roadcraft: the police driver's handbook
TRANSCRIPT
RoadcraftThePoliceDriver’sHandbook
TheStationeryOfficeLondon
Authors:PennyMares,PhilipCoyne,BarbaraMacDonaldDesign:CarlGambleIllustration:NickMoxsomProjectmanagement:DrAmieBrown,ThePoliceFoundationTheCollegeofPolicinghasprovidedagenerousgranttowardsthecostofproducingthishandbook.ThePoliceFoundationwouldliketothanktheCollegeforitsfinancialsupport.
ThePoliceFoundationThePoliceFoundationisawhollyindependentcharitydedicatedtousinghigh-qualityevidencetoimprovepolicingforthebenefitofthepublic.ForfurtherdetailsofThePoliceFoundation’sworkandotherrelatedRoadcraftpublications,contact:ThePoliceFoundation,FirstFloor,ParkPlace,12LawnLane,LondonSW81UDTel:02075823744,Fax:02075870671Email:[email protected]:www.roadcraft.co.ukTwitter:https://twitter.com/the_police_fdn(#Roadcraft#MCRoadcraft)CharityRegistrationNumber:278257
©ThePoliceFoundation2013
OtheressentialguidestosafedrivingandridingalsopublishedbyTheStationeryOfficeinclude:
MotorcycleRoadcraft–ThePoliceRider’sHandbook(2013)ISBN9780117081888
RoadcraftDVD–ThePoliceDriver’sCourseonAdvancedDriving(2005)ISBN9780113413089
Toorderorfindoutmoreabouttheseoranyotherdrivingtitles,pleaserefertothecontactdetailsprintedinsidethebackcoverofthisbook.
ApplicationsforreproductionshouldbemadeinwritingtoTheStationeryOfficeLimited,StCrispins,DukeStreet,NorwichNR31PD
Newedition2013Secondimpression2014
ISBN9780117081871
AcknowledgementsThiseditionofRoadcrafthasbeenapprovedbytheAssociationofChiefPoliceOfficersforEnglandandWales,andPoliceScotlandwhoaresatisfiedthatitreflectscurrentbestpracticeinpolicedriverinstructionandtakesintoaccounttherelevantviewsofcivilianexperts.
ThePoliceFoundationwouldliketothankthemanyindividualsandorganisationswhogavesofreelyoftheirtimeandexpertiseinthepreparationofthisneweditionofRoadcraft.ParticularthankstoDrLisaDorn,ReaderinDriverBehaviour,DrivingResearchGroup,CranfieldUniversity,forbackgroundresearchandcontributionstoChapter1,Becomingabetterdriver,andtoMalcolmJackson,SeniorDrivingInstructor,HertfordshireConstabulary,forhiscontributiontoChapter13,Emergencyresponse.SomesectionsofmaterialinChapters1and3areadaptedfromHumanAspectsofPoliceDrivingbykindpermissionofDrGordonSharpeandPoliceScotland.
ThisneweditionofRoadcraftwasproducedwiththestrategicoversightofaStandingAdvisoryBoardwithrepresentativesfrommajorpoliceandciviliandrivingorganisations,towhomwearemostgrateful.
StandingAdvisoryBoard
JohnGraham,Director,ThePoliceFoundation(Chair)
MichaelCleary,formerHeadofSpecialistTraining,ScottishPoliceCollegeJohnDale,OperationalLeadDrivingSchool,MetropolitanPolice
LisaDorn,ReaderinDriverBehaviour,DrivingResearchGroup,
CranfieldUniversityPaulHelbing,AssistantChiefDrivingExaminer,DrivingStandardsAgency(DSA)IanHolden,SeniorEducationAdvisor,DrivingStandardsAgency(DSA)PeterRodger,ChiefExaminerandHeadofDrivingStandards,InstituteofAdvancedMotorists(IAM)HelenSchofield,HeadofLearningStrategyandDevelopment,CollegeofPolicingBobSmalley,ChiefExaminer,RoyalSocietyforthePreventionofAccidents(RoSPA)AdvancedDriversandRidersItwasundertakenwiththededicatedhelpofaReflectivePractitionersgroupofseniorpolice,fire,ambulanceandcivilianinstructors,whosecontributiontothedetailededitorialandupdatingprocesshasbeeninvaluable.
ReflectivePractitioners
DarrenFaulds,Inspector,RoadPolicingDivision,PoliceScotland(Chair)ByronChandler,SeniorDrivingInstructor,GloucestershireConstabularyMichaelCollins,TrafficLawandCollisionInvestigationTrainer,WestYorkshirePoliceKevinDay,DriverTrainingManager,WestMidlandsFireService
KevinDell,DrivingCentreManager,Oxfordshire/BuckinghamshireFireRescueServicesAdyEllwood,MotorcycleTrainer,WestYorkshirePolice
ChrisGilbert,formerSergeantInstructor,MPMDSHendon
MalcolmJackson,SeniorDrivingInstructor,HertfordshireConstabularyGaryJane,SeniorDrivingInstructor,DevonandCornwallPolice
PaulMostyn,MetropolitanPoliceMotorcycleTaskingTeam/BikeSafe-LondonAndyReid,HeadofDriverTrainingandDevelopment,EastofEnglandAmbulanceServiceNHSTrustMervynTurner,HeadofDriverTraining,NorthWalesPolice
RichardWhitehouse,CarInstructor/SeniorMotorcycleInstructor,DevonandCornwallPoliceWearegratefultoIanShannon,formerACPOLeadforPoliceDriverTraining,ColmMcNelis,ACPODCC/ACCStaffOfficerandJulieFinegan,DriverTraining,DeputyCommissioner’sPortfolio,fortheirhelpandsupportwiththenewedition.WearealsoindebtedtomembersoftheEditorialandProjectManagementBoard.
EditorialandProjectManagementBoard
PennyMares,EducationalAuthorandEditor
AmieBrown,SeniorResearchandDevelopmentOfficer,ThePoliceFoundationDavidBryan,CommissioningEditor,TSO
EmilyEgleandLisaDaniels,ClientServiceManagers,TSO
ForewordRoadcraftistheofficialpolicedriver’shandbook,andiswidelyusedbytheotheremergencyservices.Thisneweditionhasbeenpreparedthroughcarefulconsultationwithseniorpolice,otheremergencyservicesandciviliandrivinginstructorsexperiencedinadvanceddrivertraining.Itincorporatesthebestandmostreliablepartsofpreviouseditionswiththelatestknowledgeinthisrapidlydevelopingfield.Whiledesignedtocomplementdrivertrainingandpractice,Roadcraftisavaluablelearning
aidforanyonewhowishestoraisetheirdrivingcompetencetoahigherlevel.Roadcraftisendorsedby:
ContentsAcknowledgementsForewordPrefacetotheneweditionAboutRoadcraft
Chapter1BecomingabetterdriverBecomingabetterdriverWhatmakesagooddriver?Competencesforpolicedrivers
YourvulnerabilityasadriverWhatarethecommonestcausesofcollisions?Whoismostlikelytobeinvolvedinacollision?CriticallearningfromexperienceDevelopawarenessofyourpersonalvulnerability
HumanfactorrisksforpolicedriversDistractionduetomulti-taskingDrivingstressOperationalstressorsTimepressureandthepurposeofyourjourney‘Noblecause’risk-taking‘Redmist’
HowwelearnTraining,practiceandfeedbackOverconfidenceaftertrainingSelf-assessmentwillhelpyoucontinuallyimproveBehonest
Checkyourunderstanding
Chapter2ThesystemofcarcontrolTheneedforasystemofcarcontrolIntegratingarangeofcompetences
Whatisthesystemofcarcontrol?HowthesystemworksTheimportanceofinformationMirrorsandsignals
ThesystemofcarcontrolInformationPositionSpeedGearAcceleration
UsethesystemflexiblyApplyingthesystemtoaleft-handturnApplyingthesystemtoaright-handturnApplyingthesystemtoaroundaboutRe-applyingthesystemtoleavetheroundaboutApplyingthesystemtoapotentialhazard
OverlappingbrakingandgearchanginginspecificcircumstancesBrake/gearoverlap–anexampleIncorrectuseofbrake/gearoverlap
Checkyourunderstanding
Chapter3Information,observationandanticipationProcessingcomplexinformationImprovingyourinformationprocessing
TipstoimproveinformationprocessingWhyobservationandanticipationareessentialforbetterdrivingWhatisahazard?
PlanningAnticipatehazardsPrioritisehazardsDecidewhattodo
ImprovingyourobservationScanningtheenvironmentLookingbutnotseeingPeripheralvisionZonesofvisibilityYourchoiceofspeedKeepyourdistance
HumanfactorsthataffectobservationandanticipationAlertnessTirednessOtherphysiologicalfactors
Checkyourunderstanding
Chapter4AnticipatinghazardsinthedrivingenvironmentNightdrivingYouYourvehicleYourlightsFollowingothervehiclesatnightInformationfromothervehicles’lightsDazzleReflectivestudsandmarkings
Cat’seyesOtherwaystoimproveobservationatnight
WeatherconditionsUsinglightsinbadweatherUsingauxiliarycontrolsandinstrumentsinbadweatherObservingwhenvisibilityislowMicroclimates
RoadsurfaceRoadsurfaceirregularitiesTheroadsurfaceinwinterDrivingthroughwater
RoadsignsandmarkingsLocalroadknowledgeMakingobservationlinksCheckyourunderstanding
Chapter5Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteeringDevelopingcompetenceatcontrollingyourvehicleThetyregriptrade-offVehiclebalanceandtyregripTechnologytohelpkeepcontrolofthevehicle
UsingtheacceleratorRetardersAccelerationandvehiclebalanceAccelerationandbalanceondifferenttypesofvehicleDevelopingyourcompetenceatusingtheacceleratorAccelerationsenseUsingtheacceleratoronbendsKeypointsFuel/powersourceaffectsaccelerationandenginebraking
UsingthegearsMovingofffromstationaryAccurateuseofthegearsKeypoints
AutomatictransmissionAutomatictransmissionmodesUsingthefeaturesofautomaticsystemsDevelopingyourcompetenceatusingautomaticsystemsRoadconditions
SlowingdownandstoppingReleasingtheaccelerator–enginebrakingUsingthebrakesNormalbraking(taperedbraking)Braking,tyregripandbalanceThesafestoppingdistanceruleOverallsafestoppingdistanceThetwo-secondruleBrakingforcornersandbendsBrakingasyouapproachahazardEmergencybrakingUsingtheparkingbrake
SteeringSteeringtechniqueSeatpositionHowtoholdthesteeringwheelPull–pushRotationalsteeringKeypoints
Checkyourunderstanding
Chapter6ManoeuvringatlowspeedsDevelopingyourcompetenceatlow-speedmanoeuvringUsingthesystemObservationPlanningSteering
ReversinginaconfinedspaceManoeuvringwithaguide
ParkingCheckyourunderstanding
Chapter7MaintainingvehiclestabilityControllingyourvehicle’sstabilityAttitudestovehiclesafetytechnology
AvoidingskiddingHowdoesaskidhappen?Howtominimisetheriskofskidding
RecognisingthecauseofaskidCause:drivingtoofastforthecircumstancesCause:harshaccelerationCause:excessiveorsuddenbrakingCause:coarsesteeringUndersteerandoversteer
HowactivesafetysystemsworkAnti-lockbrakingsystemsTractioncontrolsystemsElectronicstabilityprogrammesKeypoints
Correctingaskidinavehiclewithoutactivesafetyfeatures
AquaplaningCheckyourunderstanding
Chapter8Driver’ssignalsDevelopingyourcompetenceatusingsignalsThepurposeofsignalsKeypointsInterpretingsignalsgivenbyothers
TherangeofsignalsUsingtheindicatorsCancellingindicatorsignalsUsinghazardwarninglightsUsingbrakelightsUsingthehornFlashingyourheadlightsArmsignalsUsingcourtesysignalsRespondingtootherpeople’ssignals
Checkyourunderstanding
Chapter9PositioningDevelopingcompetenceatpositioningyourvehicleSafetypositionontheapproachtohazardsRoadsidehazardsImprovingtheviewintonearsideroadjunctionsFollowingpositionPositionforturningPositionatcrossroadsPositionforstoppingbehindothervehicles
Checkyourunderstanding
Chapter10CorneringDevelopingyourcompetenceatcorneringUsingthesystemtocornersafelyKeyprinciplesforsafecornering
CorneringforcesVehiclecharacteristicsRoadworthinessVehiclespecificationUndersteerandoversteer
CamberandsuperelevationSummaryoffactorsaffectingcornering
ThesystemofcarcontrolandthelimitpointHowtousethelimitpointtohelpyoucornerThedoubleapexbend
HowtousethesystemforcorneringInformationPositionSpeedGearAcceleration
Checkyourunderstanding
Chapter11OvertakingDevelopingyourcompetenceatovertakingsafelyThehazardsofovertakingKeysafetypointsStationaryvehiclesMovingvehicles
Howtoovertake
WhereyouareabletoovertakeimmediatelyInformation
WhereotherhazardsrequireyoutofollowbeforeyoucansafelyovertakeFollowingpositionOvertakingpositionOvertakingOvertakingvehiclesinalineoftrafficSummary
SpecialhazardsyoumustconsiderbeforeovertakingTherangeofhazardsThevehicleinfrontCyclistsThevehiclesbehindRoadlayoutandconditionsTheroadsurfaceOvertakingonasinglecarriagewayOvertakingonbendsSinglecarriagewayroadsmarkedwiththreelanesOvertakingonmulti-lanecarriageways
HelpingotherroaduserstoovertakeCheckyourunderstanding
Chapter12Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriagewaysDrivingonmulti-lanecarriagewaysHumanfactorsinmotorwaydriving
JoiningthemotorwayLayoutofthecarriagewayUsethesystemOvertaking
MotorwayjunctionsUsingthehardshoulder
LeavingthemotorwayBadweatherconditionsonfast-movingroadsFogRainSnow,sleetandiceHighwindsBrightsun
OtherhazardsDebrisLaneclosures
Additionalhazardsonfast-movingmulti-lanecarriagewaysCheckyourunderstanding
Chapter13EmergencyresponseWhatisanemergencyresponse?RiskassessmentRespondingtoanemergencyUseofemergencywarningequipmentSpeedlimitsApproachingtrafficlight-controlledjunctionsApproachingtrafficlight-controlledpedestriancrossingsContraveningkeepleft/rightsignsPositioningtoseeandbeseenApproachingandpassingvehiclesInterpretingotherdrivers’signalsStationaryvehiclesatornearanincidentRespondingonmulti-laneroads
ApproachingroundaboutsPassingonthenearsideofothervehiclesVehiclesrespondinginconvoyVulnerableroadusers
Checkyourunderstanding
AppendicesAreyoufittodrive?IAMSAFEchecklist
Isyourvehiclefittodrive?Roadworthiness/pre-drivingchecklistPOWDERchecklistInsidethevehiclechecklistTestingthebrakes
GoalsforDriverEducation
Bibliography
Index
PrefacetotheneweditionThisnewandfullyupdatededitionofRoadcraftistheresultofsustainedconsultationwithexpertsinthetheoryandpracticeofadvanceddriving.
ThelasteditionofRoadcraftwaspublishedin2007,fouryearsafterthefirstpublicationoftheEuropeanGoalsforDriverEducation(GDE).TheGDEframeworksetoutthecompetencesthatdrivertrainingintheUKandotherEUcountriesshouldfocusontoproducethesafestpossibledrivers.Itemphasisedhigherlevelcompetencessuchastakingaccountofhumanfactorsthatcanaffectdrivingbehaviourevenbeforethedrivergetsintoavehicle,managingpersonalriskfactors,anddevelopingaccurateself-assessmentsothateverydrivercontinuestoreflectonandimprovetheircompetencethroughouttheirdrivingcareer.
BothbeforeandsincethepublicationoftheGDEframework,Roadcrafthasspecificallysoughttoaddresshumanfactorsinpolicedriving.CentraltothisthemehasbeentheworkofpsychologistDrRobertWest(1997edition),occupationalphysicianDrGordonSharpe(2007edition)andpsychologistDrLisaDorn(2007and2013edition).Eachhascontributedarangeofinsightstoinformstudents’capacitytorecognise,manageandreducetherisksarisingfromthesehumanaspects.Andasunderstandingofthepsychologicalfactorsthatinfluencedrivingbehaviourcontinuestoevolve,newdevelopmentsinthisfieldwillinformfutureeditionsofRoadcraft.
Sincethelastedition,membersoftheNationalPoliceDrivingSchoolsConferenceworkingwiththeCollegeofPolicinghavedevelopedandcontinuetoupdatecompetence-basedstandardsforpolicedrivers,informedbothbyRoadcraftandtheGDEframework.TheneweditionofRoadcraftalignswithandprovidesthesupporting
resourcesfortheCollegeofPolicingDriverTrainingprogramme.
Asthisworkhasbeenongoing,theDrivingStandardsAgency(DSA)hasalsopublisheditsNationalDrivingStandard.DSA’sDrivingStandardisspecificallydesignedtocapturethekeyinsightsoftheGDEframework,withasimilaremphasisontheneedfornewdriverstocontinuetoreflectontheirskill,knowledgeandunderstandingastheyprogressthroughtheirdrivingcareer,andtakethenecessarystepstocloseanygaps.
Theopportunitytoalignstandardshasnotbeenlostonthoseinvolved.Workingmorecloselytogetherthaneverbeforehasenabledthoseundertakingdrivertraininginthepoliceandotheremergencyservicestobuildonthecompetenceslearnersacquiredasnewdrivers,anddevelopnewareasofcompetenceinordertoachievethehighstandardofdrivingrequiredintheemergencyservices.
Forthefirsttime,thisneweditionofRoadcraftincludesnewchaptersonmanoeuvringatlowspeedsandontechniquesforemergencyresponse.
TheseandotherchangesintheneweditionaredesignedtomakeRoadcraftmoreapplicabletothefullrangeofemergencyserviceswhouselargervehiclessuchasfireenginesandambulancesforemergencyresponse.ThisbroaderapproachwillalsobeofinteresttothewiderpublicandwillcontributetocreatingsafercommunitiesacrosstheUK.
AboutRoadcraft
HowcanRoadcrafthelpyoubecomeabetterdriver?
Roadcraftisthehandbookforpolicedriversundertakingpolicedrivertraining.InpolicetrainingRoadcraftiscombinedwithpracticalinstruction.Thiseditionisdesignedsothatitcanbeusedforself-studyeitherbeforeorduringacourse,andforreadyreferenceafterwards.
TheaimofRoadcraftistoimproveyourdrivingability.Yoursafetyandthatofotherroadusersdependsonyourawarenessofwhat’shappeningaroundyouandyourabilitytocontrolthepositionandspeedofyourvehiclerelativetoeverythingelseontheroad.Acollisionorevenanearmissisoftentheresultofalapseindrivingskill.Roadcraftaimstohelpyoubecomeabetterdriverbyincreasingyourawarenessofallthefactorsthataffectyourdriving–yourowncapabilities,thecharacteristicsofyourvehicle,andtheroadandtrafficconditions.
TheRoadcraftsystemofcarcontrolisamethodicalapproachtohazardswhichincreasesyoursafetybygivingyoumoretimetoreactincomplexsituations.
WhatvehiclesdoesRoadcraftcover?
YoucanapplytheprinciplesofRoadcrafttoanyvehicleyoudrive,whetheramoderncarorlargeroroldervehicles.
Thebasicdesignandthesupplementaryfeaturesbuiltintoavehicleallaffectitscapabilities.Asvehicledesignandsafetytechnologybecomemoreandmoresophisticated,itwouldbeimpossibleinabookofthissizetocovertherangeofvariationsin,forexample,
wheel-drive,transmission,adaptivesuspension,andactivesafetyfeatures.Youshouldalwaysgettoknowyourvehicle’scharacteristicsandadaptyourdrivingtothem,andhaveagoodgraspofthemanufacturer’sguidanceforeveryvehiclethatyoudrive.
WhatRoadcraftdoesnotinclude
RoadcraftassumesthatyouarethoroughlyfamiliarwiththecurrenteditionoftheHighwayCode.
Certaintechniquesthatrequireahighlevelofinstructiontoensuretheirsafety,suchasthoseusedinpursuitdrivingandotherspecialistsituations,arenotincluded.Yourinstructorwillintroduceyoutothesewhenappropriate.
UsingRoadcraftforself-study
ThesearethefeaturesthatwillhelpyoutogetthemostoutofRoadcraft,whetheryou’restudyingindependentlyorusingitaspartofformalinstruction:
•Themainlearningpointsarelistedatthestartofeachchapter.Theselistswillhelpyouchoosethechaptersorsectionsthatyouneedtoconcentrateon.
•Theself-assessmentquestionsinthetextaredesignedtohelpyoudevelopyourawarenessofthehumanfactors(e.g.personality,mood,stress)thatcouldaffectyourdrivingsafety,andhowtomanagethem.TheseandthepracticalquestionswillhelpyoutotransfertheadviceinRoadcrafttoyoureverydaydriving.
•Illustrationsanddiagramsareusedtoexplaincomplexideas.Readthemalongwiththetextastheyoftenexpandonthisorprovideadifferentlevelofinformation.
•Importantpointsarehighlightedinlightblueboxes.
•Thelearningpointsarerepeatedattheendofeachchaptertohelpyoucheckyourunderstanding.
Workingthroughthechapters
Chapters1and2arethefoundationsonwhichlaterchaptersbuildsoyoushouldideallyreadtheseinorderfirst.IfyouareusingRoadcraftaspartofadrivingcourse,yourinstructormaysuggestyoustudycertainsectionsofthebookinadifferentorder.
Personalrisks,practiceandself-assessment
JustreadingRoadcraftwillnotmakeyouabetterdriver.Awarenessofyourpersonalrisks,practiceandself-assessmentareanessentialpartofdevelopingcompetence.Whatmattersisnothowwellyoucanrecallwhat’sinthisbookbuthowwellyoucanapplywhatyouhavelearnttoyourdriving.
Aimtodevelopyourawarenessofthehumanfactorsthatcanaffectyourdrivingbehaviourevenbeforeyougetintoavehicle.Yourpersonality,stateofmind,attitudestootherroadusers,stressandoperationaldistractionscanallaffectyourperformance.Inordertoachievethehighestlevelsofdrivingcompetenceandsafety,Roadcraftencouragesyoutodevelopyourself-assessmentskills,sothatyoulearntorecogniseandsafelymanagethehumanfactorsthatcanputyouatrisk.
Manyofthepracticalcompetencesexplainedherearefairlysimpleinthemselves.Asophisticateddrivingabilitycomesfromapplyingthemconsistently.Allcompetencesdependonjudgementandthisonlycomeswithpractice.AimtoapplythetechniquesinRoadcraftsystematicallysothattheybecomeaneverydaypartofyourdriving.
YoucannotabsorballtheinformationinRoadcraftinonereading,so
wesuggestthatyoureadasection,selectatechnique,practiseit,assessyourprogress,andthenreferbacktoRoadcrafttorefinethetechniquefurther.
UsingRoadcraftforreference
Thecontentspagesatthefrontofthebooklistallthemainheadingsandaselectivelistofthemostusefulsub-headings.Crossreferencesthroughoutthebookwillhelpyoufindlinkedinformationinotherchapters.Thereisalsoacomprehensiveindexonpage264.
Learningisacontinualprocess
Beingagooddrivermeansthatyouneverstoplearning.Roadcraftoffersadviceontheprinciplesofbetterdrivingbutcannotbeadefinitiveguidetoalldrivingsituationsandtechniques.Vehiclesanddrivingconditionsareconstantlychanging,andyourdrivingcompetencesneedtokeeppacewiththischange,otherwisetheycouldbecomeoutdatedandevendangerous.Aimtoconstantlyreviewand,wherenecessary,adaptyourdrivingsothatyoumaintainhighstandardsandcontinuallyimproveyourperformance.Everytimeyoudrive,usethejourneyasanopportunitytodevelopyourdrivingability.
Chapter1
Becomingabetterdriver
Learningoutcomes
Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•explainthecompetencesrequiredforpolicedriving•identifythehumanfactorsthatmayincreaseyourvulnerabilityasa
driver
•explaintheGoalsforDriverEducationandhowthesecanhelpyoumanagerisksandassessyourowndriving
•showthatyougiveprioritytosafetyatalltimes•showthatyoucanrecogniseandmanagethehumanfactorsthat
mayaffectyourdecision-makinganddrivingperformance
•showthatyoucanhonestlyandcriticallyassessyourowndrivingbehaviourtoachievecontinuousimprovement.
BecomingabetterdriverThischapterisabouthowyoucanbecomeabetterdriver.Drivingshouldbeasafe,satisfyingandrewardingtask.Thischapterfocusesonthepersonalqualitiesthatareessentialforsafeandcompetentdriving.Understandingyourpersonalrisksandknowinghowto
increaseyoursafetywilllaythefoundationsforalong,enjoyableandrewardingdrivingcareer.
AcrosstheEuropeanUnion,drivertrainingatalllevelsnowencourageslearnerstoconsidertheeffectsofhumanfactors–personality,attitudes,stateofmindandemotions–ontheirdrivingabilities.Statisticsshowthatallthesefactorsstronglyinfluencehowsafeyouareontheroad.
Thisisbecauseyourpersonalcharacteristicsaffecthowyouapproachtechnicalskills,howyouuseyourvehicle,howyourespondtotrafficconditionsandtootherroadusers,andhowyoudealwiththedemandsofaparticularjourneyandthejobofdriving.ThischapterintroducesthemainEuropeanGoalsforDriverEducation(seepage9)andexplainshowthesecansupportyourawarenessofpersonalrisksandyourself-assessmentabilities.
Yourabilitytohonestlyself-assessyourowndrivingperformanceaccuratelyandlearnfromexperienceisthemostimportantskillofall.Withoutthisyoucannotbecomeabetterdriver.
Asself-assessmentissoimportant,eachchapterinRoadcraftincludesquestionstohelpyoucheckyourunderstandingofpolicedrivingcompetencesandassessyourowndrivingbehaviour.Questionsarehighlightedlikethisinacolouredpanelwithaself-assessmentsymbol.
Whatmakesagooddriver?Thequalitiesofasafeandcompetentdriverare:
•criticalandhonestself-awarenessandunderstandingofyourpersonalcharacteristics,attitudesandbehaviour,whicharenecessaryforsafedriving
•takingactiontokeepidentifiedriskstoaminimum•awarenessofyourownlimitationsandthoseofthevehicleandthe
road
•awarenessoftherisksinherentinparticularroadandtrafficsituations
•concentrationandgoodobservation•continuouslymatchingthevehicle’sdirectionandspeedtothe
changingconditions
•skilfuluseofvehiclecontrols.
Policeandotheremergencyservicesdriversmustbeseentobeexemplarydrivers.Yourattitudetowardsyourdrivingisnoticedbymembersofthepublicandinfluencesotherdrivers.Alwaysbeawarethatyouareseenasarolemodelandcaninfluencethebehaviourofotherdriversforthebetter.Ifotherdriversseeyouwithacourteousattitudeandanobviousconcernforsafety,they’remorelikelytobehaveinthesameway.
Competencesforpolicedrivers
Competenceistheabilitytodothejob–theknowledge,skillsandbehaviourrequiredforpolicedriving.
Therearethreecorecompetencesthatarethefoundationofalldriving.Policeandotheremergencyservicesdriversneedtodevelopthesecompetencestothehighestpossiblestandards:
•theknowledgeandskillstodrivesafely•anunderstandingoffactorsthatincreaseyourriskofacollision
•theabilitytoaccuratelyassessyourdrivingbehaviour.SeeAppendix,GoalsforDriverEducation,page259.
Asapolicedriver,yourworkinglifeischaracterisedbythenumberandvarietyofdifferenttasksthatyoumustcarryout,oftenwithinasingleshift.Adaythatstartswitharoutinepatrolmightendupatthesceneofamulti-vehiclecollisiononthemotorway,orinafastpursuit.Whateverthedrivingtask,youareexpectedtomaintainthehighestpossiblestandardofdrivingandtocompletethetaskinhandcalmlyandefficiently.
Aswellasthecorecompetencesabove,therearetask-specificcompetencesthatareparticularlyimportantfortheoperationalpolicedriver.Theseare:
•multi-tasking–beingabletocarryoutseveralcomplexdrivingtasksatthesametimeandwithequalaccuracyandefficiency(seepage13)
•alertness–beingvigilantandremainingfocusedsoastospotpotentialhazardsearlyandleavenothingtochance
•attentiondistribution–splittingyourattentionacrossallaspectsofadrivingtask
•situationalawareness–usingallyoursensestobuildupanaccuratementalpictureoftheoperationalenvironment
•anticipation–usingyourobservationalskillsanddrivingexperiencetospotactualandpotentialhazardsandpredicthowthesituationislikelytounfold
•planning–planningpreciselyandmakingrapidandaccuratedecisionsthroughoutthetask
•makingjudgements–judgingsituationsaccuratelyandtakingsafeandappropriateaction.
SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,formoreonalertness,anticipationandplanning.
Situationalawarenessisessentialforpoliceandotheremergencyservicesdrivers.
Thisinvolvesgathering,interpretingandusinganyrelevantinformationtomakesenseofwhatisgoingonaroundyouandwhatislikelytohappennext,sothatyoucanmakeintelligentdecisionsandstayincontrol.
Developingthesemultipleandcomplexabilitiesbeginswithtrainingbutisaprocessofcontinuousimprovement.Itneedsconstantpracticeandaccurateself-assessmentthroughoutyourprofessionaldrivingcareer.
YourvulnerabilityasadriverMostdriversthinktheyarebothsaferandmoreskilfulthantheaveragedriver–butwecannotallberight.In2outof3collisions,humanerrorisacause.Drivingsafetyisnotanadd-onextra–itmustbebuiltintothewayyoudrive.
Whatarethecommonestcausesof
collisions?ThecommonestrecordedcausesofcollisionsintheUKare:
•Drivererrororreaction–thisisafactorin2outof3ofallcollisions.Thecommonesterrorsare:›failuretolookproperly›failuretojudgetheotherperson’spathorspeed›lossofcontrol.
•Actionbasedonpoorjudgement–thiscontributestojustoveraquarterofallcollisions.Themainfactorsare:›travellingtoofastfortheconditions›exceedingthespeedlimit›followingtooclose.
•Beingcareless,recklessorinahurryisthenextmostcommonfactor,contributingtoaround1in6collisions.
Whoismostlikelytobeinvolvedinacollision?Youngdrivers,especiallyyoungmaledrivers,areathigherriskofcrashingthanolderdrivers:
•1in6driversareaged17–24,butthisagegroupareinvolvedin1in4crashesonBritain’sroads.
•Youngdriversaremorelikelytobeinvolvedinacrashasaresultofexcessivespeed,lossofcontrolofthevehicle,orsuddenbraking.
Peoplewhodriveatworkaremorelikelytobeinvolvedinacrashthanthosewhodon’t:
•Betweenaquarterandathirdofallseriouscollisionsinvolvedsomeonewhowasatworkatthetime.
•Driversatworkinthe25–35agegroupareathigherriskofacollisionthanotheragegroups.
Ifyoufallintobothofthesecategories–drivingatworkandbeingayoungdriver–thisincreasesyourvulnerability.
Asapolicedriver,yourworkmayalsoputyouontheroadathigh-risktimesandduringhigh-risksituations.Whenonpatrolonweekendevenings,forexample,youareontheroadatthesametimeasyoung,recklessandintoxicateddriversandpedestrians.
Inaddition,forpoliceandotheremergencyservicesdrivers,drivinginanoperationalenvironmentinvolvesmulti-tasking.Thiscandistractattentionfromthedrivingtask.
Criticallearningfromexperience
Tobecomeabetterdriver,thefirststepistorecognisetheresistanceinourselvestoacceptingresponsibility.Thesecondstepistoaccepteverynearmissandcollisionasalearningopportunitytodecidehowyoucanavoidthesamemistakeinfuture.
Thehabitofdrivingtooclosetothevehicleinfront,ortailgating,showswhywetendnottorecogniseorchangeriskybehaviour.Thisisoneofthecommonestcausesofvehiclecollisions.Butbecauseriskyactionslikethisdon’talwaysendinacollision,theyquicklybecomebadhabitswhichincreasethechancesthatonedaythedriverwillcrash.
Mostdriversinvolvedinacrashdon’tacceptthattheycontributedtoit.Ifyouthinkthatyoudidn’tcauseacrash,youwillalsothinkthatyouhavenothingtolearnfromit.Yourdrivingbehaviourwillnotchange.
Youcanchoosetoreduceyourchancesofthistypeofcollision.Ifthedriverbehindistooclose,youcandecidetoincreaseyourownfollowingdistance.Thisallowsyouandthedriverbehindmoretimetobrake.Whydidyouhavetobrakesuddenly?Usinggoodobservationtoanticipatehazardsshouldhelpyoutoavoidsuddenbraking–thiswillalsoreduceyourriskfromatailgatingdriver.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation.
Haveyoueverhadanearmiss?
yes no
Haveyoueverfeltthreatenedoralarmedbyanotherroaduser’sactions?
yes no
Whatdidyoulearnaboutyourownactionsfromthisexperience?
Developawarenessofyourpersonalvulnerability
Todevelopyourawarenessofrisksandyourabilitytohonestlyassessyourowndriving,itcanbehelpfultothinkaboutthedrivingtaskintermsoffourdifferentlevels.It’susefultothinkabouttheseseparatelyatthestartofthelearningprocessbutthegoaloflearningandpracticeistointegratethem.
Fourlevelsofthedrivingtask
ThefourlevelssetoutintheEuropeanGoalsforDriverEducation(GDE)are:
•humanfactorsthataffectyourdriving•thepurposeandcontextofyourjourney•trafficsituations•vehicleandvehiclecontrol.SeeAppendix,GoalsforDriverEducation,page259.
Whenyoufirstlearnedtodrive,youstartedwiththebasicskillsofvehiclecontrol.Withpractice,yougraduallycombinedsmallerskillelementsuntiltheybecameautomatic.Onceyoumasteredthebasiccontrolsandmanoeuvringskills,youwereabletoconcentrateontrafficsituations,learningtoanticipateandrespondtohazards.Eventuallyyoubuiltupandintegratedthesecomplexskillsandcompetencesuntilyouwereabletodrivesafelyintrafficandplanandmakejourneysindependently.
Butthemostimportantpointaboutthelearningprocessisthatwearenotablankcanvaswhenwelearntodrive.Webringtothetaskourpersonality,ourlifeexperiences,ourbeliefsabouttheworldandourownattitudestodrivingbasedonwhatwe’veseenaspedestriansorpassengers.Thesefactorsallhaveastronginfluenceonhowwelearntodrive,howwemakedecisionsontheroadandourchancesofbeinginvolvedinacrash.
Let’sconsiderthefourlevelsinmoredepth:
•Humanfactors–yourpersonalcharacteristicscanincreaseorreduceyourriskofacollisioncomparedtootherdrivers.Yourattitudetoyourownvulnerabilityandtootherroadusers,andyouremotions,moodandlevelsoftirednessorstressallaffectyourdrivingbehaviour.Learntorecognisepersonaltendenciesthatincreaseyourriskandfindwaystomanagethem.
•Thejourney–eachjourneyyoumakehasapurposeandinvolvesdecisionsandjudgements:whatpreparationisneeded,whichrouteisbest,whatdistractionsthereareandhowtominimisethem.Theabilitytodealwithoperationaldistractionsisvitalforpoliceandotheremergencyservicesdrivers.Assesstherisksofthejourneyandyourownfitnesstodrive.Takeaccountoftheseinthewayyoumanageeachjourney.
SeeAppendix,IAMSAFEchecklist,page254,tomakesureyouarefittodrive.
•Thetraffic–trainingwillincreaseyourhazardperceptionskillsandyourabilitytonegotiatesafelythroughtraffic.Itwilldevelopyourcompetenceatscanningtheroadandanticipatinghazards,andincreaseyourawarenessoftherisksthatdriversfaceintraffic.Situationalawarenessisessentialforalldrivers.Allowallyoursenses(sight,hearingandevensmell)toprovideyouwithinformationandbuildupanaccuratepictureofyourenvironment.
•Thevehicle–avitalpartofknowingyourownlimitationsasadriverisknowingexactlywhatthevehicleyouaredrivingcanandcannotdo.Taketimetofamiliariseyourselfwithavehiclebeforeyoudriveit.Checkthevehicleisfittodrive.Checkitscondition(e.g.lights,tyretreaddepth,brakes),itscapabilities,itssafetyfeatures,andhowtousethecontrolscorrectly.
SeeAppendix,POWDERchecklist,page256,tomakesureyourvehicleisfittodrive.
ThetablebelowshowshowyoucanusethesefourlevelsoftheGDEmatrixtoconsideryourpersonalrisksandassessyourdrivinginastructuredway. Potentialrisks Possibleself-assessment
questions
Humanfactors
Personaltendencies,motivesorattitudesthatmightaffectyourdriving.Risksmightincludearisk-takingorimpulsivepersonality,operationalstress,competitiveness,overconfidenceindrivingability,justifyingrisktakingforanoblecause,ordistractioncausedbydeeperstressessuchasfamilyorfinancialproblems.
Howeasyisittodetachyourselffromwiderproblemsorstresseswhenyougetintoavehicle?Doyoutendtoreacttoordisengagefromotherroadusers’aggressivebehaviour?Doyouknowhowoperationalstressaffectsyourdriving?
