatory Studies
Ex Post Facto Studies
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Ex Post Facto Studies
It is an empirical enquiry for situations that have
already occurred. Investigator has no control over
the variables in the sense that he is not able to
manipulate them. He can only report what hashappened & establish cause & effect relationship.
eg. Market failure of a product , Sudden rise of a
shares market price ,
Experimental Studies
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p
The purpose of experimental research is to allow theresearcher to control the situation so that CAUSAL
relationship among variables may be evaluated.The
experimenter therefore manipulates a single variable in
the study & holds the remaining variables constant so as
to study the effect of the
INDEPENDENT variable on the DEPENDENT variable.
eg. The effect of varying amount of overtime on output of
the employees.
The independent variable is Variation in overtime &
The dependent variable is Output or performance.
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The researcher , through the theoretical
framework finalizes the variables he is
interested in . He then has to decide the
variables he wishes to control & the
ones he wishes to study as covariates
(moderating variables).
This is reflected in the Concept Map that he
prepares .
INTERPLAY OF VARIABLES
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INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE
DEPENDENT
VARIABLE
MODERATING
VARIABLES
CONTROLVARIABLES INTERVENINGVARIABLES
INTERPLAY OF VARIABLES
Experimental Studies
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Types :
Field Experiments ---- Less control on the
variables therefore higher generalizability.Natural setting.
Laboratory Experiments ---- Tight control on thevariables hence lesser generalizability.
Artificial setting.
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Laboratory
Expts
Field
Expts
Artificial Real
Setting Setting
Essential Components of an Experiment
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1) Groups --- a) Experimental b) Control
2) Treatment to be given
(Expt /Independent variable)
3) Variables --- All types
4) Matching on all the variables except treatment5) Testing of Hypotheses
eg. A study of effect of payment by piece rate system
on the production.
Validity of Experiments
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Types ofValidity :
a) Internal --- Is the expt. an expt. in the real sense of
the term ? i.e. Is the independent variable the only
cause of the changes in the dependent variable?
b) External --- Are the results obtained from the expt.
applicable in the real world ?
Factors affecting Internal Validity
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g y
History
Maturation
Testing ( effect of pre test on post test )
Instrumentation ( change in the observedcriteria at the pre & post test )
Selection bias
Statistical regression
Mortality
Factors affecting External Validity
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g y
Interaction of treatment & selection
Higher the internal validity, lesser will be the
external validity
Various Effects in Experiments
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p
Hawthorn Effect
Halo Effect
Experimenter Effect
Pygmalion Effect
Guinea Pig Effect
Contamination Effects
Types Of Experimental Designs
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yp p g
1) Pre Experimental ( Least control )
2) Quasi Experimental ( Moderate control )
3) True Experimental ( Tight control )
( Randomized Sampling ) indicated by R
Some Designs
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1) Single Shot Study
X O
2) Single Group Design
O 1 X O 2
3) Two Group DesignO1 X O2 Experimental Group
O3 O4 Control Group
4) Time Series
O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
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Assignment
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g
Find out examples of experimental research
in your area of interest.
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TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
OF RESEARCH
Qualities of a Good Tool
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VALIDITY
RELIABILITY
OBJECTIVITY
USABILITY ADEQUACY
DISCRIMINATING POWER
Points to consider while
P i T l
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Preparing a Tool
1) Objectives
2) Operational definitions
3) Sequence of items (general to specific;
simple to difficult/complex; logical)
4) Ease of Scoring & Coding
Points for Discussion
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1) Description of the tool
2) Merits
3) Limitations
4) How to overcome the limitations
5) How to use the tool
Tools & Techniques
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1) Questionnaire 1) Observation2) Schedule 2) Interview
3) Checklist 3) Sociometric
4) Rating scale 4) Projective
TOOLS TECHNIQUES
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Applications of Data
Analysis Techniques
Data Analysis
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y
1) Why ?
2) How ?
3) Some important considerations beforeanalysis ------
a) Type of data
b) Objectives
c) Hypotheses
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Consideration 1
Types of Data ( Scales )
a) Nominal
b) Ordinal
c) Interval
d) Ratio
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Consideration 2
Objectives
What are we trying to find out ?
In order to achieve this, what kind of
information is required ?
Which tools are giving this information ?
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Descriptive Analysis
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I) Measures of Central Tendency---
Mean, Median, Mode
II) Measures of Variability/Dispersion---
Range, Average deviation, Quartile
deviation, Standard deviation
III) Measures of Correlation---
IV) Normal distribution---
Inferential Statistics
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Types of Inferential Statistics
PARAMETRICNON
PARAMETRIC
Parametric Statistics
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Essential conditions of usage -----
1) The data is in the interval or ratio scale.
2) Both the groups have equal variance.
3) The trait/variable is normally distributed.
4) The sample is randomized.
Non - parametric Statistics
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No such conditions as parametric statistics.
But when the data is ---
1) in either nominal or ordinal scale ,
2) small in size ,
3) not randomly selected ,
4) homogeneity of variance cannot be
established &
5) variable is not normally distributed in the
population ( skewed )
Researcher should go for non-parametric statistics.
Certain Terms defined ---
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1) Levels of Significance
2) Degrees of Freedom
3) Critical Value
4) Tails of a Test
5) Area of Rejection
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Tails of a Test
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ForNull hypotheses two tailed test is applied.
