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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First tomywife, Sharon, for allher support.ToJerryBentleyandHowardSpodek,whosetextsprovidedan initial framework.ToEllenMendlowandAlexFreer,whohelpeda first-timeauthorcharttheroughwaters.Andlast,toallmystudents,whokeepmecomingbacktotheclassroom.—M.A.

Iwouldliketothankmyhusband,Paul,andson,Jordan,forbeingpatientandunderstandingandenduringinnumerablepizzadinnerswhileIworkedonthisbook.I’dalsoliketothankMonty Armstrong, David Daniel, and the editors for all of their help and encouragement.Becausethisbookcoversanextremelybroaddiscipline,theyeachgavemepositivefeedbackandimprovedtheportionsofthisbookthatIauthored.—A.K.

ThankyoutoClaudiaMilneforhervaluableadditionsandupdates.

SpecialthankstoCynthiaCowanforherworkonthisedition.

CONTENTS

CoverTitlePageCopyrightAcknowledgmentsIntroduction

PARTI:HOWTOCRACKTHESYSTEM

1WelcometotheWorldofAPWorldHistory2CrackingtheMultiple-ChoiceSection3CrackingtheEssayQuestions4CrackingtheDocument-BasedQuestion(DBQ)5CrackingtheFree-ResponseQuestions

PARTII:THEAPWORLDHISTORYREVIEW

6AncientStuff:Around8000B.C.E.toAround600C.E.HistoryReviewthrough600C.E.

Nomads:FollowtheFoodSettlingDown:TheNeolithicRevolutionTheBig,EarlyCivilizations:TheRiversDeliverEarlyMesoamericaandAndeanSouthAmerica:ForEveryRuleThere’sanExceptionTheClassicalCivilizations:MesoamericaTheClassicalCivilizations:IndiaandChinaTheClassicalCivilizations:MediterraneanLateClassicalPeriod:EmpiresCollapse,andPeopleontheMove

MajorBeliefSystemsthrough600C.E.TechnologyandInnovationsthrough600C.E.ChangesandContinuitiesintheRoleofWomenPullingItAllTogetherTimelineofMajorDevelopments8000B.C.E.to600C.E.

7ReallyOldStuff:Around600C.E.toAround1450ReviewofHistoryWithinCivilizations600C.E.–1450

TheRiseofIslamDevelopmentsinEuropeandtheByzantineEmpireDevelopmentsinAsiaTheRiseandFalloftheMongolsDevelopmentsinAfrica

DevelopmentsintheAmericasReviewofInteractionsAmongCultures600C.E.–1450

TradeNetworksandCulturalDiffusionExpansionofReligionandEmpire:CultureClashOtherReasonsPeopleWereontheMove

TechnologyandInnovations600C.E.–1450ChangesandContinuitiesintheRoleofWomenPullingItAllTogetherTimelineofMajorDevelopments600C.E.–1450

8OldStuff:Approximately1450toAround1750MajorEuropeanDevelopments1450–1750

RevolutionsinEuropeanThoughtandExpressionRenaissance:ClassicalCivilizationPartIITheProtestantReformation:StreamliningSalvationTheScientificRevolution:ProveItorLoseItTheEnlightenment:OutofDarkness,IntotheLightEuropeanExplorationandExpansion:EmpiresoftheWind

DevelopmentsinSpecificCountriesandEmpires1450–1750TheEuropeanRivalsRussiaOutofIsolationIslamicGunpowderEmpires:Ottoman,Safavid,andMughalAfricaIsolatedAsia

TechnologyandInnovations1450–1750ChangesandContinuitiesintheRoleofWomenPullingItAllTogetherTimelineofMajorDevelopments1450–1750

9NotSoOldStuff:SometimeAround1750toAbout1914IndustryandImperialism

TheIndustrialRevolutionEuropeanImperialisminIndiaEuropeanImperialisminChinaJapaneseImperialismEuropeanImperialisminAfrica

PoliticalDevelopmentsintheAmericasandEuropeTwoRevolutions:AmericanandFrenchLotsofIndependenceMovements:LatinAmericaTwoUnifications:ItalyandGermanyOtherPoliticalDevelopments

TechnologyandIntellectualDevelopments1750toAbout1914ChangesandContinuitiesintheRoleofWomenPullingItAllTogetherTimelineofMajorDevelopments1750–1914

10RecentStuff:Around1914tothePresentTheTwentiethCenturyinChunks

TheWorldWarIEraTheWorldWarIIEraCommunismandtheColdWarIndependenceMovementsandDevelopmentsinAsiaandAfricaGlobalizationandtheWorldSince1980

ChangesandContinuitiesintheRoleofWomenPullingItAllTogetherTimelineofMajorDevelopmentsSince1914

PARTIII:THEPRINCETONREVIEWAPWORLDHISTORYPRACTICETESTSANDEXPLANATIONS

11PracticeTest112PracticeTest1:AnswersandExplanations13PracticeTest214PracticeTest2:AnswersandExplanations

IndexAbouttheAuthors

Introduction

WHATISTHEPRINCETONREVIEW?ThePrincetonReviewisaninternationaltest-preparationcompanywithbranchesinallmajorU.S. cities and several cities abroad. In 1981, JohnKatzman started teaching an SATprepcourseinhisparents’livingroom.Withinfiveyears,ThePrincetonReviewhadbecomethelargestSATprepprograminthecountry.Our phenomenal success in improving students’ scores on standardized tests is due to asimple, innovative,andradicallyeffectivephilosophy:Studythetest,not justwhat thetestclaimstotest.Thisapproachhasledtothedevelopmentoftechniquesfortakingstandardizedtestsbasedontheprinciplesthetestwritersthemselvesusetowritethetests.ThePrincetonReviewhasfoundthatitsmethodsworknotjustforcrackingtheSAT,butforanystandardizedtest.We’vealreadysuccessfullyappliedoursystemtotheGMAT,LSAT,MCAT,andGRE,tonamejustafew.ObviouslyyouneedtobewellversedinworldhistorytodowellontheAPWorldHistoryExam,butyoushouldrememberthatanystandardizedtestispartlyameasureofyourabilitytothinklikethepeoplewhowritestandardizedtests.ThisbookwillhelpyoubrushuponyourAPWorldHistoryandpreparefortheexamusingourtime-testedprinciple:Crackthesystembylearninghowthetestiscreated.Wealsoofferbooksandonlineservicesthatcoveranenormousvarietyofeducationandcareer-relatedtopics.Ifyou’reinterested,checkoutourwebsiteatPrincetonReview.com.

http://PrincetonReview.com

PARTI

HowtoCracktheSystem

1

WelcometotheWorldofAPWorldHistory

SoyouwanttotaketheAdvancedPlacementWorldHistoryExam.PresumablyyouaretakinganAPWorldHistorycourse that is teachingyoucollege-levelworldhistory.Assumingyouhaveagood teacherandagood textbook,youprobablyknowa tonof stuffalreadyaboutwhat’s happened in the world for the last several thousand years. So why do you needanotherbooktoteachyouhowtotaketheAPWorldHistoryExam?First, if you want to do well on the APWorld History Exam, you either need to knoweverythingthateverhappenedintheworldoryoucanlearnwhatpartsofworldhistoryaretestedontheAPWorldHistoryExam.Becauselearningeverythingthateverhappenedintheworldisunlikely,we’veoptedtogiveyouatopicalreviewofWorldHistoryàlaAdvancedPlacement.

BUTWAIT,THERE’SMORE

Second,thereismoretoscoringhighlyonastandardizedtestliketheAPWorldHistoryExamthansimplyreviewingallthehistorythatwillappearinthetest.Howoftenhaveyougottenquestionswrongon a test even thoughyouknewyour stuff?Todowell on theAPWorldHistoryExamoranyAPexam,youneedtoknownotonlywhat is testedbutalsohow it istested.Howmanymultiple-choicequestionsarethere,andwhatperiodsdotheycover?Whatkindsofessaysareonthetestandhowmuchtimeshouldyouspendoneachquestion?Onceyouknowtheanswerstoquestionslikethese,youwillbebetterabletoshowwhatyouknowon the test. For example, you are given two hours towrite three essays. Howmuch timeshouldyouspendoneachessay?Whichessayshouldyouwritefirst?Howmuchtimeshouldyou spend planning your essay versus actually writing your essay? The answers to thesequestions,aswellasstrategiesforscoringyourpersonalbest,arewhatPartIofthisbookisallabout.

DOITBEFOREYOUDOITFinally,youneedtopractice.Doingsometrialruns—writingAP-styleessays,answeringAP-type multiple-choice questions—is one of the best ways to get yourself ready for the APWorldHistoryExam.Thinkaboutit:Ifyouareatennisplayer,youattendpracticeeveryday.Youpracticeserving,youpracticeyourbackhand,andyouplaysomematchesagainstotherteammates.Doingthistypeofpracticehelpsyoubecomeaspreparedasyoucanpossiblybeforarealmatch.Thissametypeofpractice—drillingeachskillplustakingsomefull-lengthpracticetests—willhelpyoubeaspreparedasyoucanpossiblybefortheAPWorldHistoryExam.

BADCOURSE?NOCOURSE?Taking anAPWorldHistory coursewith a less-than-stellar teacher? Just decided thatyoumusttaketheAPWorldHistoryExameventhoughyouarenottakingthecourse?Homeschoolinginworldhistorywithoutacoursebookoroutline?Noproblem.PartIIof thisbookwillprovideyouwithathoroughoutlineof thehistoryyouneedtoknowplusguidelinesforwhatyoucandotofurtherbolsteryourAPWorldHistoryknowledge.

THEAPWORLDHISTORYEXAM

STRUCTUREOFTHETEST

TheAPWorldHistoryExamisdivided intotwosections:multiplechoiceandfree-responseessays.SectionIofthetestiscomprisedof70multiple-choicequestionstobeansweredin55minutes.Section IIof the testbeginswitha ten-minute readingperiod (time to review thedocumentsyoumustuseforthefirstessayquestion),followedbyatwo-hourperiodtowritethreeessays.

THAT’SALOTOFHISTORY

The APWorld History Exam divides all history into sixmajor periods from about 10,000years ago to the present. On the multiple-choice section of the test, the distribution ofquestionsisasfollows:

Now,youmaybewonderingwhythefirstperiodspansthousandsofyearswhilethelastperiodspansalittlemorethan100years.Whenmoreandmoresocietiescameintobeingandgot more complex, world history also got more complex. Also, we have more historicalaccountsanddocumentstostudyfromrecenthistorythanwedofromancienthistory,sowesimplyknowmoreaboutwhathappenedinthelast100years.Eventhoughthereare8000yearsinthefirstperiod,800inthethirdperiod,andjustover100inthelastperiod,youcanstudyeachperiodforthesameamountoftime.Thereviewofhistoryincludedinthisbookdividesworldhistoryintotheperiodscoveredontheexaminordertohelpguideyourstudy.

BYTHEWAY

While the multiple-choice section of the test asks questions from each of the aboveperiods,thesequestionsdonotappearinanyparticularorder.Inotherwords,whenyoutake themultiple-choice part of the exam, you’ll jump from theRomanEmpire to thepresentbacktotheMiddleAgesbacktothepresentandsoon.Somestudentsfinditachallengetoshiftgearsrapidlyfromhunter-gathererstoNAFTAtoGalileo,sobesuretodoafewtrialrunsonthepracticetestsinPartIIIofthisbook.

FREE-RESPONSEQUESTIONS(A.K.A.THEESSAYS)Inthefree-responsesectionoftheexam,youareaskedtowritethreeessays,eachinresponsetoaquestion.Thequestionsare:

Thedocument-basedquestionorDBQ:Asthenameimplies,theDBQisbasedonacollectionoffourtotendocumentsthatyoumustuseinordertoanswerthequestion.Luckily,youwillhave10minutesatthestartoftheessayportionofthetesttoreadthegivendocumentspriortowriting your essay. Thatmay not sound like a lot right now, butdon’tworry.OurchapterontheDBQwilltellyouexactlywhattodowiththose10minutes.