JourneyRiskscouldincludeanunfamiliarroute,timepressure,peerpressure,distractionduetomulti-tasking,‘redmist’orfatigue.
Areyoufittodrive?Whatcanyoudotoreducetheriskofgeneraldistractions?Ofdistractionsfromoperationaltasks?
TrafficMaintainahighlevelofalertnessintraffic,scanningtheroadsoyoucananticipate
Whatarethetraffic,roadandweatherconditions?Howshouldyouadjustyour
whatislikelytohappennext.Riskscouldincludelossofconcentration,failuretolookproperlyorweatherconditions.
drivingfortheconditions?
VehicleAlwaysdrivewithinyourvehicle’scapabilities.Anunfamiliarvehicleincreasesyourrisk.
Isthevehiclefittodrive?Aretheseatandsteeringwheeladjustedforbestpositionandcomfort?Doyouknowhowitssafetyfeaturesbehave?
HumanfactorrisksforpolicedriversPoliceandotheremergencyservicesdrivershavetodealwithdemandinganddifficultsituationsinthecourseoftheirwork.Certainhumanfactorslinkedtothenatureofthejobcanputyouatrisk:
•distractionduetomulti-tasking•drivingstress•operationalstressors•timepressureandthepurposeofthejourney•‘noblecause’risk-taking•‘redmist’.
Distractionduetomulti-taskingOperationaldrivingrequiresnewpolicedriverstodealwithmultipletasks.Thedemandsonyourattentionfromtheradioandotherin-vehicletechnology,theoperationaltasksandevenpassengerscanbe
intrusive.Beawarethatyourvulnerabilityincreasesifyoufailtofocusontheprimarytaskofdrivingsafely.Evenminordistractionscanseverelyimpairyourabilitytoanticipatehazards.
DrivingstressAlldriversarevulnerabletodrivingstress,especiallypoliceandotheremergencyservicesdriverswhoregularlydealwithdifficultandhazardoussituations.Duringademandingordifficultdrivewherebrainprocessingisalreadystretchedtothelimit,operationalstressorscanoverloadthesystemandimpairyourdecisionsandjudgement.Trainingaimstoincreaseyourinformation-processingandproblem-solvingcapacity.Thisgivesyoumoretimetothinkandcompletethedrivingtaskefficiently,whichhelpsreducetheeffectsofdrivingstress.
Deeperstressescanalsoaffectyourdriving.Forexample,adrivermaybedealingwithheavydemandsintheirpersonallife.Familyproblems,financialdifficultiesorevenanewbabycanincreasechronicstressandfatigue,andimpairconcentrationanddrivingperformance.
Weeachresponddifferentlytostressfulsituationssowhatyoufindstressfulmaynotbestressfulforacolleague,andviceversa.Learntorecogniseyourpersonalstressors–thethingsyoufindstressfulthatcouldimpairyourdriving.
OperationalstressorsPolicedriversarealsoexposedtoseveraltypesofoperationalstress:
•theanticipatorystressoffacingadifficultordemandingtask(e.g.
anxietyaboutwhatyouwillfindonarrivalatanincident)
•the‘adrenalinerush’arisingfromasuddeneventsuchasanemergencycall-out–adegreeofarousalenhancesperformancebutbeyondthisoptimumlevelalertnessandconcentrationtendtofallaway
•stressrelatedtoaspectsofthetask–difficulttrafficorweatherconditions,navigationproblems,lackofadvancedetailaboutanincident,timepressureandthelengthoftimeyouspendexposedtorisk
•thestressofbeinginasituationinwhichyouorothersmaybeexposedtoextremehazards
•stressarisingfromrepeatedexposuretodistressingincidentsinthepast;aspectsofacurrentsituationmay‘prompt’recallofdistressingmemoriesandtheeffectmayimpaircurrentdecision-makingandjudgement
•preoccupationwithapreviouserrorofjudgement•stressfromotherworkfactors:workinglongshiftsornightshifts,
peerpressureordifficultworkingrelationshipscanaffectdrivingperformance.
Underpressure,indifficultanddemandingconditions,stressandtirednesscancausethereleaseofpowerfulnegativefeelings:
•impatience–throughadesiretogettotheincidentquickly
•intolerance–abeliefthattheimportanceofthetaskautomaticallygivesthepolicedriverpriorityoverotherroadusers
•impulsiveness–rushingdecisionsbecausetimeisshort•angerorfrustration–forexample,atotherroadusersgettinginyour
way
•personalisation–gettingintopersonalconflictwithanotherroad
user.
Learntorecognisewhenthesereactionsareaffectingyourjudgement.Youcanthenmakeaconsciousdecisiontodisengagefromthem.ThereismoreaboutdealingwithtirednessinChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation.
Practicalstepstocombatstress
Beawarethatstressiscumulative.Researchshowsthatrepeatedexposuretostresscanincreasethechancesofacollisionand,inmoreseverecases,susceptibilitytostress-relatedillness.Lookafteryourhealth–gettingregularexerciseandlearningtorelaxcanhelpreducechronicstress.
•Adjusttheseatandsteeringwheelsothatyouarenotphysicallytenseoruncomfortable.
•Usethetechniquesyoulearnintrainingandpractisethemcontinually–well-learnedtechniquesarelesslikelytobreakdownunderstressfulconditions.Thisisanadvantageofusingthesystemofcarcontrol(Chapter2).
•Maintainacalmprofessionalapproachtoyourdriving–
especiallyinanemergencysituation.
•Learntechniquestohelpyoufocusonyourdrivingandswitchoffotherproblemswhenyougetintoyourvehicle.
•Don’tdwellonpreviousstressfulexperiencesorearliererrorsofjudgement.
TimepressureandthepurposeofyourjourneyPoliceandotheremergencyservicesdriversaretrainedtorespondtourgentcallswithouttakingunduerisks.Butitisafactthatdriverswhofeeltheirjourneyisurgent,becauseoforganisationaltimepressureorthepurposeofthejourney,tendtorespondlesssafelytohazardsandtakemorerisks.Asenseofurgencydoesnotgivetherighttotakerisks.Noemergencyissogreatthatitjustifiesthepossibilityofinjuringorkillingsomeone.Itisbettertoarrivelaterthannotatall.
‘Noblecause’risk-takingNeverjustifyrisk-takingbytellingyourselfthattheriskisforanoblecause–tohelpsomeoneelse,ortocatchapersonsuspectedofacrime.
Ifyou’retemptedtotakerisksinanemergency,STOP.Thinkabouttheconsequencesforyourselfandotherpeopleifyoucrashandfailtoarrive.Youarenohelptothepeopleinneed.Ifyouinjureyourselforsomeoneelseonthewayyouwillhaveturnedanemergencyintotwoemergenciesandapossibletragedy.Andyouwillhavetolivewiththeconsequencesofwhatyouhavedone.
‘Redmist’
‘Redmist’meansyourattentionisnotonyourdrivingbutonsomespecificgoal;youhavebecomeemotionallyandphysiologicallycaughtupintheincident.
‘Redmist’isacolloquialtermusedtodescribethestateofmindofdriverswhobecomedeterminedtoachievesomeobjectiveonthejourney–catchingthevehicleinfront,orgettingtoanincidentintheshortestpossibletime.Fixedattentiononaparticulargoalcanleadtoblindnesstootherpotentialhazards,suchaspedestriansorothervehiclesatintersections.Thismeansadriverisatbestlessableandatworstnolongercapableofrealisticallyassessingdrivingrisks.
Youarethreetimesmorelikelytobeinvolvedinacrashwhenrespondingtoanemergency.
Thekeytopreventingthisstateofmindistoconcentrateonthedrivingtaskinhandratherthanontheincident.Youwillneedtodevelopyourownstrategyforachievingthis,buttherearesomestepsyoucantake:
•Don’tgetintoapersonalityconflictwithanotherroaduser.•Bedispassionateandconcentrateonyourdriving–useneutral,non-
aggressivelanguagetodescribeotherroadusers(toyourselfandothers).
•Don’ttryandimaginewhatyouwillfindattheincident–assessthesituationwhenyougetthere.
•Concentrateondriving–talkingyourselfthroughthehazardsyouidentifycanhelpyoutofocusonthedrivingtaskandkeepnegativeemotionsundercontrol.
HowwelearnYou’llfinditeasiertoimproveyourdrivingabilityandsafetyifyouunderstandhowwelearnandapplynewcompetences.Thebasicrequirementsaretraining,practiceandfeedback.
Training,practiceandfeedbackRoadcrafttrainingmirrorstheprocessbywhichyoulearnedthebasicdrivingskillstopassyourtest.Atfirst,manoeuvreslikechanginggearorturningroundintheroaddemandallyourattention.Butwhenyouhavemasteredthebasiccontrolsandskills,youcangivemoreofyourattentiontotheroadandtrafficconditions.Youwillimproveyourabilitytoanticipateandrespondtohazards,andlearntousethesystemofcarcontrolandotherroutinessothatyoucanrespondrapidly,safelyandflexiblytothedemandsofpolicedriving.
Drivertrainingcanaccelerateyourlearning,enablingyoutodevelopyourcriticalawarenessandcompetencesthatyoumightotherwiseneverpossess.Itcandrawyourattentiontoriskydrivingbehaviourandtopartsofataskorwaysofdoingthingsthatyouwereunawareof.Butpracticeistheonlywayinwhichnewcompetencesbecomeintegrated,automaticandreadilyavailablewhenyouneedthem.Practicewillsteadilydevelopyourcoredrivingcompetencesatalllevels.SeeAppendix,GoalsforDriverEducation,page259.
Todevelopthesecompetencestoahighstandard,youalsoneedcontinuousfeedbackontheeffectsofyouractions.Atfirstyouwillneedfeedbackfromyourinstructor,butrightfromtheoutsetyoushouldcriticallyreviewallyouractions.Youwillbeexpectedtocontinuouslyassessyourowndrivingbehaviourandperformance.Youraimistodevelopyourowninternalfeedback–yourabilitytoquestion,honestlyself-assessandmodifyyouractions–whenever
youdrive.
OverconfidenceaftertrainingOverconfidenceintheperiodaftertrainingisariskyoushouldbeawareof.Don’tunderestimatetheamountofpracticethatisrequiredtodevelopyourdrivingcompetencetothehighestpossiblestandard.Youwillencountermanynewtrafficandoperationalsituationsasapolicedriverandlackofexperienceindealingwiththesesituationsmeansthatyou’revulnerable.
Overconfidencecantakeyouintosituationsyoucan’thandleandwillincreaseyourriskofacrash.Driverscanoverestimatetheirabilitiesinvariousways:
•Inthefirstfewmonthsaftertraining,policeandotheremergencyservicesdriversareatriskfromtheaddeddistractionsofoperationaldriving.Radiocommunicationsandtheattentiondemandedbyoperationaltaskscanattimescreateattentionoverload.
•Lessexperienceddriverstendtobelievetheirhazardperceptionisbetterthanitactuallyis,whenmeasuredobjectively.
•Vehiclesafetytechnologyandequipmenthaveadvancedatsucha
rapidpacethattheycangivedriversafalsesenseofsecurity,leadingthemtotakemorerisks.Drivingavehiclethathasmanymoresafetyfeaturesthantheoneyoulearnedincanleadyoutotakerisksthatyouwouldnothavetakenbefore.
Thisiswhycriticalandhonestself-awarenessissoimportant.Itwillhelpyoutokeepyouractualdrivingabilityandyourperceivedabilityinbalance.
Self-assessmentwillhelpyoucontinuallyimprovePeoplewhodevelopahighlevelofabilityinanyfieldhavebetterthanaverageself-assessmentskills.Theyarecontinuallyreviewingtheirperformance,analysingtheirmistakes,andworkingouthowtheycanimprove.
Peoplewhoarenotverygoodatassessingthemselvesfinditdifficulttodevelopahigherlevelofcompetenceastheyfailtoreflectonwhattheycandotoimprove.
Self-assessmentisonlypossiblethroughreflectivepractice.Monitoryouractionsastheyareactuallyhappening,andreviewyourperformanceafteradrive.Askyourself:
•Whatismyaim?
•Whatwentwellandwhy?
•Whatwentlesswellandwhy?
•HowcouldIdobetternexttime?•HaveIbeenhonestwithmyself?
BehonestThefirstthingtofocusonwhenyoureviewadriveshouldbeyourownsafetyandthatofotherroadusers.Beinghonestwithyourselfaboutwhatdidn’tgosowellisvitalifyouwanttocontinuetoimprove.Forexample,youmightlookbackonadrivetoconsider:
•howyoucontrolledthevehicle•howyoumanagedtrafficsituations,andanticipatedandplannedfor
hazards
•whataspectsofthejourneyyoufoundchallenging•whatpersonalcharacteristicsaffectedyourdrivingbehaviour.SeeAppendix,GoalsforDriverEducation,page259.
Reviewingthingsthatwentwellandanalysingwhyyouhandledthemwellisalsoimportant.Itwillhelpyoutotransferyourcompetenceinoneparticularsituationtoothersituations.Thiswillbroadenyourabilitytomakeaccuratedecisionsandjudgements.
Butintheend,youwillonlybecomeabetterdriverifyouunderstand
yourownvulnerability,knowthelimitsofyourdrivingcapabilitiesandrecognisethehumanfactorsthataffectyoursafety.StudyingRoadcraftandpractisingcontinuallytodevelopyourdrivingabilitywillincreaseyoursatisfaction,enjoymentandsafetyontheroad.
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainthecompetencesrequiredforpolicedriving• identifythehumanfactorsthatmayincreaseyourvulnerabilityasadriver
• explaintheGoalsforDriverEducationandhowthesecanhelpyoumanagerisksandassessyourowndriving
• showthatyougiveprioritytosafetyatalltimes• showthatyoucanrecogniseandmanagethehumanfactorsthatmayaffectyourdecision-makinganddrivingperformance
• showthatyoucanhonestlyandcriticallyassessyourowndrivingbehaviourtoachievecontinuousimprovement.
Chapter2
Thesystemofcarcontrol
Learningoutcomes
Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•explainthesystemofcarcontrol•demonstratehowtoapplythesystemtoanyhazards.
TheneedforasystemofcarcontrolThischapterexplainsthesystemofcarcontrolusedinpolicedrivertraining.Itoutlinesthecompetencesthatwillenhanceyourabilitytomasterawiderangeoftrafficsituations.
Drivererrorisafeatureofnearlyallcollisionsontheroad.Thesystemofcarcontrolaimstopreventcollisionsbyprovidingasystematicapproachtohazards.Itisadecision-makingprocessthatenablesyoutoefficientlyassessandactoninformationthatiscontinuouslychangingasyoudrive.Usingthesystemgivesyoumoretimetoreact,whichisvitalincomplexanddemandingdrivingsituations.
Ifyouusethesystemconsistentlywiththeinformationprocessing,
observationandanticipationskillsdiscussedinChapter3,itwillhelpyouanticipatedangerscausedbyotherroadusersandavoidcollisions.Yourprogresswillbesteadyandunobtrusive–thesignofasafeandcompetentdriver.
IntegratingarangeofcompetencesAsyousawinChapter1,drivingtopolicestandardsrequiresmorethanjusttheabilitytocontrolyourvehicle.Itisessentialtodevelophonestself-assessmentofyourowncapabilities,understandingoftrafficsituationsand‘situationalawareness’–yourabilitytoreadtheroad.Manyhazardsthatdriversmeetareunpredictable.Thesystemgivesyouamethodicalwayofprocessinginformation,andapplyingobservationandanticipationsothatyourecogniseandnegotiatehazardssafely.SeeChapter1,Becomingabetterdriver.
Whatisthesystemofcarcontrol?Thesystemofcarcontrolincreasesyoursafetyinaconstantlychangingdrivingenvironmentbygivingyoutimetoreacttohazards.
Ahazardisanythingthatisanactualorpotentialdanger.
SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,page47.
Thesystemofcarcontrolisawayofapproachingandnegotiatinghazardsthatismethodical,safeandleavesnothingtochance.Itinvolvescarefulobservation,earlyanticipationandplanning,andasystematicuseofthecontrolstomaintainyourvehicle’sstabilityinallsituations.SeealsoChapter5,page100,Automatictransmission.
Drivinghazardsfluctuate:theycomesinglyandinclusters,theyoverlapandchangeallthetime.Thesystemtakesaccountofthiscontinualfluxas:
•ithasacentrallyflexibleelement–you,thedriver•itdrawstogetheralllevelsofdrivingcompetenceintoalogical
sequenceofactionstohelpyoudealwithhazardsandrespondtonewonessafelyandefficiently.
HowthesystemworksThesystemofcarcontrolconsistsofprocessinginformationandfourphases–position,speed,gearandacceleration.Eachphasedevelopsoutoftheonebefore.
Processinginformationiscentraltothesystem–itrunsthroughandfeedsintoallthephases.Startbyaskingyourself:
•WhatinformationdoIneedtogatherabouttheroadconditions,thebehaviourofotherroadusersandactualandpotentialdangers?
•Whatdootherroadusersneedtoknowaboutmyintentions?
Thenworkthrougheachofthephasesinturn.Asroadconditionschange,you’llneedtoprocessnewinformationandthiswillmeanreenteringthesystematanappropriatepoint,thencontinuingthroughitinsequence.Ifanewhazardarises,re-applythesystemandconsiderallthephasesinsequence.
TheimportanceofinformationYourabilitytoprocesscomplexinformationisessentialtobecomingabetterdriver.
Processinginformationintroducesthesystemandcontinuesthroughout.RememberTUG–take,useandgiveinformation.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation.
Youneedto:
•takeanduseinformationtoplanyourdriving•giveinformationwheneverotherroaduserscouldbenefitfromit.
Developyourcompetenceatassessingthecontinuousflowof
information.Thiscompetenceunderpinstheentiresystemandenablesyoutoadaptittochangesinroadcircumstances.
SeeChapter8,Driver’ssignals.
Mirrorsandsignals
ThesystemofcarcontrolThesystemofcarcontrolissetoutindetailhere.UsethisinformationinconjunctionwiththeotherchaptersinRoadcraftfora
completeunderstandingofthesystem.Whenandhowyoureadeachchapterdependsonyourownstudyplan.IfyouareusingRoadcraftaspartofacourse,askyourinstructorforadvice.
Information
Processinginformationrunsthroughoutallphasesofthesystem.
Takeinformation
Lookallroundyou.Scantothefrontandsides,includingyourblindspots.Useyourmirrorsatappropriatepointsinthesystem.
Obtaininformationthroughyourothersensesaswellasyoureyes.Soundssuchasahornorsirencanwarnyouofotherroadusers.Smellssuchasdieselorabonfirecanalertyoutohazardssuchasspillsorsmoke.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation.
Useinformation
Useinformationtoplanhowtodealwiththehazardsyouidentify.Usethesystemtodecideonyournextaction.Ifnewhazardsarise,considerwhethertore-runthesystemfromanearlierphase.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,page48,Planning.
Giveinformation
Giveasignalifitcouldhelpotherroadusers,includingpedestriansandcyclists.Useindicators,thehornorflashyourlights.Giveyourwarningsignalingoodtime,formaximumbenefit.
Beawarethatthepositionofyourvehiclegivesvaluableinformation
tootherroadusers.SeeChapter8,Driver’ssignals.
Position
Positionyourselfsothatyoucannegotiatethehazard(s)safelyandsmoothly.SeeChapter9,Positioning.
Takeaccountofthesizeofyourvehicleandotherroadusers,includingpedestrians,cyclistsandchildren.
Speed
Adjustyourspeedasnecessary.Usetheacceleratororbraketogiveyouthecorrectspeedtocompletethemanoeuvresafely.Makegooduseofaccelerationsense.SeeChapter5,Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering.
Useyouranticipationskillssothatyoumakealladjustmentsinspeedsmoothlyandsteadily.
Gear
Onceyouhavethecorrectspeedforthecircumstances,engagetheappropriategearforthatspeed.SeeChapter5,Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering,page96.
Brake/gearoverlapcanbeusedinspecificcircumstances.Itmustalwaysbepartofaplannedapproachthatisthemostappropriateforthecircumstances.Pleaseturntopage37forafulldiscussion
ofthispoint.
Acceleration
Applythecorrectdegreeofaccelerationtonegotiateandleavethehazardsafely.
Takingaccountofyourspeed,otherroadusers,andtheroadandtrafficconditionsahead,chooseanappropriatepointtoacceleratesafelyandsmoothlyawayfromthehazard.Adjustaccelerationtothecircumstances.SeeChapter5,Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering,page89.
Continuouslyassessinginformationrunsthrougheveryphaseofthesystem.
UsethesystemflexiblyThesystemworksifyouuseitintelligentlyandproactivelyandadaptittocircumstancesastheyarise:
•Considerallphasesofthesystemontheapproachtoeveryhazard,butyoumaynotneedtouseeveryphaseinaparticularsituation.
•Take,useandgiveinformationthroughouttoconstantlyre-assessyourplans.
•Bereadytoreturntoanearlierphaseofthesystemasnewhazardsarise.
Withpractice,thesystemwillbecomesecondnatureandformasoundbasisfordevelopingthefinerpointsofyourdrivingskill.It
willhelpyouprocessinformation,makedecisionsandplanyourapproachtohazardssothatyouareabletoavoid,orgiveyourselfplentyoftimetoreactto,potentialdangers.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,page42.
Applyingthesystem
Whenyoubeginusingthesystem,itmayhelptonameeachphaseoutloudasyouenterit.Afteryoupractiseusingthesystem,reviewyourperformance:
•Doyoutake,useandgiveinformationthroughoutallphases?Ifnot,whatcanyoudotoimprove?
•Whatcanyoudotoensureyouconsidereachphasesystematically?
•Doyouthinkaboutallaspectsofeachphase?
Whereyouhaveidentifiedproblemsinusingthesystem,workthroughthemonebyone,solvingthefirstbeforeyougoontothenext.
Also,thinkabouthumanfactorsthatmightcreatedifficultiesinusingthesystem,suchasworkpressure,stressortiredness.Ifyou’redistractedorpreoccupied,considergivingarunningcommentarytohelpyoutofocusonworkingthroughthesystemasyouapproacheachhazard.
Wenowlookathowyoucanapplythesystemtofourcommonhazards:aleft-handturn,aright-handturn,aroundabout,andapotentialhazard–inthiscase,childrenonthepavement.Beforeyoulookattheseexamples,makesureyouknowtheHighwayCodeadviceonroadjunctionsandroundabouts.
Applyingthesystemtoaleft-handturn
Information
Takeinformationandidentifyhazards.Whatcanyouseeinthejunction?Whatisthecurrenttrafficflow?Whathazardsarevisibleoranticipated?Useyourmirrorsthroughout.Scantothefront,sidesandrearandcheckyourblindspottoknowthepositionofotherroadusersandanticipatetheirintentions.Giveasignalatanypointwherethiscouldhelpotherroadusers,includingpedestriansandcyclists.
Knowwhatisgoingonallaroundyou,andletotherroadusersknowwhatyouintendtodo.Youmusttake,useandgiveinformationbeforeyouchangespeedordirection.
Applyingthesystemtoaright-handturn
Information
Takeinformationandidentifyhazards.Howfaraheadisthejunction?Whatcanyouseeinthejunction?Useyourmirrorsthroughout.Looktothefront,sidesandrearandcheckyourblindspottoknowthe
positionandanticipatetheintentionsofotherroadusers.Giveasignalatanypointwherethiscouldhelpotherroadusers,includingpedestriansandcyclists.
Applyingthesystemtoaroundabout
Information
Takeinformationandidentifyhazards.Useyourmirrorsthroughout.
Scantothefront,sidesandrear,andcheckyourblindspottoknowthepositionofotherroadusersandanticipatetheirintentions.
Decideearlywhichexittotakeandinwhichlanetoapproachtheroundabout.
Giveasignalwhenitcouldhelpotherroadusers.
Takeanearlyviewoftrafficontheroundaboutandtrafficapproachingitfromotherentrances.
Asyouapproachtheroundabout,bepreparedtostopbutlookforyouropportunitytogo.
Re-applyingthesystemtoleavetheroundabout
Information
Asyouleavetheroundabout,re-applythesystem.Plantheappropriatelaneforyourexit.Ifyouneedtomoveintotheleft-handlane,checkthatyournearsideroadspaceisclear.Useyournearside
mirrorandcheckyourblindspot.Signalleftifitcouldbenefitotherroadusers.
Applyingthesystemtoapotentialhazard
Information
Useyourmirrorsthroughout.Looktothefrontandsidestoknowthepositionofotherroadusersandanticipatetheirintentions.Givea
signalatanypointwherethiscouldhelpotherroadusers,includingpedestriansandcyclists.
OverlappingbrakingandgearchanginginspecificcircumstancesTheindividualphasesofthesystemofcarcontrolarealmostalwaysappliedseparately.Theprincipleisthatbrakesaretoslow,gearsaretogo.
Insomecircumstances,itmaybehelpfultooverlapbrakingwiththegearchangebybrakingnormallybutchangingthegeartowardstheendofbraking.
Ifyouusethistechnique,itmustbepartofaplannedapproachtoahazard.Beginapplyingthesystematthesametimeandinthesameplaceasyouwouldnormally.Thesystemisnotcompressed.
Whendriversfirstlearnthesystemofcarcontrol,theyseparatebrakingandgearchangingandtrynottooverlap.Theproblemwiththisapproachtotightturnsisthatifyoubrakesomedistancebeforetheturntoavoidanoverlap,youcanconfuseotherdriverswithunexpectedresults.Driversfollowingyoumaythinkyouarestoppingandbetemptedtoovertake.Approachingdriverspreparingtoturnintothesamejunctionmaythinkyouhaveslowedtoleavespaceforthemtoturnaheadofyou.
Situationswherebrake/gearoverlapmaybeappropriate:
Brake/gearoverlap–anexampleHereisanexampleofusingbrake/gearoverlapasaplannedapproachtoahazard,inordertomaintaincorrectspeed.
Ifyouturnleftintoasideroadthatispartofthewaydownahill,thevehiclewillstarttoacceleratewhenyoutakeyourfootoffthebrake.Instead,applythesystemasnormaluptoandincludingthespeedphase.
Incorrectuseofbrake/gearoverlapBrake/gearoverlaphasabadreputationbecauseitisfrequentlymisusedbydriverswhoapproachahazardtooquickly:
•Overlapthatisnotproperlyplannedresultsinlate,excessivebrakingandrushedgearchanges.
•Brakinglateandrushingagearchangecandestabiliseyourvehicleatexactlythepointwhereyouneedgreateststabilitytonegotiatethehazard.
Butappliedcarefullyincertaincircumstances,brake/gearoverlaptakeslesstime.
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainthesystemofcarcontrol
• demonstratehowtoapplythesystemtoanyhazards.
Chapter3Information,observationandanticipation
LearningoutcomesThelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•explainhowyourbrainprocessesinformationandhowyoucanimproveyourabilitytoprocesscomplexinformationwhendriving
•explainthethreemaintypesofhazardyouwillmeetontheroad•showhowtousetheinformationyougatherfromobservationto
planyourdrivingactions
•demonstrategoodobservationandanticipationskills•identifyhumanandphysiologicalfactorsthatcanaffectobservation
andanticipation,andshowhowyoumanagethese.
ProcessingcomplexinformationTodevelopyourdrivingtopoliceoperationalstandards,youwill
needtoexpandyourabilitytoprocesscomplexinformation.Practicewillhelpyoutodothis.
Thediagrambelowisasimplemodelthatexplainshowyourbrainprocessestheinformationthatyoureceivethroughyoursenseswhenyoudrive.Yourbrainusesthisinformationandpastexperiencetounderstandthesituationanddecidewhattodo.Itthencontinuallymonitorsand,ifnecessary,adjuststheactionasyoucarryitout:
Input
Visionisthemostimportantsensefordrivingbutyoushouldlearntouseallyoursensestobuildupthefullestpossiblepictureofyourself,yoursurroundingsandyoursituation.Yourbrainusesyourobservations–andinformationfromyourpreviousknowledgeandexperiencethatisstoredinyourlong-termmemory–tobuildupadetailedmentalmapor‘picture’ofyoursituation.
Decision-making
Yourbraincomparesthismentalpicturewithsituationsfromyourexperience,identifieswhatactionsyoutookinthepastandchoosesa
planofactionforthecurrentsituation.
Yourbrainassessesthesuitabilityoftheproposedplanbycomparingitwithactionsthatyouhavecarriedoutsafelyinsimilarcircumstancesbefore.Youuseseveraltypesofjudgement:
•anticipatinghoweventsarelikelytounfold•assessingtheproposedplanforrisk,notinghazardsandgrading
thembasedonpreviousexperience
•assessingyourspace,position,speedandgear.
Output
Takeaction–makeanappropriateresponse.
Feedback
Asyouputyourplanintoaction,yourbraintakesinnewinformationandcontinuouslychecksitsothatyoucanmodifyyouractionsatanytime.Developingthisabilitytoahighstandardtakesexperience,practice,alertnessandfullconcentration.
Theabilitytojudgeasituation,graderisksandanticipatehowthingsarelikelytounfoldisessentialtosafedriving,especiallyathighspeeds.
ImprovingyourinformationprocessingThehighlydemandingnatureofpolicedrivingmeansthatthebrain’sinformation-processingcapacitycanbecomeoverstretched,reducing
drivingperformanceandcompromisingsafety.Themainlimitationstohowmuchinformationwecanprocessatonetimeare:
•reactiontime•errorsofperception•attentionspan•memorystorage.
Ifyouunderstandthese,youcantakestepstoimproveyourinformation-processingability.
Reactiontime
Yourreactiontimeisthetimebetweengatheringnewinformationaboutahazardandrespondingtoit.
Reactiontime=decisiontime+responsetime
Mostdrivershaveasimilarresponsetimebuttheyvarygreatlyintheamountoftimetheyneedtodecidewhattodo.
Assituationsbecomemorecomplicated,youneedmoredecision
timeandsoyouroverallreactiontimeisalsolonger.Asapolicedriver,youmaybedealingwithsituationsrequiringmanycomplexdecisionsandjudgements–oftenunderpressureandathighspeed–whereadelayedreactioncanhavecatastrophicresults.Thesystemofcarcontrolgivesyouastructuredmethodforrapiddecision-making.Thisreducesdecisiontimeandgivesyoumoreoveralltimetoreactincomplexsituations.
Errorsofperception
Indemandingsituationslikehigh-speeddriving,itissometimespossibletomisinterprettheinformationthatyoureceivethroughyoursenses.Commonerrorsinperceptionare:
•Errorsofjudgement–forexample,lessexperienceddriversoftenperceiveabendasbeinglesssharpthanitactuallyissotheynegotiateittooquicklyandrisklossofcontroloracollision.SeeChapter10,Cornering.
•Habitandexpectancy–whenyoudriveregularlyonfamiliarroads,habitcanpreventyoufromspottingahazardthatyoudon’texpect,suchasavehicleemergingfromadisusedgarageforecourt.
•Regressioneffects–driverswhoswitchvehiclesregularlycan,whenunderalotofpressure,reverttopreviouslylearnedroutines–forexample,confusingthepositionofthecontrols.Doapre-drivingchecktomakesureyouknowwhereallthecontrolsareonanunfamiliarvehicle.SeeAppendix,Isyourvehiclefittodrive?,page255.
Attentionspan
Policedrivershavetoprocessinformationfromseveraldifferent
sourcesthroughdifferentsensesatthesametime:roadconditions,radiotraffic,navigation,themobiledataterminal,thenatureoftheoperation,andsoon.Processingcomplexinformationcanaffectyourperceptionandslowyourreactiontimes.Distractionssuchaspassengersortheradiomaydivertattentionfrommoreimportantinformation.Withtrainingandpractice,youcanlearntofiltercomplexinformationandconcentrateonthepriorities.
Memorystorage
Thebraincan’talwaysdealwithalltheinformationitreceives.Incomplexanddemandingsituations,yourbrainmaydiscardorforgetnewinformationbeforeitcanbestoredinyourshort-termmemory.And,underpressure,informationinyourlong-termmemorymaybedifficulttorecall.
Tipstoimproveinformationprocessing
•Regularlypractisedrivingtechniquesandmanoeuvressothatyoucandothemaccuratelyandefficiently.
•Sharpenyourobservationandperceptionanddevelopyoursituationalawareness.
•Usethesystemofcarcontrolwheneveryoudrivesothatyoumakedecisionsmethodicallyandquickly(Chapter2).
•Learntoholdontoimportantpiecesofinformationuntilyouneedthembyrepeatingthem,relatingthemtothingsyouknowwell,orusingothermemorytechniques.
Whyobservationandanticipation
areessentialforbetterdrivingTheabilitytoprocesscomplexinformationwillgiveyoumoretimetoanticipatehazardsaccuratelywhenunderpressure.Animportantgoalofpolicedrivertrainingistodevelopsophisticatedanticipationskills.
Anticipationistheabilitytoidentifyhazardsattheearliestpossibleopportunity.
Whatisahazard?Ahazardisanythingwhichisanactualorpotentialdanger.It’susefultothinkintermsofthreetypesofhazard:
•physicalfeatures(e.g.junctions,bends,roadsurface)•thepositionormovementofotherroadusers(e.g.drivers,cyclists,
pedestrians)
•weatherconditions(e.g.icyroad,poorvisibility).
Ahazardcanbeimmediateandobvious,suchasacarapproachingyouonthewrongsideoftheroad.Oritmightbesomethinglessobviousbutjustasdangerous–forexample,ablindbendcouldconcealanobstacleinyourpath.Failingtorecognisehazardoussituationsisamajorcauseofcollisions.
Observationisakeycomponentofanticipation.Carefulobservationallowsyoutospothazardsandgiveyourselfextratimetothink,anticipateandreact.Youcanthendealwithunfoldinghazardsbeforetheydevelopintodangeroussituations.
Sightisthemostimportantsenseforobservationwhendriving.Butalsomakefulluseofyourothersenses,suchas:
Goodanticipationinvolvesmorethanjustgoodobservation.Itmeans‘readingtheroad’andextractingthefullestmeaningfromyourobservations.
PlanningSaferdrivingdependsonsystematicallyusingtheinformationyougatherfromobservationtoplanyourdrivingactions:
•anticipatehazards•prioritise•decidewhattodo.
Generallythingsdon’tjusthappen.Thereisusuallyenoughtimetoanticipatehowahazardmightunfold.Goodplanningdependsonearlyobservationandearlyanticipationofrisk.
Thepurposeoftheplanistoputyou:
•inthecorrectposition
•atthecorrectspeed•withthecorrectgearengaged•atthecorrecttime
tonegotiatehazardssafelyandefficiently.
Assoonasconditionschange,anewdrivingplanisrequired;soeffectiveplanningisacontinualprocessofformingandre-formingplans.
Thediagramshowshowthekeystagesofplanningencourageyoutointerpretandactonyourobservations.
Anticipatehazards
Youcandevelopyourabilitytoanticipatehazardsthroughspecifictraininginhazardperception.Butyoucanalsolearntoanticipatethroughexperience,ifyouhonestlyassessyourownperformanceandthatofotherroaduserseachtimeyoudrive.
Young,inexperienceddriverstendtoreactveryquicklytosimplehazardsbutreactmoreslowlytocomplextraffichazards.Thisisbecausetheylackexperienceofthekindsofhazardouseventsthatcanleadtoacollision.Asthey’renotawareoftherisks,theyfailtoanticipatethem.Traineddriversspottheearlysignsofpossibletroubleandanticipatewhatmighthappen,sotheyreactearlyandappropriately.Theyareconstantlymonitoringrisksatasubconsciouslevelsothatthey’rereadytorespondquicklyifthesituationdevelops.
Observationandanticipationreinforceeachother.Onafamiliarroute,forexample,youmayknowfromexperiencewheretherearelikelytobehazards,evenifyourviewoftheroadisblockedbyvehicles.Anticipatinghazardsmeansthatyousearchtheroadforvisualclues.Fromthiscarefulobservation,yougathernewvisualcluesthatincreaseyourabilitytoanticipate.
Youcandevelopyourcompetenceatanticipatingtheactionsofotherdriversbycarefullyobservingtheirprogressandbehaviour,andtheirhead,handandeyemovements.Evencarefuldriverscanmakemistakes,solearningtoanticipateotherroadusers’intentionscangiveyouandthemanextrasafetymargin.
Anticipatinghazardsgivesyouextratime.Themoretimeyouhavetoreacttoahazard,themorelikelyitisthatyoucandealwithitsafely.
Onyournextjourney,giveyourselfarunningcommentaryasyoudrive:describewhathazardsyoucanobserveandhowyouplantodealwiththem.
Remembertoobserveotherdriversaswellastheirvehicles.
Askyourself‘Whatif…?’whenyouobserveahazard.Forexample:
‘Whatifthatdriverwaitingatthejunctionpulledoutwithoutlooking?’
‘Whatifthere’saparkedvehiclejustroundthisbend?’
Withpracticeyoushouldfindthatyouobservemorehazards,earlierandinmoredetail,andgainmoretimetoreact.
PrioritisehazardsWheretherearemultiplehazards,dealwiththeminorderofimportance.Thelevelofdangerassociatedwithparticularhazardsvarieswith:
•thehazarditself•howcloseitistoyou•roadlayout•whetherthehazardisstationaryormoving•howfastyouareapproachingit.
Thegreaterthedanger,thehigherthepriority,butbereadytore-adjustyourprioritiesasthesituationdevelops.
Practiseapplyingthethreestagesofplanningduringeveryjourneyuntilyoudoitautomatically,evenwhenyou’redrivingunderpressure.