ForNon--directional hypotheses two tailed test
is applied.
ForDirectional hypotheses one tailed test is
applied.
Can you tell WHY ?????
Statistical Significance
What is the significance of SIGNIFICANCE?
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What is the significance of SIGNIFICANCE?
Levels of Significance---
1) 0.05 & 2) 0.01
Levels of Confidence---
1) 95 % & 2) 99 %
When to use the terms---Significance & Confidence
Types of Errors
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Type I Error is committed when TRUE NULL
hypothesis is REJECTED. ( alpha )
[Innocent is unjustly convicted or punished]
Type II Error is committed when NULL
hypothesis is RETAINED, when it is not TRUE.
( Beta )
[Unjust acquittal of a guilty person]
Steps of Testing Hypotheses
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1) Frame the hypothesis.
2) Choose the appropriate statistical test.
3) Decide the level of significance.
4) Calculate value.
5) Refer to the appropriate table & get the critical value.
6) Compare both the values & decide about the
significance of your results.
Some Major Statistical Tests
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1) Chi square test
2) t test
3) Z test
4) F test
Chi Square Test
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Non-parametric test , used when the data is in
the nominal scale or grouped in the nominal
categories.
eg. YES NO
35 68
D
o the people differ significantly in their opinion?
Chi Square Test
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Favourable Unfavourable
Men 53 37
Women 64 46
Do men & women differ significantly in their
opinions?
Z Test & t - Test
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Parametric tests are used when you want tocompare sample statistics of two groups.
Comparison of means, s.d., percentages of TWO groups.
Z test is used when the sample size is large (> 30 ) &
t test is used when the sample size is small (30 or < 30)
F Test ( ANOVA)
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Parametric test. When more than two groups
are to be compared F Test is applied.
ONE independent variable ONE WAY
ANOVA
TWO independent variables TWO WAY
ANOVA
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12/5/2010
Dr. Vidya Naik
Session 11 157
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL & REPORT
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What ?
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12/5/2010
Dr. Vidya Naik
Session 11 159
It is a detailed research design.
An activity that incorporates decisionsmade during early research planning
phases including the management research question hierarchy & exploration.
It is a work plan which tells us what, why,
how, where , when & to whom it will bedone.
It is a road map , showing clearly the
location from which the journey begins the
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Session 11 160
location from which the journey begins, the
destination to be reached & the method ofgetting there.
A well prepared proposal includes
potential problems that may beencountered along the way & methods for
avoiding or working around them, as the
road map indicates alternate routes for a
detour.
Why ?
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Dr. Vidya Naik
Session 11 161
1) For the sponsor---to decide the budget, to judge
the worthwhile ness of the research,
to assess the capability & sincerity of the
researcher, it displays the discipline of the
researcher, a document for the discussion.
2) For the researcher---to plan & review the steps,helps to asses various ways of attacking the
problem, to identify & remove flaws, if any ,
through discussion, to monitor progress, it puts
constraints on time & budget( researcher has towork within prescribed limits).
How ?
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12/5/2010
Dr. Vidya Naik
Session 11 162
CONTENTS..
Executive summary (mgmt. dilemma, mgmt.questions, research questions, objectives,
benefits of research)
Problem statement (need of research, its
significance)Research Objectives
Literature review
Variables--- their types & operational definitions
HypothesesResearch design ( type of research, tools, sampling
plan , data collection plan or procedure)
Contd ..
Proposed data analysis ( simple charts & dummy
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Session 11 163
Proposed data analysis ( simple charts & dummy
tables) with the rationale for each technique to be
used
Nature & form of results ( connecting objectives &
analysis) with the format of results to be provided.
i.e. recommendations, action plans, strategic plans
etc.Budget
Time schedule
Facilities required
Project management ( organized plan of action)
Bibliography
Appendices
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Session 11 164
RESEARCH REPORT
What & Why ?
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12/5/2010
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Session 11 165
WHAT-----Written document of the stagesof research with findings &recommendations
WHY ----- Enables the manager to weigh thefacts arguments presented therein &implement the acceptable recommendationswith a view to close the gap between thepresent & the desired state. It is a documentcontaining research plan put into action.
Parts of Research Report
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12/5/2010
Dr. Vidya Naik
Session 11 166
i) Preliminary Section
ii) Main Body
iii) End Section
Preliminary Section
) ( S f
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Session 11 167
i) The Title Page ( Title , Sponsor of the study,
month & year of submission)ii) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
iii) Acknowledgement
iv) Certificate, if any ( required for degree work
or Govt. projects)
v) Table of Contents
vi) List of Tables
vii) List of Graphs
viii) List of Figures/ diagrams
ix) List of abbreviations
x) Glossary
Main Body
) I t d ti ( N d f h P bl
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Session 11 168
a) Introduction ( Need of research, Problem
identification, Objectives, Variables,Operational definitions, Hypotheses,Research
paradigm , Delimitations)
b) Research Design ( Type of study, Tools,
Sampling design, Data collection & Analysis)c) Final section ( Conclusions, Recommendations
& Limitations, Researchers insights for
further studies)
End Section
i) Bibliography/ References( must be
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i) Bibliography/ References( must be
presented in APA format.)[books, journals, reports, unpublished
documents, web sites with date of access]
ii) Appendices
iii) Research Team
iv) Time Schedule