The continuity and change-over-time essay: Again, as the nameimplies,youneedtoansweraquestionabouthowsomethingchangedover a certain period of time and how it remained the same. Thesequestions tend to deal with large global issues such as technology,trade,culture,migrations,orbiologicaldevelopments.Ourchapteronchangeovertimeandcomparativeessayswillhelpyougetorganizedforthisessay.

Thecomparativeessay:Thecomparativeessaytypicallyasksyoutocomparehowtwosocietiesrespondedtoamajorthemeorevent.Ourchapteronchangeovertimeandcomparativeessayswillhelpyougetorganizedforthisessay.

WHATDOTHEYWANTFROMME?WhatistheAPWorldHistoryExamreallytesting?Inanutshell:Canyoumakeconnectionsbetween different societies over different periods of time? In other words, for any givenperiodofhistory,canyouexplainwhowasdoingwhat?Howdidwhattheyweredoingaffecttherestoftheworld?Whatchangedaboutthesocietyduringthisperiodoftime?Toshowwhatyouknowaboutworldhistory,keepthisbig-pictureperspectiveinmindasyoustudyandanswermultiple-choicequestionsorconstructessays.Tohelpyoudothis,keepaneyeoutforcertainrecurringthemesthroughoutthedifferenttimeperiods.Specifically,beonthelookoutforthefollowing:

Howdidpeopleinteractwiththeirenvironment?Whydidtheylivewheretheydid?Howdidtheygetthere?Whattools,technology,andresourceswereavailabletothem?Howwasthelandscapechangedbyhumans?Whatnewideas,thoughts,andstylescameintoexistence?Howdidtheseculturaldevelopmentsinfluencepeopleandtechnology(forexample:newreligiousbeliefsorRenaissancethought)?Howdiddifferentsocietiesgetalong—ornotgetalong—withinatimeperiod?Whotookoverwhom?Howdidleadersjustifytheirpower?Whorevoltedorwaslikelytorevolt?Andweretheysuccessful?

Howdideconomicsystemsdevelopandwhatdidtheydependonintermsofagriculture,trade,labor,industrialization,andthedemandsofconsumers?Whohadpowerandwhodidnotwithinagivencultureandwhy?Whatwasthestatusofwomen?Whatracialandethnicconstructionswerepresent?

ForeachtimeperiodcoveredinPartIIofthisbook,youwillfindboxesthatidentifythesemajor themes,plusaBigPictureoverviewandaPulling ItAllTogether summary foreachperiod.TheintroductiontoPartIIwillfillyouinonhowtousethesetoolsasyoustudy.

SCORINGYou’ll get one point for each question you get right on themultiple-choice section of theexamforatotalof70possiblepoints.Youwillalsogetupto27pointsfortheessaysectionof theexam;eachessayreceivesascorerangingfrom0to9.Butwait:Don’tbemisledbythesenumbers.Whileyoucanearna lotmorepointson themultiple-choice sectionof thetest,eachsectionoftheexamisweightedtobeworthexactlyfiftypercentofyourscore.Inotherwords, if you do a great job on themultiple-choice section of the test but blow theessays,youwon’tdoverywell.Themoralof thestory:Youneed tobe reallyprepared forbothpartsof the test.Don’t relyonyourwriting skills topullyou throughand ignore themultiple-choicestufforviceversa.Thatstrategywon’tworkonthistest.

WHAT’SAGOODSCORE,ANYWAY?Once themultiple-choice section of your test has been scanned and your essays scored byreaders,ETS (your local testinggiant)appliesamysterious formula thatconvertsyour rawscorenumbers to a120-point scale. Somehow they turn70possiblemultiple-choicepointsinto60points,and27possibleessaypointsintoanother60points.But that’s not all themagic they do. They then take your score (up to 120 points) andconvertittothestandardAP1to5scorethatyouseewhenyouripopenthetestresultsthatcomeinthemail.Seemslikealittlebitofaletdowntodoallthisworkfora4,doesn’tit?However,a4ora5isthescorethatwillmostlikelygetyouwhatyouwantfromthecollegeoruniversityyou’llattend—collegecredit forWorldHistory.A3 isconsideredpassingandmightgetyoucollegecredit;thenagain,itmightnot.Therefore,yourgoalistogetatleasta3,preferablya4or5.Ifyoureceivebelowa3,itishighlyunlikelythatyouwillgetcollegecreditforyourhighschoolAPcourse,butyoustillgetagradeforthatclass.AgoodgradeinanAPclassalwayslooksgoodonyourtranscript.The trickypart about the1 to5 scoring system is that it is designed to compareyou toeveryoneelsewhotooktheAPWorldHistoryExamduringagivenyear.But if the test thatyearwasparticularlytough,thetop25percentorsoofscorerswillstillscore4’sand5’s.Inotherwords, if all the scaled (0–120) scores are somewhat low, the top endwill still earnhighmarks. Of course, the opposite is also true—if everyone does an excellent job, somepeoplewillendupwith2’sand1’s.Togiveyouanideaofthedistributionofscores,here’sthebreakdownofresultsfrommorethan167,000studentswhotookthe2010test.

YOURGOAL

Sowhatkindofscoreshouldyoushootfor?Althoughthereisnowaytodetermineexactlyhowtogeta3,ora4,ora5,ifyoustrivetogetmorethantwo-thirdsoftherawscorepointsoneach scored segmentof the test, youwillmost likelybeon track for a3or above.Forscores of 4 or 5, your goal should be to correctly answer 70 percent, or about 50, of themultiple-choicequestionsandtowritethreeessaysthatarescoredat6orabove.Onaverage,students who scored 4 or better got at least two-thirds of the multiple-choice questionscorrect. Specifically,we recommendyou strive for the following raw scores.Keep inmindthatyoushouldanswermorethan50multiple-choicequestionsinordertogetarawscoreof50,butthatdoesnotmeanyouneedtoanswerallofthem.

APWorldHistoryRawScoreGoals

HOWDOYOUKNOW?Howcanwetellyouwhattostriveforwhenthemagicformulaforconvertingrawscorestoscaledscoresisunpublished,andwhenthepoolofstudentseachyearcansignificantlyalterthedefinitionofagoodscaledscore?Intruth,wecan’t.However,wecantellyoufromyearsofworkingwithAPteststhatthesenumbersfallintherangeofscoresearnedbystudentswhoreceive3’s,4’s,and5’s.Whenitcomestotheessays,ifyouaskedanAPWorldHistoryessaygraderwhatagoodscoreisonanAPWorldHistoryessay,heorshewouldsayarounda6or7andabove(weknow—weaskedthem).Ourformulationmaynotbemagical,butweare fairlyconfident that ifyoucanearnat least thenumberofrawscorepoints listedabove,youstandaverygoodchanceofearningascoreof3oraboveontheAPWorldHistoryExam.

WHENISTHETESTGIVEN?Justincaseyoudidn’tknow,yourtestisgiveninthebeginningofMay.Itisgivenduringthe

regular school day, sodo everythingwithin your power to be at school on time andwell-restedthatday.Ifforsomereasonyouhappentogetsick,don’tworry.Mostschoolsholdamakeupday.

HOWTOGETTHEMOSTOUTOFTHISBOOKThereareseveralwaysyoucanusethisbooktomakesureyouaretotallypreparedforyourAPWorldHistoryExam.After reading this introduction,we suggest youwork through themultiple-choicechapterofthebook.Knowingwhattoexpectfromthisportionofthetestcanhelpyoudevelopyourstrategiesandplanofattack.After that, you may want to alternate between your strategy review and your historyreview.Forexample,youcanreadthroughthefirstchapter inPartII(Chapter6, “AncientStuff”), thenwork through thechapter thatcoversdocument-basedquestions.Next, reviewanotherchapterortwoofhistory,thenworkthroughthechapterontheremainingtwoessayquestions.Alternatively,youmaywanttoworkthroughallofPartIfirstsothatyouhaveagoodideaofwhatthetestcomprises.Knowinghowthequestionsareaskedonthetestmaychangethewayyoureviewthehistory.Nomatterhowyouchoosetoworkthroughthebook,readtherestofthischapterandChapter2(“CrackingtheMultiple-ChoiceSection”)firstsothatyoucanpracticewithafoundation.

ASELECTIVEREVIEW

RememberthatPartIIofthisbookisareviewofthehistoryyouneedtoknowforthetest—itisnotmeanttobeusedinplaceofyourtextbook.Mostlikelyyou’vebeenreviewingworldhistoryallyear.Ourreviewwillhelpyouorganizeyourthoughtsintothecorrectperiods,pulltogetherthebig-pictureconceptsthatwillappearonthetest,andhelpyoufocusinontheareasofhistorythatyoustillneedtostudy.

HOWTOWORKWITHTHEFREERESPONSEANDESSAYSECTIONSINTHISEBOOK

Throughoutthisebookyou’llencounterfree-responseandessayquestions,justlikeyou’llseeontherealexam.Whenworkingthroughthem,lookforthepencil-and-papericonabove.Youcan either fill out your answers on a separate piece of paper tomimic your actual testingexperience,orusetheNotesfunctionalityonyoureReader.

Ifyouareusingatouch-screenreaderorapp,simplyholdyourfingeroverthefirstwordinthelineandthenselect“Note”tocreateanoteandbegintypingyouranswer.

Ifyouareusinganon-touch-screenreader,moveyourcursoruptothelinewhereyouwanttoenterananswerandthenbegintypingtocreateanewnote.

You can then reference your answers anytime you are reading the eBook as they will be

storedasnotesonyourdevice.

TRYITFORFREEPart III of this book contains two full-lengthAPWorldHistory practice tests.Once you’veworkedthroughthestrategiesanddonesomehistoryreview,takethefirsttest.Setasidea3-hourblockoftimesothatyoucantakethetestinasrealisticawayaspossible(don’tdoitinfrontoftheTVat11:00atnight).Afteryoutakethetest,checkyouranswersandgobacktothequestionsthatgaveyoutrouble.Readovertheanswerexplanationsandmakesureyouunderstand why you got answers right and wrong. Going over your test can be a veryeffectivewaytoreviewbothstrategyandhistory.Workonanyareasthatgaveyoutrouble,thensetasideanotherblockoftimetotakethesecondtest.Youmaywanttotakethissecondtestaweekortwobeforetherealexamasatrialrun.Again, takeitunderreal testingconditions(maybeaskyourparentorafriendtotimeyou).Afteryoufinishthetest,goovertheanswersandworkthroughthequestionsthatgaveyoutrouble.Usethistestasyourfinalreviewbeforetherealthing.Ready?Let’sgetcracking.

2

CrackingtheMultiple-ChoiceSection

WELL,WHATDOYOUKNOW?Aswementioned in the introduction, to dowell on themultiple-choice section of the APWorld History Exam, you need to know two things: (1) world history (à la AdvancedPlacement),and(2)howtoshowthatyouknowworldhistory.Onewaytoprovethatyouknow world history is by correctly answering the number of multiple-choice questionsnecessarytoscore3orabove.Obvious, right?Thenwhy is it that lots of studentswhoknowworldhistorydon’t get agreatscoreonthetest?Coulditbebecausethereare70questionstoanswerin55minutes?Or is it because they know the history but don’t know how to wade through the answerchoicesefficiently?Students often don’t perform to the best of their ability on the APWorldHistory Exambecauseinadditiontoknowingthehistory,theyneedtoknowhowtoanalyzethequestions,getridofthebadanswerchoices,andfindthecorrectanswerinashortperiodoftime.That’swhatthischapterisallabout.

GUESSINGONTHEAPEXAMS

As of May 2011, the AP exams no longer subtract one quarter of a point for incorrectanswers—the infamous “guessing penalty.” Instead, students are assessed only on the totalnumberofcorrectquestions.Itisreallyimportanttorememberthatifyouarerunningoutoftime,youneedtofillinallthebubblesbeforethetimeforthemultiple-choicesectionisup.Evenifyoudon’tplantospendalotoftimeoneveryquestionandevenifyouhavenoideawhat the correct answer is, you need to fill something in. We don’t recommend randomguessingasanoverall strategy,but takingsmartguessesat theright timecansubstantiallyincreaseyourrawscoreonthemultiple-choicesectionofthetest.Let’sseewhenguessingcanhelpyou.There are four answer choices for each multiple-choice question. If you were able toeliminate just one wrong answer for each question on the entire multiple-choice section,random odds say you would get one-fourth of the questions correct. That’s about 17.5questions—roundupto18questionsorpoints.Evenifyougetridofjustonewronganswerfromeachquestionthroughoutthetest,youbegintogainpoints.Whenyougettoquestionsinwhichyoucan’t eliminateanyoptions,usewhatwecall your letterof theday (LOTD).Selecting the sameanswerchoiceeach timeyouguesswill increaseyouroddsofgettingafewofthoseskippedquestionsright.