DecidewhattodoThepurposeofyourplanistodecideonandadoptacourseofactionthatensuresthesafetyofyourselfandotherroadusersatalltimes,takingaccountof:
•whatyoucansee•whatyoucan’tsee•whatyoumightreasonablyexpecttohappen•whichhazardsrepresentthegreatestrisk•whattodoifthingsturnoutdifferentlyfromexpected(contingency
plans).
Ifyouplanyourdrivingyoushouldbeabletomakedecisionsinamethodicalwayatanypointandwithouthesitation.
Whileyouaredrivingyoushouldbecontinuouslyanticipating,prioritisinghazardsanddecidingwhattodo.Atfirstyoumightfinditdifficulttoconsciouslyworkthroughthesethreestagesallthetime,
butwithpracticethiswillbecomesecondnatureandproveaquickandreliableguidetoaction.
ImprovingyourobservationObservationandanticipationdependbothonvisualskills–howyouuseyoureyestoobservetheenvironment–andonmentalskillssuchasconcentrationandinformationprocessing.Thesevitalskillsareinterlinked.
ScanningtheenvironmentOurabilitytohandleinformationabouttheenvironmentislimitedsowetendtocopewiththisbyconcentratingononepartofitatatime.Butdriverswhorapidlyscanthewholeenvironmentlookingfordifferentkindsofhazardshaveamuchlowerriskofaccidentthandriverswhoconcentrateononearea.
Imagineyourfieldofviewasapicture–youcanseethewholepicturebutyoucanonlyconcentrateononepartofitatatime.Thisiswhyyouneedtodevelopthehabitofscanningrepeatedlyandregularly.
Learntouseyoureyesinascanningmotionthatsweepsthewholeenvironment–thefardistance,themiddledistance,theforeground,thesidesandrear–tobuildupapictureofwhatishappeningallaroundyou,asfarasyoucansee,ineverydirection.
Scanningisacontinuousprocess.Whenanewviewopensoutinfrontofyou,quicklyscanthenewscene.Byscanningthewholeoftheenvironment,you’llknowwheretheareasofriskare.Checkandre-checktheseriskareasinyourvisualsweeps.Avoidfixingonparticularriskareasbecausethisstopsyouplacingtheminthebroadercontext.Useallyourmirrors,andconsiderashouldercheckwhenit’snotsafetorelyonyourmirrorsalone–forexample,tocheckanyblindspotwhenreversing,movingofffromthekerb,
joiningamotorwayorleavingaroundabout.
LookingbutnotseeingWhatweseelargelydependsonwhatweexpecttosee.Haveyoueverhadanearmissbecauseyoulookedbutfailedtoseeacyclistormotorbike?WesawinChapter1thatmistakesofthistypearecommonbecausedriverstendtoseelargerobjectssuchascarsorlorriesbutcanmissroaduserssuchascyclistsormotorcyclists.Therearetworeasonsforthis:
•Whenweconcentratewedon’tjustlookataparticularpartofascene,welookforparticulartypesofobjectsinthatscene.Wemoreeasilydetectandreacttoobjectsthatweexpecttosee.
•Furtheraway,acycleormotorbikeisasmallpointinouroverallfieldofvision.Itremainsarelativelysmallobjectuntilitgetsquiteclose.Ifyoudon’tspotthedistantobject,itcanappeartoloomsuddenlyoutofnowhere.
Don’trelaxyourconcentrationwhendrivinginfamiliarsituationsoryoumaynotseetheunexpectedhazard.Giveasmuchattentiontoobservationandanticipationonroutesyouuseeverydayasonjourneysyouaremakingforthefirsttime.Andtakeextracarewhen
manoeuvringinfamiliarplacesatlowspeeds,suchasparkingupyourvehicleattheendofashift.SeealsoChapter6,Manoeuvringatlowspeeds.
PeripheralvisionPeripheralvisionistheareaofeyesightsurroundingthecentralareaofsharplydefinedvision.Theeye’sreceptorsinthisareaaredifferentfromthecentralreceptorsandareparticularlygoodatsensingmovement.Peripheralvision:
•givesyouyoursensebothofspeedandyourpositionontheroad•registersthemovementofotherroadusers•actsasacueforcentralvision,warningofareastoexaminemore
closely.
Learntoreacttoyourperipheralvisionaswellasyourcentralvision.
ZonesofvisibilityTheroadaroundyouismadeupofdifferentzonesofvisibility.Insomeareasyouwillhaveagoodviewandinothersyouwillonlybeabletoseewhatisdirectlyinfrontofyou.
YourchoiceofspeedSpeedaffectsyourperceptionandjudgement,soyourchoiceofspeedhasamajorimpactonyourabilitytoanticipatehazards.
Adjustyourspeedtohowwellyoucansee,thecomplexityofthesituationandthedistanceitwilltakeyoutostop.
At70mphyouwouldtypicallyneedtoallowasafestoppingdistanceofabout100metres.Thisisthedistancebetweenmotorwaymarkerposts.
Howspeedaffectsobservationandanticipation
Thefasteryougo,thefurtheraheadyouneedtolook.Thisisbecauseasyoudrivefaster,thenearestpointatwhichyoucanaccuratelyfocusmovesawayfromyou.Foregrounddetailbecomesblurredandobservationbecomesmoredifficultbecauseyouhavetoprocessalotmoreinformationinlesstime.Theonlywaytocopewiththisistoscanfurtherahead,beyondthepointwhereyoureyesnaturallycometorest,togiveyourselfmoretimetoassess,planandreact.
Athigherspeeds,youwilltravelfurtherbeforeyoucanreacttowhatyouhaveseenandyouneedtobuildthisintoyoursafestoppingdistance.
Rememberthesafestoppingdistancerule:
Alwaysdrivesoyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.
•Drivingathigherspeedrequiresahighlevelofattentionandjudgement,whichyoucan’tsustainifyouaretired.Planregularrestperiodstohelpyoutostayalertandgetsomefreshair.Restforlongerwhentired.Seebelow,page64,Practicalstepstocombattiredness.
•Yourabilitytotakeinforegrounddetaildecreaseswithspeedandincreasesasyouslowdown.Inareasofhightrafficdensitysuchastowncentres,youmustslowdownsothatyouareabletotakeinasmuchforegroundinformationaspossible.
•Statutoryspeedlimitssetthemaximumpermissiblespeed,butthis
isnotthesamethingasasafespeed.Thesafespeedforaparticularstretchofroaddependsontheconditionsatthetime.Itisyourresponsibilitytoselectaspeedappropriatefortheconditionssothatyoumaximiseyourabilitytoobserveandanticipatehazards.
Knowyourlimitsandkeepwithinthespeedatwhichyoufeelsafeandcomfortable–resistthepressuresthatmightencourageyoutodrivefaster.
Speedandsafety
AcentralaimofRoadcraftistoequipyouwiththeattitudeandpracticalabilitiestousespeedsafely.Forthis,youneedtounderstandhowspeedaffectsyourperceptionandjudgementandtoalwaysstaywithinthelimitsofyourcompetence.
Accurateassessmentofyourowndrivingcompetenceisessential.If
youdon’tchooseasafespeedforthecircumstances,youwon’thaveenoughtimetoanticipatehazards.Driverswhodrivefastregardlessofthecircumstanceshaveacollisionriskthreetofivetimesgreaterthandriverswhodon’t.
Yoursafetyandthatofotherroadusersdependsonyourabilitytoaccuratelyassesswhatisasafespeed.Thisdependson:
•yourdrivingcapability•yourawarenessofhumanfactors,suchastiredness,stressorpeer
pressure,whichmayaffectyourcapabilityonanygivenjourney
•yourvehicle’scapabilities•theroadandweatherconditions.
At30mphaminormisjudgementmightbecorrectedbutat70mphthesamemistakecouldbedisastrous.
Underestimatingspeed
Welookedatsomecommonerrorsofperceptionearlierinthischapter.Itiseasytounderestimatethespeedatwhichyouaredriving.Thisisbecauseyourperceptionofspeeddependsonseveralfactors:
•thedifferenceindetailperceivedbyyourforwardandsidevision•engine,roadandwindnoise•theevennessoftheride•yourideaof‘normal’speed•theroad–itswidthandwhetheritisenclosedoropen
•yourheightofftheground.
Underestimatingyourspeedmeansyouwillhavelesstimetoobserveandanticipatehazards.Yourspeedperceptioncanbedistortedinmanysituations:
•Whenyoucomeoffamotorwayorotherfastroadontoaroadwherespeedsbelow30or40mphareappropriate,youwillfeelasifyouaretravellingmuchmoreslowlythanyoureallyare.Allowtimefornormalspeedperceptiontoreturn.
•Lowvisibilitycandistortyourperceptionofspeed,forexampleinfog,sleet,heavyrainanddarkness,soyoufindyourselfdrivingfasterthanyourealise.
•Ifyoudriveavehiclethatissmoother,quieterormorepowerfulthanyourusualvehicle,youmaynotrealisehowfastyou’retravellingbecauseyouuseroadnoise,enginenoiseandvibration,aswellassightandbalance,toassessyourspeed.
•Onwideopenroads,speedswillseemslowerthanonnarroworwindingroads.
Alwayskeepacheckonyourspeedometer.Takeparticularcarewhenyouleaveamotorwayorfastroad,especiallyatroundabouts.
Assessyourselfhonestly–doyoualwayskeeptothesafestoppingdistanceruleathigherspeeds?Thenexttimeyoumakeajourneyinvolvinghigherspeeds,monitorwhetheryoucanalwaysstopwithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.
KeepyourdistanceThecloseryouaretothevehicleinfrontthelessyouwillbeabletoseebeyondit,especiallyifit’savanorlorry.Inslow-movingtraffic,
it’sbettertodropbackslightlysothatyoucanseewhatishappeningtwoorthreevehiclesinfront.
Youparticularlyneedagoodviewoftheroadaheadonmotorwaysandotherfast-movingroads.Yourviewwilldependonthecurvatureandgradientofthecarriageway,thelanethatyouarein,thesizeandpositionofothervehiclesandtheheightofyourownvehicle.Allowingforthese,keepbackfarenoughfromthevehicleinfronttomaintainasafefollowingdistance.Don’tsitintheblindspotofothervehicles.
Haveyoueverhadanearmissorcollisionfromdrivingtooclose?•onafast-movingroad?•inslow-movingtraffic?
Howdidyoureacttothisexperience?Diditchangethewayyoudrive?
Alwayscheckthatnooneissittinginyourblindspotbeforeyouchangelanes.Makesureyouknowwheretheoffsideandnearsideblindspotsareonanyvehiclethatyoudrive.Ifyou’renotsure,getacolleaguetohelpyouworkthisoutbeforeyoumakeajourney.SeeChapter12,Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways.
HumanfactorsthataffectobservationandanticipationSafedrivingisaboutmorethanhandlingyourvehicleandtheimmediatetrafficsituation.WelookedathumanfactorsthatcanaffectpolicedriversinChapter1.
Herewelookatfactorsthatcanaffectalertness,observationandanticipation.
Asyourabilitytoanticipatehazardsincreases,yourdrivingbecomessmootherandyourfuelconsumptiongoesdown.
AlertnessToanticipatehazardsweneedtoremainalert–readytoidentifyandrespondtoconstantlychangingdrivingconditions.Alertnessdeterminestheamountofinformationyourbraincanprocess.Itdependsonmanythingsbuttendstodecreasewithtimespentonroutinetasks.Mostdrivingisroutineandplacesfewdemandsonourabilities.Alowlevelofstimulationmakesiteasytoloseconcentration,soyouneedtotakeactivestepstostayalert,especiallyonlongjourneysonmotorwaysorruralroads.
TirednessAlertnessisreducedifyoudriveattimeswhenyouwouldnormallybeasleep,orifyouhaven’thadenoughsleep,oryoursleephasbeendisturbed.Italsovarieswiththetimeofday:
•ourreactionstendtobeslightlyslowerinthemorningthanintheearlyevening
•thereisadipinalertnessafterthemiddaymeal•thegreatestriskoftiredness-relatedcollisionsisbetweenthehours
of11.00pmand6.00am.
Theriskoftirednessalsoincreaseswith:
•Irregularworkandshiftpatterns,whichdisruptthebody’sbiorhythmsor‘biologicalclock’.Thisequipsyourbodytoperformmosttasksbyday.Atnight,manybrainfunctionsarenormallydampeddowntoallowrecuperationandrenewalofthebody’sreserves.
•Disturbedsleeppatterns,whichcanreducethebrain’sabilitytoprocessinformationduringcomplexdrivingtasks.
•Thetotaltimespentatworkandnotjustthetimespentatthewheel.Ifyouaretiredfromotherdutiesbeforeyoustartajourney,you’remuchmoreatriskfromtirednessduringthejourney.Tirednessisaparticularproblemforemergencyservicesandotherprofessionaldriversbecausethedemandsofthejobmaymeanthattheyhavetodriveatthemarginsoftheirsafetylimit.
•Drivingforlongperiodsoftimeinmonotonousconditionssuchas:›inlow-densitytraffic›infog›atnight›onamotorway.
•Drivingforlongerthanaboutfourhours,whatevertheconditions.Fallingasleepatthewheelisthelikelycauseofupto1in5crashesonmajorroadsandmotorways.
Practicalstepstocombattiredness
Thedemandsofthejobandshiftworkmeanthatpolicedrivershavetolearntodealwithtiredness.Watchoutforthewarningsignssuchasblinking,yawningorlossofconcentrationandtakestepstomanagetirednesswellbeforeitbecomedangerous.
•Adjustyourseatsothatyourdrivingpositioniscomfortable.Badposturecausesmusculartiredness,whichinturncausesmentaltiredness.Thiscanbeaproblemduringemergencydrivingwhensomedriversbecomephysicallytense.Ifyoucan,trytorelaxyourpostureduringemergencydriving.
•Makesurethatyouhaveenoughventilationtostayalert.Usetheairconditioningifithelps.
•Takeregularbreaks–onceeverytwohoursisrecommended.Don’t
waituntilyoufeeldrowsy.Mostpeopleneedarestbreakofatleast15minutestorestorealertness.
•Haveacaffeinedrink(e.g.twocupsofcoffeeoranenergydrink).Caffeineneeds15minutestotakeeffectandwearsoffovertime.Ifyouhaveseveralcaffeinedrinksoveralongperiod,beawareeachdoseofcaffeinewillhavelesseffect.
•Onlongjourneysplanaseriesofrestbreaks,butrecognisethateachsuccessivebreakwillgivelessrecoverythantheonebefore.
•Physicalexercisehelpsyourecoverfromfatigue–abrisk10minutewalkcanenergiseyou.
Ifyouknowyouaretired,allowyourselfagreatersafetymargin–slowdownandbeawareyouneedmoretimetoreact.
Driversover45aremoreatriskofandrecoverlessquicklyfromtirednessthanyoungerdrivers.Ifyouregularlystartyourshiftfeelingtired,orsufferfromdisturbedsleep,thinkabouthowtomanagetheseproblemsastheywillaffectyourdriving.
OtherphysiologicalfactorsOtherthingsthatmayaffectyourconcentrationandreactiontimesare:
•minorillness(colds,viralinfections,hayfever,post-viralstates)•medication(especiallythosecausingdrowsiness)•residualbloodalcohol•lowbloodsugararisingfromhunger•cyclicalmoodswingscausedbyhormonechanges(thisappliesto
menaswellaswomen)
•lifestresssuchasbereavement.
Beawarethatanyofthesearelikelytoaffectyourconcentrationandalertness.Takeaccountofthem,slowdownandallowyourselfagreatersafetymargin.
AnticipatinghazardsThinkaboutthelasttimeyoumisjudgedahazard.Didthishappenbecauseyoufailedtoobservethehazard?Ordidyouseethepotentialhazardbutfailtoanticipatewhatwouldhappennext?
Didanyhumanfactorsaffectyourabilitytoobserveandanticipate?Forexample,tiredness,timepressure,lapseofconcentration?
Whatcanyoulearnfromthesituationtoimproveyouranticipationofhazardsinfuture?
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainhowyourbrainprocessesinformationandhowyoucanimproveyourabilitytoprocesscomplexinformationwhendriving
• explainthethreemaintypesofhazardyouwillmeetontheroad
• showhowtousetheinformationyougatherfromobservationtoplanyourdrivingactions
• showimprovedobservationandanticipationskills
• explainhumanandphysiologicalfactorsthatcanaffectobservationandanticipation,andshowhowyoumanagethese.
Chapter4Anticipatinghazardsinthedrivingenvironment
LearningoutcomesThelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•demonstrateawarenessofhazardsthatyoumaymeetatnight,inpoorweatherconditionsandontheroadsurface
•takeappropriatestepstoreduceoravoidpotentialdangersfromthesehazards
•showthatyoumakefulluseofroadsignsandmarkings,yourownlocalroadknowledgeandobservationlinkstoanticipatehazards.
NightdrivingItishardertoseeinanythinglessthanfulldaylightandsoyourvisiongivesyoulessinformation.Thissectiongivesadviceonwhatyoucandotomakethebestofwhatyoucanseeatnight.
YouAsthelightfades,thereislesscontrast,coloursfadeandedgesbecomeindistinct.Yourbodynaturallywantstoslowdownasnightdrawsonandyouaremorelikelytogrowtired.
Nightdrivingputsextrastrainonyoureyes.Evenaslighteyesightirregularitycancausestressandtiredness.Ifyoufindyouareunexpectedlytiredfromdriving,especiallyatnight,getyoureyestestedassoonaspossible.
YourvehicleMakesurethatallwindows,mirrors,andthelensesoflightsandindicatorsarecleantogiveyourselfthebestpossiblevisibility.Theslightestfilmofmoisture,greaseordirtonwindowsormirrorswillbreakuplightandincreaseglare,makingithardertoseewhatisgoingon.Checkyourlightsarecorrectlyalignedandadjustedforthevehicleload.Thebulbsshouldallworkandtheswitchingequipmentshouldfunctionproperly.Areyourwindscreenwashers,wipersanddemistersallworkingproperly?SeeAppendix,Isyourvehiclefittodrive?,page255.
YourlightsOnunlitroadsputyourheadlightsonmainbeamandonlydipthemforotherroadusers.
Usedippedheadlights:
•inbuilt-upareaswithstreetlights•insituationswhendippedheadlightsaremoreeffectivethanthe
mainbeam–forexample,whengoingroundaleft-handbendor
atahumpbridge
•inheavyrain,snowandfogwhenthesereflectglarefromyourheadlightsonfullbeam.
Dipyourheadlightstoavoiddazzlingoncomingdrivers,thedriverinfrontorotherroadusers.Whenyouovertakeanothervehicle,returntofullbeamwhenyouareparallelwithit.
Onlyusefoglightswhenvisibilityis100metresorless.
Alwaysdrivesothatyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.Atnightthisisthearealitbyyourheadlightsunlessthereisfullstreetlighting.Eveninthebestconditionsyourabilitytoassessthespeedandpositionofoncomingvehiclesisreducedatnight,soallowanextrasafetymargin.
Ifyouusesatnavatnight,movetheequipmenttoapositionwhereitdoesn’tobstructyourvisioninthedark,anditsscreendoesn’tdazzleyou.Experimentwithdifferentmodesandfindawayofusingitthatcausesyouleastdistractionindarkness.
FollowingothervehiclesatnightWhenyoufollowanothervehicle,dipyourheadlightsandleavealongenoughgapsothatyourlightsdon’tdazzlethedriverinfront.Whenyouovertake,moveoutearlywithyourheadlightsstilldipped.Ifyouneedtowarntheotherdriverthatyou’rethere,flashyourlightsinsteadofusingthehorn.Returntofullbeamwhenyou’realongsidetheothervehicle.Ifyouareovertaken,dipyourheadlightswhentheovertakingvehicledrawsalongsideyouandkeepthemdippeduntilyoucanraisethemwithoutdazzlingtheotherdriver.
Informationfromothervehicles’lights
Youcangetagreatdealofusefulinformationfromthefrontandrearlightsofothervehicles;forexample,thesweepoftheheadlightsofvehiclesaheadapproachingabendcanindicatethesharpnessofthebend,andthebrakelightsofvehiclesinfrontcangiveyouanearlywarningtoreducespeed.
DazzleHeadlightsshiningdirectlyintoyoureyesmaydazzleyou.Thiscanhappenonsharpright-handbendsandsteepinclines,andwhenthelightsofoncomingvehiclesareundippedorbadlyadjusted.Theintensityofthelightbleachestheretinasofyoureyessothatyoucanseenothingforsomemoments.
Toavoiddazzle,looktowardsthenearsideedgeoftheroad.Thisenablesyoutokeepyourroadpositionbutdoesn’ttellyouwhatishappeningintheroadahead,soreduceyourspeed.Ifyouaredazzled,slowdownorstopifnecessaryuntilyoucanseeproperlyagain.
ReflectivestudsandmarkingsReflectivestudsandmarkingsareagoodsourceofinformationabout
roadlayoutatnight.TogetthemostoutofthemyouneedtobefamiliarwiththeHighwayCode.Roadsidemarkerpostsreflectyourheadlightsandshowyouthedirectionofacurvebeforeyoucanseewheretheactualroadgoes.
Cat’seyesCat’seyesindicatethetypeofwhitelinealongthecentreoftheroad.Generallythemorewhitepaintintheline,thegreaterthenumberofcat’seyes.Theyareparticularlyhelpfulwhenit’srainingatnightandtheglareofheadlightsmakesitdifficulttosee.
Otherwaystoimproveobservationatnight
•Keepyourspeeddownwhenyouleavebrightlylitareastoallowtimeforyoureyestoadjusttothelowerleveloflighting.
•Anylightinsidethevehiclewhichreflectsoffthewindowswilldistractyouandreduceyourabilitytosee.Interiorlights,torchesandsatnavscreenscancausereflections,solimittheiruse.
•Someglasseswithtintedorphotochromaticlensesmaybeunsuitablefornightdriving,socheckwithyouroptician.
Whenyoudriveatnight,thinkabouthowtoadaptyourdrivingtotakeaccountofthesefactors:
•Yourphysiologicalandmentalresponsestonight-timeconditions.Foreachjourneyaskyourselfwhetheryou’refullyphysicallyandmentallyalertfornight-timedriving.
•Theconditionofyourvehicle.Isitproperlyequippedandpreparedfornightdriving?
•Informationintheenvironment.Howdoyouadaptyourobservationandanticipationwhenyoumakeajourneyindarkness?
WeatherconditionsBadweatherisoftenblamedforcausingcollisionswhentherealcauseisinappropriatedriving.Carefulobservation,goodanticipation,thecorrectspeedandadequatebrakingdistancesarecrucialforsafedrivingindifficultweatherconditions.
Inextremeweatherconditions,askyourself:‘Ismyjourneyreallynecessary?’
Theweatheraffectshowfaryoucansee,andyourvehicle’sroadholding,soitiscentraltoyourobservation,anticipationanddrivingplan.Whenweatherconditionsreducevisibility,reduceyourspeedandregularlycheckyouractualspeedonthespeedometer.Youshouldalwaysbeabletostopwithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclear.Ifitisfoggy,followtheHighwayCodeadviceondrivinginfog.
Examplesofweatherconditionswhichreducevisibilityare:
•fogandmist
•heavyrain•snowandsleet•brightsunshine,especiallywhenitislowinthesky.Formoreondealingwiththeseweatherconditions,seeChapter12,Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways,page224.
UsinglightsinbadweatherChooseyourlightsaccordingtothecircumstances.
•Switchonyourdippedheadlightswhenvisibilityispoorindaylightorfadinglight.Usedippedheadlightsinfogorheavyrainindaylight,becausesidelightsarevirtuallyinvisible.
•Asageneralrule,useyourdippedheadlightswheneveryourwipersareinconstantuse.
•Whenthereisfogorfallingsnowatnight,foglightsoftengiveabetterviewthandippedheadlights.Usethemasanalternativetoortogetherwithdippedheadlightsifvisibilityis100metresorless.
•Switchoffyourfoglightswhenyouleavethefogsoyoudon’tdazzleotherdrivers.
•Don’tuseyourmainheadlightbeamwhenyouarebehindanothervehicleinfog–itmaydazzlethedriver,andwillcastashadowofthevehicleonthefogahead,disruptingthedriver’sview.
•Thebrightnessofrearfoglightscanmaskthebrakelights–allowmoredistancebetweenyouandthecarinfrontandaimtobrakegentlyyourself.
Usingauxiliarycontrolsand
instrumentsinbadweatherMakefulluseofyourwashersandwiperstokeepyourwindscreenandrearwindowasclearaspossible.Whenthereisapossibilityoffreezingfog,putfreeze-resistantscreenwashinthescreenwashreservoir.Infog,rainorsnow,regularlycheckyourspeedometerforyouractualspeed.Lowvisibilitydistortsyourperceptionofspeedsoyoucan’trelyonyoureyestojudgespeedaccurately.
ObservingwhenvisibilityislowWhenvisibilityislow,keeptoaslowsteadypaceandusetheedgeofthecarriageway,hazardlinesandcat’seyesasaguide,especiallywhenapproachingaroadjunctionorcorner.Staringintofeaturelessmisttirestheeyesveryquickly.Focusinsteadonwhatyoucansee:thevehicleinfront,theedgeoftheroadortheroadahead.Butavoidfixingyourfocusonthetaillightsofthevehicleinfrontbecausetheywilltendtodrawyoutowardsitandyoucouldcollideifthevehiclestoppedsuddenly.Bereadytouseyourhorntotellotherroadusersyouarethere.
Alwaysbepreparedforasuddenstopinthetrafficahead.Don’tfollowclosely,andonlyovertakeothertrafficwhenyoucanseethatitisabsolutelysafetodoso.Thisisseldompossibleinfogonatwo-wayroad.Atjunctionswhenvisibilityislow,winddownyourwindowandlistenforothervehicles,andconsiderusingyourhorn.
MicroclimatesLookoutforevidenceofmicroclimates.Thesecancausefrostandwetpatchestolingerinsomeareasaftertheyhavedisappearedelsewhere.Icecanlingerinlandscapefeaturessuchasvalleybottoms,shadedhillsidesandshadedslopes,orlargeareasofshadow
castbytreesorbuildings,andresultinsuddenlossoftraction.Bridgesurfacesareoftencolderthanthesurroundingroadsbecausetheyareexposedonallsides,andcanbeicywhentheirapproachroadsarenot.Patchyfogisparticularlydangerousandisacommoncauseofmultiplecollisions.
Roadsurface
Haveyoueverfailedtospotaproblemontheroadsurfacethataffectedyourtyregriporvehiclehandling?
Thetypeandconditionoftheroadsurfaceaffectstyregripandvehiclehandlingcharacteristics.Drivingcontroldependsontyregripforsteering,accelerationandbraking.Eventhebesttyresonahighperformancevehiclecanlosetractiononapoorroadsurface.Mostdriversdon’tpayenoughattentiontothis.
Alwayslookwellaheadtoidentifychangesintheroadsurface,andadjustthestrengthofyourbraking,accelerationandsteeringtoretainadequateroadholding.
Alwaysobservethecamberoftheroadonacurveorbend.SeeChapter10,Cornering,page170,Camberandsuperelevation.
Thesurfacesofmostroadsaregoodforroadholdingwhentheyarecleananddry.Snow,frost,ice,rain,oil,moistmuddypatches,wetleaves,dryloosedustorgravelcancausetyrestolosegrip,makingskidsmorelikely.Rainmayproduceaslipperyroadsurface,especiallyafteralongdryspell.Athazardssuchasroundaboutsorjunctions,tyredepositsanddieselspillagemaymakethesurfaceslipperyatexactlythepointwhereeffectivesteering,brakingandaccelerationareneededtonegotiatethehazardsafely.
RoadsurfaceirregularitiesLookoutforirregularitiessuchaspotholes,projectingmanholecovers,sunkengulliesandbitsofdebris,whichcandamagethetyresandsuspension.Ifyoucanalteryourroadpositioninplentyoftimetoavoidthemwithoutendangeringothertraffic,doso;ifnot,slowdowntoreduceshockandmaintainstabilityasyoupassoverthem.
TheroadsurfaceinwinterInwinter,theiceorfrostcoveringonroadsurfacesisnotalwaysuniform.Isolatedpatchesremainicedupwhenotherpartshavethawedout,andcertainslopesareespeciallysusceptibletothis.Beonthelookoutforiceorfrostpatches,whichyoucandetectbytheirappearance,bythebehaviourofothervehiclesandbythesudden
absenceoftyrenoise:tyrestravellingonicemakevirtuallynonoise.Adjustyourdrivingearlytoavoidskidding.SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability.
Surfacingmaterials
Gripcharacteristics
Problems
Tarmacorasphalt
Tarmacorasphaltsurfacesgiveagoodgripwhentheyaredressedwithstonesorchips.
Intime,theybecomepolishedandlosesomeoftheirskid-resistantproperties.
Anti-skidsurface High-gripanti-skidsurfacesaredesignedtogiveextragripontheapproachtofixedhazardssuchasroundabouts,trafficlightsandzebracrossings.
Whennewlylaid,loosegravelonsurfacecanreducegrip;patchescanbecomepolishedovertime.
ConcreteConcreteroadsurfacesoftenhaveroughenedribs,whichgiveagoodskid-resistantsurface.
Someholdwater,whichfreezesincoldweatherandcreatesaslipperysurfacewhichisnoteasilyseen.
CobblesBrickpavingorpaversonroadsin
Lowgripwhenwet. Rainincreasesthelikelihoodofskidding.
homezonesRoadpaint
Metalhazardsontheroadsurfacesuchastramlines,temporarymetalsheeting,inspectioncovers
Poorgripwhendustyorwet.
Rainincreasesthelikelihoodofskidding.
DrivingthroughwaterDrivingatspeedthroughwatercansharplydeflectthefrontwheelsandcauseyoutolosecontrol.SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability,Aquaplaning,page141.
Takeextracareatnight,whenitisdifficulttodistinguishbetweenawetroadsurfaceandfloodwater.Floodwatercangatherquicklywheretheroaddipsandatthesidesoftheroadinpoorlydrainedlowlyingareas.Dipsoftenoccurunderbridges.
Slowdownasyouapproachafloodedarea.Avoiddrivingthroughwaterwhereverpossible.Whenyouhavetodrivethroughwater,drivethroughtheshallowestpartbutlookoutforhiddenobstaclesorsubsidence.
Iftheroadisentirelysubmerged,stopthevehicleinasafeplaceand
cautiouslyfindouthowdeepthewateris.Thedepthofwaterthatyoucansafelydrivethroughdependsonhowhighyourvehiclestandsoffthegroundandwheretheelectricalcomponents,engine,airintakeandexhaustpipearepositioned.Forexample,submergingahotcatalyticconvertercouldcausedamage.
Refertothemanufacturer’shandbookforspecificadviceforyourvehicle.
Ifyoudecidetodriveon,followthestepsbelow:
•Inavehiclewithamanualgearbox–engagefirstgearandkeeptheenginerunningatjustaboveidlespeed(justenoughtopreventstalling).Inoldervehicles,drivingathigherrevscouldpreventwaterbeingdrawnintotheexhaustsystem.Inmanynewervehicles,theairintakeispositionedbelowthefrontbumpersoavoidhigherrevsasthiswouldcausewatertobesuckedintotheenginecausingexpensivedamage.
•Inavehiclewithautomatictransmission–refertothemanufacturer’shandbookforspecificadviceasthisvariesfromoneautomaticsystemtoanother.
•Drivethroughthewaterataslowevenspeed(aslowwalkingpace).•Gripthesteeringwheelmoretightlytomaintaindirectionasyou
drivethroughthewater.
•Whenyouleavethewater,continuedrivingslowlyandapplythefootbrakelightlyuntilthebrakesgrip.Repeatthisagainafterashortwhileuntilyou’reconfidentthatyourbrakesareworkingnormally.
Ifjustonewheelentersadeeppuddle(usuallythenearsidewheel),thatwheelwillslowrapidlycausingthevehicletoveerinthatdirection.Ifyoucan’tavoidthepuddle,preparebytighteningyourgriponthesteeringwheelandholdingitstraightuntilclear.
RoadsignsandmarkingsRoadsignsandmarkingswarnofapproachinghazardsandgiveinstructionsandinformationaboutroaduse.Useyourobservationskillstoreadtheroadandlinkthesignstothehazardsahead,especiallyatnight.
Makethebestpossibleuseofroadsignsandmarkings:
•Observe–activelysearchforroadsignsandmarkingsinyourobservationscans,andincorporatetheinformationtheygiveyouintoyourdrivingplanassoonaspossible.Manydriversfailtoseeandmakeuseofthem,andsolosevaluableinformation.
•Understand–beabletorecognisethemimmediately.YoushouldbefamiliarwiththecurrenteditionsoftheHighwayCodeandKnowyourTrafficSigns.
•React–reacttoasignormarkingbylookingaheadtowhatitreferstoandbuildingtheinformationintoyourdrivingplan.Wherethesignormarkingreferstoanunseenhazard,anticipatethehazard
andadaptyourplanaccordingly.
Unofficialroadsignssuchas‘MudonRoad’,‘CarBootSale’and‘ConcealedEntrance’canalsohelpyouanticipatetheroadconditionsahead.
WhenwasthelasttimeyoulookedatroadsignsinthemostrecentversionoftheHighwayCode?
Onyournextfewjourneys,checkwhetheryouknowthemeaningofeachsignorroadmarkingyoumeetandmatchthemtotheroadlayoutahead.
LocalroadknowledgeIncreasingyourlocalknowledgeoftheroadscanhelpyourdriving,butnevertakefamiliarroadsforgranted.Lossofattentionisamajorcauseofcollisionsanddriversareleastattentiveonroadstheyknowwell.
2outof3crasheshappenonroadsthatdriversarefamiliarwith.
Towndrivingputsheavydemandsonyourobservation,reactionsanddrivingskills,andyouneedtobealertatalltimes.Atcomplicatedjunctions,whereitisimportanttogetintothecorrectlane,localknowledgeisuseful.Butevenwhenyouknowthelayoutofmainroadjunctions,one-waystreets,roundaboutsandotherlocalfeatures,alwaysplanonthebasisofwhatyoucanactuallysee–notwhatusuallyhappens.
MakingobservationlinksObservationlinksarecluestophysicalfeaturesandthelikelybehaviourofotherroadusers.Aimtobuildupyourownstockofobservationlinks,whichwillhelpyoutoanticipateroadandtrafficconditionsasyouscantheenvironment.
Belowaresomeexamplesofobservationlinks.
Observationlinks
SomemoreobservationlinksWhenyousee… Lookoutfor…
Arailwaylinebesideroad
Roadwillinvariablygooverorunderit,oftenwithsharpturns.
Arowofparkedvehicles
Doorsopening,vehiclesmovingoff.
Pedestrianssteppingoutfrombehindvehicles.
Smallchildrenhiddenfromview.
AbusatastopPedestrianscrossingtheroadtoandfromthebus.
Busmovingoff,possiblyatanangle.
CyclistsInexperiencedcyclistdoingsomethingerratic.
Cyclistlookingovershoulderwiththeintentionofturningright.
Strongwindscausingwobble.
Youngcyclistdoingsomethingdangerous.
Practiseusingobservationlinks.Whatwouldyoulookoutforifyouobserved:
•apedestriancallingacab•acouriervan•signsforahypermarketorsuperstore•amotorwaysliproad•signswarningofroadworksandcontraflowaheadonamotorway•arowofbusesinfrontofashoppingcentre•newhedgeclippingsorgrasscuttingsonanarrowcountryroad•alargeleisurecomplex?
Canyouthinkofarecentoccasionwhereyoufailedtospotthesignificanceofsomethingyouobserved?
Couldyouusethisexperiencetoimproveyouranticipationskills?
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyour
drivertrainingsothatyoucan:• demonstrateawarenessofhazardsthatyoumaymeetatnight,inpoorweatherconditionsandontheroadsurface
• takeappropriatestepstoreduceoravoidpotentialdangersfromthesehazards
• showthatyoumakefulluseofroadsignsandmarkings,yourownlocalroadknowledgeandobservationlinkstoanticipatehazards.
Chapter5Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering
LearningoutcomesThelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•explainhowacceleration,brakingandsteeringaffecttyregripandvehiclebalance
•showthatyoucancontrolyourvehicleaccuratelyinarangeofsituations
•showgoodaccelerationsense,usingtheacceleratoraccuratelyandsmoothly
•showhowtousegearsaccurately,selectingthecorrectgearinarangeofcircumstancesandfordifferentpurposes,invehicleswithmanualorautomaticgearboxes
•explainthesafestoppingdistance•showhowtousethebrakesandenginebrakingtoslowthevehicle
appropriatelyandsafelyindifferentcircumstances
•demonstrateamethodofsteeringformaximumsafetyandcontrol
•explainthemainfactorsthatreducefuelconsumption.
Developingcompetenceatcontrollingyourvehicle
Drivingsmoothlycanreducefuelconsumptionbyabout15%andreduceswearandtear.
Theaimofthischapteristogiveyoucompletecontrolovermoving,stoppingandchangingthedirectionofyourvehicleatalltimes.Toachievethislevelofcompetence,youneedto:
•accuratelyassessyourcurrentdrivingbehaviourandthescopeforimprovingyourvehiclecontrolskills
•understandindetailhowtheaccelerator,gears,brakesandsteeringcontrolsworkandhowtomakebestuseofthem.