AndFurthermoreGuessingalsoraisesyourscorebecauseitsavesyoutime.Seventyquestionsin55minutesisa lot. In fact, it’s about 45 seconds per question.How can youpossibly answer thatmanyquestionsinthatshortaperiodoftime?Twoways:GuessandGo,orDon’t.

GuessandGo

Consider the following thought processes of two AP World History test takers on thisquestion:

1.Signedin1215C.E.,England’sMagnaCartawasadocumentthat

(A) increasedthewealthoftheEuropeannobility

(B) establishedEnglandasamonarchyunderKingRichard

(C) guaranteedindividuallibertiestoallmen

(D) containedarticlesthatwerethefoundationformodernjustice

(E) declaredthekingofEnglandtobeleaderoftheChurchofEngland

StudentOne

TheMagnaCarta—IknowitwasthatcharterinEnglandinthe1200sthatmadethekingaccountableforhisactions,sotheanswercan’tbe(A)anddoesn’treallymatch(E),either—crossthoseoff.Whowasthatking?WasitJohn?Ithinkso.Thatgetsridof(B).Now,isitmoreaccuratetosaythattheoriginaldocumentguaranteedindividuallibertiestoallmenorthatsomeofthearticlesbecamefoundationsformodernjustice.Individuallibertiesforallmen…hmmm…foundationsformodernjustice.Bothsoundpossible.Wasitlibertiesforallmen?Ithoughtsobutmaybenotornotallmenornotatthetime.DidtheMagnaCartainfluencemodernjustice?Ithinksobutinwhatwayexactly?Coulditbedescribedasfoundationaltomodernjustice?Hmmm.…

StudentTwo

TheMagnaCarta—thatcharterinEnglandinthe1200sthatmadethekingaccountableforhisactions.Crossoff(A).Anditwasn’taboutreligion,socrossoff(E).Thekingwas…John…yeah,KingJohn.Thatgetsridof(B).(C)…hmmm…didtheMagnaCartaguaranteeindividuallibertiestoallmen?Maybe,notsuresoleaveit.(D)…diditcontainarticlesthatbecamefoundationsofmodernjustice?Couldhave.Guaranteedforallmenorfoundationsofmodernjustice?I’mnotsure,butIthink(C)istoostrong—guaranteedforallmen.I’llguess(D).

Nextquestion.TheprintingpresswasinventedbyGutenbergsometimeneartheReformation.Crossoff(A)and(C)…

In the above scenario, Student One continues to deliberate between (C) and (D) whileStudent Two goes on to the next question.What’s the difference? Student Twodid all thework shecould, considered the remainingoptions, then tooka smartguessandmovedon.StudentOnedidalltheworkhecould,thengotstucktryingtomakeadecisionbetweenthetworemainingoptions.Asthetestprogresses,StudentOnewilllagfurtherandfurtherbehindStudentTwo,notbecauseheknowslessworldhistory,butbecauseheislesswillingtotakethatguessandmoveon.TodowellontheAPWorldHistoryExam,youneedtodowhatyou

canbutthenbewillingtotakeyourbestguessandmoveontothenextquestion.

FOUROUTOFEVERYFIVECHOICESAREBAD

ImaginethatyouareanAPWorldHistoryExamwriter(youneverknow,itcouldhappen).Asyoubegin,you first formulate thequestionportionof thequestion(or thestem), thencraftyourcorrectanswer.Butyourworkdoesnotstopthere.Once you are satisfied with the correct answer, you need to create four wrong answer

choices.Howwouldyoucomeupwithrespectablewronganswerchoicesquickly?Probablybylookingatcloselyrelatedfactsorwordsthatremindyouofthequestion,orbythinkingofalmost-true and partially true answers. In other words, you create distractor answers thatappeartobelikelyoptions.Distractorsaremeanttotripupatesttakerwhodoesn’tknowthehistory,doesn’tknowhowtowadethroughmultiple-choiceanswers,orisrushingtofinish.Forexample,let’ssayyouhavecraftedaquestionaboutasimilaritybetweenChristianity

andIslam.

2.ThespreadofIslamandthespreadofChristianityweresimilarinthatmembersofbothreligions

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D) activelystrivedtoconvertmembersofotherbeliefsystems

(E)

Nowthatyouhaveyourquestionandyourcorrectanswer,whatwronganswerscouldbeinserted thatmightattracta testerwho isunsureof thecorrect response?Youcould insertsomethingthatistrueaboutonereligionbutnotnecessarilyoftheother.Forexample,lookatchoices(A)and(B).


(A) wererequiredtomakeajourneytotheHolyLandonceinthecourseoftheirlifetimes

(B) believedthattheirmainprophet(JesusforChristians,MohammadforMuslims)wastheonetruesonofGod

(C)


(E)

(A)istrueofIslambutnotChristianity,and(B)istrueofChristianitybutnotIslam.Whatelse could you fill in? Something that is true of both religions but does not answer thequestion.Todo this,youmustmake sure thatpartof theanswerchoice (often the secondhalf)makesthatchoiceclearlywrong.Forexample,lookatanswerchoice(C).Alternatively,youcouldfillinsomethingthatwasentirelytrue—butthatdidn’tanswerthequestionbeingasked.Checkoutanswerchoice(E).


(A) wererequiredtomakeajourneytotheHolyLandonceinthecourseoftheirlifetimes

(B) believethattheirmainprophet(JesusforChristians,MohammadforMuslims)wastheonetruesonofGod

(C) ascribedtoamonotheisticviewinwhichtheonlywaytosalvationisthroughtherejectionofallotherbeliefs,bothsacredandsecular


(E) consideredactivelypursuinggooddeeds,goodwords,andgoodthoughtsessentialtokeepinguniversalchaosincheck

Noticehow(C)beginswith something that is trueofboth religions,but then incorrectlydescribesrejectingbeliefsthatarebothsacredandsecular.Italsodoesnothavetodowiththespreadofthereligions.Atesterwhoreadsthisquestioninahurrymightsee:

Islam and… Christianity were similar…(C), ascribe to a monotheisticview.That’sit.

Or,perhapsyoumightseeChristianityandIslamandthink:

Monotheistic, good words and deeds and thoughts … that soundsfamiliar…thoseconceptsgotogether!Let’spick(E).

Yougettheidea.WhyarewemakingyoucreateAPWorldHistoryquestions?Sothatyoucanavoidthemistakesyouareexpectedtomakeontheexam.Howoftenhaveyoureadtheanswerchoices toaquestion,assumingeach isaplausibleanswerbutonlyoneof them isright?Whenyoudothat,youspendawholelotoftimeconsideringtheoptions.Forexample:

(A), Were required to make a journey to the Holy Land once in thecourse of their lifetimes. Well, I know that Muslims have to. Did earlyChristianshaveto?Idon’tthinkso,butmaybe.Iguess it’spossible.Whatabout(B)?Majorprophet…JesusorMohammad,sonofGod.Well,Jesus,yes.Mohammadwasthemainprophet…doMuslimsconsiderhimthesonofGod?Idon’tknowforsure.Idon’tthinkso,butIguessitispossibletoo.Well, howabout (C)?Ascribe to amonotheistic view…yes… salvationthrough therejectionofotherbeliefs?Hmmm…bothsacredandsecular.Hmmm…well,thefirstpartistrue.I’mnotsosureaboutthatsecondpart,butmaybeitwastrue.Idon’tknowwhattherulewasaboutsecularbeliefs.Thenagain,thequestionisaboutthespreadofreligion,soitreallydoesn’tanswer thequestion.Whatabout(D)?Activelystrive toconvertmembers.Well,yes, I thinkbothof thesereligionsdidthat.That’sapossibility.(E),Good deeds, good words, good thoughts, cutting down on chaos? All ofthosesoundlogicalandrelatedtothekindofthingsChristianityandIslamcareabout,sothatcouldwork…

Processing each answer choice as if it is a good possibility leads to considering far toomany things thata critical eyewould seeaswrong rightaway. Instead,work through thisquestionassumingeachansweriswronguntilprovenright.

(A),WererequiredtomakeajourneytotheHolyLand…Muslimsyes,butIdon’tthinkChristians.Crossitoff.(B),JesusorMohammad,onetruesonofGod.True forJesus, Idon’t think so forMohammad.Cross it off.(C),Monotheistic,yes,rejectotherbeliefs,notsure,skipitandcomeback.(D),Actively strive to convertmembersofotherbelief systems.Definitely.Check (E) to be sure, good behavior to… reduce universal chaos? ToocosmicforChristiansandMuslims,notit.

Notice how you can process answers much more quickly and efficiently when you arereadingthemwithacriticaleye?Differentapproachesmayverywellgetyoutothecorrectanswer,butitwilltakeawholelotlonger.Youcouldalsogetcaughtupinawronganswer,spending toomuchtimetrying to figureoutwhy itmightberight insteadof rememberingthatitisprobablywrong.Ontheotherhand,readingwithacriticaleyeallowsyoutocrossoffanswersmoreaggressively,sobythetimeyougetto(D),youfeelprettysurethatitistheanswer.Andwhatifwehadcrossedoffalltheanswerchoices?Noproblem.Juststartoverandreadalittlemorecarefully.Itisbettertobealittletooaggressivethantoconsidereveryanswerchoiceaviableoption.

ProcessofEliminationEvery time you read an APWorldHistory Exam question, remember that four of the fiveanswerchoicesyouarereadingarewrong.UsetheProcessofElimination(POE)togetridofwhatyouknowiswrongasyougothroughthechoices.Thendealwithanyanswerchoicesyouhaveleft.Formostquestions,youwillbeabletoeliminateonetothreeanswerchoicesrelativelyquickly.That leavesyouwith two to fouranswer choices to considerand takeabetter-than-blind guess among. We will talk more about POE throughout the rest of thischapter.Justremembertoreadanswerchoicesas“wronguntilprovenright”andyou’llbeonyourwaytoshowingwhatyouknowonthemultiple-choicepartofthistest.If you can’t eliminate any answers, it’s best to skip the question altogether.Mark theseskippedquestions in somedistinctiveway so that you can comeback to them later if youhavetime,andmakesureyouleaveaspaceonyouranswersheet.Alwayskeepinmindthatthemultiple-choicesectionisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,formoststudentstofinish—ascoreof50isgood!Focusonaccuracyasyouworkthroughthissection.

HOWTOCRACKAPWORLDHISTORYMULTIPLE-CHOICEQUESTIONSTodowellonthemultiple-choicesectionoftheexam,youneedtosolveeachquestionstepbystep.Thebestway to learn thisprocess is to takea lookata sampleAPWorldHistoryExamquestion.

3.WhentheEuropeansarrivedinsub-SaharanAfricainthe1400sand1500s,theAfricanslavetradewas

(A) justbeginning

(B) wellestablishedandabout500yearsold

(C) stillunderthecontrolofMuslimtraders

(D) noteconomicallyviableanddidnotinteresttheEuropeans

(E) alreadyprovidinglargenumbersofslavestoAsia

STEP1:READTHEQUESTIONANDPUTITINYOUROWNWORDS

Firstyoumustmakesurethatyouunderstandwhatthequestionisasking.Readthesamplequestionagain.Whatisitreallyasking?Ifyouarehavingtroublefiguringitout,answerthequestionsWhen?,Who?,What?Forexample,intheabovequestionaboutslavetrade,youcananswerinthefollowingway:

When?1400–1599

Who?Europeansandsub-SaharanAfrica

What?Slavetrade

Then,rephrasethequestionsothatitiscleartoyou.

WhatwasupwiththeAfricanslavetradeinthe1400–1500period?

STEP2:ANSWERINYOUROWNWORDS

Onceyou’verewrittenthequestion, takeamomenttocalluptherelevanthistorythatyouknow.Ifitisatopicyouknowwell,itwillbeeasytocomeupwithananswer.Ifyoucan’tcomeupwith a full answer, think of a few key points that you do know about the topic.Here’sanexampleofwhatyoumightknowabouttheslavetradefrom1400–1500.

ItalreadyexistedinbothAfricaandEurope,soitwasn’tnew.

Ifyoucan’tanswerthequestioncompletely,youcanstillusewhatyoudoknowtogetridofwronganswerchoicesusingtheProcessofElimination.

STEP3:PROCESSOFELIMINATION

Even ifyoudonotknowexactlywhatwasgoingonwith theslave trade in the1400sand1500s,youcanusethelittleyoudoknowtoeliminatewronganswerchoices.Remembertoreadeachanswerchoicewithacriticaleye,lookingforwhatmakesitwrong.Crossoffthechoicesthatyouknowarewrong;leaveonesthatyouareuncertainaboutoryouthinkareright.Let’sreviewwhatweknowsofaraboutthequestion.When?1400–1599.Who?EuropeansinAfrica.What?Slavetrade.Whatdoyouknowaboutslavetradein1400–1599?Itwasnotnew.Armedwiththisinformation,takealookagainattheanswerchoices.

(A) justbeginning

(B) wellestablishedandabout500yearsold

(C) stillunderthecontrolofMuslimtraders

(D) noteconomicallyviableanddidnotinteresttheEuropeans

(E) alreadyprovidinglargenumbersofslavestoAsia

Takealookatanswerchoice(A).Wasitjustbeginning?No.Crossoff(A)—thiscannotbetheanswertothequestion.Youmaynotbesureabout(B)or(C),butwhatabout(D)?Was

slaveryeconomicallyviableor interesting toEuropeans? Itmusthavebeenor itwouldnothavebecomesoextensive.Yourcommonsense tellsyou that (D)cannotbe theanswer, socrossitoffandmovealongto(E).Asia?Youmaynotrememberwhereslavesweresent,butthinkaboutitintheotherdirection—doyourememberhearingaboutblackpeopleanywhereinAsia’shistory?Youshouldn’tbecauseitdidn’thappen,so(E)’sgone,too.Ifyouhavenoideabetween(B)and(C),atleastit’snowa50-50shot,sowhatshouldyoudo?Guessandmoveon.

STEP4:GUESSANDGO

After using POE, you have a fifty-fifty shot of guessing the right answer on our samplequestion. Let’s look at answer choice (C). TheEuropeans arrived on thewest coast of sub-SaharanAfricawhiletheMuslimswereontheeastcoast.RemembertheIndianOceantradeandtheSwahiliculture?Ifthatisthecase,then(C)cannotbetheanswer.Theanswermustbe(B):wellestablishedandabout500yearsold.Canyouseehowtakingamomenttoframethequestioncanhelpyoufindtherightanswerquickly and easily? Knowing just some of the information can be enough to get you to asmartguess.Thisdoesnotmeanthatyoushouldnotlearnasmuchofthehistoryaspossible.Themoreyouknow,theeasieritwillbetoeliminatewronganswerchoicesandzeroinonthecorrectanswer.However,usingthestepsandPOEwillhelpyougettotherightanswerquicklybymakingthemostoftheinformationyouknow.

STEPBYSTEPBYSTEPBYSTEP

Let’swalk through theFourSteps to solvinganAPWorldHistorymultiple-choicequestionagain.

4.Matrilinearitywasfoundinwhichofthefollowingsocieties?

(A) Rome

(B) Sumer

(C) Bantu

(D) Byzantium

(E) AryanIndia

Step1:ReadtheQuestionandPutItinYourOwnWords

Whatdoesmatrilinearitymean?Matriislikematriarch—hastodowithfemalesorfemalesasleaders.Linearmeansinalinelikelineage.

When?Lookslikeearlytimes

Who?Femalerulers

What?Earlyrulerswhowerewoman

Soinwhichsocietydidtherulerscomefromthefemaleline?

Step2:AnswerinYourOwnWords

Notsure.DefinitelynotRome,probablynotByzantiumeither.Theyhadmajormale-dominancegoingon.

Step3:ProcessofElimination

Iknowthat(A)and(D)areout,soI’llcrossthemoff.(B),(C),and(E)remain.

Step4:GuessandGo

Idon’tknowaboutanyofthesethreesocieties,soI’llguess(C).

As ithappens,you’re right—theanswer is (C):Bantu.Even ifyoudidn’tpick (C), ifyoueliminatedasmanyasyoucouldandthenwastednofurthertimefrettingovertheunknownsbeforeyoupickedoneandmovedon,thenyoudidtherightthing.Goodjob!

YOURTURN

Nowit’syourturn.UsetheFourStepstosolvethefollowingmultiple-choicequestion.

5.WhichofthefollowingisanexampleofChineseinfluenceinJapanduringthesixth,seventh,andeighthcenturies?

(A) TheexpansionofEuropeanculturetotheislandofJapan

(B) TheadoptionbyJapanoftheChinesecivilserviceexamforgovernmentemployees

(C) TheTaikaReformsenactedafterthedeathofPrinceShotoku

(D) TheconversionofmostJapaneseShintotoBuddhism

(E) Theproliferationoftheopiumtrade



Step3:POE

Step4:GuessandGo

Here’sHowtoCrackItFirst,notethatthequestionisaskingforanexampleofChina’sinfluenceonJapanduringthesixth, seventh, and eighth centuries (there is yourWhen? andWho?). What do you knowabout Japan during this time period? China had just started to influence Japan. Lots ofreformstookplace,butJapandidn’tadopteverythingChinese—forexample,Confucianism.Knowingthat,let’susePOE.(A)isaboutEuropeanculture.HadEuropeanculturetouchedJapanatthistime?No,ithadbarelytouchedChinaletaloneJapan,socrossoff(A).(B)isoutifyourememberthatJapandidnotembraceConfucianism,andthatConfucianismwasabigpartofChinesegovernment

and the Chinese civil service exam. You may not remember anything about the TaikaReforms,butyoumightrecallthatwhiletheJapaneseembracedBuddhism,theydidnotgiveupShintobutratherpracticedbothsimultaneously.Thateliminates(D).YoumayrememberthatopiumwasimportanttoChina,butnotethatthequestiontalksaboutthesixth,seventh,and eighth centuries—if it was Europeans who brought opium to China, it wouldn’t havebeenthatearly,soitcan’tbe(E).Youranswermustbe(C).

SOFAR,SOGOODEXCEPT…NotallquestionsareaskedinastraightforwardmannerontheAPWorldHistoryExam.Forexample:

6.Allofthefollowingareresultsofbubonicplague,whichsweptthroughChinaandEuropefromthe1200stothe1600s,EXCEPT

(A) socialunrest

(B) tremendouspopulationloss

(C) adecreaseinwages

(D) lessrigiditybetweensocialclasses

(E) violenceagainstsomeEuropeanJewishcommunities

ApproachthesequestionsusingthesameFourSteps.DuringStep1,rephrasethequestiontomakeitclearwhatyouhavetodotofindtherightanswer.


When?1200–1699.IntotheAgeofExploration,Renaissance,etc.

Who?China/Europe

What?Bubonicplague.Lotsofpeopledied,hadanimpactoneveryone

Fourofthefollowingthingshappenedbecauseofbubonicplague.Whichonedidn’t?


Iknowa lotofpeoplediedand therewerenot enoughpeople towork,andthateveryonehadtodrawtogethertogetthingsdone,butIforgetwhatelsehappened.

Step3:POERememberthatonEXCEPTorNOTquestions,fouroftheanswerchoicesaretruewhileoneisnottrue.Insteadoftryingtochoosetheanswer,makeanotenexttoeachastowhetheritistrueornot.Thenpickthe“not.”

(A)socialunrestnotsure

(B)tremendouspopulationlossT

(C)adecreaseinwagesnotsure

(D)lessrigiditybetweensocialclassesT

(E)violenceagainstsomeEuropeanJewishcommunitiesnotsure

Step4:GuessandGoBecauseyouarelookingfortheanswerthatisnottrue,crossout(B)and(D).Nowconsider(A)and(C).Couldsocialunresthavebeentheresultofthousandsofpeopledying?Soundsplausible, so cross off (A). Similar logic would apply to (E), but if you’re worried aboutwhetherthatwasoneof thespecifickindsofsocialunrest thatoccurred,considerthatyoucanpick(C)confidentlyifyourememberthatthemassivelaborshortageactuallyraisedtheaveragewageforbothfarmlaborersandskilledartisans.By the way, the bubonic plague led to less rigidity between social classes because itdecimatedthepopulationofallsocialclasses,andthereforepeopleneededtolearnnewskills(beyondtheirtraditionalclasses)tomakeupforthelossofpeopleinothersocialclasses.Thisledtoanoverlapinsocialandeconomicclasses.

WHENTOBAIL

Remember thatyouareona fairly tight timeschedule for this test.Youneedtomakesurethatyouspendyourtimeonquestionsthatwillpayoff.Ifyoureadaquestionandhaveabsolutelynoideawhatisbeingaskedorknowassoonasyoureadaquestionthatyoudonotknowthesubjectmatter,markitinsomeway,thenmoveon.Bettertoskipafewalongthewaythantorunoutoftimebeforeyougettoquestionsattheendthatyouknow about. After you go through the section once, you can always return to anyremainingquestions.

NoticethatSteps1and2canvaryquiteabitbasedonthequestion.Also,themoreyoucanframethehistoryinStep2, theeasier itwillbetocrossoffwronganswerchoicesandzero inon the right answer. For example, insteadof just saying that theWhat? in the lastquestionwasthebubonicplague,wetookaminutetoaddwhatthatmeantatthetime:lotsofpeople died, had an impact on everyone. Taking a moment to think of this additionalinformationhelpedgettotheanswerquicklyandeasily.

PRACTICESET1

Step1andStep2TakeafewmomentstopracticeSteps1and2.Thebetteryouareatinterpretingquestionsandcomingupwithyourownanswersbeforeyougettotheanswerchoices,theeasieritwillbetoPOEandGuessandGo!Answerscanbefoundhere.

1.DuringtheColdWarera,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionwerereluctanttobecomeinvolvedindirectmilitaryconflictmainlybecauseof



2.Inthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,EuropeanmercantilisminLatinAmericaledto



3.OnewayinwhichtheMaya,theSonghai,andtheGuptaculturesweresimilaristhatthey



4.TheteachingsofConfuciusencouragedpeopleto



Step3andStep4Herearetheanswerchoicesthatgowiththequestionsyoujustworkedthrough.Nowthatyou’veframedthehistory,usethatinformationtoPOEandGuessandGo.BesuretocheckEVERYanswerbeforepickingone!Answerscanbefoundhere.

1.DuringtheColdWarera,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionwerereluctanttobecomeinvolvedindirectmilitaryconflictmainlybecauseof

(A) pressurefrommanyofthenonalignednations

(B) theroleoftheUnitedNationsaspeacekeeper

(C) increasedtensionsintheMiddleEast

(D) thepotentialforglobalnucleardestruction

(E) thethreatofpenaltieshandeddownbytheInternationalCriminalCourtattheHague

2.Inthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,EuropeanmercantilisminLatinAmericaledto

(A) theexploitationofpeopleandresources

(B) theEuropeanRenaissance

(C) theProtestantReformation

(D) thegrowthofdemocraticformsofgovernment

(E) theEnlightenment

3.OnewayinwhichtheMaya,theSonghai,andtheGuptaculturesweresimilaristhatthey

(A) developedgreatcivilizationswithoutmajorinfluencefromWesternEurope

(B) emergedasaresultofnationalistmovementsofthetwentiethcentury

(C) thrivedduetoaprosperoustradeeconomywithPortugalandotherEuropeannations

(D) becamedependentonslavetradeinordertomaintainenoughlaborerstotendtotheirprofitablesugar

canecrop

(E) disappearedduetotheravagesofEuropeandiseases

4.TheteachingsofConfuciusencouragedpeopleto

(A) embraceaheliocentricviewofthesolarsystem

(B) followacodeofmoralconduct

(C) accepttheteachingsofthePaxRomana

(D) worshiptheonetrueGodwhowatchesoverandcaresforhispeople

(E) jointhecivilservice

CHECKYOURANSWERSHEREBEFOREMOVINGON!