Amovingvehicleismoststablewhenitsweightisevenlydistributed,itsengineisjustpullingwithoutincreasingroadspeed,anditistravellinginastraightline.
Controlofyourvehicleandyourownandothers’safetydependsonthegripbetweenyourtyresandtheroad.
Yourcontrolofthevehicleistotallydependentonthegripbetweenthetyresandtheroadsurface.Thepatchoftyreincontactwiththeroadonanaveragecarisaboutthesizeofahand.
Allnewtyreshavealabelwhichtellsyouaboutthetyre’swetgrip,fuelefficiencyandnoiseperformance.Checktyrepressuresregularlybecauseunder-inflatedtyrescanaffectstability.Lowtyrepressuresalsoincreaserollingresistanceandfuelconsumption.
Thetyregriptrade-offThereisalimitedamountoftyregripavailable.Thepatchoftyreincontactwiththeroadvarieswiththesizeofthevehicleandthewidthofthetyres.Onanaveragecarthecontactpatchisaboutthesamesizeasahand.Thisissharedbetweenaccelerating,brakingandsteeringforces.Ifmoretyregripisusedforbrakingoraccelerating,thereislessavailableforsteering,andviceversa.
Developyourawarenessoftyregrip
Analysewhatishappeningtoyourtyregripasyousteerroundacornerorbend.
Beawareofthetrade-offbetweenacceleratingorbrakingontheonehandandsteeringontheother.
Doyoufinishbrakingbeforeyougointoabend?
Doyouavoidacceleratingharshlywhiledrivingroundbends?
VehiclebalanceandtyregripTyregripisnotnecessarilythesameoneachwheel.Itvarieswiththesizeofthevehicleandtheloadonthewheel.Thisaffectshowthevehiclehandles.Braking,steeringandacceleratingalterthedistributionoftheloadbetweenthewheelsandsoaffectthevehicle’sbalance.
Braking,steeringandacceleratingalterthevehicle’sbalanceandtyregrip.
Brakingoracceleratingasyougoroundacornerleaveslesstyregripforsteering.Thisreducesyourcontroloverthepositioningofyourvehicle.Ifthereisn’tenoughtyregripforsteering,youmaylose
traction.Themoreslipperytheroadsurface,theearlierthishappens.Theexactoutcomedependsonthebalanceofthevehicle,whetherithasfront,rearorfourwheeldrive,andwhetheritisfittedwithsafetyfeaturessuchasanelectronicstabilityprogramme(ESP),tractioncontrolsystem(TCS)orananti-lockbrakingsystem(ABS).
TechnologytohelpkeepcontrolofthevehicleAllmodernvehiclesarenowfittedwithelectronicsafetyfeaturestohelpthedriverkeepcontrolofthevehiclewhenharshsteering,brakingoraccelerationmightresultinaskid.TheseincludeABS,TCSandESP.Thespecifictechnologyandhowitworksvariesfromonemanufacturertoanother.Thistechnologyisalsodevelopingfast,withincreasingsophistication.SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability,page137.
UsingtheacceleratorDepresstheaccelerator:
•toincreaseroadspeed•tomaintainroadspeed,forexamplewhencorneringorgoinguphill.
Releasetheaccelerator:
•toreduceenginespeedandslowthevehicledown.
Ifyouareinthecorrectgearforyourspeed,depressingtheacceleratorwillgiveyouaresponsiveincreaseinenginespeed.Ifyouareintoohighagear,theenginewillnotrespondbecausetheloadfromthewheelsistoogreat.Changingtoalowergearreduces
theloadandallowstheenginetospeedupandmovethevehiclefaster.
Ifyoureleasetheacceleratorpedalyougettheoppositeeffect–deceleration.Theenginespeedslowsdownandcylindercompressionslowsthevehicledown.Thelowerthegear,thegreatertheslowingeffectoftheengine,orenginebraking.Seepage104,Releasingtheaccelerator–enginebraking(inthischapter).
RetardersHeavyvehicles,includinglargeremergencyvehicles,arefittedwithretarders.Thesearedeviceswhichproduceadditionalenginebrakingtohelpslowthevehicle.Retardersreducewearonthebrakesandhelptomaintainasteadyspeedwhencontinuousbrakingisrequired–forexample,goingdownalonghill.
Wheneveryoufullyreleasetheaccelerator,theretarderappliesbrakingpowertothedrivewheels.Itmayrapidlyreducevehiclespeedandsocanaffectyourcontrolofthevehicle.Youcancontroltheretarderbycarefuluseoftheaccelerator.Someretardersmayoverheatifusedoverlongperiodsoftime,soconsiderusingalowergear.
Thereareseveraltypesofretarder.Alwaysstudythevehiclehandbooktounderstandfullyhowtheretarderoperatesoneachheavyvehicleyoudrive.
AccelerationandvehiclebalanceAccelerationaltersthedistributionofweightbetweenthewheelsofthevehicle.Whenavehicleaccelerates,theweightisliftedfromthefrontandpusheddownonthebackwheels.Duringdecelerationtheoppositehappens.Thisalterstherelativegripofthefrontandrear
tyres.
AccelerationandbalanceondifferenttypesofvehicleTheexacteffectofaccelerationonbalanceandtyregripdependsonthevehicle’ssize,powersource,drivingwheelsandconstruction.
•Largervehicleshavelessaccelerationcapabilitythancarsbutacceleration,balanceandtyregripwilldiffermarkedlydependingonwhetherthevehicleisfullyloadedorhasnoload.
•Electricvehicles–manyelectricvehicleswithlargermotorshavebriskeraccelerationthanvehicleswithasimilar-sizedinternalcombustionengine.Forprecisedetailsconsultyourvehiclehandbookormanufacturer.
•Frontwheeldrivevehicleslosegriportractionontheirdrivingwheelsbecauseaccelerationtransfersweight,andthereforegrip,fromfronttobackwheels.Thisreducestheirabilitytoaccelerate.Acceleratingtoosharplycancausewheelspin.Harshaccelerationoraslipperyroadsurfaceincreasestheriskofwheelspin,whichcanbeparticularlydangerouswhenpullingoutatajunction.Avoidacceleratingsharplyandinslipperyconditionsdepresstheacceleratorverygently.
•Rearwheeldrivevehiclesgainextragripontheirdrivingwheels,whichhelpsacceleration(butharshaccelerationwillcausethedrivingwheelstolosetraction).Atthesametimethefrontgripislightened.
•Fourwheeldrivevehiclesvaryinhowthepowerisdividedbetweenthefrontandbackwheels,andinthetypeofcentraldifferentialtheyhave.Thismeanstheeffectsofaccelerationvaryaccordingtothemodelbutgenerallyfourwheeldrivevehicleshavegoodgripwhenaccelerating.Forprecisedetailsconsultyourvehiclehandbookormanufacturer.
DevelopingyourcompetenceatusingtheacceleratorJerkyaccelerationisuncomfortableforpassengers,putsunnecessarystrainsonthevehicle,reducestyregripandincreasesfuelconsumption.Useaccurateandsmoothmovementstoreleaseordepresstheaccelerator.Remember–easeandsqueeze.
Accelerationcapabilityvarieswidelybetweenvehiclesanddependsonthefuelorpowersource,theengineoutput,itsefficiency,thepower-to-weightratioanditsload.Taketimetogettoknowtheaccelerationcapabilityofanyvehicleyoudrive.Thesafetyofmanymanoeuvres,particularlyovertaking,dependsonjudgingitwell.
Howyouusetheacceleratoraffectsyourownandotherroadusers’safety.Suddensharpmovementsoftheacceleratorreducetyregripandjeopardisesteeringcontrol.Thefasteryougothefurtheryouwilltravelbeforeyoucanreacttoahazard.Itwilltakeyoulongertostopand,ifyoucollide,theresultsoftheimpactwillbeworse.
Accelerationsense
Accelerationsenseistheabilitytovaryvehiclespeedinresponsetochangingroadortrafficconditionsbyaccurateuseoftheaccelerator,sothatyouusethebrakeslessornotatall.
Thisuseslessfuel,causeslesswearonthetyresandreducescarbonemissions.
Youneedaccelerationsenseineverydrivingsituation:movingoff,overtaking,complyingwithspeedlimits,followingothervehiclesandnegotiatinghazards.Accelerationsenserequiresobservation,anticipation,judgementofspeedanddistance,drivingexperienceandknowledgeofthevehicle’scapabilities.
Whenyoucomeupbehindanothervehicle,howoftendoyouneedtobraketomatchthespeedofthedriverinfront?Ifyouransweris‘always’or‘nearlyalways’,workatdevelopingyouraccelerationsense.
Drivealongaregularrouteusingaccelerationsenseratherthanbraking.Noticehowitimprovesyouranticipationandincreasesthesmoothnessofthedrive.
Accelerationsensehelpsyouavoidunnecessarybraking.Commonmistakesare:
•acceleratinghardawayfromajunctionandthenhavingtobrakesharplytoslowtothespeedofthevehiclesinfront
•acceleratingtomoveupbehindaslowermovingvehicleandthenhavingtobrakebeforeovertaking
•acceleratingtoovertakeandthenhavingtobrakesharplytomovebackintoaspace.
Usingtheacceleratoronbends
Amovingvehicleismoststablewhenitsweightisevenlydistributed,itsengineisjustpullingwithoutincreasingroadspeed,anditistravellinginastraightline.
Assoonasavehicleturnsintoabenditstartstoslowdownandlosestability,duetocorneringforces.Ifyoukeepthesamepressureontheacceleratorasyougointoandroundabend,youwillloseroadspeed.
Forsteeringcontrolandstability,youneedtokeepyourroadspeedconstantroundthebend.Dothisbygentlydepressingtheaccelerator.Youraimisnottoincreaseyourroadspeedbuttokeepitsteady.
Practicewillhelpyoujudgehowmuchtodepresstheacceleratorforasteadyspeed.
Usetheacceleratortomaintainaconstantspeedroundabend.Aconstantspeedkeepsyourweightevenlydistributedfrontandrear,andensuresmaximumtyregrip.
Ifyouacceleratetoincreaseroadspeedandalterdirectionatthesametime,theremaynotbeenoughtyregripavailableandyoumaylosesteeringcontrol.
Whenyouneedtosteerandincreasespeedtogether,usetheacceleratorgently.Takeextracarewhenacceleratinginslipperyconditionsoryoumaycausewheelspinandlossofsteeringcontrol.SeeChapter10,Cornering,page167,Corneringforces.
Acceleratingmovestheweightofthevehicleontotherearwheelsandoffthefrontwheels.Thisreducesthegripofthetyreswhicharesteeringthevehicle,soitmayundersteer.Ifthishappens,don’tmakethemistakeofapplyingmoresteering.
Asyoureducetheamountofsteering,starttoacceleratebutdothis
gentlyandsmoothlysothatyoumaintaintyregrip.Assteeringreduces,thetyregriptrade-offallowsmoregripforacceleration–butbewareofacceleratingtooearly.Theappropriatepointdependsonhowfaryoucansee,andtheconditionsontheroadsurface.
Followtheguidingsafetyprinciple–youmustalwaysbeabletostopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.Ifthatdistanceshortens,youmustslowtomatchit.
Keypoints
•Theharderyouaccelerate,thelesstyregripyouhaveforsteering.•Usetheacceleratorsmoothly–jerkinesscauseswheelspinand
wastesfuel.
•Useaccelerationsensetovaryyourroadspeedwithoutunnecessarybraking.
•Forsteeringcontrolandstability,usetheacceleratortomaintainasteadyspeedwhenyouenterabend.
Fuel/powersourceaffectsaccelerationandenginebrakingDiesel,petrol,liquefiedpetroleumgas(LPG)andelectricvehiclesdifferintheiraccelerationandenginebrakingcharacteristics.(Enginebrakingisdiscussedlaterinthischapter.)
Therangeoftechnologybuiltintonewvehiclestoimproveengineperformancemeansthatdifferentmakesandmodelswiththesametypeofpowersourcecanalsohavemarkedlydifferentaccelerationorenginebrakingcharacteristics.Consultyourvehiclehandbookforanexactspecificationandtaketimetobecomefamiliarwiththeaccelerationandenginebrakingcharacteristicsofanyvehicleyoudrive.
UsingthegearsThewayyouuseyourgearscanmakeormaryourdriving.Correctuseofthegearsdependsonaccuratelymatchingthegeartotheroadspeed,andusingtheclutchandacceleratorprecisely.
MovingofffromstationaryFromastandingstart,acceleratesmoothlyandgatherspeedbysteadilyworkingupthroughthegears.Youshouldonlyusemaximumaccelerationthroughthegearsifthereisapressingneed,andiftheroadsurfaceandotherconditionsaresafe.Over-acceleratinginlowgearsorremaininginagearbeyondthelimitsofitsbestperformancedamagestheengine,usesexcessivefuelandresultsinslowerprogress.Someenginescutoutormisfireifexcessivelyrevved.
AccurateuseofthegearsYourvehiclecanonlyincreasespeediftheenginecandeliverthepoweranditcanonlydothiseffectivelyifyouareinthecorrectgear.Aimto:
•beinthecorrectgearforeveryroadspeedandtrafficsituation•makeallgearchangessmoothly•engageachosengearwithoutgoingthroughanintermediategear
first
•knowtheapproximatemaximumroadspeedforeachgear•knowthemostefficientpointatwhichtochangeup.
Themaineffectofthegearsistotransformenginerevsintousablepower.
•Inalowgear,theengineisabletorevmorefreely,whichallowsthevehicletoacceleraterapidlyandtoclimbslopes.
•Inahighergear,lowerrevsdelivermorespeedbutlessabilitytoaccelerateortoclimbslopes.
•Intermediategearsallowprogressfromoneextremetotheother.•Alowergearalsorestrainsthevehicle’sspeedwhendescendinga
slope.
Thegreaterturningpoweroflowgearsalsoaffectstyregrip.Thegreatertheturningpower,themorelikelythatthetyreswilllosegrip.Thisiswhywheelspincanoccurwhenyouacceleratehardinfirstgear.
Itisadvisabletouseahighergearwhenmovingslowlyinslipperyconditionssuchasonsnow,iceormud.Whenmovingofffromastandstillonice,usefirstgearandsliptheclutchwithoutaccelerating.Youwillgaintractionandslowlypullforward.
Bottomgear
producesplentyofroadwheelturningpowerbutnotmuchspeed
Intermediategears
producevaryingcombinationsofwheelturningpowerandspeed
Topgear
producesplentyofspeedbutnotmuchwheelturningpower
Changingtoalowergearhelpswhen:
•travellingatlowspeeds•goinguphill•goingdownhill,becauseenginecompressionslowsthedescent•approachingahazard•onslipperyroads,whereyoushouldeaseofftheacceleratortolose
speedgently,soastoavoidskidding.
Highgearsaregoodfor:
•cruisingatspeed•certainslipperyconditionswherelowergearsmaycausewheelspin.
Thepurposeofyourjourneymayinfluencehowyouuseyourgears.Forexample,onroutinejourneysyourgoaliseconomicprogress.Foremergencyresponseandpursuityourgoalistomakerapidprogresssafely.
•Foreconomicprogress–changeupalittleearlier.Thisreducesfuelconsumptionandcarbonemissions.Infuture,allnewvehiclesintheEUwillbefittedwithagearshiftindicator(GSI)onthedashboard,toshowyouthemostfuel-efficientpointatwhichtochangegear.
•Forrapidprogress–accelerateuptotheengine’speakperformancepointandthenchangetoahighergear.Bearinmindthemanufacturer’speakengineperformancerecommendationsforyourvehicle.Thismaydifferfromthemaximumrevsobtainablefromtheengine.Donottaketherevsintothered.
Keypoints
•Developgoodcoordinationofhandandfootmovements.•Recognisewhentochangegearbythesoundoftheengine.•Choosethecorrectgearfortheroadspeed.•Changingupalittleearlyreducesfuelconsumption.Takenoteof
thegearshiftindicatoriffitted.
•Brakeingoodtimetoslowtothecorrectroadspeedasyouapproachahazard,andthenselecttheappropriategear.
•Matchenginespeedtoroadspeedwhenyouchangedown.
Areyoualwaysinthecorrectgear?
Whenyoufailtoselecttheappropriategear,askyourselfwhy.Areyoufocusingonotherthingsandnotyourdriving?
Doyoueverfindyourselfchanginggearhalfwayroundacorner?Again,askyourselfwhythishappens,andhowyoucanimproveyouruseofgears.
Don’tchangegearwhilecornering.Itdestabilisesthevehicleandrequiresyoutotakeonehandoffthesteeringwheel.
AutomatictransmissionAutomatictransmissiongearboxeschangethegearsautomaticallyaccordingtothespeedofthevehicle.AutomaticsystemsarebecomingmorepopularintheUK,especiallyinlargegoodsvehicles.Themainadvantageisthattheyfreethedrivertoconcentrateonothertasks.Thisisespeciallyusefulfortheemergencyservicesand
otherprofessionaldrivers.
Ifyoudrivedifferentautomaticvehicles,youmustbefamiliarwitheachindividualsystemandhowitworks.Youshouldbecompetentinusingallthefeaturessothatyoucanaccuratelymatchthecapacityofthesystemtothesituation.Thismayrequiretraining:somesystemsdomorethanothers,somehavemoreoptionsthanothers,andthemechanismsofeachsystemvaryagreatdeal.Forexample,therearewidedifferencesinmeansofgearselection.
Today,manycomputerisedautomaticsystemscanselectandchangegearfasterandmoreaccuratelythanahumanbeing.It’spossibletodriveautomaticvehicleswithprecisionandmakerapidprogresssafely,whennecessary,providedyou’refullyawarebothofyourownlimitationsandthevehicle’scapabilities.
Alwaysconsultthevehiclehandbooktounderstandthefeaturesofaparticularautomaticsystem.
AutomatictransmissionmodesThegearselectorinanautomaticvehicleisoftenintheformofaleverordialonthefloororonthesteeringwheelcolumn.Mostgearselectorshavesimilarmodes:
P–Park
R–Reverse
N–Neutral
D–Drive–automaticallyselectsallforwardgears
Manysystemsofferadditionalmodes,suchas:
SorSport–Thismodechangesgearathigherrevsthanthe
‘Drive’mode,givinggreateraccelerationandenginebraking.Itincreasesthevehicle’sperformancebutusesmorefuel.
EcoorEconomy–Thismodechangesgearatlowerrevsthan‘Drive’modeandisdesignedforgreaterfuelefficiencywhenhighperformanceisnotrequired.
Manual–Someautomaticshaveamanualcontroloptionthatyouselectusingapaddleorlever.Manufacturerstendtohavetheirownbrandnamesforthiscontrol–forexample,Tiptronic,MultitronicandGeartronic.
Thesefeaturesareusuallyonornexttothegearselectororsteeringwheel.
Usethemodethatbestsuitsyourjourneyandcircumstances.Forrapidjourneys,youmightchooseadifferentmodefromthatforroutinetasks,whereeconomymaybemoreimportant.
Bereadytochangemodeifnecessary–youdon’thavetodothewholejourneyinonemode.Butdon’tfiddlewiththegearboxrepeatedly.Asautomaticsystemsbecomemoresophisticatedtheyneedlessdriverinput.
Ifyouchoosetouseanenhancedmodesuchas‘Sport’,thiswillchangetheengine’sperformanceandwillaffectthewaythevehiclebehaves.Alwaysbepreparedforthechangewhenyoumakethischoice.
Somesystems‘learn’,sotheyadapttothewayyoudrivethevehicle.Rememberthisifyouchangethewayyoudriveduringajourney–forexample,becauseofachangeincircumstances.Thegearboxwilltaketimetoadapttomatchyourchangeofstyle.
Usingthefeaturesofautomaticsystems
Theadvicebelowisgeneral.Exactuseofthesefeaturesvariesfromonesystemtoanother.Youmustcheckthemanufacturer’sadviceforeachtypeofautomaticvehiclethatyoudrive.
Startingupandmovingoff–systemsvaryinwhattheyrequireyoutodobeforeyoucanstartthevehicle.Manysystemsrequireyoutoapplythefootbrakeinordertostarttheengine.SomesystemsallowtheenginetobestartedinPorN,othersonlyinthePposition.
Shiftlock–thisisasecuritybuttononthetransmissionleverthatallowsyoutoswitchthegearlevertoaparticularoptionandlockit–forexamplefromParktoDrivewhenyoumoveoff,orfromReversetoParkwhenyouhavefinishedyourjourney.
Kickdown–activatekickdownbypressingtheacceleratorfirmlytothefloor.Somesystemsrequireyoutodothisinarapidmovement.Kickdownoverridesthecurrentgearselectionandwillchangethegeardowntoprovideanadditionalburstofacceleration.Alwaysconsidercarefullybeforeyouusekickdown,andneveruseitinaconfinedsituation.
Shorterandlongerstops–commonadviceistousethefootbrakewhenyouneedtopauseorstopbriefly(e.g.fortrafficlights)butusetheparkingbrakewhenwaitingintrafficorstoppingforlonger.Mostsystemsadviseyounottochangeto‘Park’unlessstoppingtopark.Checktheadviceinthevehiclemanualassystemsvary.
Quitting–whenyoufinishyourjourney,applytheparkingbrakeandselectParkbeforeswitchingofftheengine.
DevelopingyourcompetenceatusingautomaticsystemsMakesureyoukeepthefootbrakedepressedwhenchangingbetweenP,R,NandD.Manysystemswillnotletyouchangemodeswithout
doingthis.ButalwaysusethefootbrakewhenyoufirstengageDrive,orpassthroughReverse.
Checkthatyouknowwhatanautomaticvehiclewilldo.Whenyoufirstdriveit,trythekickdownmechanismandgetthefeelofhowitbehaves,sothatyou’renotsurprisedbyhowitactslater.
Thesystemofcarcontrolstillapplieswhendrivinganautomatic.It’seasytobecomelax.Someautomaticdriversdriftintothehabitoflosingspeedlate,enteringbendswhilereducingspeedwhenitwouldhavebeenbettertodosoearlier.Makesurethere’salwaystimeforthecartomakeagearchangewhenonewillbeneeded,andthatpowerisappliedattherighttimetoensurestability.
Insomecircumstances,averyslightadjustmenttothepressureontheacceleratorpedalwillmakeadifferencetowhichgearthesystemchooses.Thiscanbehelpfulincontrollingthebalanceofthevehicleattimes,andtoprovideasmoothdrive.You’llfindthiseasiertoachieveifyouknowthevehiclewell.
Someautomaticgearboxestendtohuntbetweengearsatsomespeedsandinsomecircumstances.Ifyouexperiencethis,usethemanualoverridetoholdoneorothergear,ratherthanallowingconstantchanges.
RoadconditionsDrivingthoughwater–gentlybrakewithyourleftfootwhileapplyingpressurewithyourrightfoot,sothatyoumaintainagoodlevelofenginerevstoensurewaterdoesnotflowuptheexhaustpipe.
Descendingasteephill–someautomaticvehicleshavea‘hold’systemtomaintainalowroadspeedonalonghill,ratherthanusingthebrakes.Ifyourvehicledoesn’tdothisautomatically,useamanual
overridetoholdalowergear.Onalongdescent,ifyouneedtobrake,onlybrakeoccasionallyandsignificantly,notallthetime.Holdalowergearsothatyouneverallowyourspeedtorisetoohigh.
Movingoffonsnow,iceorwetgrass–insomeautomaticsyoucanmanuallyselectasettingformovingoffonslipperysurfaces,tohelpavoidwheelspin.Inautomaticswithoutthissetting,tryselectinglockedposition2or3whenmovingoffortravellingslowly,anduseverygentleacceleration.Thismaygiveyoumoregrip.
SlowingdownandstoppingYouneedtobeabletoslowdownorstopsmoothlyandwithyourvehiclefullyundercontrol.Anticipatetheneedtoslowdownorstopearlyandbrakeprogressively.Beingabletoaccuratelyestimatetherequiredbrakingdistanceatdifferentspeedsandindifferentconditionsiscentraltoskilfuldriving.Therearetwowaysofslowingdown(decelerating)orstopping:
•releasingoreasingofftheaccelerator•usingthebrakes.
Releasingtheaccelerator–enginebrakingWhenyoureleasetheaccelerator,theengineslowsandthroughenginecompressionexertsaslowingforceonthewheels.Thiscausestheenginetoactasabrake,reducingroadspeedsmoothlyandgraduallywithlittleweartothevehicle.
Thelossofroadspeedisgreaterwhenyoueaseofftheacceleratorinalowgear.Thisappliesequallytoautomaticgearboxes.
Releasingtheacceleratoronalargervehiclefittedwitharetarderwillactivatetheretarder.Thiswillapplyadditionalbrakingpower.Seepage90,Retarders(inthischapter).
Enginebrakingallowsyoutolosespeedinconditionswherenormalbrakingmightlockthewheels–forexample,onslipperyroads.Itisalsousefulonlongdescentsinhillycountry.
Innormaldriving,enginebrakingcanonlybeusedtoproducegradualvariationsinspeed.
UsingthebrakesUsethebrakesifyouneedtomakemorethanagradualadjustmenttoyourroadspeed.Formaximumcontrol,youshouldkeepbothhandsonthewheelwhileyoubrake,andplantoavoidbrakingonbendsandcorners.(Butnotethediscussiononbrake/gearoverlapinChapter2.)Youcanapplypressuretothefootbraketoachievetheslightestcheckor,attheotherextreme,untiljustbeforetheESPorABSintervenes.(Inanoldervehiclewithoutsafetydevices,youcanapplypressureuntiljustbeforethewheelslockup.Avoidlockingthewheelscompletelybecausethiswillcauseyoutolosesteeringcontrol.)Remembertomakeallowancesforextraloadsorchangesinroadsurface.
Checkthebrakeseverytimeyouuseyourvehicle,bothbeforeyoumoveoffandwhenthevehicleismoving.
Normalbraking(taperedbraking)
Brakingshouldnormallybeprogressiveandincreasedsteadily.Smoothbrakinguseslessfuel.
Braking,tyregripandbalanceBrakingmovestheweightofthevehicleforwardontothefrontwheels.Thismakesthesteeringheavierandatthesametimereducesthegripofthereartyres.Onabendthisreducesstabilityandcancauseaskid.Theharsherthebraking,thegreaterthedemandontyregripandthelessyourabilitytosteer.Inslipperyconditionsharshbrakingalmostinevitablyresultsinlossoftraction.
ThesafestoppingdistanceruleThisisoneoftheguidingprinciplesofRoadcraft.Byrelatingyourspeedtothedistancewithinwhichyoucanstop,youcanadoptasafespeedinanysituation.
Alwaysdrivesothatyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.
Theimportanceofobservingthisruleforyourownandotherpeople’ssafetycannotbeoverstated.Itprovidesaguidetothespeedatwhichyoushouldcornerandthedistanceyoushouldkeepfromothervehiclesinallothertrafficconditions.Successfullyapplyingthisrulerequiresskill.Youneedtobeawareof:
•thebrakingcapabilitiesofyourvehicle
•thetypeandconditionoftheroadsurface–inslipperyorwetconditions,brakingdistancesincreasegreatly
•theeffectsofcornering,brakingandvehiclebalanceontyregrip.
Innarrowandsingletracklanes,allowtwicetheoverallstoppingdistancethatyoucanseetobecleartoallowroomforanyoncomingvehicletobraketoo.
OverallsafestoppingdistanceToworkouttheoverallsafestoppingdistance,addthinkingdistancetobrakingdistance.
Thinkingdistance+Brakingdistance=Stoppingdistance
Thinkingdistanceisthedistancetravelledinthetimebetweenfirstobservingtheneedforactionandacting.Thisiswhyattitude,observation,anticipationandinformation-processingabilitiesarevital.
Actualthinkingdistancevariesaccordingtothespeedofthevehicle,yourphysicalandmentalcondition,yourattentivenessandwhetherornotyouareexpectingsomethingtohappen.
Ittakesmuchlongertoreacttounexpectedeventsthantoexpectedones–youneedlessthinkingtimeifyouareanticipatingeventsandnotjustreactingtothem.
Somecommonmedicines(e.g.someantihistaminesforhayfever)canmakeyoudrowsyandslowyourthinkingandshouldbeusedwithcare.
Brakingdistanceisthedistanceneededforbraking.Actualbrakingdistancedependson:
•thevehicle’scapability,sizeandweight–larger,heaviervehiclestakelongertostop
•thegradientoftheroadandtheconditionoftheroadsurface–slipperysurfacesgreatlyincreasebrakingdistances.
Thetwo-secondruleTokeepasafedistancebetweenyouandthevehicleinfrontonfastroads,leaveagapofatleasttwoseconds.Butrememberyouroverallstoppingdistancedependsonyourspeedandtheconditionofthe
roadsurface.
Aneasywaytocounttwosecondsistosay:‘Onlyafoolbreaksthetwosecondrule’.
Youneedtoallowatleastdoublethisdistanceinwetweatherandevenmoreinicyconditions.Ifthevehiclebehindyouistooclose,dropbackfurtherfromthevehicleinfront.Thiswillallowyoutobrakemoregentlyinanemergencyandmaypreventyoubeingrammedfrombehind.
BrakingforcornersandbendsBrakingaffectsthebalance,stabilityandcorneringabilityofvehicles,soyouneedtoplanbrakingcarefullyforacornerorbend:
•plantoavoidbrakingoncornersbecauseitincreasesthedemandontyregrip;ifbrakingisnecessary,applythebrakesgentlyandsteadily
•brakeinplentyoftime•adjustbrakepressuretotheconditionorgripoftheroadsurface•onsteepwindingdescents,brakefirmlyonthestraightstretchesand
gentlyonthebends–remembertousealowgearatanearlystageinthedescent.
SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability,page137,Howactivesafetysystemswork.
BrakingasyouapproachahazardToapplythesystemofcarcontrol,consideryourroadspeedontheapproachtoahazardandslowdownifnecessary.Alwayscheckyourmirrorsbeforeyoureducespeedorchangedirection.Choosethebestroadpositionandthenreducespeedsafelyandsmoothlyusingenginebraking,brakingoracombinationofboth.
Whenandhowfirmlyyouapplythebrakesdependsonyourjudgementofspeedanddistance.Consider:
•yourinitialspeed•theroadsurface•weatherconditions•thespecificroadandtrafficconditions.
Sometimesbrakingmayneedtobefirmbutitshouldneverbeharsh.Harshbrakingusuallyresultsfrompoorobservation,anticipationandplanning.Aimtolosespeedsteadilyfromthefirstmomentuntilyouachievethecorrectspeedtonegotiatethehazard.Timingiscrucial:avoidbrakingsoearlythatyouhavetore-acceleratetoreachthehazard,orsolatethatyouhavetobrakeharshly.SeeChapter2,Thesystemofcarcontrol,page28.
EmergencybrakingThequickestandshortestwaytostoponadrystraightroadistobrakeashardasyoucan.
InavehiclefittedwithABS,depressthebrakeasfaraspossibleandkeepitthere.
TheABSrepeatedlyreleasesthebrakesjustbeforethewheelslockupandre-appliestheminapulsingaction,sothattheyneverfullylock.ABSonlyworksifyoumaintainfirmpressureonthebrakepedal.TheadvantageofABSisthatitgivesyousomesteeringcontrolduringemergencybraking–seeChapter7forafullexplanation.
ABSdoesn’thelpbraking–ithelpssteeringwhilebraking.
ManyvehiclesarefittedwithESP,whichincorporatesABS.InavehiclewithESP,depressthebrakeasfaraspossibleandkeepitthereuntilthevehiclehascometoahalt.
UsingtheparkingbrakeMethodsforapplying,lockingandreleasingtheparkingbrakevary,soalwayscheckandfollowthemanufacturer’sinstructions.
Ingeneral,onlyusetheparkingbrakewhenthevehicleisstationary.Newdriversareoftentaughttousetheparkingbrakeeverytimetheycometoastandstillonajourney.Withexperienceyoucanjudgewhetheryouneedtouseitforeveryshortstop.
Ifyou’restoppingatnight,considerreleasingthefootbrakeandapplyingtheparkingbraketoreduceglareforthedriverbehindyou.
SteeringAwell-maintainedvehicletravellingalongaflat,straightroadshouldholditspositionwithminimalsteering.Camber,crossfallorsidewindscanmovethevehicletoonesidebutasmallsteeringadjustmentwillkeepthevehicleonastraightcourse.Usuallyyouonlyneedtomakepositivesteeringadjustmentswhenyoualterpositionorturnthevehicle.Steeringcharacteristicsvarybetweenvehicles,somakesureyouarefamiliarwiththecharacteristicsofthevehiclesyoudrive.
SteeringtechniquePolicedrivingschoolshavedevelopedarangeofsteeringtechniquestosuitdifferentpolicingsituations.Themostwidelyadoptedisthepull–pushmethod,whichprovidessafeandefficientsteeringinawiderangeofcircumstances.
Yoursteeringmethodshouldbedeterminedbythecontrol,efficiencyandcomfortyouexperiencethroughoutthefullrangeofsteeringmovements.Thismayvaryaccordingto:
•thevehicleyou’redriving(thelightnessofitssteering,thediameterofthesteeringwheel,thecastoractionandthenumberofturnsfromlocktolock)
•howyousitinrelationtothesteeringwheel•yoursizeandshape.
SeatpositionGoodsteeringstartswithgettingyourbodyintherightpositioninrelationtothesteeringwheel.Adjustthesteeringwheelpositionandthepositionandangleofyourseatsothatyoucanreachthecontrolscomfortably.Anuncomfortablepositionwilltireyouandimpairyourdriving.
You’relikelytobeinagoodsittingpositionwhen:
•bothhandsareonthesteeringwheelandyourelbowsareslightlybent
•youcandepresstheclutchpedaltoitsfullextentandyourkneeisstillslightlybent.
Tosetyourseatposition,extendyourarmssothatyourwristssitontopofthesteeringwheelwhenyourarmsarestraight.Thenallowyourarmstodropsothatyourhandsareinacomfortablepositiononthewheelrim–betweententotwoandquartertothree,dependingonyoursteeringwheelindentations.
Howtoholdthesteeringwheel
•Holdthewheelsothatyourpalmsareontherim.Extendyourthumbsontherimsothatyourthumbnailsaretowardsyou.(Don’twrapyourthumbsroundthewheel.Ifyourvehiclehitsakerb,thesteeringwheelmayspinsharplyandinjureyourwrappedroundthumbs.)
•Holdthewheellightlybutbereadytotightenyourgripifnecessary.•Keepbothhandsonthewheelwhileyouaredrivingunlessyou
needtooperateacontrol.
Makechangesindirectionsmoothlyandgradually.Makesmallchangesindirectionbyturningthesteeringwheelwithoutalteringyourhandhold.Yourhandsshouldnotpassthetwelveo’clockposition.
Tomakelargerturns,usethepull–pushmethoddescribednext.
Pull–pushWiththepull–pushmethodneitherhandpassesthetwelveo’clockposition.Yourhandsremainlevelwitheachotheronthesteeringwheelexceptwhenyoumoveahandupfortheinitialpullorwhenyoumakesmallalterationsinposition.Onehandgripsandmakestheturn,theotherslidesrounditssideofthewheelreadytocontinuetheturn.Theadvantageofpull–pushisthatitkeepsbothhandsonthe
wheelandallowsanimmediateturnineitherdirectionatanypointduringsteering.
Theexplanationofthepull–pushmethodgivenbelowisforaleft-handturn.Foraright-handturnfollowthesamemethodstartingwiththerighthandat12o’clock.
Starttheturnwithapullandnotapushbecauseitgivesbettercontrol.Slidethelefthanduptoahigherpositiononthewheel,butnotpastthetwelveo’clockpoint.Thestartingpointwilldependonthesharpnessofthebendorturn.
Pullthewheeldownwiththelefthand.Asthelefthandpullsdown,slidetherighthanddown,allowingtherimtoslidethroughtherighthandfingers.Keeptherighthandlevelwiththelefthanduntilitnearsthebottomofthewheel.
Ifmoreturntotheleftisnecessary,startpushingupwiththerighthandandatthesametimeslidethelefthandupthewheel,keepingitlevelwiththeright.Repeatthesemovementsuntilyouachievesufficientturn.
Straightenthevehicleaftertheturnbyfeedingthewheelbackthroughthehandswithsimilarbutoppositemovementstothoseusedfortheturn.Don’tletthewheelspinbackonitsown.
Whenyousteerdoyoustartwithapullratherthanapush?Ifinthepastyouhavetendedtostartwithapush,practisepullingfirst.Noticehowitcontributestothesmoothnessandcontrolofyoursteering.
RotationalsteeringThistechniqueisalsoanoption.
Holdthewheelusingthestandardholddescribedonpage113.Thequarter-to-threepositionallowsthegreatestdegreeofturnwithouthavingtorepositionahand.
Mostalterationstodirection(uptoabout120degreesofsteering
wheelturn)canbemadebyturningthewheelwhilekeepingalightbutfixedhandhold.
Formoreacuteturns(requiringmorethanabout120degreesofsteeringwheelturn),repositionyourlowerhandat12o’clockandcontinuesmoothlypullingdownthewheel.Ifyoucanseethataturnisgoingtorequiremorethan120degreesofsteeringwheelturn,placeyourleadinghandatthetopofthewheelbeforestartingtheturn.
Ifevenmoreturnisrequired,placeyourotherhandnearthetopofthewheeltocontinuetheturningmotion.Straightenthewheelbyusingasimilarseriesofmovementsbutintheoppositedirection.Althoughtheself-centringactionofthewheelassiststhereturn,youmustkeepitundercontrol.