TAKEAPICTURE

You will occasionally see a question that asks you to interpret an illustration such as apainting,poster,politicalcartoon,ormap.Treatthesequestionsasyouwouldanyother.Justfollowthestepsanddon’treadtoomuchintotheillustration.Trythefollowingexample:

Theaboveposterwasmostlikelyusedas

(A) BritishpropagandaduringtheBoerWar

(B) AmericanpropagandaduringWorldWarII

(C) BritishpropagandaduringWorldWarI

(D) AmericanpropagandaduringWorldWarI

(E) AmericanKuKluxKlanpropagandaduringReconstruction

Inthespaceonthenextpage,solvethisquestionusingtheFourSteps.StudytheposterforcluesastotheWhen?Who?andWhat?



Step3:POE

Step4:GuessandGo

Here’sHowtoCrackItThe question asked what the poster was used for. You probably guessed theWhat? to bepropaganda.For theWhen? andWho?, lookat thewordsat the topof theposter.DidyourememberthatHunwasthetermusedbytheBritishinreferencetotheGermans?Ifyoudid,youcouldeliminate(B),(D),and(E)forhavingnothingtodowiththeBritish.Evenifyoudidn’trecognizethatterm,lookatthesmallertypeunderneath—England?Belgium?Whateverelseitmightbe,it’sdefinitelynottheAmericanKKKandReconstruction.BecausetheBritishwerereferencingtheGermans,theanswermustbe(C)BritishpropagandaduringWorldWarI.IfyouknewthatthetermHunreferredtotheGermansinWWI,butdidnotrememberwhosaidit,youcouldhaveeliminatedallbut(C)and(D)andthentakenasmartguess.

WHATHESAID

Sometimesyouwillbegivenaquotationandaskedtoeitherinterpretthequoteoridentifythepersonwhosaidit.Asalways,usethestepstoframeyouranswerandtakeasmartguess.TrythenextoneusingtheFourSteps.

“Which,OBhikkhus, is thisMiddlePath theknowledgeofwhich theTathagatahasgained,which leads toinsight,whichleadstowisdom,whichconducestocalm,toknowledge,totheSambodhi,toNirvana?”

Thepersonwhowouldmostlikelybeassociatedwiththisquoteisa

(A) Muslim

(B) Christian

(C) Polytheist

(D) Buddhist

(E) Zoroastrian

Here’sHowtoCrackItMany times the key to solving a quotation comes from only one or two words of thequotation. In this case, theword isNirvana. Nirvana has to dowithwhat religion? If youremember, great. If you cannot remember exactly which religion strives for Nirvana, youprobablyknowthatitisEastern.Let’ssayyourememberthatitisoneoftheIndianreligions.Whatanswerscanyoueliminate?(B)and(C).Fromthere,takeasmartguessbetweenMuslimandBuddhist.Theansweris(D):Buddhist.

WHATABOUTTHETOUGHSTUFF?While POE is a great thing, someAPWorldHistory questions can be tough. Youwilloftenbe able to get it down to twoor three choices, but thenyouwill reallyneed toknowyourstufftofindtherightanswer.Tobetotallypreparedfortheexam,makesureyouknowthehistoryinPartIIofthisbook,anddon’tbeafraidtodoasmuchasyoucanbeforeyouGuessandGo.

NOTSOBAD,HUH?

That’sprettymuchallyouneedtoknowtoscoreyourbestonthemultiple-choicesectionoftheexam.Ohyeah,that,andabunchofhistory.Mostoftherestofyourworkinthisbookwillbeaboutreviewingthehistory.Remember,however,whatwesaidatthebeginningofthisbook—knowingthehistoryisreallyimportant,butknowinghowtodemonstratethatyouknowitisjustasimportant.That’swhereyourmultiple-choicestrategycomesin.Asyoupractice,remembertoprocesseverythingusingtheFourSteps.



Step3:ProcessofElimination(POE)

Step4:GuessandGo

IfyouknowthehistoryinPartIIofthisbook,usethesesteps,andhaveanessaystrategy,youwillbeabletoshowwhatyouknow.

PRACTICESET2Nowthatyouhavethebasicsofcrackingthesetypesofquestionslet’spractice.Answerscanbefoundhere.

1.TheprimarypurposeoftheDawesPlanwasto

(A) containthespreadofcommunismtonewlyformednationsinsub-SaharanAfricathroughdirecteconomicsupport

(B) ensurethatLatinAmericannationsmaintainedeconomictieswiththeUnitedStates

(C) allowGermanytorebuilditseconomywhilealsofulfillingitsreparationresponsibilitiesafterWorldWarI

(D) temporarilyoccupyJapanasittransitionedfromamonarchytoademocracyafterWorldWarII

(E) officiallyestablishtheUnitedStatesasamemberoftheLeagueofNations

2.Theconceptofbushidoismostsimilarto

(A) feudalism

(B) chivalry

(C) manorialism

(D) meritocracy

(E) primogeniture

3.TheHandynasty(200B.C.E.to200C.E.)hadastablegovernmentforcenturies,dueinparttoallofthefollowingEXCEPT

(A) thestrongmilitaryforcewithwhichthegovernment,undertheleadershipofAshoka,theWarriorEmperor,expelledtheHuninvasion

(B) theadoptionandgrowthoftheConfuciansystemofciviladministration

(C) theMandateofHeaven,whichinclinedEmperorstorulefairlyandjustly

(D) thecreationandexportationofgoodssuchaspaper,silk,andgunpowderalongtheSilkRoad

(E) thecontinuationofcurrencyreformsfromthepreviousdynastyandestablishmentofreliablecoinage

4.CommontoLatinAmericanrevolutionsbefore1915was

(A) theinfluenceofEuropeanintellectualmovements

(B) theimportantroleplayedbywomenininstitutingchange

(C) theinstallationofrepresentativedemocraciesinnearlyallnewnations

(D) theimportanceofforeigninterventioninthesuccessofrevolutions

(E) theleadershipofslaves

5.ThePeaceofAugsburgwasanexampleof

(A) imperialdespotism

(B) gentlemen’sagreement

(C) mutualdefense

(D) enlightenedabsolutism

(E) religioustolerance

6.WhichofthefollowingisanaccuratelistofthepermanentmembersoftheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil?

(A) China,Japan,UnitedStates,Russia,GreatBritain

(B) China,Russia,UnitedStates,France,GreatBritain

(C) Russia,Japan,UnitedStates,Italy,GreatBritain

(D) Russia,China,UnitedStates,France,Italy

(E) Russia,Japan,UnitedStates,France,GreatBritain

7.TheSiegeofViennawasimportantbecauseit

(A) markedthebeginningoftheendofOttomanmilitaryconquestsinEurope

(B) wasthefirstattemptoftheOttomanEmpiretoadvanceintoWesternEurope

(C) precipitatedaChristianCrusadetoretakeViennafromtheTurks

(D) wasthefirsttimeasecretalliancebetweenEuropeannationswastested

(E) involvedthefirstuseoftanksincombat

8.AllofthefollowingareexamplesofattemptsbyearlyhumanstogaincontrolovernatureEXCEPT

(A) diggingirrigationditches

(B) constructingsundials

(C) plowingfields

(D) domesticatinganimals

(E) settlinginriverbasins

9.TheestablishmentoftheHanseaticLeague(1241C.E.)wassignificantbecauseit

(A) setaprecedentforlarge,Europeantradingoperations

(B) organizedtobecomethefirstjoint-stockcompany

(C) comprisednearly50portcitiesalongtheMediterraneanSea

(D) heldexclusiverightstotradealongtheSilkRoad

(E) wasanimportantprecursortotheestablishmentoftheUnitedNations

10.“Sing,Ogoddess,theangerofAchillessonofPeleus,thatbroughtcountlessillsupontheAchaeans.ManyabravesouldiditsendhurryingdowntoHades,andmanyaherodidityieldapreytodogsandvultures,forsowerethecounselsofJovefulfilledfromthedayonwhichthesonofAtreus,kingofmen,andgreatAchilles,firstfelloutwithoneanother.”

Theabovequoteisfromwhichofthefollowingtexts?

(A) TheVedas

(B) Homer’sIliad

(C) Hobbes’Leviathan

(D) TheCodeofHammurabi

(E) Genesis

CHECKYOURANSWERSHEREBEFOREMOVINGON!

ANSWERKEY

PRACTICESET1

Step1andStep2

1.Trytoanticipatetheansweronthisoneevenbeforeyoulookattheanswerchoices.Whywouldtwosuperpowersnotwanttofighteachother?


Whywere theU.S. and the Soviet Union reluctant to get into directmilitaryconflictduringtheColdWar?

Step2:When?Who?What?

When?TheColdWarera

Who?TheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion

What?Reluctancetogetinvolvedmilitarily

Trytothinkofeverythingyouknowabout“militaryconflict”duringthetimeperiodoftheColdWar.TheColdWarwasafterWorldWarII,right?HowdidWorld War II end in Japan? Remember the Cuban Missile Crisis? That wasduringtheColdWar.Whatdidthatinvolve?

2. Notice that this question tells you that European mercantilism occurred during thesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.Alotoftimes,questionsgiveyouinformation.Lookatthequestionsthemselvesasclues.


When?Thesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies

Who?Europeansdoing,LatinAmericansreceiving

What?Mercantilism

WhatdidEuropeanmercantilisminLatinAmericaleadtointhesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies?


If you remember what mercantilism was, this question is a gift. If you don’t remembermercantilism,thinkabouteverythingyouknowaboutEurope’sinvolvementinLatinAmericaduringthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.

3. Sometimes you’ll get questions that seemingly don’t give you very many clues in thequestiontoworkwith.


When?Thequestiondoesn’t say,but itcertainly isn’tcontemporary(theverbwere)anditdoesn’trefertothesametimeperiod.Whenthetestwritersaskyouto compare cultures, remember that those cultures may have existed duringdifferenttimeperiods.

Who?TheMaya,theSonghai,andtheGupta

What?Similarities.Anysimilarity.Justone.That’sallyouneed.

HowweretheMaya,Songhai,andGuptaculturessimilar?


It’shard toanticipatewhat theanswer isgoing tobe,buteven ifyoudon’t remember thedetailsofallthreecultures,ifyourememberoneortwo,youshouldfocusonthedetailsthatyou remember so that you canpick an answer choice that is consistentwithwhat youdoknow.

4.Sometimesquestionsrelyonveryspecificknowledgeofjustonething.Inthiscase,it’sjustoneperson.


When? The questiondoesn’t tell us, butwe know itwas during andpossiblyafterthelifeofConfucius.

Who?Confucius

What?Teachingsandencouragement

Confuciusencouragedpeopletodowhat?


Eventhoughthisquestionseemslikeitdoesn’tgiveyouverymuchinformation,itdoesifyouremembersomebasics.IfyourecallthatConfuciuslivedinChinaandlivedalongtimeago,that’senoughtostartfocusingontheanswer.AllyouhavetodoisthinkofeverythingyouknowabouttraditionalChinaandyoucanstarttozeroinonananswer.

Step3andStep4NowevaluatetheanswerchoicesandusePOEtogetridofbadanswers.

1.DFocusonanswerchoicesthatmakethemostsense.Youshouldcertainlybeattractedtoanswerchoice(D),becauseevenifyoudon’tremembermuchabouttheColdWar,itjustmakessensethatglobalnucleardestructionwouldmaketwocountriesreluctanttofight. If you recall that the two superpowers had nuclear weapons and thatWWII,whichprecededtheColdWar,endedwiththeUnitedStatesdroppingatomicbombsonJapan, answer choice (D) should definitely stick out. (A) doesn’tmakemuch sense,becausenonalignednationsmeansthattheydidn’ttakesidesintheColdWar,whichmeans that they probably didn’t impact it very much. Neither does (E)—theInternationalCriminalCourtwasn’testablisheduntil2002.Youmightbeattractedto(B),butifyourecallthatboththeUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionweremembersofthe United Nations Security Council, making the organization somewhat useless inaddressingColdWarconcerns,sothisanswerchoicedoesn’tmakemuchsense.Finally,(C)definitelydescribesaneventthatwastrueduringtheColdWarera,butitwasn’tthecauseforthereluctancefordirectmilitaryconflict.DirectmilitaryconflictintheMiddle Eastwas somewhat common, just not between the SovietUnion andUnitedStates(except,toacertaindegree,inAfghanistan).Makesureyoufocusonthewhointhe question. Even if you aren’t sure of why answer choices (A) through (C) areincorrect,it’shardtoarguewithanswerchoice(D).Whenyoufindananswerchoicethathastobetrue,itprobablyis.Becauseonlyoneanswerchoicecanwork,theotherfourcanbeeliminated.

2.AMercantilismwasallaboutexploitation.Thepolicyadvocatedthecreationofcoloniesfor thepurposeof increasing exports from themother countrywhilenot technicallyincreasing imports to the mother country (mercantilist countries essentially stoleresourcesfromthecolonies).Ifyourememberanythingatallaboutmercantilism,yougottagowith(A).Evenifyoudon’trememberanythingaboutmercantilism,youstillshouldgowith(A)becauseyoushouldknowthatEuropecolonizedLatinAmerica.

Allof theotheranswerchoicescanbeeliminated ifyou focuson theWhen?,Who?,andWhat?of thequestion. (B)canbeeliminatedbecause theEuropeanRenaissancehad nothing to do with Latin America. (C) and (E) can be eliminated because theProtestant Reformation and the Enlightenment were events that primarily affectedEurope,notLatinAmerica—andnotbecauseofLatinAmerica,either.Youcanbeevenmore comfortable crossing off (C) if you also remember that Latin America isextremelyCatholicasopposedtoProtestant.Finally,crossoff(D);democraciesdidn’tstartdevelopinguntillongafterthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.Itwasn’tuntilaftertheAmericanandFrenchRevolutionsthatdemocraticmovementsstartedtogetrolling,anditwasn’tuntilthetwentiethcenturythatdemocraciesstartedtakingrootinLatinAmerica.

3.A Even if you just remember one of the three civilizations, you can get this questioncorrectbecause (A)applies so clearly toanyoneof them. Ifyou remember that the

Maya,forexample,existedforcenturiesbeforethefirstEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorld,you’redone.Evenifyou’renotsureabouttheotherfouranswerchoices,(A)isdefinitelytrue.Thesame,ofcourse,istrueoftheSonghaiinAfricaandtheGuptainIndia.

TheotheranswerchoicesmakenosenseevenifyouremembertheWhen?andWhat?ofjustoneofthecultures.Alloftheculturesexistedlongbeforethetwentiethcentury,sogetridof(B).NoneoftheculturestradedwithPortugal.Thinkofthetimeperiodshere.TheGuptaEmpireexistedinthefourththroughsixthcenturiesC.E.PortugalhadbeenpartoftheRomanEmpireandwasn’tevenacountry,butmoreofaregion,andwasbeinginvadedbyVisigothsduringthistimeperiod.Asfor(D),youcaneliminateitassoonasyousee“sugarcane”asaprofitablecropbecauseitdoesn’tfitwithanyofthe cultures. Finally, it isn’t (E) for the very same reason that it is (A)—thesecivilizations developed without major influence, immunological or otherwise, fromEurope.

4.BIfyourememberanythingaboutConfuciusortraditionalChina,(B)istheobviouschoicehere;Confucius’codeofconductclearlydominatedthecultureoftraditionalChina.

TheotheranswershavenoconnectionwithConfucianism.(A)isout,becausePtolemyof Alexandria (second century C.E.) and Copernicus (sixteenth century C.E.) were thetwofiguresmostcloselyassociatedwiththeheliocentricmodel.(C) isaboutthePaxRomana, which describes the period of stability in the Roman Empire between thereignsofAugustus (27B.C.E.–14C.E.)andMarcusAurelius (161–180C.E.).As for (D),Confucianismisgenerallyconsideredasystemofethics,notareligioninthestrictestsense.Last,butnotleast,while(E)’sreferencetocivilservicemaybeverytempting,remember that it was China’s famous civil service exam itself that was based onConfucianism,notthatConfucianismencouragedpeopletoseekcivilservicepositions.

PRACTICESET2

1.CGermany could not repay itswar debts to France andEngland (no surprise given thestateoftheeconomy),soFrancesenttroopsintotheRuhrValleywhereGermansteelwas manufactured. This further compromised Germany’s ability to fulfill itsobligations, and again brought Europe to the brink of war. Charles Dawes (anAmericanbanker)developedamore flexible repayment schedule forGermanybasedoneconomicgrowth.TheDawesPlanalsogavelow-interestloanstoGermanytohelpjump-startkeyindustries.

Thisisabitofafactoid(don’tgetitconfusedwiththeDawesAct,whichissomethingcompletelydifferent!),butrememberthatanythingyoucanthinkofthat’srelatedmayhelp you cross out answers. If you remember that this had to dowithAmerica andEurope,youcouldgoaheadandcrossoutatleast(A),(B),and(D).IfyouknowtheDawesPlanrelated toWorldWar I,youhaveanothergoodreasontoget ridof (D),whichdescribessomethingthathappenedafterWorldWarII.IfyouknowbeyondthatthattheU.S.neverjoinedtheLeagueofNations,(E)startstolookprettyunlikely.Butif you can’t remember anything about the Dawes Plan, don’t waste time fretting—moveontosomethingyouknowbetter!

2.BBushidoisatermassociatedwiththeshogunateperiodinJapan.Thearistocratic-warriorclassofthesamuraifollowedastrictcodeofhonorknownasbushido.Itismostsimilartochivalry,becausebothstresseddiscipline,respect,andbravery.

UsingPOE,youcangetridof(A)and(C)becauseeventhoughthecodeofbushidowaspracticed during Japanese feudalism, it isn’t the same thing as feudalism ormanorialism,bothofwhichwerealsopracticedinEurope.Feudalismandmanorialismwere social and political structures, ways of organizing society, not what would bedescribedas“concepts.”Also,guildsareorganizations,not“concepts.”While(D)isaconcept, so that’s good, it has nothing to dowith bushido. Finally, (E) refers to thepractice—notreallyaconcept—ofpassinglanddowntothelandowner’sfirstbornson.Not bushido.Meritocracy is a concept that suggests that peoplewho rise in a socialsystemdosobecauseoftheirmerits(likedoingwellinschool)asopposedtoforotherreasons(likeinheritance,race,ormoney).

3.A Ashoka ruled the Mauryan empire in India during the third century B.C.E. The HanDynasty,ontheotherhand,wasinChina.Itsstabilitywasduetoall fourreasonsintheincorrectanswerchoices.

UsingPOE,youcaneliminateanyanswerchoicesthatwere trueoftheHandynasty.(B)wasdefinitelytrueoftheHandynasty(andthroughmuchofChina’shistory).TheadoptionofConfucianismasthebasisofstateadministrationledtothecreationofahighly skilled government bureaucracy, which of course led to stability. (C) isincorrect:AccordingtotheMandateofHeaven,akingoremperorruledonlywiththeapproval of Heaven, and would continue to prosper only if they ruled justly and

wisely.TheMandatewasabeliefwhicharoseduringtheearlierZhoudynastyandwasinfluential in theHan dynasty and beyond. And finally, both (D) and (E) helped toexpand and stabilize the economy ofHanChina, and the ensuing prosperity furtherpromotedChina’sstability.

4.ATheEnlightenmentinEuropehadaprofoundeffectoneducatedpeoplebeyondEurope’sshores, especially in Europe’s colonies. The writings of intellectuals such as Locke,Rousseau, and Montesquieu impacted the American Revolution, French Revolution,andLatinAmericanrevolutions.

Even if you’re not sure of the right answer, you can eliminate the wrong answerchoicesthatdon’tmakesense,orthatareinconsistentwithwhatyourememberabouthistory. Eliminate (B); Latin American society was highly patriarchal, as weremostsocietiespriorto1915.LatinAmericanstateswerenolongerusingslaveryby1915,soeliminate(E),too.Thatleavesyouwith(A),(C),and(D).(C)canbeeliminated:ManyLatin American nations became dictatorships. (D) can be eliminated because therevolutionarieswereborninLatinAmericaandsucceededwiththesupportofpopularuprisings,not foreignarmies.That leavesyouwith (A),whichmakesa lotof sense.TheEnlightenment inspired revolutions in general, suchas theAmericanRevolutionand theFrenchRevolution. It justmakes sense, then, that italso impacted theLatinAmerican independence movements of the nineteenth century, especially when youconsider that San Martin and Bolivar were educated peninsulares, who were well-schooledinEuropeanaffairs.

5.EDuringthemid-fifteenthcentury,CharlesVhadadifficulttimepreventingProtestantismfrom spreading through the Holy Roman Empire. In 1555, he and the prevailingGermanprinces signed thePeaceofAugsburg,whichallowedeachprince to choosethereligionhissubjectswouldfollow.

UsingPOE,youcaneliminate(A)becausedespotismandpeacedon’ttypicallymixand(D)becauseenlightenedabsolutismisanoxymoron—aninternallycontradictoryidea.(B)wouldmeanthePeaceofAugsburgwasaninformalagreement,and(C)makesitsoundlikeamilitarystrategy—neitheroftheseistrue,asitwasaformalagreementtoendreligiousconflict.

6.BIfyoudon’trememberallthepermanentmembers,usePOEwiththeonesofwhichyouaresure.TheUnitedStatesisinallthechoicessothatwon’thelp.YouprobablyknowthatJapanisnotapermanentmemberbecausethecouncilwasestablishedrightafterWWII and Japan was not high on anyone’s list at that time. In fact, Japan wasoccupiedbytheUnitedStatesandforcedtodemilitarize,soitcertainlywouldnotbeonthesecuritycouncil.Eliminate(A),(C),and(E).Thatleavesyouwith(B)and(D),GreatBritainversusItaly.Again,becauseofwhenthecouncilwasformed,yourbestguess is (B),GreatBritain.Remember,GreatBritain stillhadanempire through the1940s.

7.B In 1529,OttomanTurks tried (unsuccessfully) to capture theAustrian city ofVienna.Beginning in the 1300s, the Turks began to make inroads into Europe, first in theBalkans,thenbytakingConstantinople(whichthenbecameIstanbul),thenconqueringpartsofRomaniaandHungary.

To use POE, try to remember that the Siege of Vienna occurred in the sixteenthcentury. Thatmeans that (C), the Crusades, is out because they began in 1096 andendedin1302.(A)isalsooutbecausetheOttomaninfluenceinEuropelastedintothetwentieth century. (D) has to go because, first of all, it doesn’tmake sense becausethere’snowaythetestwriterscouldknowifandwhenallsecretalliancesweretestedbecausesomeof themare“secret”andperhapsstillunknown.(D)alsodoesn’tworkbecause the siege of Vienna had nothing to do with Austria’s alliances (secret orotherwise)—theOttomanswantedtomakeinroadsintoWesternEuropefortheirownexpansionistpurposes,notbecausetheyweretryingtotestalliancesinEurope.Finally,the firstuseof tanks incombat,asmentioned in (E),was theBritishArmy in1916,duringWorldWar I.At that point in time,Austria-Hungary and its allies (includingGermanyandtheOttomanEmpire)stillhadtheupperhand,soViennashouldn’thavebeenundersiege.

8.ESettlinginariverbasinexemplifieshownatureoftencontrolledwherepeopleneededtolive in order to survive, not the other way around. This is especially true if yourememberthatcivilizationscontinuedtosettleinriverbasinseventhoughtheywereoftendevastatedbyunpredictablefloods.

TousePOE,firstrememberthat fourof theanswerchoicesareexamplesofpeoples’attempts to control nature and one is not—your answer is the one that is not anexampleofthis.(A),(C),and(D)aredirecteffortstouseorharnessnaturalresourcesinordertogroworotherwiseprovidefood.(B)ismoresubtle—whilesundialsdidnotgivehumanscontrolovertheelementsoftime,theydidgivehumanstheknowledgerequiredtousepatternsoftimefortheirownpurposes.