Movingyourhandspastthe12o’clockpositionplacesyourarmsacrossthewheel.Beawarethatthisincreasestheriskofinjurytohands,armsorfaceifthesteeringwheelairbaginflatesorexplodesinacollision.
Keypoints
•Holdthewheellightlybutbereadytotightenyourgripwhenyouneedmaximumsteeringcontrol.
•Keepbothhandsonthewheelwhencornering,brakingordrivingthroughdeepsurfacewater.
•Onslipperyroadssteerasdelicatelyaspossibletomaintaintyregrip.
•Accuratesteeringrequiresgoodobservation,anticipationandplanning.Ifthebrakesareappliedsharplyorifthespeedistoohigh,steeringcannotbeprecise.
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainhowacceleration,brakingandsteeringaffecttyregripandvehiclebalance
• showthatyoucancontrolyourvehicleaccuratelyinarangeofsituations
• showgoodaccelerationsense,usingtheacceleratoraccuratelyandsmoothly
• showhowtousegearsaccurately,selectingthecorrectgearinarangeofcircumstancesandfordifferentpurposes,invehicleswithmanualorautomaticgearboxes
• explainthesafestoppingdistance
• showhowtousethebrakesandenginebrakingtoslowthevehicleappropriatelyandsafelyindifferentcircumstances
• demonstrateamethodofsteeringformaximumsafetyandcontrol
• explainthemainfactorsthatreducefuelconsumption.
Chapter6
Manoeuvringatlowspeeds
Learningoutcomes
Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•explainhowtousethesystemofcarcontroltoperformlow-speedmanoeuvressuchasparkingandturninginaconfinedspace
•showgoodall-roundobservationthroughoutthemanoeuvre•useplanningtohelpyouperformlow-speedmanoeuvressafelyand
efficiently
•explainthebenefitsofusingaguide•showhowtoreversesafelyinalimitedspace•parkyourvehiclesafelyaccordingtotheneedsofyourjourney
withoutobstructingotherroadusers.
Developingyourcompetenceatlow-speedmanoeuvring
AcrosstheUK,oneofthemostcommonandcostlytypesofcollisionhappenswhendriversarereversinginconfinedspaces.
Evenwhenreversingcollisionsdon’tresultininjury,theycancausedamagetovehicles,equipmentandpremises.Mostofthesecollisionscanbeavoidedbytakingsimpleprecautions.
Peoplecommonlybelievethatdrivingatlowspeediseasyandhazard-free–butneitheristrue.Low-speedmanoeuvringcausesagreatdealofvehicledamageandhighrepaircoststofleets.Thisisaparticularproblemfordriversoflargervehicleswhomayneedtoperformcomplicatedmanoeuvrestoturnthevehiclesafely,andrequiremorespaceinwhichtoturn.
Themajorityofvehiclecollisionsoccurwhenreversingorundertakinglow-speedmanoeuvresinalltypesofvehicles,soyoushouldalways:
•avoidreversingyourvehicleunnecessarily•carryoutallmanoeuvresataslowwalkingspeed•avoidturninginnarrowroadswithparkedvehicles•considerusingjunctionsinwhichtoturn–ordrivetoaroundabout.
Ittakesconstantattentiontoperformlow-speedmanoeuvressafelyandwell.Youmustthinkthroughwhatyou’retryingtoachieveandcarryoutthemanoeuvrewithextremecare.
UsingthesystemUsethesystemofcarcontroltoplanandexecutelow-speedmanoeuvres,justasyouwouldanyotherdrivingactivity:
•gatherinformationthroughcarefulobservationthroughoutthemanoeuvre
•givesignalsifnecessary
•planyourroutethroughthemanoeuvre.
Considerthebestpositiontotakethroughoutthemanoeuvre,notjustatthestartandendpoints.Assesswheretogoforwardsandwheretoreverse,andselectthecorrectspeedandgear,sothat,ifyou’renotparking,youcanaccelerateawaytobestadvantage.
ObservationGoodobservationisvitalforsafety.Maintainall-roundobservationthroughoutthemanoeuvre.Takeinformationtogiveyourselfanoverallviewofwhatyouwanttoachieve,sothatyoucanplanthebestoptiontodoit,especiallyintightorawkwardsituations.Low-speedmanoeuvringrarelycausesseriousinjuriesbuttheydohappen.Eveninacaritispossibletolosesightofpeople–especiallychildren–ifyourobservationisnotthorough,especiallywhenreversing.
Don’trelyonyourmirrorstoprovideyourviewtotherearofthevehicle:lookbehindthroughtherearwindowifthevehiclehasone.
Ifyoucannotgetafullviewtotherear,getoutofyourvehicleandcheckforhazards.Ifthereisanappropriatepersonavailable,askthemtoactasaguidetohelpyourobservationtotherear.Ifpossible
useeithersomeonetrainedforthatroleoranotherdriver.Ifneitheroftheseisavailable,usesomeoneelseratherthanattemptthemanoeuvrewithouthelp.
Whenyou’rereversing,it’sstillimportanttolookforwardsoccasionallytocheckthatthereisnoactivityaroundyouthatcouldcompromisesafety.Beespeciallyawareoflowobjectssuchaspostsandwalls.
Planning
Whenyou’refacedwithanawkwardmanoeuvre,firstconsiderwhetheritisabsolutelynecessary.Isthereanalternativeroutethatyoucoulduse?
Ifyou’replanningacomplexmanoeuvrethatinvolvesseveralmovementsorshunts,considerotheroptions.Plananoverallpath,butbepreparedtotakemoreshuntsifyouneedto.Generallyonelongershuntisbetterthanseveralshorterones–butbeawarethatthismaymeanalongerreverseandthereforealongerperiodwithlimitedvisibility.
Checktoseewhetherthereareanyslopesasthesecanmakesomepartsofthemanoeuvreeasierorhardertocontrol.Plantostopandchangefromforwardtoreverse,orviceversa,onlevelareasifpossible.
Keepyourspeedlowthroughoutandthinkcarefullyaboutwhichwayroundtodothings.Plantokeepawkwardfeatures–lowbollards,forexample–whereyoucanseethemthroughoutthemanoeuvre.
Planyourmanoeuvreinawaythatbestsupportsitspurpose.Doyouneedtounloadontoahigherarea,orhaveyourvehiclefacingaparticulardirectionattheend?
SteeringManoeuvringinaconfinedspacesometimesrequiresrapidmovementsofthesteeringwheel.Thestandardpull–pushtechniquegenerallyprovideseffectivesteering,butoccasionallyotherhandholdsmaygivebettercontrol,especiallywhenreversing.Don’ttrytoturnthesteeringwheelwhilethevehicleisstationary.Thisdamagesthetyresandputsexcessivestrainonthesteeringlinkages.
Reversinghold
Holdthewheelnearthetopwithyourrighthandandlowdownwithyourlefthand.Ifyou’redrivingacarandyoufindthispositiondifficult,orneedtoimproveyourviewtotheleft,itmayhelptoputyourleftarmonthebackofyourseat.Lookinyourmirrorsandoveryourshoulderstogetaclearview.Iftheseatbeltrestrictsyourmovement,releaseitbutdon’tforgettoputitbackon.
Steeringinreverse
Itiseasiertomanoeuvreavehiclewhenreversingthanwhengoingforwards,becausethesteeredwheelsareattheback.Thismayseemcounter-intuitive,butonceyou’veachievedcompetenceitiseasiertobepreciseandtomakesteeringmovementsatslowspeedthiswayround.(Asyouincreasespeedinreverse,itbecomesincreasinglydifficulttosteeraccurately.)
Thismeansthatitisofteneasiertomanagetightturnsinreverse,providedyouhaveagoodenoughviewtodoso.There’satrade-offbetweenvisionandmanoeuvrability,particularlyforlargervehicleslikevansandtrucks.
Remembertoallowforoverhangs.Evenasmallvehiclewillhave
someoverhangfromthewheels,andinatightspacethiswillmovedifferentlywhensteering.Thetighterthesteeringlock,themorepronouncedthisis.
ReversinginaconfinedspaceReversingcanbedifficult,especiallyinaconfinedarea.Thefasteritisdone,theharderitistocontrolsoalwaysreverseslowly.
Beforeyoureverse:
•Ensureyourmirrorsarecleanandcorrectlyadjusted.•Scantheareaforsuitabilityandanyhazards/obstructions.Make
surethereissufficientspaceforyourvehicle.Ifyou’renotsure,
getoutofthevehicleandcheck.
•Plantoexecutethemanoeuvrewherethespaceisgreatestandvisibilityisatitsbest.Ensurethatyouhaveanunobstructedview.
•Ifyoucan,asksomeonetoguideyou.•Winddownyoursidewindowstoincreaseawarenessandaid
communicationwithyourguide.
•Checkyourmirrors.•Checkthe‘blindspots’(theareasyoucannotseeeasilyinthe
mirrors).
•Makesurethemanoeuvreislegal(e.g.itdoesn’tcontravenea‘Noentry’sign)andwon’tobstructothersmorethannecessary.
Whilemanoeuvring:
•Useallyourmirrorsandparkingaidstohelpyouwhilereversingbutlookallround,includingtothefront.Don’trelyonmirrors,reversingcamerasorsensorsalone.
•Ifpossible,useaguideforbothforwardandreversemovements.•Alwaystravelslowly,nofasterthanaslowwalkingspeed,andease
theclutchifnecessary.Inautomaticvehiclesyoucancheckthespeedbyusingthebrake.
•Continuetolookaroundyouforhazardsthroughoutthewholemanoeuvre.
•Beawarethatthefrontofyourvehiclewillswingoutasyouturnandcouldstrikenearbyobjects.Remembertolookforwardandscanallaroundforobstructions.
•Stopimmediatelyifyou’reuncertainofhazardsaroundyourvehicle,especiallypedestrians.Ifnecessarystopandgetoutof
yourvehicletocheckbehind.
•Ifyourreversinglightfails,useyourindicatororbrakelightstolighttheareabehindyouwhenitisdark.Becarefulnottomisleadotherroadusers.
Neverrelyonareversingalarmtocleartheareabehindyourvehicleofpedestriansandotherroadusers.
ManoeuvringwithaguideInconfinedspaces,considerusinganotherpersonasaguidewhencarryingoutforwardandreversemanoeuvres.Ifnecessary–inalargevehicle,forexample–usemorethanoneperson.
Explainclearlytoyourguidewhatmanoeuvreyouintendtocarryoutwiththevehicle,whichdirectionyouintendtotravelinandwhereyouwantthevehicletobewhenyou’vefinished.Useanagreedsystemofsignals/directions,includingasignalforstopping.
Yourguidewillneedtostandinasafepositionwithoutbeingintheway.Theymustbevisibletoyouatalltimes.Ifyoulosesightofyourguide,stopimmediatelyandonlymovewhentheyareinsightagainandhavesignalledyoutoproceed.
Aguideshouldwearvisibleclothing,suchasareflectivevest,andensurethatanysignalsareclearlyvisibletoyou.Ifit’sdark,theguidecoulduseatorchtobemorevisible.Considerwhetherportableradiosorsimilarcommunicationssystemswouldbehelpful.
ParkingParkyourvehiclesafely.Don’tleaveitwhereitmaycause
inconvenienceordangertoothers.Ensurethatotherroaduserscanseeyourvehicleeasily(i.e.notjustroundabendoroverthebrowofahill)andthatit’snotcausinganyobstruction.Makesurethatyouparklegally–notonyellow/redlines,etc.
Ifyouparkonahill,putthevehicleintoalowgearandconsiderturningyourwheelsintothekerb.(Bearinmindtherunlockfittedtoemergencyvehicles.)
Whenyou’replanninghowtopark,thinkaboutthepurposeofyourjourney.Ifyouneedtoaccessthebootforheavyorlargeitems,parkfacinginthedirectionthatbestallowsyoutodothissafely.
Unlessyourarrivalisurgent,it’sbesttoreverseintoend-onspacesbecause:
•thevehicleismoremanoeuvrableinreversemode•itissafertodriveforwardsoutofthespacethantoreverseout•thevehiclewillbeavailableforitsnextuseimmediately•itisslightlymorefuelefficienttodriveoutforwardsratherthan
reverseout.
Takecaretorespectanysignsthattellyoutoparkfacein.Buildingscouldhaveairintakesatexhaustpipeheight,ortheremaybehiddenhazardsthatcauseproblemswhenreversingin.
Nexttimeyoucompletealow-speedmanoeuvreinaconfinedspace,askyourselfthefollowingquestions:
•WasthemanoeuvrenecessaryorcouldIhaveavoideddoingit?
•HowcouldIhaveimprovedgoodall-roundobservationthroughoutthemanoeuvre?
•ShouldIhaveaskedforhelpwithobservationtothefrontandrear?Wouldthishavemadethemanoeuvresafer?
•DidIadoptaslowwalkingspeed,usingtheappropriategear?•DidItakefulladvantageofthegreatermanoeuvrabilityofthevehiclein
reverse?
•DidIacceleratesmoothlyandsafelyoutofthemanoeuvre?•Wasthemanoeuvrelegalandconductedinawaythatcausedminimum
disruptiontootherroadusers?
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainhowtousethesystemofcarcontroltoperformlow-speedmanoeuvressuchasparkingandturninginaconfinedspace
• showgoodall-roundobservationthroughoutthemanoeuvre
• useplanningtohelpyouperformlow-speedmanoeuvressafelyandefficiently
• explainthebenefitsofusingaguide
• showhowtoreversesafelyinalimitedspace
• parkyourvehiclesafelyaccordingtotheneedsofyourjourneywithoutobstructingotherroadusers.
Chapter7
Maintainingvehiclestability
Learningoutcomes
Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•explainwhyactivesafetyfeaturescaninterferewithdriverbehaviour
•explainhowtoavoidtheactionsthatreduceavehicle’sstabilityandtyregrip
•identifythecausesofskiddingandhowtominimisetherisk•describetheprinciplesofanti-lockbrakingsystems,tractioncontrol
systemsandelectronicstabilityprogrammes.
Controllingyourvehicle’sstabilityAvehicle’sstabilityisreducedwhenyoubrake,accelerateorsteerbecausetheseactionsproduceforcesthatalterthevehicle’sweightdistributionandbalance,andreducetyregrip.Avehiclemayskidwhenoneormoreofthetyreslosesnormalgripontheroad.Seepage87,Thetyregriptrade-off.
Newvehiclesarefittedwithagrowingrangeofactivesafetyfeaturestoincreasevehiclestability.Thesecondpartofthischapterbrieflyexplainstheprinciplesofanti-lockbrakingsystems(ABS),traction
controlsystems(TCS)andelectronicstabilityprogrammes(ESP).Theprinciplesofeachtypeofsystemaresimilarbuttherearesignificantdifferencesbetweenmanufacturersinhowtheirparticularsystemisactivatedandhowitbehaves.
Withrapidchangesintechnology,itisvitalthatyourefertothemanufacturer’shandbooktoknowwhichsafetyfeaturesarefittedtoyourvehicleandwhateffecttheywillhaveonthevehicle.Beawarethatmanypoliceandotheremergencyservicevehiclesmayhaveadifferentspecificationfromstandardmodels.
AttitudestovehiclesafetytechnologyResearchhasshownthatsafetysystemscangivesomedriversafalsesenseofsecurity,causingthemtobecomeover-dependentonthesefeaturesandtakemorerisksthantheywouldinavehiclewithoutthem.
Safetyfeaturescannotchangethelawsofphysics–theydon’tmakeavehicleperformbetterorincreaseadriver’sskill.Ifyou’reonthepointoflosingcontrolofthevehicle,youhavemisjudgedthesituation.Safetydevicescanhelpyoutoregaincontrol,butonlyifyouunderstandthespecificfeatureandknowhowtouseitcorrectly.
AvoidingskiddingAvoidingaskidbydrivingsafelyisfarbetterthanhavingtocorrectone.Knowyourownandyourvehicle’slimitsfortheroad,trafficandweatherconditions.Oftenitisn’tpoorroadorweatherconditionsthatcauseskidsbutthedriver’sresponsetothem.Skiddingiscausedbyexcessivespeed,coarsesteering,harshaccelerationorexcessiveorsuddenbraking,oracombinationofthese.Therealcauseofaskidmaythereforebethedriver.
Aimtocontrolyourvehiclesothatitdoesnotskid.Thisbecomesmoredifficultwhenroadorweatherconditionsdeteriorate.Butyoucanminimisetheriskbydrivingmoreslowlyandusingyourskillsofobservation,anticipationandplanning.
Howdoesaskidhappen?Askiddevelopswhenonetyreormorelosesnormalgripontheroad,causinganinvoluntarymovementofthevehicle.Thishappenswhenthegripoftyresontheroadbecomeslessthantheforceorforcesactingonthevehicle.
Theseforcesactonyourvehiclewheneveryouoperatethecontrols–thebrake,theaccelerator,theclutchorthesteeringwheel.Ifyoubrakeoracceleratewhilesteeringroundabendorcorner,twoforcesarecombined.Thereisonlylimitedtyregripavailablesoiftheseforcesbecometoopowerfultheybreakthegripofthetyresontheroad.Rememberthetyregriptrade-off.Thediagrambelowshowshoweachoftheseforcesaffectsthevehicle’sstabilityandreducestyregrip.
Neverdrivetothelimitsofthetyregripavailable–alwaysleaveasafetymargintoallowfortheunforeseen.
Ittakesmuchlessforcetobreakthegripofthetyresonaslipperyroadsurface.
Howtominimisetheriskofskidding
Checkyourvehicle
Theconditionofyourvehiclecanreduceorincreasetheriskofskidding:
•checktyretreadsandtyrepressureregularly•checkthevehicle’sbrakesbeforeyoudrive–defectivebrakesare
especiallydangerousonslipperysurfaces.
Avoidskiddinginthefirstplace–useobservation,anticipationandplanningtoadjustyourdrivingwhentheroadsurfacemaybeslippery.SeeAppendix,Isyourvehiclefittodrive?,page255.
Observe–weatherandroadconditionstowatchfor
Skiddingismorelikelyinbadweatherconditionsandonslipperyroadsurfaces.Watchoutfor:
•snow,ice,frost,heavyrain•wetmud,dampleavesoroil,whichcancreatesuddenslippery
patchesontheroadsurface•coldspotsinshadedareas,undertrees,onslopesorhills–watch
howothervehiclesbehaveinicyweather
•dryloosedustorgravel•ashowerorrainafteralongdryspell–accumulatedrubberdustand
oilmixedwithwatercancreateaveryslipperysurface
•wornroadsurfacesthathavebecomepolishedsmooth
•concrete–mayholdsurfacewaterandbecomeslippery,especiallyinfreezingconditions
•cobbledroads–thesebecomeveryslipperywhenwet•changesintheroadsurface(e.g.onbridges)andhowthisaffects
tyregrip.
Youareatgreaterriskfromthesehazardsatcornersandjunctionsbecauseyouaremorelikelytocombinebraking,acceleratingandsteeringinthesesituations.
Anticipateandplan–adjustyourdrivingtotheroadconditions
Useyourobservationskills–watchoutforandassesspoorweatherandroadconditionsaccuratelyandadjustyourspeedaccordingly:
•leaveplentyofroomformanoeuvre,reduceyourspeedandincreasethedistanceyouallowforstoppingtomatchtheroadconditions–onaslipperysurfaceavehiclecantakemanytimesthenormaldistancetostop
•uselowerrevsinslipperyconditionstoavoidwheelspin,especiallywhenmovingoff.Useahighergearwhentravellingatlowspeeds
•onaslipperysurfaceaimtobrake,steerandchangegearassmoothlyaspossible,sothatyoudon’tbreakthetyregrip
•usetheprinciplesofcornering(seeChapter10)tonegotiatecornerscarefullyinslipperyconditions.
Recognisingthecauseofaskid
Ifyourvehiclelosesstabilityandaskidbeginstodevelop,youneedtorecognisethecauseoftheskid.Thecommonestcausesofskiddingare:
•drivingtoofastforthecircumstances•harshacceleration•excessiveorsuddenbraking•coarsesteering.
Askidcanbecausedbytheseactionsindividuallyorincombination.
Speedinitselfdoesnotcauseskiddingasaconstantspeedexertsnochangeinthevehicle’sbalance.Butathigherspeeds,brakingorturningplacesamuchhigherdemandontyregrip.
Eachskidisuniqueandeveryvehiclerespondsdifferently.Howyouapplytheprinciplesandtechniquesoutlinedinthischapterwilldependentirelyonthecircumstancesandonthevehicleyouaredriving.
Cause:drivingtoofastforthecircumstancesAthigherspeedsyouneedmoretyregriptocornerorstop.Whensurfacegripislow,alteringspeedordirectioncanexceedtheavailablegrip,causingaskid.Thefasteryougothemorelikelythisbecomes.Thevehicle’sownweightorachangeinroadsurfacecanreducethegripofthefrontorbacktyres.Weightinthebootwillalterthevehicle’snormalbalanceandtyregrip.
Cause:harshaccelerationHarshaccelerationcancausethewheelstospin,evenatlowspeeds.
Cause:excessiveorsuddenbrakingInoldercarswithoutABS,excessivebrakingfortheroadconditionsmaycauseskiddingbecausethetyreslosetheirgrip.
Cause:coarsesteeringAmovingvehicleusesleasttyregripwhentravellinginastraightline.Assoonasyoustarttocorneryouplaceextrademandsonthetyregrip.Ifyousteertoosharplyforthespeedyouwillcausethevehicletoundersteeroroversteer.Thismaybreakthetyregripandthevehiclewillthengointoaskid.Aimtomakeyoursteeringassmoothaspossible.
Indifferentvehicles,youmayneedtonegotiatethesamecorneratdifferentspeeds.
UndersteerandoversteerUndersteeristhetendencyofavehicletoturnless,andoversteeristhetendencyofavehicletoturnmoreinresponsetoagiventurnofthesteeringwheel.Thiscanhappenevenatlowspeeds.
Thetendencytoundersteeroroversteerisacharacteristicofthevehicleitselfcoupledwiththedriverusingexcessspeedforthecircumstances.Mostfrontwheeldrivevehiclesundersteerandsomerearwheeldrivevehiclesoversteer.However,somemodernvehiclesaredesignedtocompensateforthesetendencies.Makesureyouknowthedifferentsteeringcharacteristicsofeachvehicleyoudriveandadaptyourdrivingoncornersandbends.
Inafrontwheeldrivecar,youwillincreaseundersteerifyou:
•enterthebendtoofast•applytoomuchpowerinthebend•steertoosharply.
Youcanreducethisundersteerbyreducingpowerand/orsteering.Butifyoureducepowertoomuchandtoosuddenly,youmayconverttheundersteertooversteer(‘lift-offoversteer’).Thisisbecauseweighttransferfromthereartothefrontincreasesgripatthefrontwheelsandreducesgripattherearwheels,allowingthereartolosetractionandslide.
Arearwheeldrivecarinitiallybehavesinthesameway,butifyouapplytoomuchpoweronaslipperysurfaceanyundersteermayconvertquitesuddenlytooversteer.
Fourwheeldrivecarsprovidebettertractionallroundforaccelerationandcornering,butnotforbraking.Whendriventoextremestheybehaveinasimilarwaytothefrontorrearwheeldrivemodelfromwhichtheyarederived.
Howactivesafetysystemswork
Ifyouactivateasafetydevice,youarelosingcontrolofthevehicle.SafetydevicesarenotareplacementforRoadcraftcompetences.
Manufacturersareconstantlyseekingtoimprovevehiclestabilitywithactivesafetyfeaturesthatcanhelpsafetyandstabilityduringbraking,accelerationorsteering.Theactivesafetysystemsexplainedbeloware:
•anti-lockbrakingsystems•tractioncontrolsystems•electronicstabilityprogrammes.
Ifanactivesafetysystemisfitted,youwillseeaniconlightuponthedashboardwhenyouturnontheignitionorstarttheengine.Ifmorethanonedeviceisfitted,theymaybedisplayedseparatelyor
combinedinasinglewarninglight.
Vehiclesfittedwithactivesafetydevicesbehavedifferentlyfromvehicleswithout.
Skidcontrolinavehiclefittedwithoneormoreactivesafetysystemswilldependontheexactfeaturesfitted.Differentsystemsinterveneatdifferentpointsandsomemodelshaveadeliberatelydelayedpointofintervention.Ifyoudrivedifferentvehicles,youmusttakenoteofthemanufacturer’sadvice,andguidanceinthedriver’svehiclehandbook,sothatyoufullyunderstandhoweachvehicleislikelytobehaveinextremecircumstances.
Ifyouactivateanyoftheseactivesafetysystems,youmaynotbedrivingwithinthesafelimitsofthevehicleortheroadconditions.
Anti-lockbrakingsystemsAlmostallmodernvehiclesarefittedwithABS.Thisisanelectronicsafetydevicethataddstotheconventionalhydraulicbrakingsystembygivingyousomeabilitytosteerduringharshoremergencybraking.
Thefootbrakeappliesthebrakestoallfourwheelsatonce,butABScontrolsthebrakingappliedtoindividualwheels.Itworksbysensingwhenawheelisslowingdownandabouttolockup.Whenthishappens,ABSreleasesthebrakeonthatwheelbeforeitlocksupfully.Itre-appliesthebrakeoncethewheelstartstorotateagain.
TheadvantageofABSisthatitallowsyoutosteerthevehicleunderfullbrakingpower,becauseitpreventsthewheelslockingup.
OnceyouactivateABS,youmustmaintainmaximumpressureonthe
brakepedalthroughout.ABSmayreduceorlengthenthestoppingdistanceofthevehiclecomparedwithconventionalbrakesondifferentroadsurfacesbutitallowsthedrivertoretainsomesteeringcontrol.
ABScannotincreasethegripofthetyresontheroad,norcanitfullypreventthepossibilityofthevehicleskidding.
WhenABSisactivated,youwillseeawarninglightonthedashboardandwillfeelthebrakepedalvibrateorjuddermomentarilyasthesystemmodulatesthebrakelinepressures.IfyoubecomeawarethattheABSiscuttingin,youshouldlearnfromthisandreduceyourspeedfortherestofthejourney.
Emergencybrakeassist
Newvehiclesnowhaveemergencybrakeassist(BAorEBA)aswellasABS.EBAincreasesbrakingpressureinanemergencysituation.Ifyouapplythebrakewithspeedandforce,EBAwillcutinandfullyapplythebrakesuntiltheABStakesovertopreventthewheelslockingup.
TractioncontrolsystemsWhenyouaccelerate,itispossibleforthepowertransmittedtothedrivingwheelstoexceedtheamountofavailabletyregrip.Thisismorelikelywhenmovingoffonicyorslipperyroads,onasteephilloracceleratingoutofacorner.Thismaycausethedrivenwheelstospin.Wheelspinreducesboththevehicle’sabilitytoaccelerateanditsstability.
Atractioncontrolsystemworksbycontrollingexcesswheelspinon
individualwheels.Itappliesindependentbrakingtothespinningwheel.Somesystemsmayalsolimitthewheelturningpoweroftheenginetoincreasetyregrip.
TCSallowsyoutomakemaximumuseoftyregrip,especiallyonslipperysurfacesorwherethefrictionoftheroadsurfaceisuneven.Anexampleiswhereonewheelcangripthenormalsurfacebuttheotherslipsoniceorsnow.
IfyouactivatetheTCS,you’llseeawarninglightonthedashboard.Iftractioncontrolcutsinwhenyoupullawayfromastandstill,reducepressureontheacceleratortoregaincontrolofthesteering.Notethatifyouswitchthesystemoff,thewarninglightwillremainconstanttoadviseyouthatyounolongerhaveitsassistance.
ElectronicstabilityprogrammesAnESPisanactivesafetysystemwhichincorporatesconventionalanti-lockbrakingandtractioncontrolsystems.Itisdesignedtohelpvehiclestabilitybydetectingwhenthevehicleisdriventothelimitofitsphysicalcapabilities.
ThereismorevariationbetweentypesofESPthanbetweentypesofABSorTCS.Yourvehicle’shandbookmayexplainwhatthemanufacturer’ssystemdoes.
Sensorsateachwheelworkincombinationwithasensorthatmonitorstherotationandpitchofthevehicle–calledayawsensor.Anothersensoronthesteeringassemblydetectsthedriver’sintendedpath.Ifthesesensorsdetectthatthevehicleisnotfollowingtheintendedpath,thesystemintervenes.Itappliesthebrakestoindividualwheelsinordertocorrectundersteeroroversteerandrealignthevehicle.Itisthereforecrucialthatyousteerinthedirectionyouwanttogo.
Mostsystemsinteractwiththeenginemanagementsystem,reducingorincreasingtheenginepowertothedrivenwheels.Somealsointeractwiththetransmissionsystem.
ESPdetectsyourintendedpathsoitiscrucialthatyousteerinthedirectionyouwanttogo.
Ifyoudriveavehiclebeyonditsphysicalcapabilities,ESPdoesnotguaranteethatthevehiclewillremainstableandundercontrol.Itcannotdefythelawsofphysics.
Keypoints
•Ifyoubraketoohard,ABSpreventsthewheelfromlockingup.•Ifyouacceleratetooharshly,tractioncontrolpreventsthewheel
fromexcessivespinning.
•Ifyousteertoosharply,ESPcanhelppreventtheresultingoversteerorundersteerfromdevelopingintoaskid.
•Neverrelyonactivesafetydevices.Alwaysdriveinsuchawaythattheyarenotnecessary.
Ifyouactivateasafetysystem,workoutwhyyoumisjudgedthesituation.Honestlyassessyourdrivingbehaviourandaskyourselfwhathumanfactorsmayhaveledtotheactivation.
Howcouldyouavoidrepeatingthismistakeinfuture?
Correctingaskidinavehicle
withoutactivesafetyfeaturesIfyoudriveanoldervehiclethat’snotfittedwithanyoftheactivesafetyfeaturesdiscussedinthischapter,theactionyoutaketocorrectaskidwilldependonwhethertheskidisarearwheel,frontwheelorfourwheelskid.Youneedtobeabletorecognisedifferenttypesofskidintheearlystagessothatyoucanrespondappropriatelyandregaintyregripassoonaspossible.Thesafestwaytogainexperienceisthroughskidtrainingfromaqualifiedinstructor.Correctingaskidshouldneverbepractisedonapublicroad.
Eachskidisuniqueandeveryvehiclerespondsdifferentlysotheactionyoutakewilldependonthecircumstancesandonthevehicleyouaredriving.
AquaplaningAquaplaningoccurswhereawedgeofwaterbuildsupbetweenthefronttyresandtheroadsurface,oftenbecauseofthinorworntyretread.Widertyresaremorelikelytoaquaplane,anditcanhappenwithbrandnewtyres,ifthetyretreadgroovesarenotabletodispersewaterquicklyenough.Whetheryoubrakeorsteer,thevehiclewillnotrespond.
Thesafestsolutionistoremovepressurefromtheaccelerator,allowingthevehicletolosespeedandthetyrestoregaintheirgrip.Don’tturnthesteeringwheelwhileaquaplaningbecausethevehiclewilllurchwhicheverwaythewheelsarepointingwhenthetyresregaingrip.
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainwhyactivesafetyfeaturescaninterferewithdriverbehaviour
• explainhowtoavoidtheactionsthatreduceavehicle’sstabilityandtyregrip
• identifythecausesofskiddingandhowtominimisetherisk
• describetheprinciplesofanti-lockbrakingsystems,tractioncontrolsystemsandelectronicstabilityprogrammes.
Chapter8Driver’ssignals
LearningoutcomesThelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•demonstrateappropriateuseofthefullrangeofsignalsavailabletoyouindifferentsituations
•showappropriateresponsestoandcautionininterpretingsignalsgivenbyothers
•showthatyoumakeactiveuseofcourtesysignals.
DevelopingyourcompetenceatusingsignalsUsingsignalsmayseemtobeabasiccompetence,butmanydriversdon’tusethefullrangeofavailablesignalsconsistentlyortobesteffect.Thischapterwillhelpyouimproveyourcompetenceatusingsignals.
Givinginformationtootherroadusersisakeypartofinformationprocessinginthesystemofcarcontrol.SeeChapter2,Thesystemofcarcontrol,page27,Theimportanceofinformation.
SeealsoChapter13,Emergencyresponse,forfurtherinformationaboutthesignalsavailabletoemergencyservicesinresponsesituations.
ThepurposeofsignalsSignalsinformotherroadusersofyourpresenceorintentions.Thinkbeforeyousignal.Indiscriminatesignallingisnothelpfultoanyone.
Giveasignalwheneveritcouldbenefitotherroadusers.
Ifyoudecideasignalisnecessary,signalclearlyandingoodtime.Alwaysmakesurethemeaningofyoursignalisclear.Sometimesasignalisnotinitselfenoughtomakeyourintentionsclearandotherroadusersmayuseyourpositionandspeedtointerpretwhatyoursignalsmean.Whennegotiatingaroundabout,forexample,yoursignalsmaybemisinterpretedifyouhaven’ttakenupthecorrectpositionforyourintendedexit.
Keypoints
•Considertheneedtogiveasignalontheapproachtoeveryhazard,andbeforeyouchangedirectionorspeed.
•Giveasignalwheneveritcouldbenefitotherroadusers.•Rememberthatsignallingdoesnotgiveyouanyspecialrightto
carryouttheactionsyouindicate.
•FollowtheHighwayCode–checkyourmirrorsbeforeyousignalormanoeuvre.
InterpretingsignalsgivenbyothersYoualsoneedtobecautiousabouthowyouinterpretthesignalsofotherroadusers.Forexample,doesavehicleflashingtheleft-handindicatormeanthatthedriverintendsto:
•parkthevehicle,possiblyimmediatelyafteraleft-handjunction?•turnintoaleft-handjunction?•carrystraighton,havingforgottentocancelthelastsignal?
TherangeofsignalsThesignalsavailabletoyouare:
•indicators
•hazardwarninglights•brakelights•headlights•positionofyourvehicle•hornsignals•armsignals•courtesysignals(forexample,raisingahandtothankanother
driver).
Selectthemosteffectivesignalforthejob.Youmustgiveyoursignalinplentyoftimeifitistobenefitotherroadusers.Beawarethatwhenyouchangethespeedorpositionofyourvehicleyouarealsogivinginformationtootherroadusers.Notethatheavygoodsvehicles(HGVs)initiallymovetotherightinordertoturnleft.
UsingtheindicatorsTheHighwayCodeadvisesyoutogiveasignalwhenanotherroadusercouldbenefit.Useobservationtoanticipatewhenasignalmaybeneeded.Thisencouragesyoutobeawareofotherroadusersatalltimes,especiallythosebehindyou.Italsoreducesunnecessaryhandmovementsandsignalclutter.
Ifindoubt,it’sbettertosignalthannottosignal.
Thepurposeofsignalsistowarnotherroadusersofyourpresenceand/oryourintentionandtogiveyouadequatetimetoachieveitspurpose.Signalsareinformativeanddonotgiverightofway.
Onesignalshouldnotcovertwomanoeuvres.
CancellingindicatorsignalsNevertakeanindicatorsignalasproofofanotherdriver’sintentionwhenyouarewaitingtoemergefromasideturning.Lookforsupportingevidencesuchasanobviousslowingdownorwheelsturningbeforeyoumoveout.
Indicatormechanismsdon’talwaysself-cancel,especiallywhenaturnisfollowedbyabendinthesamedirection.Takecaretocanceltheindicatormanuallyinsuchsituations–forexample,whenexitingfromaroundabout.
Howclearareyoursignalstootherroadusers?
•Doyoualwayssignalwhenanotherroadusercouldbenefit?•Doyousignalyourintentionsclearlyandingoodtime?•Wherepossible,doyouchooseapositionthathelpstomakeyourintentions
cleartootherroadusers?
UsinghazardwarninglightsConsiderusinghazardlightstoalertotherdriverstoyourpresencewhenyouhavestopped.Don’tusehazardlightswhenmovingexceptonunrestrictedmulti-lanecarriagewaysandmotorways.Hereyoucanusehazardlightsbrieflytowarnthevehiclesbehindyouthatthereisahold-upahead.
UsingbrakelightsUsebrakelightstoindicateeitherslowingdownoryourintentiontostop.Alwayscheckyourmirrorsbeforeusingyourbrakesunlessyouaredoinganemergencystop.
•Startbrakingwellinadvanceofananticipatedhazardtoalertthedriverbehindthatyoumeantoslowdownorstop,especiallyifthevehiclebehindistooclose.Avoid‘dabbing’thebrakes:ifyourbrakelightsflashonandoffbutyoudon’tslowdown,youwillconfusethedriversbehindyou.
•Rememberthatrearfoglightsarebrighterthanbrakelightsandmaymaskthemwhenyouareslowingdown.
UsingthehornOnlyusethehornwhenitisnecessarytowarnotherroadusersofyourpresence.Ifyouseethatanotherroaduserisnotawareofyourpresence,firstchooseanappropriatepositionandspeedsothatyoucanstopsafely.
Considerusingthehornontheapproachtohazardswheretheviewisverylimited,suchasablindsummitorbridgeonasingletrackroad.Neverusethehorntochallengeorrebukeotherroadusers.Adjustthelengthofthehornnoteaccordingtothecircumstances.
Asalastresort,itcouldbebeneficialtousethehorn:
•towarnanotherroaduserwhoisnotawareofyou(pedestriansandcyclists–especiallychildren–aremostatrisk)
•towarntheoccupantsofparkedvehiclesofyourpresence.
•whenyouapproachahazardwheretheviewisverylimited–forexample,ablindbendorasteephumpbridgeonasingletrackroad
FlashingyourheadlightsFlashyourheadlightswhenthehornwouldnotbeheard,andinplaceofthehornatnight.Youshouldflashyourheadlightsforonepurposeonly:toinformotherroadusersthatyouarethere–notasasignaltocomeon.Neverassumethatanotherdriverflashingtheirheadlightsisasignaltoproceed.
Useaheadlightflashindaylight:
•whenspeedmakesitlikelythatthehornwouldnotbeheard–forexample,onamotorwayorwhensignallingtoalorrydriverinanenclosedcab
•toalertotherdriverstoyourpresencewhenyouareapproachingfrombehind.
Useyourjudgementtodecidethedurationoftheflashandhowfarinadvanceyoushouldgiveit.Thisiscriticalandwilldependonyourspeed.Thepurposeofflashingyourheadlightsissolelytoinformtheotherdriverofyourpresence.Itdoesnotgiveyoutherighttoovertakeregardlessofthecircumstances.
Duringdarkness,flashyourheadlightstoinformotherroadusersofyourpresence,forexample:
•ontheapproachtoahillcrestornarrowhumpbridge•whentravellingalongnarrowwindingroads.
Don’tflashyourheadlightswhentheymightbemisunderstoodbyroadusersforwhomtheyarenotintended.
ArmsignalsIfyouneedtouseanarmsignal,followtheHighwayCodeadvice.Beawarethatmanydriversmaynotunderstandthemastheyarerarelyused.
UsingcourtesysingnalsCourtesysignalsencouragecooperativeuseoftheroadspaceandhelptopromoteroadsafety.Acknowledgingthecourtesyofotherroadusersencouragesgooddrivingandhelpsfosterpositiveattitudes.Usingacourtesysignaltodefuseapotentialconflictcanmakearealdifferencetoroadsafety.Usecourtesysignals:
•tothankanotherdriverforlettingyougofirst•toapologisewhenyouhaveunintentionallycausedinconvenienceto
anotherroaduser.
Useeitherhandtogiveacourtesysignalbutnotattheriskofyoursteeringcontrol.Youcansignalwithoutremovingyourhandfromthewheelbyraisingyourpalmornoddingyourhead.Oryoucanaskyourpassengertosignalforyou.Butmakesurethatyourcourtesysignalcannotbemistakenfora‘wavingon’signal.
•Doyouthinkyoutendtogivecourtesysignalsmoreorlessoftenthanotherdrivers?
Onyournextfewjourneys,makeaconsciousefforttogiveandacknowledgecourtesysignals.
•Howdoesthisaffectyourownstateofmind?•Howdoesitinfluencetheactionsofotherdrivers?
Respondingtootherpeople’ssignalsTreatwithcautionanysignalsotherthanthosegivenbyauthorisedofficials.Ifsomeonebeckonsyoutomoveforward–forexample,anarmsignalfromacyclistormotorcyclist–alwayscheckforyourselfwhetheritissafetodoso.Checkthatyou’refamiliarwiththerangeofarmsignalssetoutintheHighwayCode.
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• demonstrateappropriateuseofthefullrangeofsignalsavailabletoyouindifferentsituations
• showappropriateresponsestoandcautionininterpretingsignalsgivenbyothers
• showthatyoumakeactiveuseofcourtesysignals.
Chapter9
Positioning
Learningoutcomes
Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•explainhowtopositionyourvehiclesafelyontheapproachtohazards
•showhowtopositionyourvehicletogetthebestviewintonearsidejunctions
•showhowtopositionyourvehicleappropriatelyforfollowingothervehicles,turningandstopping.
DevelopingcompetenceatpositioningyourvehicleForadviceonpositioningonthemotorway,seeChapter12,Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways.
Positioningisacrucialelementinthesystemofcarcontrol.SeeChapter2,Thesystemofcarcontrol,page29.
Theidealroadpositiondependsonmanythings:safety,observation,thesizeofthevehicle,trafficconditions,roadlayout,cornering,manoeuvrability,assistingtrafficflowandmakingyourintentions
clear.Alwaysconsidersafetybeforeanythingelse,andneversacrificesafetyforanyotheradvantage.
Putthecarinthebestpositionforyoutoseeandbeseen,withdueregardtosafety.
SafetypositionontheapproachtohazardsBycarefullychoosingyourpositionyoucanreducetheriskofhavingacollision.Beawareofhazardsonbothsidesofyourvehicle.Tothenearsidethereisariskofcomingintoconflictwithcyclistsandpedestrians(especiallychildren),andparkedvehiclesandtheiroccupants.Youalsoneedtobeawareofothervehiclespullingout
fromjunctions.Totheoffside,thereisariskofcomingintoconflictwithoncomingvehiclesinthecentreoftheroad.
Betweenthetwoextremesisazonethatisrelativelyfreeofhazards,butalwaysadaptyourpositionandspeedtotheactualcircumstances.
Thesystemofcarcontrolprovidesasafeandmethodicalapproachtohazards.Dangerscancomefromanywherebutyouwillgenerallyhavelesstimetoreacttohazardscomingfromthenearside.Onnarrowroadsandinone-waysystems,youneedtopayequalattentiontobothsidesoftheroad.
RoadsidehazardsCommonroadsidehazardstolookoutforare:
•pedestrians,especiallychildren,steppingoffthefootpath•parkedvehiclesandtheiroccupants•cyclists,especiallychildren•horses•runners–wherethereisnofootpath•concealedjunctions•surfacewaterorsprayfromkerbsidepuddles.
Ifyouidentifyhazardsonthenearside,takeapositionclosertothecentreoftheroad.Thishastwobenefits:
•itgivesyouabetterview•itprovidesmorespaceinwhichtotakeavoidingactionifyouneed
to.
Ifoncomingtrafficmakesitunsafetotakethisposition,oriftheroad
istoonarrow,reduceyourspeed.Thereisanimportanttrade-offbetweenyourspeedandtheclearancearoundyourvehicle.Thenarrowerthegap,theslowerthespeed.Bepreparedtostopifnecessary.
Keepasfarfromrowsofparkedvehiclesascircumstancesallow.Agoodruleofthumbistoleaveatleastenoughspaceforanopeningdoortothesideofanyparkedvehicles.Ifyoucan’tmoveout,slowdown.
Oneinthreechildrenhitbyacardoesnotlookfirst.
Getintothehabitofaskingyourself:‘CouldIstopintimeifachildranout?’
Cyclistsandmotorcyclists
Whendrivingintown,bealerttothebehaviourofcyclistsandmotorcyclists,especiallyifyou’redrivingalargevehiclewithlimitednearsidevisibility.Beawarethatcyclistsandmotorcyclistsmayattempttoovertakeonyournearsideorfilterthroughnarrowgapsinthetraffic.
ImprovingtheviewintonearsideroadjunctionsPositionyourselfsothatyoucanseeasmuchoftheroadaheadaspossibleandsothatotherroaduserscanseeyou.Youcanimproveyourviewintonearsideroadsbypositioningyourvehicletowardsthecentreoftheroad.Thisalsomakesyoumorevisibletovehiclespullingoutfromnearsidejunctions.Youmusttakeintoaccountanyvehiclesontheothersideoftheroad.Takeapositionthatminimisestheoveralldangerfrombothsidesoftheroad.
FollowingpositionInastreamoftraffic,alwayskeepasafedistancebehindthevehicleinfront.Followthetwo-secondrule.Leaveagapofatleasttwosecondsbetweenyouandthevehicleinfront,dependingonconditions.SeeChapter5,Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering,page109,Thetwo-secondrule.
Keepingyourdistanceincreasesyoursafetybecause:
•youhaveagoodview,andcanincreaseitalongbothsidesbyslightchangesofposition–thisenablesyoutobefullyawareofwhatishappeningontheroadahead
•youcanstopyourvehiclesafelyifthedriverinfrontbrakesfirmly
withoutwarning
•youcanextendyourbrakingdistancesothatthedriverbehindhasmoretimetoreact,especiallyiftheyaredrivingtooclose
•youcanseewhenit’ssafetomoveintotheovertakingposition•inwetweather,yougetlesssprayfromthevehicleinfront.
Overtakingposition
Ifyouintendtoovertake,adjustyourposition.SeeChapter11,Overtaking,page195.
PositionforturningYourpositionforturningdependsontheothertraffic,theroadwidthandlayout,thesizeofyourvehicle,thepositionofanyobstaclesandtheeffectoftheseobstaclesontrafficbehaviour.Takeinformationontheapproachtohelpyoudecideonthebestposition.Generallythe
bestpositionontheapproachtoajunctionisinthemiddleoftheroadforaleftturnandtowardsthecentrelineforarightturn.
Ifyouintendtoturnrightandoncomingtrafficisencroachingonyoursideoftheroad,movebackinfromthecentreline.
Ifyouintendtoturnleftandthecornerhasasharpangle,isobscured,orpedestriansarepresent,approachthecornerfromfurtheroutthannormal.Movefurtheroutingoodtime.Avoid‘swannecking’–approachingclosetothenearsideandthenswingingouttotherightjustbeforeturningintothejunction.Thiscanmisleadotherdriversaboutyourintentions.
PositionatcrossroadsWhenturningrightatcrossroadsandtheoncomingvehicleisalsoturningright,thereisachoiceoftwopositions.Yourchoicewilldependontheroadlayoutandmarkings,andthepositionoftheothervehicle:
•passoffsidetooffside–thisgivesyouabetterview•passnearsidetonearsidewheretrafficconditions,thejunction
layoutorthepositionoftheothervehiclemakesoffsidetooffsideimpractical.
Takeextracareonanearsidetonearsidepassbecauseyourviewoftheroadisblockedbytheothervehicle.Lookcarefullyforoncomingtraffic.
PositionforstoppingbehindothervehiclesBeforeyoucometoastop,thinkaboutyournextmove.Positionyourvehiclesothatyoucancontinuewithminimuminconveniencetoyourselfandotherroadusers.Youshouldbeabletoseethereartyresofthevehicleinfrontandsomeemptytarmac.
Remember,think‘rubberandroad’or‘tyresandtarmac’.
Stoppingwellshortofthevehicleinfrontgivesyouseveraladvantages:
•agoodviewoftheroad•roomtomovearoundthevehicleaheadifitstallsorbreaksdown•ifyouarehitfrombehind,thevehicleaheadislesslikelytobe
affected
•thespaceinfrontofyouisasafehavenforabikeormotorcycle•ifyoubecomeawarethatavehicleapproachingbehindhasleft
brakingtoolate,youcanmoveforwardtoallowitextraspacetostopin
•facinguphill,ifthevehicleaheadstartstorollbacktowardsyou,youhavetimetowarnthedriver.
Anexampleofusingyourstoppingpositiontoincreasesafetyiswheretherearetrafficlightsatroadworksclosetoabend.Considerstoppingbeforeorontheapproachtothebendsothatdriverswhocomeupbehindcanseeyou.
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainhowtopositionyourvehiclesafelyontheapproachtohazards
• showhowtopositionyourvehicletogetthebestviewintonearsidejunctions
• showhowtopositionyourvehicleappropriatelyforfollowingothervehicles,turningandstopping.
Chapter10
Cornering
Learningoutcomes
Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•explaintheprinciplesofsafecornering•describetheforcesinvolvedincorneringandthefactorsthataffect
yourvehicle’sabilitytocorner
•showhowtousethelimitpointtoassessyourspeedforbendsandcorners
•showhowtopositionyourvehicleforthebestviewwhencornering•showhowtousethesystemofcarcontrolforcornering.
DevelopingyourcompetenceatcorneringCornering–drivingacarroundacorner,curveorbend–isoneofthemaindrivingactivities,anditisimportanttogetitright.Whenyoucorner,yourvehiclelosesstabilityandyouplaceextrademandsonthetyregripavailable.Thefasteryougoandthetighterthebend,thegreaterthesedemandsare.
Almosthalfofallfatalcollisionsfordriversunder30aretheresultofthedriverlosingcontrolonabendoracurve.
Thischapterexplainshowtoapplythesystemofcarcontroltocornering.Westartwithsomegeneralprinciplesandthenlookattheforcesinvolvedincornering,thefactorsaffectingyourvehicle’sabilitytocornersafely,andhowtousethesystemofcarcontrolinconjunctionwithlimitpointanalysistocornersafely.SeeChapter2,Thesystemofcarcontrol,page28.
UsingthesystemtocornersafelyCorneringispotentiallydangeroussoyoushouldusethesystemofcarcontroltohelpyoucarryoutthemanoeuvresafely.Eachphaseofthesystemisrelevantbutprocessinginformationisespeciallyimportant.Correctlyassessingtheseverityofthebendisessentialforsafety.
Keyprinciplesforsafecornering
•Makesurethatyourvehicleisinthecorrectpositionontheapproach.
•Travelatthecorrectspeedforthecornerorbend.•Selectthecorrectgearforthatspeed.•Usetheacceleratortomaintainaconstantspeedthroughthe
bend.
•Beabletostopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.
Applyingtheseprinciplestothevariationsinbend,visibility,traffic
conditions,roadsurfaceconditionsandotherfactorscallsforgoodjudgementandplanning.Beforelookinginmoredetailatusingthesystemofcarcontrolforcornering,thinkaboutthefactorsthataffectavehicle’sabilitytocornersafely.
CorneringforcesAmovingvehicleismoststablewhenitsweightisevenlydistributed,itsengineisjustpullingwithoutincreasingroadspeed,anditistravellinginastraightline.Itwillcontinuetotravelinastraightlineunlessyouapplysomeotherforcetoalteritsdirection.Whenyousteer,theturningforcetoalterdirectioncomesfromtheactionofthefronttyresontheroad.YousawinChapter5(page87)thatthisforcedependsontyregrip.Ifthefronttyregripisbroken,thecarwillcontinueinastraightline.Ontighterbends,athigherspeedsandinheaviervehicles,thedemandsontyregriparegreater.
Threeforcesreducestabilityand,ultimately,tyregrip:
•steering•accelerating•braking.
Themoreyoubrakeoraccelerate,thelesstyregripyouhavefor
steering.Thefasteryougointoacornerorbend,themoreyoureducestabilityandthemoretyregripyouneedtokeepyourposition.
Ifoneormoreoftheseforcescauseslossoftyregrip,thevehiclewillcontinueinastraightlineratherthanturning.Soinaleft-handbend,asyoulosetyregrip,yourvehicledriftstotherightofyourintendedpositionandinaright-handbenditdriftstotheleft.Thedesignofthevehiclewillreduceorincreasethiseffect.
Vehiclecharacteristics
Roadworthiness
Vehiclesvaryintheircapacitytocorner,andtheyonlycornerefficientlyiftheyarewellmaintained.Steering,suspension,shockabsorbers,tyres,tyrepressuresandtheloadingofthevehicleallaffectitsbalanceandtyregripwhencornering.Positionloadsevenlysotheydon’tupsetthebalanceofthevehicle.
Makesurethatyourvehicleandtyresareingoodconditionandthatyoukeepyourtyrepressuresattherecommendedlevels.
VehiclespecificationThespecificationsthataffectthehandlingcharacteristicsofavehicleinclude:
•thetypeofdrive–frontwheel,rearwheelorfourwheel•suspensionanddamping•thedriveratioandcentraldifferentialcharacteristicsonafourwheel
drivevehicle
•activevehiclesafetysystems•thetypeandsizeofvehicle,whethercommercialvehicleorcar•thevehicle’scentreofgravity.
UndersteerandoversteerUndersteeristhetendencyofavehicletoturnless,andoversteeristhetendencyofavehicletoturnmore,inresponsetoagiventurnofthesteeringwheel.Thetendencytoundersteeroroversteerisacharacteristicofthevehicleitselfanddependsmainlyonwhatsortofdrivethevehiclehas.Makesureyouknowthedifferentsteering
characteristicsofeachvehicleyoudriveandadaptyourdrivingoncornersandbends.SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability,page135,Understeerandoversteer.
CamberandsuperelevationRoadsurfacesusuallyslopetohelpdrainage.Thenormalslopefallsfromthecrownoftheroadtotheedgesandiscalledcrowncamber.
•Onaleft-handbendcamberincreasestheeffectofyoursteeringbecausetheroadslopesdowninthedirectionoftheturn.
•Onaright-handbendcamberreducestheeffectofsteeringbecausetheroadslopesawayfromthedirectionoftheturn.
Thisappliesifyoukeeptoyourownsideoftheroadbutifyoucrossoverthecrowntotheothersideoftheroad,thecamberwillhavetheoppositeeffectonyoursteering.
Inmanyplaces,especiallyatjunctions,theslopeacrosstheroadsurfacecanbeatanunexpectedangle.Whatevertheslope,ifitfallsinthedirectionofyourturnitwillincreasetheeffectofyoursteeringbutifitrisesinthedirectionofyourturnitwillreducetheeffectofyoursteering.Takethisintoaccountwhendecidingyourpositionandspeedforabend.
Superelevationiswherethewholewidthoftheroadisbankeduptowardstheoutsideedgeofthebend,makingtheslopefavourableforcorneringinbothdirections(similartobankingonaracetrack).
Pickoutoneortwosectionsoffamiliarroadwherecorneringistrickyandworkoutwhetherunexpectedcamberisafactor.
Analysehowyoutookthecornerandmakeanhonestassessmentofyour
driving.Didyoumakethecorrectdecisionaboutthebestpositionandspeedtoadoptforthebend,forexample?
SummaryoffactorsaffectingcorneringThefactorsthatdetermineyourvehicle’sabilitytocornerare:
•thespecificationandconditionofyourvehicle,includingthetyres•yourspeed•theamountofsteeringyouapply•theamountofaccelerationorbraking•theslopeacrosstheroadsurface–camberandsuperelevation•theroadsurfaceandhowtheweatherhasaffecteditsgrip.
ThesystemofcarcontrolandthelimitpointTodrivesafelyyoumustbeabletostopwithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad–thatis,thedistancebetweenyouandthelimitpoint.Thinkofthelimitpointasaperceptiontoolthatwillhelpyoutoaccuratelynegotiateacornerorbend.
Thesystemofcarcontrolhelpsyouplanhowtoapproachandnegotiatecornersandbends.Informationprocessingandthefourphasesofthesystem–position,speed,gearandacceleration–arethekeyfactorsthatyoumustconsiderwhencornering.
Asyouapproachabend,seekasmuchinformationaspossibleabouttheseverityofthebendusingalltheobservationalclues(weather,roadsurface,roadsigns,roadmarkings,thelinemadebylamppostsandtrees,thespeedandpositionofoncomingtraffic,theangleofheadlightsatnight,etc)thatareavailabletoyou.Themoreinformationyougatheraboutthebend,themoreaccuratelyyouwillbeabletojudgethebestpositionandspeedtonegotiateit.
Thelimitpointgivesyouasystematicwayofjudgingthecorrectspeedtousethroughthebend.
SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,page48,Planning.
HowtousethelimitpointtohelpyoucornerThelimitpointisthefurthestpointtowhichyouhaveanuninterruptedviewoftheroadsurface.Thisiswheretheright-hand
edgeoftheroadappearstomeettheleft-handedgeinthedistance.Themoredistantthelimitpoint,thefasteryoucangobecauseyouhavemorespacetostopin.Thecloserthelimitpoint,thesloweryoumustgobecauseyouhavelessspacetostopin.
Onaleft-handbend,youshoulddriveasthoughthelimitpointiswheretheedgeoftheroadmeetsthecentralwhiteline(orthecentreoftheroadifthereisnowhiteline)sothatyoucanstopsafelyonyourownsideoftheroad.
Watchingthelimitpointenablesyoutomatchyourspeedtothespeedatwhichthispointappearstomove.Ifitismovingawayfromyou,youmayaccelerate.Ifitiscomingclosertoyouorstandingstill,youmustdecelerateorbrake.Evenwhenthebendisnotconstant,youcanstillmatchyourspeedtotheapparentmovementofthelimitpoint,becausethiswillvarywiththecurvatureofthebend.Accelerationsenseisusefulhere.
Usingthelimitpointtogetherwiththesystemhelpsyou:
•adjustyourspeedsoyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad
•decidethecorrectspeedtoapproachandnegotiatethebend•selectthecorrectgearforthespeed•decidethepointatwhichtostartaccelerating.
Usingthelimitpoint
Readthediagramfromthebottomofthepageupwards.
Approachingthebend
Atfirstthelimitpoint appearstoremainstationary.Adjustyourspeedsoyoucanstopsafelywithintheremainingdistance.Asyouapproachthebend,takeinformationaboutthesharpnessofthebendandcarefullyassesstheappropriatespeedforcornering.
Justbeforeyouenterthebend
Justbeforeyouenterthebendthelimitpoint beginstomoveroundataconstantspeed.Adjustyourspeedtothespeedofthismovement.Younowhavethecorrectspeedtogoroundthebend.Selectthegeartomatchthisspeedbeforeenteringthebend.Usetheacceleratortomaintainaconstantspeedformaximumstabilitythroughthebend.
Goingthroughthebend
Asthebendstartstostraightenoutyourviewbeginstoopenup,andthelimitpoint startstomoveawaymorequickly.Youcanthenacceleratesteadilyasyoustraightenyoursteering.
Thelimitpointtechniqueisself-adjusting–asroadvisibilityandconditionsdeteriorateyouneedmoredistanceinwhichtostop,andsoyoumustreduceyourspeedtocompensate.
Usethelimitpointaswellasotherobservationlinks–getintothehabitoflookingacrossorbeyondthebendasyouapproachit.Youmayspotahazardjustafterthebend–forexample,awarningsignorachevronmarkerindicatingafurtherbend.Inthiscaseitwouldbeinappropriatetousethelimitpointalonetosetyourspeed.
Wherearoadisnotwideenoughfortwovehiclestopass,considerdoublingyourstoppingdistancetogiveanoncomingvehicleenoughspacetostopaswell.Onaleft-handbendonasingletrackroad,thelimitpointiswherethetwokerblinesmeet.
Practisematchingyourspeedtothemovementofthelimitpoint.
Trythisondifferenttypesofbend–fromverygradualtohairpin–andnotehowusingthelimitpointenablesyoutoadjusttothecharacteristicsofeachbend.Alwaysadjustyourspeedsothatyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclear.
Makeaspecialpointofusingthelimitpointtosetyourspeedforbendsandcornersonroadsyouknowwell.Itisonfamiliarroutesthatyourattentionismostlikelytowander.
ThedoubleapexbendSomebendshavebeendeliberatelyengineeredwithatighteningcurveor‘doubleapex’.Thishasprovedacauseofseriouscrashesonleft-handbends,particularlyformotorcyclists.Inthistypeofbend,thecurvethatthedriverinitiallyseesontheapproachtothebendcontinuestotightensothefinalcurveismuchsharper.Ifyouplanforthewholebendonthebasisofthecurvethatyouseeinitially,youruntheriskofendingupinthepathofoncomingtraffic.
Carefulobservationandusingthesystemofcarcontroltomatchyour
speedtothelimitpointshouldhelpyoutoaccuratelynegotiatedeceptivebendsliketheonebelow.
Onanunfamiliarbend,bepreparedifnecessarytoadjustyoursteeringasyoutravelaroundthebend.
Howtousethesystemforcornering
Information
Ontheapproachtoacornerorbendyoushouldbeconstantlyscanningtheroadforinformation,especiallyabout:
•trafficinfrontandbehind•theroadsurfaceandtheeffectofweatherconditionsonit•thelimitpoint.
Wheneveryoucan,lookacrossthebendthroughgapsinhedgesorbetweenbuildingsformoreinformation.Usethecurvedlineofhedgerowsandlamppoststogiveyouinformationabouttheseverityofthebend.Lookforearlywarningofotherhazardsaswell.
Matchyourspeedtothespeedatwhichthelimitpointmovesawayfromyou,providedyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistancethatyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.
Position
Whenpositioningyourvehicleforcorneringyouneedtoconsider:
•safety•view•stability.
Safety
Positionyourselfsothatyouareleastlikelytocomeintoconflictwithotherroadusers–forexample,lookoutforpedestrianstoyournearsideandoncomingtraffictoyouroffside.Neversacrificesafetyforposition.
Gettingthebestview
Yourpositionwilldeterminehowmuchyoucanseewhenyouenterabend.Putthecarinthebestpositionforyoutosee,withdueregardtosafety.Thepositionthatgivesyoutheclearestviewisdifferentforaleft-handbendandright-handbend.
•Right-handbends–positionyourselftowardstheleftofyourroadspace,whereappropriate.Butwatchoutforpoorconditionofthenearsideroadsurface,blindjunctionsorexits,andadversecamber.
•Left-handbends–positionyourselftowardsthecentrelinesothatyougetanearlyviewroundthebend.Beforeyoutakethis
position,consider:
›approachingtrafficorotheroffsidedangerswhichneedagreatermarginofsafety
›whetheryourpositionmightmisleadothertrafficastoyourintentions
›whetherornotyouwillgainanyadvantageatlowspeedoronanopenbend.
Don’tpositionyourselfinawaythatcausesconcerntootherroadusers.Bepreparedtomodifyyourpositionforsafety
Speed
Whenyouareinthecorrectpositionforthebend,usethelimitpointtojudgethesafespeedtodriveroundthebend.Wherethebendisaconstantcurve,thelimitpointremainsataconstantdistancefromyou.Keepyourspeedconstant.Ifthecurvechanges,re-assessyourspeedandre-applythesystem.
Toassessthecorrectspeedforabend,alsoconsider:
•theseverityofthebend•theviewintothebend•yourvehicle’scharacteristics•roadandroadsurfaceconditions•trafficconditions•weatherconditions•roadwidth.
Rememberyouraimistobeabletostopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad,nottotakethebendasfastaspossible.
Gear
Whenyouhaveachievedthecorrectentryspeed,choosetheappropriategearforthatspeed.Selectthegearthatgivesyouthegreatestflexibilitytoleavethebendsafely.SeeChapter5,Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering,page96,Usingthegears.
Acceleration
Wherethebendisaconstantcurve,thelimitpointremainsataconstantdistancefromyou.Applygentlepressuretotheacceleratortomaintainaconstantroadspeedthroughthecurve,ifyoucan.
Remember,ifthebendtightens,thelimitpointwillappeartomovecloser,soreduceyourspeedaccordinglytostaywithinasafestoppingdistance.
Iftherearenohazards,starttoacceleratewhenthelimitpointbeginstomoveawayandyoubegintostraightenyoursteering.
Asyoucontinuetostraightenyoursteering,increaseaccelerationtomatchthelimitpoint.Accelerateuntilyoureachthespeedlimitortheappropriatespeedforthecircumstances.
Safecornering
Thinkaboutyourdrivingbehaviouronmoreopenroads.Asyouplanyourapproachtocorners,whatisyourpriority?
•Doesthepurposeofyourjourneymakeadifferencetoyourdecision-making–forexample,ifyou’reundertimepressure?
•Whatotherhumanfactorsmightaffectyourdrivingdecisions?
•Howdoyouthinkaboutthecorrectspeedforthebend?Isyouraimtomaximisespeedortoachieveasafestoppingdistance?
•Doyoumakethebestpossibleuseofobservationlinkstohelpplanyourapproachtoacorner?
•Doyoupositionyourselftogetthebestpossibleviewwhencornering,withdueregardtosafety?
Nexttimeyoumeetasignificantcorneronanopenroad,askyourself:‘Whatifthereisapedestrianintheroadjustbeyondmylimitpoint?’Doesthisalteryourdriving?
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explaintheprinciplesofsafecornering
• describetheforcesinvolvedincorneringandthefactorsthataffectyourvehicle’sabilitytocorner
• showhowtousethelimitpointtoassessyourspeedforbendsandcorners
• showhowtopositionyourvehicleforthebestviewwhencornering
• showhowtousethesystemofcarcontrolforcornering.
Chapter11
Overtaking
Learningoutcomes
Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•explaintherisksofovertaking•showhowtousethefollowingandovertakingpositionsafely•showhowtoassessandovertakedifferenttypesofhazardssafelyin
awiderangeofcircumstances
•explainhowtohelpotherdriverstoovertakeyou.
DevelopingyourcompetenceatovertakingsafelyOvertakingishazardousbecauseitmaybringyouintothepathofothervehicles.Itisacomplexmanoeuvreinwhichyouneedtoconsidertheprimaryhazardofthevehicle(s)youwanttoovertake,aswellasanumberofsecondaryhazardsastheprimaryhazardmovesamongstthem.Itrequiresyoutonegotiatedynamichazards(movingvehicles)aswellasfixedones(e.g.roadlayout).
Thissectiondescribesthegeneralprinciplesofusingthesystemofcarcontroltodothismanoeuvresafely.Trainingwillfurtherdevelop
yourabilitytoapplythesystemtodynamichazardsinpractice.
Thehazardsofovertaking
Overtakingisahigh-riskmanoeuvrebecauseyouarepotentiallyputtingyourvehicleintothepathofoncomingtraffic.Ifyouaretravellingathighspeedandcollidewithanoncomingvehicle,thespeedofimpactwillbethecombinedspeedofbothvehicles.
•Around1in20ofallcaroccupantskilledinacrasharekilledwhenthecarisovertaking.
•Manyovertakingdeathsareduetoheadoncollisionsonruralroads.
•Theriskofdeathinaheadoncollisionat60mphis90%.
Keysafetypoints
Wheneveryouconsiderovertaking,alwaysaskyourself:•DoIneedto?•Isitnecessaryorappropriateinthecircumstances?•Ismyvehiclecapableofovertaking?
•Don’tovertakeifyoucan’tseefarenoughaheadtobesureit’ssafe.
•Avoidcausingothervehicles(overtaken,followingoroncoming)toalterpositionorspeed.
•Beforestartingtoovertake,alwaysensureyoucanmovebacktothenearsideinplentyoftime.
•Alwaysbereadytoabandonovertakingifanewhazardcomesintoview.
•Don’tovertakeinsituationswhereyoumightcomeintoconflictwithotherroadusers.
•Whenpossible,avoidovertakingthreeabreasttoleaveyourselfamarginofsafety.
•Neverovertakeonthenearsideonmulti-lanecarriagewaysexceptinslow-movingqueuesoftrafficwhereoffsidequeuesaremovingmoreslowly.
•Neverusethehardshoulderforovertaking,evenwhereanactivetrafficmanagement(ATM)schemeisinforceandthehardshoulderisavailableasarunninglane.
Overtakingispotentiallydangerousandyouneedgoodjudgementifitistobesafe.Thiscomeswithexperienceandpracticebutevenexperienceddriversneedtobeextremelycautious.Alwaysbepatientandleaveamarginofsafetytoallowforerrors.Beforeyouovertake,assesswhetheryourvehicleiscapableoftheovertakingmanoeuvreyou’replanning.
Isyourvehiclecapableofovertaking?
Areyoufamiliarwiththevehicle’scapabilitiesandcharacteristics?Areyoudrivingahighperformanceorlargevehicle,forexample?
Areyousurethatthevehiclewillgiveyouenoughacceleration?
Canyouachievethenecessaryspeed?
Haveyouassessedyourvehicle’scapabilityinrelationtotheroaduseryou’reovertaking?Forexample,overtakingalongvehiclewillrequiremorecapabilitythanacyclist.
Haveyoutakenaccountoftheloadyou’recarrying?Haveyougotpassengers
orafullboot?
Rememberthatovertakingisyourdecisionandyoucanreconsideritatanypoint.Butbeawareifyoustarttoovertakeandtheninthelightofnewinformationyouabort,thevehiclebehindcouldmoveintoyourspace,leavingyoumarooned.Ifindoubt,holdback.
StationaryvehiclesWhenpassingstationaryvehicles,usethesystemtoapproachandassessthehazardandtopassitsafely.Takeaccountofthepositionandspeedofoncomingtraffic,thepositionandspeedoffollowingtrafficandthepresenceofpedestriansorotherroadsidehazards,especiallyonthenearside(seeChapter9,Positioning).Ifthesituationallows,leaveatleastadoor’swidthwhenpassingastationaryvehicle.
MovingvehiclesOvertakingamovingvehicleismorecomplicatedbecausethesituationischangingallthetime.Youneedtoconsiderthespeedandaccelerationcapabilitiesofyourownvehicle,thephysicalfeaturesoftheroadandtherelativespeedsofothervehicles.Youalsoneedagoodsenseofwhereyourownandothervehiclesareinrelationtogapsinthetraffic.
Alwaysfollowthebasicsafetyruleforovertaking.
Thebasicsafetyruleforovertaking
HowtoovertakeAvehicletobeovertakenisahazard,sousethesystemofcarcontroltodealwithitsafely.Youneedtoobserveandplancarefully,judgespeedanddistanceaccurately,andbealerttopossiblesecondaryhazards.Thoughtlessovertakingisdangerous.
Thefollowingpagesdescribetwoovertakingsituations:
•whereyouareabletoovertakeimmediately(approaching,overtakingandreturningtoyourownsideoftheroad)inonecontinuousmanoeuvre
•whereotherhazardsrequireyoutotakeupafollowingpositionbeforeyoucansafelyovertake.
Overtakingusuallyinvolvesmultiplehazards.Anyovertakingsituationcanchangerapidlyandbecomecomplicatedbyfurtherhazards(forexample,newoncomingvehicles,orslowervehiclesfurtheraheadonyoursideoftheroad).Whileyou’relearningtonegotiatethesecomplexhazards,youmayhavetoconsiderandapplythesystemmorethanonceinanovertakingmanoeuvre.Asyougainpracticeandconfidence,you’lllearntoviewthenumberofhazardsasonecomplexpicture,andtousefewerapplications.
Althoughthesamegeneralrulesapplywhenovertakinghazardsotherthanavehicle,alwaysassessthespecificcircumstances.Speedorthesoundofahorncanstartlehorses.Cyclists,especiallychildren,canbeerraticsoallowthemplentyofroom.Givemotorcyclesplentyofroomtoo.Ifyou’retooclose,yourslipstreamcoulddestabilisethem.
Thefollowingpagesoffergeneraladvicebutovertakingamovingvehicleinvolvescomplex,dynamichazards.Youneedaccurateobservation,planning,informationprocessingandjudgement,andovertakingtechniqueisbestlearnedunderguidanceinamovingvehicle.
WhereyouareabletoovertakeimmediatelyOnceyouhavecheckedthatalltheotherconditions(e.g.clearview
ahead,sufficientspace,absenceofoncomingtraffic,safereturngap)aresuitableforimmediateovertaking,andthereisnootherfactorwhichpreventsyou,workthroughthestagesofthesystemtopasstheslowervehicle(s)andreturntoyourownsideoftheroad.Useyourmirrorsandtheappropriatesignalsthroughout.
Information
Observetheroadaheadforotheractualandpotentialdangers–physicalfeatures,positionandmovementofotherroadusersandweather/roadconditions.
Identify:
•asafestretchofroadalongwhichyouhaveadequatevision•whatishappeningbehind•agapintowhichyoucansafelyreturn•therelativespeedofyourownvehicleandthevehicle(s)youintend
toovertake.
Considertheneedtogiveinformationtoanyotherroadusers.
Whereotherhazardsrequireyoutofollowbeforeyoucansafelyovertake
Followingposition
Whereyouaregainingonavehicleinfrontbutcanseeitisn’tpossibletoovertakeimmediately,reduceyourspeedsothatyoucanfollowatasafedistance.
Observeandassesstheroadandtrafficconditionsaheadforanopportunitytoovertakesafelyandwhenyouseeone,moveintoanovertakingposition.Askyourselfthequestionsbelow.
Doestheroadlayoutpresentahazard?
Isthereenoughroadwidthformetoovertake?
Whatisthespeedofthevehicle(s)tobeovertaken?
Is/arethedriver(s)aheadlikelytoovertake?
HaveItakenintoaccountthespeedandperformanceofmyownvehicle?
Whatisthelikelyresponseofthedriverandoccupantsofthevehicleinfront?
Whatisthespeedofoncomingvehicles?
Isthereapossibilityofasyetunseenvehiclesapproachingathighspeed?
Whatishappeningbehind?Areanyofthefollowingvehicleslikelytoovertakeme?
WhatdistancedoIneedtoovertakeandregainanearsidegapsafely?
Whatisanappropriatespeedtocompletetheovertake,takingaccountofthehazardsbeyondthevehicleI’movertaking?
Yourprioritieswillchangeasyougothroughthemanoeuvre.Continuetoobserve,planandprocessinformationsothatyoucanadjustyourhazardprioritiesastheovertakedevelops.Observewhatishappeninginthefardistance,themiddledistance,theimmediateforegroundandbehind.Dothisrepeatedly.Rememberthatgoodobservationaloneisnotenough.Yoursafetydependsoncorrectlyinterpretingwhatyousee.Seepage200forexamplesofsituations
wheredriversdonotcorrectlyinterpretwhattheysee.
Insomecases,youmightplantotakethefollowingpositionbutthenfindasyoucloseuponthevehicleinfrontthatyouhaveaclearviewoftheroadaheadandtherearenoadditionalhazards.Inthiscase,youcouldgostraighttotheovertakingposition.
Overtakingposition
Theovertakingpositionisgenerallycloserthanthefollowingpositionandminimisesthedistanceyouhavetotraveltoovertake.Italsoshowsthedriverinfrontthatyouwishtoovertake.Butsafetyisvital.