Tip:Noticehowoneanswerisnotliketheothers;comparinganswersisagreatwaytoseesmall,yetcrucial,differencesthatcanhelpyoueliminatewronganswers.(A),(B),(C),and(D)areallmaterialthingsortechniques,while(E)denotesadifferentkindofactivity.

9.A The Hanseatic League was a major trading operation comprised dozens of northernEuropean cities. The existence of the league helped pull Europe out of the relativeisolationitexperiencedunderfeudalismduringtheMiddleAgesbyincreasingcontactamongdifferent parts of Europe,which then led to increased trade betweenEuropeandotherpartsoftheworld.ByestablishingamonopolyontradeinnorthernEurope,theHanseaticLeaguehelpedcontributetoacultureofexpansionismandmercantilism,whichofcoursedominateddevelopmentsduringtheAgeofExploration.

UsingPOE, you can eliminate (B) because a “league” isn’t a companybut rather an

association, and joint-stock companies didn’t come onto the scene until after theCommercialRevolution in thesixteenthcentury(theMuscovyCompany—founded in1555—andtheDutchandBritishEastIndiaCompanies—bothcharteredinthe1600s—wereamong the first). If youcan remember the “where”of theHanseaticLeague,thatwillhelpyouquicklyeliminate (C)and(D)because the leaguewas innorthernEuropeandprimarily servedasawayof regulating tradeamongnorthernEuropeanports.Itwasnot,however,aglobalbody;norwasitspurposetopolicethegovernmentinteractionsofitsmemberstates,soitisn’taprecursortotheUnitedNations.Crossoff(E).

10.BThisonemightbetoughifyou’renotfamiliarwiththedetailsofanyofthesetexts,butyoucanstillusecluesfromthepassage.Weknowthere’sareferencetoagoddess,andthereareothercharactersthatseemgodlike(“hero”and“kingofmen”).Wealsoknowthere’sagroupreferredtoastheAchaeans.Thequotealsohasapoeticqualityto it—“Sing,Ogoddess”and“Manyabravesouldiditsend”aren’texactlyeverydaywaysofspeaking.

Through POE, we can probably eliminate (D) because it doesn’t sound like a legalcode.Youcangetridof(C)ifyouknowthatHobbeswasanEnglishwriterduringtheEnlightenment who wrote about things like the social contract and free will; thisdoesn’tseemtofit.Nor,particularly,doesGenesis,asGenesis isnotbigongoddesses,whichisprobablyagoodreasontogetridof(E).That leavesyouwith(A)and(B).The Vedas, if you recall, is a collection of the essential beliefs and mythologies ofHinduism.TheIliadisapoemofancientGreekmythology.Poeticlanguagefitsboth,andbothtraditionshavegods,soit’satoss-up,unlessyourememberthatAchilles(asinAchillesheel) is aGreekwarrior.Youmay remember thatAchaeanswereGreeks(recall theAchaeanLeague).Wheneveryouhavequotations, lookforcluesthathelpyouidentifytheculture.Thengowiththeauthorwhoisfromthatculture.

3

CrackingtheEssayQuestions

HOWTOBEAWRITER…ANAPWORLDHISTORYESSAYWRITER,THATISOnceyoucompletethemultiple-choicepartofthetest,you’llgetashortbreakwhiletestsarecollected and essay booklets are handed out. Then comes the essay portion of the exam.You’llbegivenaten-minutereadingperiodpriortothestartoftheessay-writingsection,andthen twohours towrite threeessays.Whileyouaregivenapproximateguidelines,youarenottoldhowlongtospendoneachessayorwhentomoveontothenextessay.

WHAT’SINANAME?Thethreeessaysyou’llneedtowritearethedocument-basedquestion(orDBQ),thechange-over-timeessay,andthecomparativeessay.Youcanprobablygather fromthenameswhatyou need to do in each essay—the document-based question provides you with a set ofdocumentsonwhichtobaseyouressay;thechange-over-timeessayasksyoutoanalyzethechangesandcontinuitiesthatoccurredwithinacertainperiodoftime;andthecomparativeessayasksyoutocompareandcontrasttwoepisodes,cultures,religions,orotherhistoricalphenomenonfromagivenperiod.WritingathesisforanAPWorldHistoryExamessayisalittledifferentfromotherthesesyoumayhavelearnedtowriteinEnglishclass.Luckily,thereisabasicformatyoucanuseforall threeAPWorldHistoryessays.While thereare someminorvariations for each, theoverall styleyouusecanbe thesame. In thenext twochapters,wewillwalkyou througheachessaytype,givingyouguidelinesforexactlyhowtowriteeachessayandshowwhatyouknow.Butbeforewegointothespecifics,let’stakeaminutetolookatthebasicformatyoushoulduseforallofyourAPWorldHistoryExamessays.

WHATAREYOUTALKINGABOUT?Thekey towritingagoodAPWorldHistoryExamessay is to tell thereaderwhatyouaregoingtotalkaboutbeforeyoutalkaboutit.TheAPWorldHistoryExamreferstothisasyourthesis.Infact,writingagoodthesisisworth1to2of9possiblepointsoneachessay,anditisthefirstthingthattheessaygraderwilllookfor.Thescoringrubric(theguidelinesreadersuse to scoreyour essays) requires readers to answer the followingquestions about eachofyouressays:

Doyouhaveacomprehensive,analytical,andexplicitthesis?Isyourthesisacceptable?

SOWHATDOESANANALYTICALTHESISLOOKLIKE?Putsimply,ananalyticalthesisincludesacleardescriptionofwhythecentralclaimofyouressayiscorrect.Thesestatementsalonewouldnotreceivepointsfor“adequacy.”

Buddhism’sspreadthroughChinawasveryimportanttothedevelopmentofChineseculture.Intheareaoftrade,NorthAmericaandLatinAmericaunderwentsignificantchange

between1750andthepresent.

Thesevague,general,andweakstatementsaddnothingtoyouressay,andleavethereaderwith a laundry list of questions that remain unanswered: What exactly does the term“Buddhism” denote here?What, exactly, “spread”?When did this occur? Inwhat context?“Very important” how? What were Buddhism’s specific effects? What specific aspects ofculturedidittouchon,andhowdoweknow?Clear,explicittheseswillusespecificdetailstodelimitthescopeofthediscussion.Thefirst

thesiswouldbevastlyimprovedbytheadditionofmoredetailssuchas:

AsBuddhismbegantospreadfromIndiathroughChinainthefirstcenturyC.E.,theinfluenceofitsreligiousprinciplesinasocietytroubled—atleastamonglowerclasses—bywarfareandwantisdemonstratedbytheConfucianists’negativereactiontoitaswellasthelastingpoliticaleffectsitleftinitswake.

Whyisthisbetterthanthefirstversion?Yes,ithasmorewords,butwhatdothoseextrawordsdo?The readernowhasmoredetails regardingwhat spread,when this spread tookplace,whatthecontextofthatspreadwas,andwhatkindofsupportwillbereferencedintherest of the essay. Most importantly, it answers the question, “Why was the spread ofBuddhism important?” The reader now knows that Buddhism was important because itcaused meaningful changes in different areas of Chinese society, which the essay shoulddescribeinmoredetail.Remember also that a thesis isn’t just one sentence; it can be a group of statements.

Therefore,youcanstartwithamoregeneralsentence,butyouhavetothenfollowitupwithadditionalsentencesthatprovideallthenecessaryelementsdescribedabove.Together,thesestatementsmust

stateyourclaimclearlydefineterms,context,andchronologyoftheeventsunderdiscussiondescribewhyyourclaimistrue

Lastly,aclear,analyticalthesisisn’ttherejustforthereader’sbenefit.Astronganalyticalthesisservesasamapthatyoushouldfollowasyouwritetheremainderoftheessay.Ifyourthesisatfirstistoovague,itmaybethatyouhaven’tthoughtthroughwhatyouwanttosayyet,sotakemoretimetoorganizeyourideas.Onceyoucraftastrongthesis,makesurethattherestofyouressaysupportsthebasicideasyourthesisintroduces.

SOWHATIS“ACCEPTABLE”?Towriteasolid,acceptablethesisforeachofyouressays,remembertodothreethings:Give’EmWhatTheyWant,Show’EmWhereYouGotIt,andHelp’EmGetThere.Thetwomostcommonessaycuesyouwillseeare“analyze”and“compareandcontrast.“

Sometimesyouwillseebothinthesameessayquestion.To really analyze you must explain how and why something happens and what the

impactsofthatsomethingwere.Forexample,toreturntothespreadofBuddhisminChina—analysis of this process would include explaining how it spread to China,why it was

appealingtotheChinese,andfinally,howit impactedChinesesocietyoverboththeshortandlong-term.To “compare and contrast” deals with similarities and differences; however, it is not

enoughtopointoutwhatissimilarordifferent:BuddhismexistedinbothIndiaandChina.Itisfarmore important to explainwhat causes the similarities and differences—in essence, toanalyzewhy:BecauseofBuddhism’sappeal to the lowerclasses, it spreadthroughout IndiaandChina,however,acceptancedifferedbecauseitwasperceivedasathreattotheConfucianorderinChina.

Give’EmWhatTheyWantYouressayreaderistrainedtolookforcertainspecificcriteriainyouressay.Tomakesurethatshefindswhatshe’slookingfor(andtoensurethatyougetcreditforincludingallthatstuff), begin by using the question to develop a thesis that includes key phrases from thequestionANDsetsupthestructureofyourargument.Forexample,atypicalquestionis:

3.CompareandcontrasttheimpactofnationalisminEuropeversustheimpactofnationalismintheEuropeancoloniesthroughoutthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.

Donotjustrewordthequestionbyusingasimpleintroductorysentencesuchas:ThereweremanysimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweennationalisminEuropeanditscolonies.Thissentence isawasteofspace thatdoesn’t tell thereaderanything. Instead,your first

sentenceshouldclearlyindicatewhatistocomeintherestofthethesisandthebodyoftheessayandwhynationalismwasimportant.Theopeningsentenceofyourthesismightreadsomethinglikethis:

Nationalism was a driving force throughout much of the nineteenth and twentiethcenturies,butithadaverydifferentflavorinEuropethaninmostEuropeancolonies.

Notice thekeyphrases thatwere included in the sentence:Nationalism,Europe,Europeancolonies,andnineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.Alsonotethatthesentenceiswordedtoimplycontrast. Just tomake sure that all aspects of the question are covered, the next sentencecouldreadasfollows:

While nationalism for both groups meant pride in and commitment to one’s own“nation,”nationalisminEurope—whichoftenmeantracismordesirefordomination—became synonymous with national expansion and conquest of other peoples, whilenationalisminthecoloniesmeantselfdetermination—freedomfromEuropeanrule,andthenation’srighttodetermineitsowndestiny.

Thissentencecontinues thecontrast,butopenswithacomparison,soasnot tooverlookthesimilaritiesintheresponsesofthetwocountries(somethingyoumustdotogetagoodscore).

TryItTomakesureyouincludeallthenecessaryelementsintheopeningsentenceofyourthesis,circleeachkeyphraseasyouprocessthequestion.Tryitonthefollowingexample:

2.ChooseTWOoftheareaslistedbelowanddiscusstheimpactofthespreadofIslamfromitsinceptionto1450oneacharea.BesuretodescribeeachareapriortotheintroductionofIslamasyourstartingpoint.

Sub-SaharanAfrica TheMiddleEast

TheByzantineEmpire Spain(theIberianPeninsula)

WesternEurope India

China NorthernAfrica

DidyoucirclekeywordsandphraseslikespreadofIslam,inceptionto1450,impactoneacharea? Once you circle the key phrases and select your countries/areas, try writing youropeningsentencebelow.

Youropeningsentenceshouldreadsomethinglikethefollowing:

Fromits inceptiontotheearly1400sandbeyond,thespreadofIslamhadamajorimpactonboththeIberianPeninsula(Spain)andtheMiddleEast.