Positionyourvehicletogetthebestpossibleviewandopportunityby
movingintotheovertakingposition.Thisisgenerallyclosertothevehicleinfrontthanthefollowingpositionandyoushouldonlyuseitinreadinessforovertaking.Alwayshavedueregardtosafety.Ifahazard(e.g.anoncomingvehicle,aroadjunction)comesintoview,movebacktoanappropriatefollowingdistancefromthevehicleinfront.
Asyoumoveclosertothevehicleinfrontthedriverislikelytorealisethatyouwanttoovertake.Becarefulnottointimidatetheotherdriverortoappearaggressivebyfollowingtooclosely.Thisisdangerousandcounter-productive.Followingtoocloselymaycausetheotherdrivertospeedup,makingitmoredifficulttoovertake.
OvertakingFromtheovertakingpositioncontinueobservinguntilyouseeanopportunitytoovertake.
Positionyourvehiclesothatyouhaveaclearpathbeyondthevehicle
youwishtopass,withoutaccelerating.
Fromthisposition:
•makesurethereisasafegapaheadofthevehicleyouovertake•inassessingthesafegap,considertheeffectontheroaduseryou
pullinfrontof
•ifyouseethemanoeuvrewouldnotbesafe,returntothefollowingorovertakingpositionasappropriate
•ifthemanoeuvrecanbecompletedsafely,acceleratepast.
Asyouacceleratepast,reconsiderthehazardsaheadoftheovertakenvehicle.Thismayincludeothervehiclesyouwanttoovertake,orphysicalfeaturessuchasjunctionsorbends.
OvertakingvehiclesinalineoftrafficOvertakinginalineoftrafficismoredifficultbecauseittakesmoretime.Youalsohavetotakeintoaccountthepossibleactionsofmoredrivers,bothinfrontandbehind.Driversinfrontmaynotbeawarethatyouarethereorintendtoovertake;driversbehindmighttrytoovertakeyou.Alwayssignalyourintentionsclearlytootherroadusers.
Beforeyouovertake,identifyacleargapbetweenthevehiclesinfrontwhichyoucanentersafely.Thisgapmaygetsmallerbeforeyouarrive,sochooseonethatislargeenoughtoallowforthis.Don’tovertakeifyouwillhavetoforceyourvehicleintoagap.
Considermovingoutontotheothersideoftheroadtogiveyourselfaclearerviewoftheroadahead.Holdthispositionifyoucanseethattheroadaheadisclear,andifyoucanidentifyaclearreturngapandhaveenoughtimetoreachit.Allowforthepossibilitythatthedriverfollowingyoumightmoveupintothegapthatyouhavejustleft.Whenyoureachthefirstreturngapyoumaynotneedtoenterit.Ifit’ssafe,holdyourpositionwhileyoudecidewhetheryoucanovertakemorevehicles.
Whereaqueuehasformedbecauseofanobstructionintheroadahead,nevertrytojumpthequeue.Itannoysotherroadusersandcanbedangerous.
Applythesystem.Ifthereismorethanonevehicle,youmaywishtoconsideraseriesofovertakesasonemanoeuvre.Whileyoumaybeabletoplantheseasonemanoeuvre,re-appraiseeachoneseparatelyasyouapproachthevehicle.
Fromthepointofacceleratingpastthepreviousvehicleintheline,considerwhethertocontinueortoreturntoasafepositioninthelineyourself.Eachofthesedecisionsisaseparateapplicationofthesystem.
Don’tbetemptedtoincreaseyourspeedforeachovertakeinalineoftraffic.
SummaryThediagrambelowsummarisestheprinciplesofovertakingoneormoremovinghazards.
Isthereasafeopportunitytoovertake?
SpecialhazardsyoumustconsiderbeforeovertakingWehaveworkedthroughtwomethodsforovertakingsystematicallyinstraightforwardconditions.Butinpractice,therearemanyhazards
toovertakinginmosteverydayroadandtrafficsituations.Theillustrationsbelowshowsomecommonovertakingcollisions.
Thedriverofthebluecardoesn’trealisethatthemotorcyclistcanonlyseetheslow-movingvanandmaypulloutontothemainroad.
Thedriverofthebluecardoesn’tanticipatethattheredcarmayturnwithoutwarningintothesideroad.
Thedriverofthebluecardoesn’trealisethedriverofthegreencarislookingonlytohisrightandmaypullout.
Thedriverofthebluecarthinksthevanisindicatingtoovertakethecarahead,butthevanisturningright.
Thedriverofthebluecardoesn’tanticipatethatthetractormayturnwithoutwarningintoanentranceorgateway.
TherangeofhazardsBeforeovertaking,considerthefullrangeofpossiblehazardsthateachsituationpresents.Forexample:
•thevehicleinfront•thevehiclesbehind•pedestrians
•pedalcyclistsandmotorcyclists•oncomingvehiclesnotyetinview•theroadlayoutandconditions•roadsurface•overtakingonasinglecarriageway•right-handbends•left-handbends•overtakingonadualcarriageway.
Youwillalsoneedtonoteanyrelevantroadsigns,markingsandspeedlimitsbeforeattemptingtoovertake.
Someofthesehazardsarediscussedinmoredepthbelow.
ThevehicleinfrontAssesswhatsortofhazardthevehicleinfrontpresents.
•Hasthedriverofthevehiclenoticedyou?•Canyoupredictfromearlierbehaviourwhetherthedriver’s
responseislikelytobeaggressive?
•Doesthesizeortheloadofthevehiclepreventthedriverfromseeingyouorpreventyoufromseeingtheroadaheadclearly?
•Doesthevehiclehaveleft-handdrive(e.g.aforeignlorry)?
Signalyourintentiontoovertaketothedriverinfront.Yourroadpositionandfollowingdistancehelpyoutodothis,buttakecarenottoappearaggressive.Thiscanbecounter-productiveandprovokeanaggressiveresponseintheotherdriver,whomightspeedupasyou
trytoovertake.Ifthedriverinfrontappearstobeobstructive,considerwhetheritisworthovertakingatall.Ifyoudecidetogoahead,thinkabouthowmuchextraspeedandspaceyouneedtoallow.
Ifthedriverinfronthasnotnoticedyou,considerusingyourheadlightstosignalthatyouarethere.
Takeextracarebeforeovertakingalongvehicleorvehicleswithwideorhighloads.Assesstheroadaheadverycarefullyforanypossibledangers.Ifyoucan,takeviewstobothsidesofthevehicleandmakesureyouhaveplentyofspacetoovertakeandreturnsafelytoyourownside.
CyclistsAlthoughpedalcyclesdon’ttakeupmuchroadspace,theyhaveatinytyrecontactareaandmayhavelimitedtyregrip.Theyareinherentlyunstable–theygetblownaroundbothbyweatherandpassingtrafficandaresusceptibletohazardsontheroadsurfacesuchaspotholes.Theyalsohavelimitedbrakingcapacity.Cyclistshavelittlephysicalprotection,usuallyhavenomirrors,maybewearingearphonesandmaybeuntrainedinridingsafety.
Whenyouovertakeapedalcycle:
•allowthecyclistspacetomanoeuvre•onlyovertakeontheoffsideexceptincomplextrafficsystems–and
thenonlyonthenearsidewithcare
•don’tovertakeacyclethenturninacrossitspath–thecyclehaslimitedbrakingcapabilityandthisisinconsiderateinanycase.Judgethecyclist’sspeedwithcare–it’seasytounderestimatethis.
Attrafficlightswithadvancedstoplinesforcycles,youmayneedtoovertakeshortlyafterstartingoff.Thecyclistmaybeinthecentreoftheroadandmayweaveastheypickupspeed,sobepreparedtogivethemadditionalspace.
ThevehiclesbehindAssesswhetherthevehiclesbehindposearisk.Notetheirspeed,positionandprogress,andjudgewhetheranyofthemmaywanttoovertakeyou.Lookoutparticularlyformotorcycles.Beawarethatotherfollowingvehiclescouldovertakethevehiclefollowingyou.Decidewhetheryouneedtosignal.Useyourmirrorstomonitorthesituationbehindyou,especiallybeforechangingyourspeedorposition.Ifyoupulloutforalook,thevehiclebehindmaymoveintoyourspace.
Roadlayoutandconditions
Whenyouplantoovertake,lookforpossiblehazardsinthelayoutoftheroadahead.Watchoutfornearsideobstructionsorjunctions,includingpathways,tracks,entrancesandfarmgates.Vehicles,pedestriansoranimalscouldemergefromthesecausingthevehicle(s)infrontofyoutoveertowardsthecentreoftheroad.Lookforright-handjunctionsandentrancesconcealingvehiclesorotherhazardsthatcouldmoveoutintoyourpath.
Lookforlay-bysonbothsidesoftheroadandwatchoutforvehiclespullingoutofthem.Driverspullingoutofalay-byontheothersideoftheroadmaynotseeyoubecausetheyarewatchingwhatishappeningbehindratherthaninfrontofthem.
Assessthewidthoftheroadandlookoutforanyfeatureswhichcouldobscureyourviewsuchasvegetation,bends,hiddendips,hillcrestsandhumpbridges.Theremaybefast-movingvehiclesapproachingyouonthesectionsofroadyoucan’tsee.Followthebasicruleforovertaking:
•Identifyagapintowhichyoucanreturnandthepointalongtheroadatwhichyouwillbeabletoenterit.
•Judgewhetheryouwillbeabletoreachthatpointbeforeanyoncomingvehicle,seenorunseen,couldcomeintoconflictwithyou.
Makesureyouhaveobservedthewholestretchofroadnecessarytocompletethemanoeuvre,andknowthatitdoesnotincludeanyotherhazards.Lookespeciallyforhazardswhichmightcausethevehiclesyou’reovertakingtoaltertheirposition.Makefulluseofroadsignsandroadmarkings,especiallythosegivinginstructionsorwarningyouofhazardsahead.
TheroadsurfaceBeforeyouovertake,observetheconditionoftheroadsurfaceforanythingthatcouldthrowyourvehicleoffcourseoraffectyourvisibility(e.g.loosegravel).Watchoutforsurfacewater,whichcouldcauseacurtainofsprayatacriticalmoment.Beawarethatbadweathercanaffecthowyourvehicleholdstheroadandhowwellyoucanseetheroad.SeeChapter4,Anticipatinghazardsinthedrivingenvironment,page72.
OvertakingonasinglecarriagewayThisisperhapsthemosthazardousformofovertakingbecauseyouputyourvehicleinthepathofanyoncomingvehicles–soplanthismanoeuvrewithgreatcare.Rememberyoucanalwaysreconsideryourdecisionandholdback.
Youneedtobeabletojudgethespeedanddistanceofoncomingvehiclesaccuratelytoassesswhetheryoucanreachthereturngapbeforetheydo.Thiscanbeextremelydifficult,especiallyonlongstraightroads.Thesizeandtypeoftheoncomingvehiclecangiveyoucluesaboutitspossiblespeed.
Aswellaslookingforvehicles,trainyourselftolookspecificallyformotorcyclists,cyclists,pedestriansandhorsesbeforeyouovertake.Driversoftenfailtospottheunexpected.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,page54,Lookingbutnotseeing.
OvertakingonbendsIncertaincircumstances,itispossibletogetagoodclearviewoftheroadontheothersideofthebendbeforeyouenterit.Ifyou’resure
therearenootherhazards,positionyourselftoovertakebeforetheroadstraightensout.Butovertakingonbendsispotentiallydangerousandyoushouldalwaysensurethatyouhavetheavailableviewtodothissafely.
SinglecarriagewayroadsmarkedwiththreelanesSinglecarriagewayroadsmarkedwiththreelanesarepotentiallyvery
dangerousastrafficinbothdirectionssharesthecentrelaneforovertaking.Nevertrytoovertakeifthereisthepossibilityofanoncomingvehiclemovingintothecentrelane.Avoidovertakingwhenyouwouldmakeathirdlineofmovingvehiclesunlessyouaresureitisabsolutelysafetodoso.
Overtakingonmulti-lanecarriagewaysOnmulti-lanecarriagewaysitcanbemoredifficulttojudgethespeedoftrafficapproachingfrombehind.
Beforeovertakingchecktheintentionsofdriversinthenearside
lanes.Ifavehicleisclosingupontheoneinfront,thedrivermaypulloutwithoutsignallingoronlysignalafterthevehiclestartstomoveout.Watchthedistancebetweenthewheelsofthevehicleandthelanemarkings.Ifthegapnarrows,thevehiclecouldbemovingout.Followthekeyprinciples:
•Onlyovertakeonthenearsideiftrafficinalllanesismovinginqueues.
•NeverusethehardshoulderforovertakingevenwhereanATMschemeisinforceandthehardshoulderisavailableasarunninglane.
•Takeparticularcarewhenplanningtoovertakelargevehiclesatroundaboutexitsandonleft-handbends.
SeeChapter12,Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways.
Helpingotherroadusersto
overtakeHelpingotherroaduserstoovertakeeasestensionsandcontributestoacooperativedrivingculturethatincreasessafety.Useyourmirrorsandbealerttotheintentionsofdriversbehindyou.Ifanotherdriverorriderisovertakingyou,trytomakeiteasierbyleavingenoughdistancebetweenyouandthevehicleinfronttogivethemasafereturngap,butdon’tsuddenlyreducespeedtoachievethis.
Beawarethatotherdriversmaytrytoovertakeyouwhenyoukeeptothelegalspeedlimit.Thisisquitelikelywhenyouslowdowntoenterorasyouareabouttoleavealowerspeedlimitarea.
OvertakingsafelyWhathumanfactorrisksshouldyouconsider?Askyourself:
•Whathumanfactorsmightaffectmyabilitytoaccuratelyperceivehazardsbeforeovertaking?
•Howmighthumanfactorsinterferewithmyabilitytoovertakesafely(forexample,‘redmist’,‘noblecause’risk-taking,thrill-seekingtendencies)?
•Doesthespecificpurposeofthejourneyaffectmydecisionstoovertake?Shouldit?
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explaintherisksofovertaking
• showhowtousethefollowingandovertakingpositionsafely
• showhowtoassessandovertakedifferenttypesofhazardssafelyinawiderangeofcircumstances
• explainhowtohelpotherdriverstoovertakeyou.
Chapter12Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways
LearningoutcomesThelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•explainthehumanfactorrisksinmotorwaydrivingandshowhowyoumanagethese
•showthatyoucanjoinandleaveamotorwayormulti-lanecarriagewaycorrectly
•showthatyoucanusetheappropriatelanefortrafficconditions•showthatyoucansafelyadaptyourpositionandspeedfor
overtaking,motorwayjunctionsandotherhazards,includingweatherconditions
•demonstratecorrectuseofthehardshoulder.
Drivingonmulti-lanecarriageways
Safedrivingonmotorwaysandotherfast-movingmulti-lanecarriagewaysdependsondevelopingyourawarenessoftheextrahazardsthatariseontheseroadsandrigorouslyapplyingthedrivingcompetencesandmethodsexplainedinRoadcrafttothem.
Despitethehighspeedandvolumeofmotorwaytraffic,therearefewercrashesonmotorwaysforeachmiletravelledthanonotherroads.Butmotorwaycrashesaremorelikelytobefatalbecauseofthehighspeedsinvolved.1in50motorwaycrashesarefatal,comparedtoaround1in70collisionsonotherroads.
However,otherfast-movingmulti-laneroadssuchasdualcarriagewayscombinetrafficmovingatequallyhighspeedwithadditionalhazardssuchasjunctionstotherightandleft,roundabouts,slow-movingvehiclesandtheabsenceofahardshoulder(seepage229).
Muchofthischapterappliestoallmulti-lanecarriageways,butmotorwayshavespecificfeaturesthatyou’llneedtotakeintoaccount:
•sliproadsforenteringandleavingthemotorway(notalwayspresentonothermulti-lanecarriageways)
•dangerscreatedbythepresenceofthehardshoulder•legalrestrictionsonwhichtypesofvehiclecanusemotorways,and
thelanerestrictionsandspeedlimitsforeachtype.
Ittakestimetodevelopaccuracyinassessingspeedsandstoppingdistancesinafast-movingdrivingenvironment.Alwaysdrivewellwithinyourowncompetenceandaimtosteadilydevelopyourexperiencesothatyouarecomfortableandconfidentwithinyourexistingspeedrangebeforemovingontohigherspeeds.Planhowyouaregoingtoaddressthefast-movingtrafficconditionsbeforeyoustartyourjourney.Alwaystakeintoaccountthesizeandlimitationsofyourvehicle.
Rememberhigherspeedsonfast-movingroadsburnmorefuel.Speedsof50–60mphandsmoothaccelerationandbrakingreducefuelconsumption.
HumanfactorsinmotorwaydrivingThenatureofmotorwaydrivingincreasesanumberofhumanfactorrisks:
•tirednessorboredomonlongjourneys,resultinginpoorconcentration
•frustrationarisingoutofstop–startprogressindensetraffic•complacencyinlow-densitytrafficmakingdriverslessalertto
possiblehazards
•thebehaviourofdriversleavingorjoiningthemotorwayfromservicestationsorsliproads.
Stopattheearliestopportunityifyoufindyourselfunabletomaintainthehighlevelofconcentrationneededtodrivesafelyathighspeed.
Askyourselfwhetheryourphysicalstateanddegreeofalertnessisoptimalformotorwaydrivingbeforeyousetoff.
Haveyoueverfoundyourconcentrationflaggingonamotorwayjourney?Whatdoyoudotoincreaseyouralertness?
Isyourapproachalwayseffective?Howcouldyoumanageyourfatiguebetter?
Howdofeelingsofstressaffectyourmotorwaydriving?Thinkaboutwhetheryourbraincandealwiththedistractionfromstressaswellasdrivesafely.
Howmightdealingwithdifficultordemandingmotorwaysituationsincreaseyourmentalworkload?
Whatcanyoudotoreducetheriskoferrorsandincreaseyoursafetyinthesesituations?
SeeChapter1,Becomingabetterdriver,andChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation.
Joiningthemotorway
LayoutofthecarriagewayHereweusethenumberingsystemusedbythepoliceandotheremergencyservicestorefertothelanesonmotorwaysandothermulti-lanecarriageways.
Thenearsidelaneislane1,thenextislane2andsoon.Onathree-lanemotorway,lane1isthelanenexttothehardshoulderandlane3isthelanenexttothecentralreservation.Thehardshoulderisnotcountedasacarriagewaylane(seepage222).
Joiningthemotorwayatasliproadorwheremotorwaysmergeispotentiallyhazardousandyoushouldusethesystemofcarcontroltoapproachandjoin.Sliproadsaredesignedtogivedriversthetimeandspacetomergesmoothlywithtrafficonthemaincarriageway
withoutcausingotherdriverstoalterpositionorspeed.Theyareoftenraised,sotakeadvantageofthehighviewpointtoobservethetrafficflowandtoplanyourapproach.
Driversonthemotorwayhavepriorityandmaynotbeabletomoveovertoallowyoutoenterlane1,butlookingearly,planningandusingyouraccelerationsensewillassistyouinmergingsafely.Onlypoorplanningorexceptionallyheavytrafficshouldcauseyoutostopinthesliproad.
Sliproadshaveoneormorelanes.Ifyou’retravellingintheoutsidelaneofthesliproad,considerhowyourspeedandpositionwillaffectvehiclesintheinsidelane.Ifyouovertakeavehicleonyournearsidejustbeforeyoujointhemotorwayyoucouldblockitspathontothemotorway.Youriskcollidingwithitifyoucannotmovestraightintolane2ofthemotorway.
UsethesystemAsyouenterthemotorway,processinformationaboutthetrafficonthesliproadandmotorwaysothatyouareinthecorrectposition,atthecorrectspeedandinthecorrectgeartoaccelerateontothe
motorwaysmoothlyandsafely.
Signalling
Wellbeforeyouenterlane1,decidewhetheryouneedtosignaltoletmotoristsonthemotorwayknowthatyouintendtojointhetrafficflow.
Beforeyoujointhemotorway,checkoveryourshouldertomakesurethereisnothinginyourblindspot.
Acceleration
Allowyourselftimetoadjusttothehighermotorwayspeedandtogaugethespeedsofothervehicles.
Observation
Becauseofthespeedsinvolved,itisvitaltoextendyourobservation:
•lookaheadandbehindyourightuptotheroadhorizons•scanahead,tothesidesandtotherearfrequentlyandthoroughly•useyourmirrorsregularly–youshouldalwaysknowwhatis
happeningbehindyou
•beawareofyourownandotherdrivers’blindspotsandbepreparedtomoveyourbodyandaltervehiclepositiontoobservewhatishappeninginthoseareas
•monitorwhatishappeningtoyourvehicle–regularlycheckthattheinstrumentsaregivingnormalreadingsandlistentothesoundofyourengineandtothenoiseofthetyresontheroadsurface
•checkyourspeedregularly–itisveryeasytoincreasespeed
withoutrealising.
Onyournextmotorwayjourney,practiseextendingyourobservation.
Makeapointofscanningasfarastheroadhorizon,frontandback.Useyourmirrorsfrequently.Regularlyscantothesidesaswell.
Aimtogiveyourselfthelongestpossibletimeinwhichtoreact.Activescanninghelpsenhanceyourlevelofawareness,whichinturnincreasesyouroverallsafety.
Adaptingtohigherspeeds
At70mphyoutravel31metres(aboutthreecoachlengths)persecond.Togiveyourselfasmuchtimetoreactaspossible:
•extendyourobservationsinalldirectionsandtotheroadhorizons•anticipateearlyandmaintainasafefollowingdistance–ingood
weatherthetwo-secondruleisagoodguidebutinbadweatheryoumustallowamuchgreaterdistance
•useallcontrolssmoothly,particularlysteering,whentravellingathighspeed
•giveotherdriversenoughtimetoseeyoursignalsbeforemakingamanoeuvre
•onlyuseaheadlightflashifit’snecessarytoalertotherroaduserstoyourpresence.
Lanediscipline
Youneedgoodlanedisciplineforsafemotorwaydriving.Therearenosloworfastlanes.Overtakeonlytotheright,exceptwhentrafficismovinginqueuesandthequeueonyourrightismovingmore
slowlythanyouare.
Donotovertakebyusingalanetoyourleft.
OvertakingBeforeyouovertakewatchoutfor:
•slowervehiclesmovingoutinfrontofyou•fastervehiclescomingupbehindyou.
Applythesystemofcarcontroltoovertakesafelyonmotorwaysandothermulti-lanecarriageways,payingspecialattentiontotaking,usingandgivinginformation.
Takinginformation
Scanregularlysothatyouarecontinuallyawareofwhatthesurroundingtrafficisdoing.Youshouldknowwhichvehiclesareclosinguponothervehiclesinfront,andwhichvehiclesaremovingupbehind.Constantlymonitoropportunitiestoovertakeandmatchyourspeedofapproachtocoincidewithanopportunity.Makeallowancesfortheadditionalhazardspresentedbylaneclosuresandmotorwayjunctions.
Lookforearlywarningsthatotherdriversintendtoovertake:
•relativespeeds•headmovements•bodymovements•vehiclemovementfromthecentreofthelanetowardsthewhitelane
markers.
You’relikelytoseeallthesebeforethedriversignals:manydriversonlysignalastheystarttochangelanes.
Overamotorwayjourneyofreasonablelength(say20miles),practisespottingthesewarningsignstopredictwhenotherdriversareabouttochangelanes.
Usethisanticipationtohelpyourplanning.
Thinkcarefullybeforeovertakingonleft-handbendswheretherearemainlyheavyorlargegoodsvehiclesinlanes1and2.Acarmaybehiddenbetweentheheavygoodsvehiclesandbeabouttopulloutintolane3.Makesureyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclear.Don’tattempttoovertakeunlessyouaresureyoucanseeallthevehiclesinlane2.
Justbeforeyouovertake,carefullycheckthepositionandspeedofthevehiclesbehind.Forexample,beforeyoumoveintolane2toovertakeavehicleinlane1,checktherearenofast-closingvehiclesmovingbackintolane2fromlane3.
Moveyourheadtoincreaseyourvieweithersideofyourblindspot.Re-checkthepositionandspeedofvehiclestothefrontandthenconsidertheinformationthatyouneedtogivetothesurroundingtraffic.
Givinginformation
Avoidsittingintheblindspotofavehicleyouaretryingtoovertake.Ifyoufindthatyouareunabletoovertake,dropbackslightlysothatyouarevisibletothedriver.
Consideralertingotherdriverstoyourpresenceespeciallyifyouaretravellingatspeed.Ifyoudecideaheadlightflashwouldbehelpful,giveitinplentyoftimefortheotherdrivertoreact.Giveasingleflash:decideonthelengthofflashaccordingtoyourspeedandtheresponseofotherdrivers.Takecarenottoappearaggressivetootherdrivers,andavoiddazzlingoncomingdrivers.Beawarethatflashingheadlightscouldbemisinterpretedbyotherdriversasaninvitationtomoveoutinfrontofyou.
Indicatorsignals
Considerindicatingbeforechanginglanes.Lettheindicatorflashlongenoughforotherdriverstoseeandreacttoit.
Whenyouhavepassedthevehicleorvehiclesinfront,returntotheappropriatelanewhenyouseeanopportunity.Butdon’tkeepweavinginandout.
Leavingyourselfroomtomanoeuvre
Ifyouaretravellinginlane2andtrafficinyourlaneaheadhascometoastandstill,considerextendingyourdistancefromthestationaryvehicleahead.Iftrafficisflowingfreelyinlane1thereisaparticulardangerfromleft-hand-drivelorriesapproachingfrombehindandpullingintolane2toovertakethelorryahead.
Beingovertaken
Anticipatewhatthedriversbehindyouintendtodobytheirlanepositionandtheirspeedofapproach.Thiswillhelpyoutoavoidpotentiallydangeroussituations.Astheothervehicleovertakesyou,beawarethatyouareintheovertakingdriver’sblindspot.
MotorwayjunctionsAtjunctionsandserviceareas,you’relikelytomeetvariationsintrafficspeedandmorevehicleschanginglanes.Watchfordriverswhoonlychangelanesforanexitatthelastminute.Whenyouseeamotorwayexit,anticipateasliproadaheadandthepossibilityoftrafficjoiningthemotorway.
Ifyou’reonthemaincarriageway,checkyourmirrorsearlyandallowtraffictojointhemotorwaybymakingslightadjustmentstoyourspeedorchanginglane.Vehiclesonthemotorwayhaverightofwaysodon’tdothisifitwouldforceotherdriverstochangetheirspeedorposition.
UsingthehardshoulderThehardshoulderformspartofamotorwayandisintendedforemergencyuseonly.ItmustonlybeusedinaccordancewiththeHighwayCodeandforpolicedrivers,PracticeAdviceonthePolicingofRoads(ACPO/NPIA,2007).Stoppingonthehardshoulderisdangerousbothfortheoccupantsofthestationaryvehicleandforothermotorwayusersbecausethereisahighriskofcollision.Ifyouneedtotravelonthehardshoulder,forexamplewhenanactivetrafficmanagement(ATM)schemeisinplaceorinanemergency,watchoutforstationaryvehiclesorotherhazardsalreadyonthehardshoulder.Neverusethehardshoulderforovertakingunlessassignedtoanemergencyincident.
Whenyoumoveontothehardshoulder,beawarethattheroadsurfacemaycontainloosegravelandotherdebris,whichcouldreducetheavailablegripforstopping.
Whenyouleavethehardshoulder,carefullyobservethetrafficapproachingfrombehind.Dependingonthevolumeoftraffic,chooseanappropriatemomenttomoveoffandbuildupvehiclespeedonthehardshoulderbeforeyoumoveontolane1ofthecarriageway.
LeavingthemotorwayPlanyourexit.Makesureyouknowyourexitjunctionwellinadvance.Assesstheroadandtrafficconditionsasyouapproachthejunctionandusetheinformationprovidedbyroadsignsandmarkings.
Thediagramshowsatypicalsequenceofinformationgivenatmotorwayexits.Notethatsomenewermotorwayshavesignsat1/3mileand2/3milesoalwaysreaddistancemarkersignscarefully.
Asyouapproachyourexitjunction,lookfortheadvancedirectionsignsandusethesystemofcarcontroltoplanandcarryoutyourexit.Ifthemotorwayisbusy,considerjoininglane1earlierratherthanlater.Ifasignalisnecessary,alwaysallowplentyoftimeforotherdriverstoreact.Indicateatthe300yardmarker.
Avoidbrakingonthemaincarriagewayifpossible.Plantoloseunwantedspeedintheexitroad–whichactsasadecelerationlane.Butbeawarethatotherroadusersmaynotdothisandmaystartto
slowdownbeforereachingtheexitroad.Onbusymotorwayswatchoutforvehiclesleavingthemotorwayatthelastminutefromlanes2or3andcuttingacrossyourpath.
Drivingathighspeedaffectsyourperceptionofspeedwhenyouleavethemotorway:
•checkyourspeedometerregularlytohelpyouadjusttotheslowerspeedsofordinaryroads
•planforthepointatwhichyouwillmeettwo-waytraffic•bereadyforacutebendsattheendofmotorwayexitroads•watchoutforoilorotherdepositswhichcanmaketheseareasexceptionally
slippery.
Badweatherconditionsonfast-movingroadsChapter4explainedhowweatherconditionsaffectyourabilitytoobserveandanticipate.Thissectionlooksatplanningforbadweatherconditionsathigherspeeds.SeeChapter4,Anticipatinghazardsinthedrivingenvironment,page72,Weatherconditions.
Badweatherreducesvisibilityandtyregripsoismoredangerousathighspeedbecauseyouneedamuchgreateroverallsafestoppingdistance.
Youshouldalwaysbeabletostopsafelyinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.
Whenyoucan’tseeclearly,reduceyourspeedandconsiderusingheadlightsandfoglights.Youmustusethemifvisibilitydropsbelow100metres.Thegapbetweenmotorwaymarkerpostsisabout100metressousethesetoassesshowfaryoucansee.Bearinmindthatfoglightscanmaskyourbrakelightsanddazzlethedriverbehindsoswitchthemoffassoonasvisibilityimproves.
FogFogreducesyourperceptionofspeedduetothelackofvisualreferencepoints.Inpoorvisibility,somedriversmayreducetheirfollowingdistanceinordertokeepthevehiclelightsaheadinview.Beawarealsothatnotallvehicleswillbedisplayingtheappropriatelights.
Adjustyourspeedtoensurethatyoucanstopwithintherangeofvisibility.Thedenserthefog,thesloweryourspeed.Drivinginfog
canbeverytiringandstressful.Ifyoustarttofeeltired,takeabreakatthenextavailablerestarea.
RainHighspeedincreasestheriskcreatedbyrainandstandingwaterlyingontheroadsurface.Thisisbecauseyourvehicle’styreshavetodisplacewatermorequickly.Iftheyareunabletodothis,awedgeofwaterwillformbetweenthetyresandtheroad,resultinginaquaplaning.Duringsuchconditions,remainvigilanttothepossibilityofunexpectedsectionsofdeepwaterandadjustyourspeedontheapproach.SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability,page141,Aquaplaning,forfurtheradvice.
Afteralong,hot,dryspelladepositoftyreandotherdustbuildsupontheroadsurface.Thesedepositscreateaslipperysurfaceespeciallyduringandafterrain.Avoidheavybraking,steeringoracceleratingoryoucouldlosetyregrip.
Snow,sleetandiceSnowandsleetreducevisibilityandtyregrip.Atspeed,spraythrownupbythewheelsofthevehicleinfrontreducesvisibilityfurther,andwhenrutsdevelopinthesnowitmaybedifficulttosteer.Inheavysnowconsiderwhetheryourjourneyisreallynecessary.
Reducespeedandincreasefollowingdistancesinicyconditions,especiallyiftheroadsurfaceisnotgritted.
HighwindsSectionsofcarriagewaythatareraisedabovethesurroundingcountrysideareaffectedbyhighwinds.Bepreparedforparticularly
stronggustsofwindasyouleaveacutting,enteroremergefromunderabridge,crossavalleyorgointoopencountry.Takeparticularcareonviaductsandbridges.
BrightsunBrightsunlowintheskycancauseseriousdazzle,especiallyoneast/westsectionsofroad:useyourvisorstoreducedazzle.Ifthesunisshininginyourmirrors,adjustthemtogiveyouthebestvisibilitywithminimumglare.Ifyouaredazzledbybrightsun,otherdriversmaybetoo,soallowforthiswhenovertaking.
Otherhazards
DebrisRegularlyscantheroadsurfacefordebriswhichmayhavefallenfromvehicles.Thiscandamagetyresandcauseothervehiclestosuddenlyalterposition.
LaneclosuresRoadworksarearegularfeatureofmotorwayjourneys.Contraflowsystemsarenotdangerousinthemselvesbutbecomedangerouswhendriversignoreadvancewarnings.Allroadworksaresignedonapproachandyoushouldknowthesequenceofsigns.Keeptothemandatoryspeedlimitsthroughroadworks,evenwhenconditionsseemtobesuitableforahigherspeed.
Mergingwithothertrafficrequiresjudgementandcourtesy.Itissensibleforvehiclesfromeachlanetomergealternately.Butthesesituationsoftencreateconflictandresultincollisions.Allowareasonablefollowinggapandnevercloseuptopreventothervehiclesmerging.
Matrixsignsandsignalswarnoflaneclosuresorotherchangesin
drivingconditionsahead.Youmaynotimmediatelybeabletoseetheneedtoslowdownorchangelanesbutdon’tassumethesignisamistake.Theincidentmaybesomedistancefurtheralongthemotorway.
Additionalhazardsonfast-movingmulti-lanecarriagewaysOnmulti-lanecarriagewaysyouneedtowatchoutforarangeofadditionalhazardsthatarenotpresentonmotorways:
•slow-movingtraffic•trafficlights•roundabouts•right-handjunctions•crossroads•trafficmovingintotheright-handlanetoturnright•trafficenteringthecarriagewayfromthecentralreservation•trafficcrossingthecarriageway•pedestrianscrossingthecarriageway•entrancesandexitsotherthanroadjunctions(toservices,petrol
stations,restaurants,pubs)
•left-handjunctionswithonlyashort(orno)sliproad•publicfootpathcrossingthecarriageway–indicatedbyanoverlap
inthecentralreservationsafetybarrier.
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainthehumanfactorrisksinmotorwaydrivingandshowhowyoumanagethese
• showthatyoucanjoinandleaveamotorwayormulti-lanecarriagewaycorrectly
• showthatyoucanusetheappropriatelanefortrafficconditions
• showthatyoucansafelyadaptyourpositionandspeedforovertaking,motorwayjunctionsandotherhazards,includingweatherconditions
• demonstratecorrectuseofthehardshoulder.
Chapter13
Emergencyresponse
Learningoutcomes
Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:
•listtheexemptionsinlawavailabletoemergencyresponsedriversandexplaintheirimplicationsforyourdrivingplan
•explaintheimportanceofgoingthroughaprocessofriskassessmentbeforeandduringanemergencycall
•demonstratethecorrectuseofyourvehicle’semergencywarningequipment
•demonstrategoodpracticeinemergencyresponsedrivingacrossarangeoftrafficsituations.
Whatisanemergencyresponse?Forthepurposesofthismanual,policeofficersaredeemedtobein‘emergencyresponse’whentheyareusinganyoftheexemptionsaffordedtothembytherelevantlegislation,and/orusingemergencywarningequipmenttofacilitateprogress.
Therearethreeexemptionsinlawavailabletodriversofemergencyresponsevehicles.Inappropriatecircumstances,driversmay:
1.exceedaspeedlimit
2.contravenearedtrafficlight,includingatpedestriancrossings
3.contraveneakeepleft/rightsign.
Useofanyoftheseexemptionsmustbesafeandproportionatetotheprevailingcircumstances.Beawarethatsomemotoristsover-reactwhentheyencounteremergencyresponsevehicles–forexample,bystoppingtheirvehicleinanunsuitableplacesuchasnexttotrafficislands,onblindhillcrests,ontheapexofbendsoroppositeanoncomingvehiclethathasalsostopped.
RiskassessmentBeforeyoubeginyourresponsetoanemergencycall,youshouldgothroughaprocessofriskassessment.
Herearesomeofthequestionsyouneedtoaskyourself:
Doesthesituationnecessitateanemergencyresponse?
Whathumanfactorsmightincreasemyriskonresponse(e.g.stress,operationaldistractions,peerpressure)?HowdoImanagetheseeffectively?
Ismyvehiclesuitable?
AmIjustifiedinmakinguseoftrafficlawexemptions?
HowfarwillIhavetotravel?
Areotherunitscloser?
DoIneedtouselightsandsirens?
Whatspeedissafeandproportionateforthecircumstances,includingtraffic,timeofday,lightingandweather?
Anemergencycallisanever-changingenvironmentsocontinuewiththisprocessofriskassessmentthroughouttheresponse.
Whileincidentsaregradedinlinewithnationalrequirements,assetoutintheNationalCallHandlingStandards,driversrespondingtocallsareresponsibleforassessingtheresponserequired.Youmustdecideiftheuseoflegalexemptionsand/orthevehicle’semergencyequipmentiswarrantedandyoumaybecalledupontojustifyyouractionsatalaterstage.
Respondingtoanemergency
UseofemergencywarningequipmentTheemergencywarningequipmentisprimarilyusedto:
•provideadvancewarningtootherroadusers•helpyourprogressthroughtraffic•protectofficersatthesceneofincidents•helpinstoppingmotorists,byidentifyingyourvehicleasapolice
vehicle.
Mostdriversseeingorhearingthewarningofanapproachingemergencyservicevehiclewilltrytogivewaytoyoubuttheuseofwarningequipmentdoesnotgiveyouprotectionorrightofway.Youmaytakeadvantageifotherroadusersandpedestriansgivewaytoyou–butonlyifitissafetodoso.Bearinmindthatunwarranteduseofemergencywarningequipmentcanundermineitsvalue.
Neverassumethatyourwarningwillbeseenorheardbyotherroadusers.
Sirens
Assesswhenandwheretoactivateyouremergencyequipment.Innormalcircumstancesyoushouldactivateyouremergencylightsbeforeusingyoursirens.
Thinkcarefullybeforeactivatingyoursirensifyou’reclosetootherroadusers,particularlycyclists,pedestriansoranimals.
Ifinthelightofyourriskassessmentyoudecidenottouseyouremergencywarningequipment(‘silentapproach’),takeextracarebecauseotherroadusersmaybelessawareofyourvehicle’spresence.
Whenusingsirensitisoftennotnoisebutachangeinnoisethatgetsareaction.It’sappropriatetousealongtonebetweenhazards.Butchangingtoashorttoneontheapproachtoahazardislikelytomaximisethebenefitofthewarning.
Useadifferenttonetootheremergencyvehicleswhendrivinginconvoyorfollowinganotheremergencyvehicle.Thepublicmayseeonevehiclebuttheymaynotexpectasecondorthird.
Considerswitchingoffthesoundsysteminstationarytraffic.Thisoftentakesthetensionoutofthesituationandgivesotherstimetoconsiderwhattheymightdotohelp.
Headlampflashers
Theautomaticheadlampflashersonmostemergencyvehiclesuseanalternatingflashpattern.Thismakesitmorelikelythatthevehiclewillbeseenbutalsoincreasesthepossibilityofdazzlingotherroadusers.
Automaticheadlampflashersmustnotbeusedduringthehoursof
darkness.
Bluelights
Somevehicleshavebothrotatingandstrobelightsintherooflightbar.Strobelightsareparticularlyeffectiveonmulti-laneroadssuchasmotorways,butonlyshowtothefrontorrear.Ifyou’rerespondingonroadswithjunctions,makeyourselfmoreconspicuousbyusingtherotatingbluelightsand/orintersectionlights.
SpeedlimitsPolicedriverscanusestatutoryexemptionsfromspeedlimitsbutyoumustbeabletostopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.Duringanemergencyresponse,nevercompromisesafetyinordertosavetime.Itisfarbettertoarrivelaterthannotatall.
Keepinmindthatmembersofthepublicwillobserveyouifyouexceedthespeedlimitoruseaninappropriatespeed.Inappropriatespeedormisuseofexemptionsislikelytoresultinnegativepublicperceptionsofresponsedriving.
Thefollowingscenarioshowswhyyoualwaysneedtocorrectlyassesstheappropriatespeed.Thepolicevehicleisapproachingat30mphtherearofaparkedlorrywhichis9metreslong.Asthepolicecarpassestherearofthelorry,apedestrianstepsoutfrominfrontofthelorrydirectlyintothepathofthepolicevehicle.
Approachingtrafficlight-controlledjunctionsWhenyoupassredsignals,youshouldtreatthemasSTOPand/orGIVEWAYsigns.Donotproceeduntilyouaresurethatthewayisclear,thatnootherroaduserwillbeendangeredandthatnootherdriverwillbeforcedtochangespeedorcoursetoavoidacollision.
Whenyouapproachtrafficlights,gatherinformationabouttheroadlayoutandconsiderthemovementsofotherroadusers–boththoseyoucanseeandthoseyoucan’t.
Yourriskassessmentmustincludenotonlytheredphasebutalsothegreenphase.Thisisimportant.Yourspeedofapproachmustenableyoutostopifnecessary–forexample,ifthetrafficlightsignalschangefromgreentored,orifanotheremergencyvehiclegoingtothesameincidentisusingtheirexemptionandenteringthejunctionthrougharedlight.
Ontheapproachtotrafficlights,takeapositiontoensurethebestview.Selecttheleastobstructedpath,withdueregardtosafetyandmakingyourselfasvisibleaspossibletootherroadusers.
Assessthepositionandmovementofalltrafficontheapproach.Whenitissafetodoso,moveforwardataspeedthatwillallowyoutomaintaingoodobservationandtheabilitytostop.Lookoutespeciallyforthepresenceofcyclistsormotorcyclistswhoare
vulnerableanddifficulttoseeamongstothervehicles.
Ifyourentryspeedintothejunctionistoohighothermotoristsmayover-reactandbrakesharply.Thiscouldresultina‘shunt’typecollision.
Policedriversexercisingtheexemptiontopassaredtrafficlightmustavoidcausingamemberofthepublictocontravenetheredlight.
Ifvehiclesareoccupyingalltheentrylanesatthestoplineonyourapproachtoasetofredlights,consideroneofthefollowingoptions:
Certaintrafficlightjunctionsaretoodangeroustocrosswhilstthelightsarered.Thesearenormallywhereviewsarerestricted,onmulti-lanecarriagewaysorwherethespeedofcrosstrafficishigh.
Approachingtrafficlight-controlledpedestriancrossingsTheadviceonapproachingtrafficlight-controlledjunctionsalsoappliestopedestriancrossings.Asyouapproach,gatherinformation
abouttheroadlayoutandthepresenceandmovementofpedestrians.
Yourspeedofapproachshouldallowyoutostopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclear.Pedestriansmaybehiddenbyanyvehicleontheapproach.Whenapedestrianhasmovedontothecrossing,youmustgivewaytothem.
Contraveningkeepleft/rightsignsIfyouexercisetheexemptiontocontravenekeepleft/rightsigns,youwillbeinanunexpectedpositionsoyouneedtobeawareofadditionalhazards.
Forexample,wherethereisacentralrefugeforpedestrians,theymaybelookingintheotherdirectionastheycrosstheroadandmaystepintothepathoftheemergencyresponsevehicle.
PositioningtoseeandbeseenDuringdaylightthebestvisualwarningequipmenttouseontheapproachtootherroadusersistheflashingheadlamp/whiteLEDunits.Togetthegreatestadvantage,positionyourvehicletomakethemostoftheselights.
Whereitissafetodoso,positionyourvehicleearlytowardstheoffside.Thiscanhelpyoutogetearlyviewsanditalsoallowsoncomingdriversanddriversaheadofyoutospotyouearlier.
Bepreparedtosurrenderthispositionifanoncomingdriverdoesnotreactappropriately.
Thepositionshownbelowalsogivesabetterviewoftheroadandotherdangersahead.Thedriverofthevehicledirectlyaheadoftheemergencyresponsevehiclewillbeawarethatitisattemptingtoovertakeratherthanrequiringthemtostop.
Approachingandpassingvehicles
Vehiclesahead
Whenapproachingtraffictravellinginthesamedirection,travelataspeedandfollowingpositionthatallowsyoutorespondtoheavyorsuddenbrakingbythevehiclesahead.
Seekevidencethatthedriversaheadareawareofyourpresencebeforeyouattempttopassthem.Lookforthenearsideindicatoroperatingorvehiclemovementintothenearsideoroffside.Observethedriver’sheadandbodymovements.Neverassumethatotherdrivershaveseenand/orheardyourvehicle.
Oncomingvehicles
Whenthedriverofanoncomingvehiclehasgivenwaytoyourapproachingvehicle,alwaysremainvigilantforotheroncomingvehiclessuddenlypullingoutfrombehindtheleadvehicle.Yourspeedshouldallowyoutimetostopshouldanoncomingvehiclesuddenlypresentitselfinyourvehicle’spath.
Thisisespeciallyimportantiftheleadvehicleislarge–forexample,alargegoodsvehicle,vanorbus.
Overtakingslow-movingvehiclesacrossjunctions
Whenmovingpastslow-movingorstationaryvehicles,beawareoftheadditionalhazardspresentedbyroadjunctionsandadjustyourspeedaccordingly.
Nearsidejunctions
Offsidejunctions
Anydriverturningleftfromanoffsidejunctionwillemergeintothepathofthepolicevehicle.Ontheapproachtooffsidejunctionswithlimitedornoview,takeupapositionthatallowsyoutostoporregainthecorrectsideoftheroad.Neverassumethatthedriverofthe
vehiclewaitingtoemergewilllooktotheleftpriortoenteringtheroad.
Interpretingotherdrivers’signalsItiscommonformotoriststoflashtheirheadlightstosignaltootherstheirintentiontogivewayinallkindsofdrivingsituations.
Inthescenarioopposite,therearethreedriverswhomayperceivethatthedriverofthebluecarissignallingtothemhisintentiontogiveway:
•thedriveroftheredvehiclewaitingtoemergefromtheminorroad•thedriveroftheblackvehiclewaitingtoturnright•thepolicedriver.
Insituationssuchasthis,takeextracareandreduceyourspeeduntilyou’vesafelynegotiatedthehazard.
StationaryvehiclesatornearanincidentPolicedriversapproachingascenemaybecomedistractedsearchingfortheexactlocationoftheincident.Thismaymeanthattheirattentionisdrawnawayfromtheroadimmediatelyaheadsoincreasingrisk.
DriverswhohavebeenstationaryforsometimemaytrytodoaU-turnorleavetheirvehicle.Pedestriansmayalsobewalkingbetweenthestationaryvehicles.
Respondingonmulti-laneroadsOnmulti-laneroadsequippedwithcentralreservations,suchasdualcarriagewaysandmotorways,yourpositioningwillvaryaccordingtothevolumeandspeedofvehiclesahead.
Inverycongestedconditionswherevehiclesareeitherstationaryortravellingatlowspeed,itisbestpracticeforpolicedriverstostraddlelanemarkingstoallowthetrafficaheadtospreadleftandright.Thisisoftenreferredtoas‘partingofthewaves’.
Beawarethatsomeofthedriversaheadmaynotreactasexpected.Yourapproachspeedmustenableyoutoreacttoanyvehiclecrossingyourpath.
Wheretrafficisfree-flowing,travelintheouterlaneandallowvehiclesaheadtomoveintothenearsidelanes–butwithoutplacingdriversunderunduepressuretodoso.Lookoutforvehiclesinlanesonthenearsideaheadsuddenlymovingintotheouterlane.
Approachingroundabouts
Aroundaboutisaone-waysystemforwhichthereisnoexemption.
Approachroundaboutsinthesamemannerasyouwouldredtrafficlights.Choosealowapproachandentryspeedsoasnottocausedriversontheroundabouttoover-reactorbrakehard.
Iftherearevehiclesoccupyingalltheapproachlanestotheroundabout,usethesameproceduresasforatrafficlightjunction.Considerthefollowingoptionstominimisetheriskofdriversaheadenteringtheroundaboutintothepathofothervehicles.
Options
•Turnoffalltheemergencyequipmentandholdback.•Straddlethelanemarkingstocausea‘partingofthewaves’.•Subjecttoviewandsafety,usetheopposingcarriageway.Bearin
mindthatdriversexitingtheroundaboutmayhavealateviewofyourvehicle.
PassingonthenearsideofothervehiclesOtherdriversmayfindithardtovisuallylocateapolicevehiclethatistravellingalongthenearsideofstationaryormovingvehicles.Thenaturalresponseofadriverhearingasirenistomovetothenearsidetohelptheemergencyvehicle’sprogress.Beawareofthisasyouformulateyourdrivingplan.Driveataspeedthatenablesyoutostopyourvehiclesafelyifthevehicleaheadmovestothenearside.
Anticipatebycarefullyobservingotherdrivers.Forexample,watchforhandmovementsonthesteeringwheel,indicators,brakelightsandmovementofthewheels.Thesecluescanprovideearlywarningofpotentialmovementtothenearside.
VehiclesrespondinginconvoyTwoormorevehiclestravellingtogetherinresponsemodeismorehazardousthanasinglevehicle.Thepublicsometimesonlyreacttotheleadvehicle,andonceithaspassedmayresumetheirjourneyintothepathofthesecondvehicle.
Dependingonthecircumstances,youmayneedtoextendthereactionarygapbetweenthetwoemergencyvehicles,bothtoreducethepressureontheemergencyvehicledriversandtoallowmembersofthepublictimetorealisethatthereismorethanoneemergencyvehicleapproaching.Alternatively,youmaychoosetoclosethegaptoreducetheriskoftrafficpullingoutbetweenthetwoemergencyvehicles.
Ifthevehicleshavetoremaintogether,forexamplewhenescortinganambulance,makesurethevehiclesareusingadifferentsirensound.
Evenifyou’renotdrivinginconvoy,alwaysbeawareofthepossiblepresenceofotheremergencyvehiclesattendingthesameoradifferentincident.
Vulnerableroadusers
Cyclists
Cyclistsareveryhardtoseeandmayalsoreactunexpectedlywhenavehicleonanemergencycallisapproaching.Thenaturalreactionofacyclistonhearingthesirensistolookovertheirshouldertowardstheemergencyvehicle.Thiscancausewobblingandinstability.Makesureyouleaveanappropriatesafetymarginwhenpassingcyclists.
Motorcyclists
Lookoutformotorcyclists.Ridershaverestrictedperipheralvisioncausedbythewearingofcrashhelmets.
Beawarethatsuddenheavybrakingonamotorcycleishazardousfortherider.Itmaycausethemotorcyclisttolosecontroloftheirmachine,especiallyonwetorslipperyroadsurfaces.
Alsobeawarethatcyclistsandmotorcycliststravelalongboththenearsideandoffsideofslow-movingorstationarytraffic,andlookoutforthem.
Pedestrians
Wherepedestriansarepresent,driveataspeedthatenablesyoutostopifapedestrianstepsintotheroad.Olderpeopleandchildrenfinditespeciallydifficulttojudgethespeedanddistanceofapproachingvehicles.
Inbadweather,pedestrianstendtohurry,walkingorrunningonslipperysurfaces.Hoods,umbrellasandtheuseofpersonalaudioequipmentmayhampertheirawarenessofyourpresence.
Horsesandotheranimals
Horsesareeasilystartledbynoise,movementorbrightcoloursandmayrearuporbolt,riskinginjurytotheriderorhorse.Ifthereisahorseontheroad,promptlydeactivatealltheemergencyequipmentandreduceyourspeed.Waitforanopportunitytopasssafely.Adoptaslowspeedandapositionasfarawayfromtheanimalaspossible.
Donotspeeduporre-activatetheemergencyresponseequipmentuntilyouhaveachievedasafedistancefromtheanimal.
Beawareofthepossiblepresenceofotheranimals,particularlyinruralareasandwhereanimalsarebeingtransportedinlivestockvehicles.Lookoutforhazardwarningsignsdepictinganimalsandmakeuseofthisinformationinyourdrivingplan.
CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• listtheexemptionsinlawavailabletoemergencyresponsedriversandexplaintheirimplicationsforyourdrivingplan
• explaintheimportanceofgoingthroughaprocessofriskassessmentbeforeandduringanemergencycall
• demonstratethecorrectuseofyourvehicle’semergencywarning
equipment• demonstrategoodpracticeinemergencyresponsedrivingacrossarangeoftrafficsituations.
AppendicesAreyoufittodrive?
•IAMSAFEchecklist
Isyourvehiclefittodrive?
•Roadworthiness/pre-drivingchecklist•POWDERchecklist
•Insidethevehiclechecklist•Testingthebrakes
GoalsforDriverEducation
Areyoufittodrive?Evenbeforeyougetinavehicle,youshouldalwaysassesswhetheryou’refittodrive.
IAMSAFEchecklist
Doaself-checkusingtheIAMSAFE*checklist.Askyourselfthesequestions:• Illness–DoIhaveanillnessorsymptomsthatmightaffectmyabilitytodrive?
• Attitude–HowdoIfeelaboutthisjourney?AmIfullyfocusedonthedrivingtask?WhathumanfactorsdoIneedtotakeaccountof?
• Medication–AmItakinganymedicationthatmightaffectmyperformance?
• Sleep–AmIsufferingfromlackofsleep/fatigue?
• Alcohol–HaveIhadadrink?AmIstillaffectedbyalcohol?
• Food–AmIhungryorthirsty?Couldlowbloodsugarordehydrationaffectmyjudgement?
• Emotion–AmIangry,depressed,orstressed?Couldthisleadmetotakerisks?
*Therearemanyversionsofthischecklist.Usetheoneyoufindmostuseful.
Isyourvehiclefittodrive?
Roadworthiness/pre-drivingchecklistBeforeyoustarttodriveavehicleforthefirsttimeeachday,youshouldensurethatitisroadworthy.Alwayscarryoutthefollowingpre-drivingchecks.
Identifythetypeofvehicleyouaregoingtodrive:• front/rear/fourwheeldrive
• fueltype:petrol/diesel
• gearboxtype(manual/automatic)/positionofgearselector
• safetyfeatures–anti-lockbrakingsystem(ABS)/electronicstability/tractioncontrol/adaptivesuspensionsystems
• parkingbrakeoperation
• positionofcontrolsandauxiliaries
• windowglass–mirrorsandlensesareclean
• securityofcarrieditems–rearseat/bootspace
• fireextinguisherpresentandindate.
POWDERchecklistPetrol Ensurethatyouhavesufficientfuelforyourjourney.
Oil Oillevel.Secureoilfillercapanddipstick.
Water Radiatorwaterlevelincludingcoolant/anti-freezemixture.Includewasherfluidlevels(frontandrear).
Damage Visualexaminationofexteriorlookingforinsecureitemsand/ordamage.
Electrics Verifyoperationofelectricalsystems.
•Lights–mandatoryrunninglights(mainanddippedbeam)•Brakeandreversinglights
•Indicatorsandhazardwarninglights•Numberplatelight(rear)
•Highintensitylights•Emergencywarninglights(blue,headlightflash,rearred)•Interior–instrumentwarninglights•Audiblewarningsystems(horn/two-tonehorns)•Windscreenwipers(front/rear)
Rubber Wheels–wheelnutssecuredtocorrecttorquesetting.Tyres–treaddepth/freefromcuts,bulges,tears/pressure/compatibility.
InsidethevehiclechecklistSwitchontheignition.Notethewarninglights.Starttheengine.
•Aftersystemsbecomeoperational,checkyourinstruments•Ifanycheckscouldnotbecompletedbeforeignitionorstartup,dothemnow•Carryoutastaticbrakecheck(seebelow)•Adjusttheseat/headrestraint/steeringwheel•Adjustthemirrors–insideandout•Doavisualinspectionofallgaugesandwarninglights
•Checktheseatbeltisnotfrayed,twisted,lockswhentugged,fastensandreleasesfreely.
Assoonaspossibleaftermovingoffandinasafeplace,carryoutamovingbraketest(seebelow).
Checkgaugesandwarninglightsatintervalsduringallsubsequentjourneystakingactionifnecessary.
TestingthebrakesCheckthebrakesbothbeforeyoumoveoffandwhenthevehicleismoving.
Thestationarytest
Checkthatthebrakepedalmovesfreelyandgivesafirmpositivepressurethatcanbemaintainedfor3to4seconds.Physicallycheckthattheparkingbrakesecuresthevehicle.
Themovingtest
Thepurposeofthemovingbraketestisto:
•checkthatthevehiclepullsupinastraightlineunderprogressivebraking•learnhowmuchtopressthebrakepedalinthatparticularvehicle•identifyanyunexpectedproblems.
Brakesarethemostimportantpartofthevehicleandamovingbraketestisvitalwhenyoumoveoffinanunfamiliarvehiclethatyoumayneedtodriveindemandingconditionsathigherspeeds.
Testthefootbrakeassoonaspossibleaftermovingoff.Alwaysconsiderthesafetyandconvenienceofotherroadusersbeforeyoudoamovingtest:•Checktheroadisclearbehindyou.•Declutch(toavoidenginebrakinginterferingwiththetest).•Grippingthewheellightly,brakegraduallyandprogressively,not
harshly.
•Feelforanythingunusual(e.g.atendencytopulltooneside,anyvibrationorpulsingthroughthebrakepedal)andlistenforanythingunusual(e.g.noisefromthebrakescouldmeantheyarebinding).
•Releasethepedalbeforeyoureachastandstilltocheckthatthebrakesreleasefullyandarenotbinding.
GoalsforDriverEducationThisEuropeanframework(the‘GDEmatrix’)setsoutthecompetencesthatdrivertrainingshouldfocusontoproducethesafestpossibledrivers.
BibliographyThisisaselective,annotatedlistofthesourcesdrawnontocompiletheadviceandstatisticalinformationinthiseditionofRoadcraft,andinparticulartheinformationpresentedinChapter1.
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CollegeofPolicing(2013)DriverTrainingLearningProgramme:NationalCurriculum.ThenationaldrivertrainingstandardsdocumentscanbeaccessedbypoliceofficerswithapnnemailaddressthroughtheNCALTManagedLearningEnvironment(www.ncalt.com/)inthesection‘PersonalandPublicSafety’.
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Dorn,L.(2005)‘Professionaldrivertraininganddriverstress:Effectsonsimulateddrivingperformance’inG.Underwood(ed.),TrafficandTransportPsychology,Elsevier:Amsterdam.Astudyoftheperformanceoftwogroupsofpolicedriverstrainedtodifferentlevels,insimulatedconditionsunderstress,inordertoinformthecontentofprofessionaldrivertraining.
DrivingStandardsAgency(2013)NationalStandardforDrivingCars(categoryB).TheDrivingStandardsAgency(DSA)updatesthestandard,firstpublishedin2010,onaregularbasis.ThestandardsetsoutwhatDSAbelievesisneededtobeasafeandresponsiblecardriver.Signuponthegovernmentwebsitetokeepuptodatewithnewversionsbyemail.
Dykes,R.(2001)ReducingAt-WorkRoadTrafficIncidents,ReportoftheWork-relatedRoadSafetyTaskGroup,HealthandSafetyCommission.Thisstudysetsouttheevidenceonandrecommendationsforreducingwork-relatedaccidentsontheroad,includingforoccupationaldrivers.
Gormley,M.,Walsh,T.andFuller,R.(2008)Risksinthedrivingofemergencyservicevehicles,IrishJournalofPsychology,29(1–2),7–18.Thispaperexploresemergencyservicevehicle(ESV)collisions,andtheexperiences,attitudes,feelingsandbehaviourofESVdriversservingthecityofDublin.Itdiscussestheoperationalchallengesandrecommendationsforaction.
Gregersen,N.P.(1996)Youngdrivers’overestimationoftheirownskill–anexperimentontherelationbetweentrainingstrategyandskill,AccidentAnalysis&Prevention,28(2),243–250.Astudytocomparetrainingstrategies,whichshowedthatyoungdriverstrainedinmanoeuvringskillsonlytendedtooverestimatetheiractualdrivingskillwhenobjectively
tested,comparedtodriverstrainedinawarenessoftheirlimitations.
Hatakka,M.,Keskinen,E.,Gregersen,N.P.,Glad,A.andHernetkoski,K.(2002)Fromcontrolofthevehicletopersonalself-control;broadeningtheperspectivestodrivereducation,TransportationResearchPartF:TrafficPsychologyandBehaviour,5(3),201–215.The‘GoalsforDriverEducation’frameworkhasitsoriginsinFinnishresearchintoevidence-basedapproachestodrivereducation.Theframeworkwaspublishedinternationallyforthefirsttimeinthispaper.
Lajunen,T.andSummala,H.(1995)Drivingexperience,personality,andskillandsafety-motivedimensionsindrivers’self-assessments,PersonalityandIndividualDifferences,19(3),307–318.Astudyaimedatmeasuringskillandsafetyaspectsindrivers’self-assessmentoftheirdrivingabilities.
Lancaster,R.andWard,R.(2002)Thecontributionofindividualfactorstodrivingbehaviour:implicationsformanagingwork-relatedroadsafety,ResearchReport20,HealthandSafetyExecutive.Reportofaliteraturereviewaimedatidentifyingtheindividualdifferencesthatareassociatedwithdrivingbehaviourandroadtrafficaccidents.Coversage,gender,ethnicity,education,personality,riskperception,socialdeviance,previousaccidentinvolvement,experience,stress,lifeevents,fatigueandphysiology.
Lee,C.,andAbdel-Aty,M.(2008)Presenceofpassengers:Doesitincreaseorreducedriver’scrashpotential?,AccidentAnalysis&Prevention,40(5),1703–1712.ThefindingsinthisUSstudyprovideinsightintohowthepresenceofpassengershasanimpactondriverbehaviourandtrafficsafetyinvariousconditions.
MacKillop,D.(2012)SingleVehicleAccidentonRuralLeft-handBends,personalcommunication.The‘doubleapexbend’illustrationandcaptiononpages177–178areadaptedfromthispaperwithkindpermissionoftheauthor.
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EconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,EuropeanConferenceofMinistersofTransport.Thisreportputsforwardpolicy-oriented,research-basedrecommendationsforimplementingcounter-measurestoaddressyoungdriverrisk.Italsoprovidesageneraloverviewoftheproblem,andthefactorsbehindit.
Payne,J.W.,Bettman,J.R.andJohnson,E.J.(1988)Adaptivestrategyselectionindecisionmaking,JournalofExperimentalPsychology:Learning,Memory,andCognition,14(3),534–552.Examinestheadaptivestrategiesthatpeopleusewhenrequiredtosolveproblemsundertimepressure.
Peräaho,M.,Keskinen,E.andHatakkaM.(2003)DriverCompetenceinaHierarchicalPerspective;ImplicationsforDriverEducation,UniversityofTurku,TrafficResearch.AdetaileddescriptionoftheGDEframeworkasatheoreticalbasisfordrivereducation,explainingeachstructuralelement,itscontentanditsimplicationsfordrivereducation.
RoSPA(2011)RoadSafetyInformation:InappropriateSpeed.Shortbriefingpapersummarisingkeystudiesandsourcesofdataonthepartplayedbyinappropriatespeedincrashstatisticsandcallingforaco-ordinatedspeedmanagementstrategy.
Sharp,G.(1997)HumanAspectsofPoliceDriving,ScottishPoliceCollege.Intendedasareferencecompaniontothe1997editionofRoadcraft,thisbookreviewsthecircumstanceswhichinfluencedecision-andjudgement-makingprocessesduringademandingdrive,andotheraspectsofhowthemindandbodyreactinthecomplexdrivingenvironment.
Stern,E.(1999)Reactionstocongestionundertimepressure,TransportationResearchPartC:EmergingTechnologies,7(2–3),75–90.Experimentalstudytodevelopunderstandingofhowpeoplemakechoices,useinformationandapplydecisionmakingruleswhendrivingintrafficcongestion.
Stutts,J.C.,Wilkins,J.W.,ScottOsberg,J.andVaughn,B.V.(2003)
Driverriskfactorsforsleep-relatedcrashes,AccidentAnalysis&Prevention,35(3),321–331.Acase-controlstudybasedonapopulationinCarolina,USA,toexaminedriverriskfactorsforsleep-relatedmotorvehiclecrashes.
Winston,C.,Maheshri,V.andMannering,F.L.(2006)Anexplorationoftheoffsethypothesisusingdisaggregatedata:Thecaseofairbagsandantilockbrakes,JournalofRiskandUncertainty,32(2),83–99.AUSstudytoanalysetheeffectsofairbagsandantilockbrakesonautomobilesafetyfoundthatsafety-consciousdriversaremorelikelytoacquireairbagsandantilockbrakesbutthesesafetydevicesdonothaveasignificanteffectoncollisionsorinjuries,suggestingdriverstradeoffenhancedsafetyforspeediertrips.
IndexABS(anti-lockbrakingsystems)89,111,138acceleration29,92–3
insystemofcarcontrol29onbends93–5,168,182onmotorways216ontoroundabouts34–5potentialhazards36andskidding135andvehiclebalance90–2andvehiclepowersource96whenovertaking192whenturning32–3
accelerationsense92accelerator89–90,92activesafetysystems137–40alertness4,12,63animals,ontheroad251anti-lockbrakingsystems(ABS)89,111,138anti-skidsurfaces77anticipation4,46–51
ofbeingovertaken218humanfactorsaffecting62–5tominimiseskidding133seealsoplanning
aquaplaning141armsignals150asphalt77attentiondistribution4
attentionspan45automatictransmission100–3BA(emergencybrakeassist)138
bendsaccelerationon93–5,168,182brakingon110,168doubleapex177–8effectsofcamberon170gearselectionfor182overtakingon205–6positioningforbestview180–1speedon181–2steeringon94,168seealsocornering
biorhythms63blindspots61,216bluelights235brake/gearoverlap37–9brakelights148brakes,defective132
brakingapproachinghazards110automatictransmissionand102onbends110,168emergency111engine90,96,104normal105andskidding135andtyregrip106unnecessary93whilechanginggear37–9
brakingdistance108buses83
caffeinedrinks64camber170carelessdriving6cat’seyes71clutch,slipping98cobbles77collisions6–9
prevention24whenovertaking200whenreversing120
competences,core4–5concentration213concreteroadsurfaces77contraflowsystems228convoy,emergencyvehiclesin249–50cornering166–83
brakingand110forces167–8
gearchangingwhile99limitpointand172–7usingsystemofcarcontrol179–82andvehiclebalance88–9seealsobends
courtesysignals151crossroads,positioningat161crowncamber170–1cyclists83,157,190,202,250
dazzle70,228debris228deceleration90,91decision-making43decisiontime44–5dippedheadlights69,73distance,keepingyour8–9,61–2,158distractions,operational12,13doubleapexbends177–8drivererror6drivingskills3drivingstress13–15dualcarriagewaysseemulti-lanecarriageways
EBA(emergencybrakeassist)138electricvehicles91electronicstabilityprogrammes(ESP)89,111,139–40emergencybrakeassist(EBA)138emergencybraking111emergencyresponse232–51
approachingandpassingvehicles242–4approachingtrafficlights236–40
contraveningkeepleft/rightsigns240definition232interpretingdrivers’signals244–5onmulti-laneroads246–7positioning241riskassessment233risk-takingin16–17speedlimitexemptions236warningequipment234–5
enginebraking90,96,104ESP(electronicstabilityprogrammes)89,111,139–40EuropeanGoalsforDriverEducation2,9,259exercise,physical64eyesight43,68
fallingasleepatthewheel64feedback17–18,43floods78–9fog72,225foglights69,73,224
rear148followingposition8–9,61–2,158,193–4fourwheeldrivevehicles92,136frontwheeldrivevehicles91,136–7
GDE(EuropeanGoalsforDriverEducation)2,9,259
gearchangingwhenmovingoff97whilebraking37–9whilecornering99
gearselection29,96–9approachingpotentialhazards36approachingroundabouts34forbends182forovertaking192forturning32–3insystemofcarcontrol29
gearboxes,automatic100–3glasses(spectacles)71GoalsforDriverEducation(GDE)2,9,259
habit45hardshoulder187,222hazardwarninglights147hazards25–6
anticipation36,50–1,65brakingonapproachto110definition47–8positiononapproachto36,155–63prioritising51responseto52roadsignsindicating79–80roadsurfaces78roadside155–6whenovertaking186,200–6
headlampflashers235,241headlights69
flashing149–50
high-sidedvehicles227highspeeddriving217highwinds226–7hills,descending103,104horn148–9horses251humanfactorrisks10,12,13–16,31,62–5,213hunting,ofautomatictransmission103
IAMSAFEchecklist254ice76,97–8,103,226indicators146–7information26,42–6
approachingpotentialhazards36approachingroundabouts34–5improvingprocessingof44–6insystemofcarcontrol28onmotorways217–21take,useandgive(TUG)27,28–9whencornering179whenovertaking191,218–20whenturning32–3seealsoanticipation;observation;signals
insidethevehiclechecklist257journeys,purposeof11–12,16judgement,errorsof45
junctionsmotorway221,223nearside157trafficlight-controlled236–9
keepleft/rightsigns240‘keepingyourdistance’8–9,61–2,158kickdown102
laneclosures228lanediscipline217lay-bys203left-handbends181left-handturns32,159,160
lightsinbadweather73insidevehicles71ofothervehicles70usingatnight68–9
limitpoint172–7,181lines(roadmarkings)71,79–81loadedvehicles91localroadknowledge81low-speedmanoeuvring120–7lowvisibility74
manoeuvring,low-speed120–7memory46mentalmaps43microclimates74mirrors27,28motorcyclists157,190,250
motorwaysexitjunctions223hardshoulder187,222humanfactorrisks213joining214–17junctions221lanediscipline217usingsystemofcarcontrolon215–17seealsomulti-lanecarriageways
movingoff97,102multi-lanecarriageways
badweatherconditions224–8debrison228emergencyresponseon246–7hazardsonnonmotorways212,229laneclosures228overtakingon208,217–21seealsomotorways
multi-tasking4,7,13
nearside154–5hazards155–6passingon,inemergency248roadjunctions157,243
nightdriving68–72‘noblecause’risk-taking16
observation46–8humanfactorsaffecting62–5lookingbutnotseeing54–5inlow-speedmanoeuvring121–2makinglinks82–3
tominimiseskidding132–3onmotorways216atnight71–2peripheralvision56roadsignsandmarkings80scanningtheenvironment52–4zonesofvisibility57seealsoanticipation
observe,understand,react(OUR)80offside154–5
roadjunctions244operationalstress14–15OUR(observe,understand,react)80overallsafestoppingdistance107–8overconfidence18–19overhangs,vehicle123–4oversteer135–6,169–70overtaking186–209
afterfollowing193–6basicsafetyrule189onbends205–6cyclists202followingposition193–4hazards186,200–6helpingotherroaduserstoovertake209onmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways208,217–21movingvehicles188–9overtakingmanoeuvre196overtakingposition195–6onsinglecarriageways205–7stationaryvehicles188vehiclecapabilityfor188
vehiclesinalineoftraffic197–8whenabletoovertakeimmediately190–2
parkedvehicles83,156parking126–7parkingbrake102,111‘partingofthewaves’239,246pedestriancrossings,trafficlight-controlled240pedestrians251perception,errorsof45peripheralvision56planning5,48–52
low-speedmanoeuvring122,126seealsoanticipation
position29,154–63approachinghazards36,155–63approachingroundabouts34–5cornering179–80atcrossroads161inemergencyresponse241insystemofcarcontrol29followingposition8–9,61–2,158,193–4forovertaking192forstoppingbehindothervehicles162–3forturning32–3,159–60
posture64POWDERchecklist256pull–pushmethodofsteering114–15
queuejumping197
railwaylines83rain226
reactiontime44–5rearwheeldrivevehicles91,136–7recklessdriving6‘redmist’16–17reflectivepractice20reflectivestudsandmarkings71regressioneffects45responsetime44–5restbreaks64retarders90,104reversing120–3,124–5right-handbends180right-handturns33,159roadjunctions157roadmarkings71,79–81roadsigns79–81roadsurfaces75–8,204
seealsoslipperyroadsurfaces;wetroadsurfacesroadworks228roadworthinessseevehiclespecificationandroadworthinessroadworthiness/pre-drivingchecklist255rotationalsteering116roundabouts34–5,247–8
scanning52–55safestoppingdistance106–8safetytechnology,vehicle130seatposition64,112self-assessment20shiftlock102shiftwork63–4signalling,onmotorways215,220
signals27,29,144–51ofothers145,151,244–5purpose144types146
singlecarriageways,overtakingon205–7singletrackroads177sirens234–5situationalawareness4,5,11,24skidtraining141skidding131–6
causes131–2,134–6correcting141minimisingriskof132–3
sleep63,65sleet226sliproads214–15slipperyroadsurfaces76,97–8,103,132–3,226slow-movingvehicles243slowingdown104–5
seealsobrakingsnow97–8,103,226spectacles71speed29
approachingpotentialhazards36approachingroundabouts34insystemofcarcontrol29onbends181–2choiceof58–9andsafety59–60skiddingcausedbyexcessive134underestimating60–1whenovertaking192
whenturning32–3seealsoacceleration;braking
speedlimits59,209statutoryexemptions236
stability,vehicle130stationaryvehicles
atornearincidents245overtaking188,243seealsoparkedvehicles
steering112–17onbends94,168low-speedmanoeuvring123pull–pushmethod114–15rotationaltechnique116–17andskidding135techniques112
steeringwheel112–13stopping104–5,162–3
seealsobrakingstoppingdistance106–8,177stress13–15sundazzle228superelevation170–1‘swannecking’160systemofcarcontrol25–39
tailgating8–9taperedbraking105tarmac77TCS(tractioncontrolsystems)89,139testingthebrakes258thinkingdistance107
timepressure16tiredness63–5tractioncontrolsystems(TCS)89,139
trafficemergencyresponsein242–4hazardperceptionin11–12overtakingin197–8safedistancein158
trafficlight-controlledjunctions236–9trafficlight-controlledpedestriancrossings240TUG(take,useandgive)27,28–9turning32–3,159–60two-secondrule109tyregrip75–8,86–9
brakingand106corneringand94,167–8tractioncontrolsystemsand139tyreconditionand132anduseofgears97seealsoaquaplaning;skidding
understeer94,135–6,169–70urgency,riskand16
vehiclebalanceaccelerationand90–2brakingand106tyregripand88–9
vehiclespecificationandroadworthiness11–12andcornering169drivers’attitudestosafetytechnology130andnightdriving68andovertaking188andriskofskidding132stabilityfeatures130
ventilation64
visibilitylow74zonesof57
vision(eyesight)68visualinformation43
water,drivingthrough78–9,103weatherconditions72–4,132–3,224–8wetroadsurfaces103,132–3,141,226wheelspin91,97,139winds226–7windscreen,inbadweather73work,drivingat7,63
youngdrivers7
zoneofrelativesafety154–5zonesofvisibility57
NOTES