Show’EmWhereYouGotItBecauseyouarewritinganessayaboutsomethingfromhistory,theessaymustbebasedonhistoricalfactasopposedtoyouropinion.Onceyouletyourreaderknowwhatyouaregoingto say,youneed to supportwhatyouaregoing to saybyaddingevidence.You’vealreadydonehalf theworkby circling thekeyphrases.Onceyouknowwhat thekeyphrases are,makesurethatyouintroducesomeevidenceforeachone.Forexample,lookagainatthefirsttwosentencesofournationalismthesis:

Nationalism was a driving force throughout much of the nineteenth and twentiethcenturies,butithadaverydifferentflavorinEuropethaninmostEuropeancolonies.While nationalism for both groups meant pride in and commitment to one’s own“nation,”nationalisminEurope—whichoftenmeantracismordesirefordomination—became synonymous with national expansion and conquest of other peoples, whilenationalisminthecoloniesmeantselfdetermination—freedomfromEuropeanrule,andthenation’srighttodetermineitsowndestiny.

Thesecondsentenceinourthesisalludestohistoricalevents—colonizationandexpansionwas the result ofEuropeannationalism,while independencemovementswere the result ofcolonialnationalism.Because the thesis is justan intro to thebodyof theessay,youdon’tneedtogointodetail,butyoudoneedtobegintopullinevidenceatthisstageofthegame.Thenextsentencecouldgoontostatemorespecificallysomeoftheresultsofnationalismforeachgroup.

DifferentbutEqualEachtypeofessayalsorequiressomethingslightlydifferentforitsthesis.Forexample,mostchange-over-timequestionsaskthatyoudetail thestartingpoint forchangesaswellas thechangesthemselves.Therefore,youneedtoincludeastatementaboutthestartingpointandevidencetosupportyourstatement.ProvideinformationaboutstartingpointsforchangefortheIslamexamplefromabove.

Dependingonthecountriesorregionsyouchose,youressayshouldnowreadsomethinglikethis:

ThespreadofIslamhadamajorimpactonboththeIberianPeninsula(Spain)andtheMiddleEastfromitsinceptiontotheearly1400sandbeyond.Despitetherelativelyearly split into two camps—the Shia and the Sunni—over a disagreement aboutwhoshouldsucceedMohammadastheleaderofthefaith,IslamspreadrapidlythroughouttheMiddleEast,dueinparttothefactthatalthoughMuslimswereintentonconvertingthosetheyconquered,theywerealsoflexibleandtolerantofdifferentformsofreligiousexpression.Bythemiddleof theeighthcentury,MuslimsheldpartsofsouthernIberiaand southern parts of Italy and were intent on moving further into Europe, whichthreatenedtheChristianswhodominatedmostoftheregionstothenorth.

If thiswere a document-based question, your evidencewould be documents rather thanhistoricalinformationyouknow.TheDBQhassomeadditionaldetailsyou’llneedtoinclude,butyou’lllearnmoreaboutthatinthenextchapter.

Help’EmGetThereThelastsentenceinyourthesiscanbeasimportantasthefirstbecauseithelpsthereadergetfromyourintrointothebulkofwhatyouhavetosay.Makethetransitiontothebodyoftheessay with a sentence that opens with something like, “To better understand thesechanges…”or“Tobetterunderstandthesedocuments…”Forexample:

Tobetterunderstandhownationalism led to thestruggle for independence inmanyEuropeancolonies,onemustfirstexaminehownationalism,amongotherfactors,ledtotheestablishmentofmanyofthesecolonies.

Inthespacebelow,trywritingatransitionalsentencefortheessayonIslam:

Yoursentencecouldreadsomethinglikethefollowing:

TobetterunderstandtheimpactofIslamonboththeMiddleEastandSpainduringthis period, one must first take a look at what these areas were like prior to theintroductionofIslam.

Asyouknow,eachtypeofessayrequiresaslightlydifferentkindofthesis.Thenexttwochapterswillgothroughthisinmoredetail.Keepthispagemarkedforfuturereference.Hereisaquicksummaryofthespecsforeachtypeofthesisyouwillwrite.

DBQThesis

Openwithsomethinglike,“Afterreviewingthesedocuments,itisclearthat…”Rephrasethequestionasananswer;includeallkeyphrases.Addresseachpartofthequestionwithastatementandadocumentreferenceoranexample(compare,contrast,andchangeovertimeasappropriate).Makethetransitiontothebodyoftheessaybycitingtheadditionaldocument:“Tobetterunderstandhowthesedocumentsrelatetoeachother,adocumentaboutxwouldbeuseful…”

Change-Over-TimeThesis

Rephrasethequestionasananswer;includeallkeyphrases.Addresseachpartofthequestionwithastatementandevidence.Makethetransitiontothebodyoftheessaywithasentencelike,“Tobetterunderstandthesechanges…”

ComparativeThesis

Restatethequestionasananswer;includeallkeyphrases.Addresseachpartofthequestionwithastatementandevidence.Includebothsimilaritiesanddifferences.Makethetransitiontothebodyoftheessaywithasentencelike,“Tobetterunderstandthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthesetwosocieties…”

BUTWHATABOUTTHEREST?Ofcourse,thethesisisonlythebeginningofyouressay,butgettingthebeginningrightcanreallymakewritingtherestof theessaymucheasier.Thenexttwochapterswillwalkyouthroughthespecificsofeachtypeofessay.Inaddition,therearesomebasicrulesofwriting

essaysforstandardizedteststhatwillhelpyouscoreyourbest.HerearethepointstokeepinmindwhilewritingeachAPWorldHistoryExamessay.

Essaysshouldbeaminimumof4to6paragraphs:Opening(thesis),Body,Body,Body,Closing.Usetransitionalwordsandtriggerwordstohighlightimportantpoints.

GoodTransitionalWords

Writeneatly.Anessaythatcannotbereadwillnotreceiveagoodscore.Ifyoudon’tknowhowtospellaword,chooseanother.Readersarenotsupposedtogradeyourspelling,butpoorspellingcancastashadowontherestofyouressay.Watchyourtime.Spendingtoomuchtimeonthefirstessaycouldmeanrunningoutoftimeonthelastessay.Thenexttwochaptersincludetimingguidelinesforeachessay.Thinkbeforeyouwrite.Infact,domorethanthink—makenotes,jotideas,createanoutline.Themoreworkyoudobeforeyouwrite,theneaterandmoreorganizedyouressaywillbe.Thenexttwochapterswillgiveyoudetailsonexactlyhowmuchprepworktodoforeachessay.

4

CrackingtheDocument-BasedQuestion(DBQ)

IT’SALLINTHEDOCUMENTSThefirstessayyou’llseeontheessayportionoftheAPWorldHistoryExamisthedocument-basedquestion(DBQ).Asthenameimplies,thisquestionisbasedonabunchofdocuments(typically4–10) that coverone topic,usually inoraroundaparticularperiodof time.Forexample,yourDBQmayrequireyou toanalyzea setofdocumentsabout tradingpracticesbeforeandduringtheAgeofExploration.Thedocumentsmayincludeamapoftraderoutes,a letter from amerchant to his ruler at home, or some codified laws regarding particulartradeagreements.Yourjobistoworkthroughthedocumentstodeterminehowtheyrelatetoeach other, what changes can be seen over time, how the author’s backgroundmay haveinfluencedthecontentsofthedocument,andsoon.Beforethestartoftheessayportionoftheexam,youwillbegiventenminutestoreadthedocumentsfortheDBQ.Todowellonthisessay,youneedtoknowexactlywhattodowiththosetenminutes.Andtodothatyouneedtoknowexactlywhatyouareexpectedtowrite.Let’sbeginbylookingatthedirectionsandthescoringrubricfortheDBQ.

WHATTHEDIRECTIONSSAY

HereisasampleofthedirectionsfortheDBQ.

Directions:ThefollowingquestionisbasedontheaccompanyingDocuments1–9.Thedocumentshavebeeneditedforthepurposeofthisexercise.WriteyouransweronthelinedpagesoftheSectionIIfree-responsebooklet.

Thequestionisdesignedtotestyourabilitytoworkwithandunderstandhistoricaldocuments.Writeanessaythat:

Hasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithevidencefromthedocuments.Usesallofthedocuments.Analyzesthedocumentsbygroupingtheminasmanyappropriatewaysaspossible.Doesnotsimplysummarizethedocumentsindividually.Takesintoaccountboththesourcesofthedocumentsandtheauthor’spointofview.Identifiesatleastonetypeofadditionaldocument.

Youmayrefertohistoricalinformationnotmentionedinthedocuments.

WHATTHEDIRECTIONSMEAN

Here’swhatthedirectionsarereallyaskingyoutodo:

1. Createarelevantthesisandsupportthatthesiswiththedocuments.Didyouanswerthequestionthatwasasked?Makesurethatyourthesisdirectlyaddressesthequestionposedandaccuratelydescribesthecontentsofyouressay.Besurethatthedocumentscanbeusedtosupportyourarguments—studentsoftenmakethemistakeofcreatinganinterestingthesisonlytofindthatthedocumentsdon’treallysupportthatthesis.

2. Analyzethedocuments.Youranalysismustacknowledgethesourceofthedocumentsandtheauthor’spointofview,whichmeansthatyoumustdemonstratethatyou

understandwhowroteeachdocumentandwhenitwaswritten.Youshouldalsobeabletoexplainthefollowing:

•Whatwasthecontext(historical,political,orculturalenvironment)inwhichthedocumentwasauthored?Whatelsewasgoingonaroundtheauthoratthetimethiswaswritten?

•Howdoesthisauthor’sperspectiveaffectwhatheorshewroteandwhy?Whatistheauthor’spositioninsociety(gender,age,educationallevel,politicalorreligiousbeliefsystem)?Howdotheseattributesinformwhattheauthorwrites?

•Howdoesthecontentandtoneofthedocumentrelatetothatoftheotherdocuments?Whatdoesonedocumentsaythatanotherdoesn’t?Whataccountsforthesedifferences?

•Whenwasthedocumentwritten?Whowastheintendedaudience,andwhatwastheauthortryingtoexpress?

3. Groupthedocumentsinatleasttwodifferentways,butpreferablyinthreedifferentways.

4. Identifyandexplainatleastone,butpreferablytwoormore,additionaltypesofdocumentsorpointsofviewthatarenotrepresentedinthedocumentsandhowtheywouldaddtoyourargument.

•Whattypesofdocumentsofferinformationthatisnotalreadypresent?

•Whatpointsofviewaremissingthatwouldmakeyourargumentstronger?Considergroupstypicallynotrepresented(women,workingclass,peasants).

•Whyisthisadditionaldocumentorpointofviewimportant?

So to write a decent DBQ essay, you need to write an essay that opens with a thesis,support that thesis with all of the documents, then analyze and group the documentstogether(moreonthislater),andincludeadditionaldocumentsorpointsofview.

HOWTHEDBQISSCORED

TheDBQandall theAPWorldHistoryExamessaysare first read forabasiccoreof itemsfittinglycalledtheBasicCore.Inordertoscoreatleasta7(outof9)ontheDBQ,youressaymustcontainallofthefollowing:

BasicCoreRubricfortheDocument-BasedQuestionEssay

Note: Even though the official AP guidelines call for only one additional document, APgraderstellusthattheyarereallylookingfortwosuchdocuments.While knowing how essay graders score your essay is useful, this doesn’t tell youmuch

abouthowtoactuallywriteyouressay.Below,we’veprovidedachecklistofquestionsyoushouldalwaysrefertoasyouwork,whichisintendedtomakeallofthisinformationeasiertounderstand.

Document-BasedQuestionEssay

Ifyouarenowthinking,“Well,that’snice,butIwanta9,”noproblem.Ifthepersonwho

scoresyouressaycanansweryestoalloftheBasicCoreitems,heorshewillthenlookforExpandedCoreitemsinyouressay.IfyouressaycontainstwoorthreeoftheExpandedCoreitems,yougetan8ontheDBQ.Ifitcontainsmorethan3oftheExpandedCoreitems,anditisexceptionallywellwritten,yougeta9onyouressay.

ExpandedCoreRubricfortheDocument-BasedQuestionEssay

HOWTOEARNEXPANDEDCOREPOINTS

Remember:GradersonlylooktotheExpandedCoreifyouhavealreadyearnedall7possiblepointsoftheBasicCoreelements.Tomovebeyondthattakessomeextraworkonyourpart.NoticehowseveraloftheitemsintheExpandedCorearesimplymoredetailedversionsoftheBasicCore.Togetan8or9onyouressay,concentrateondoingagreatjobwithatleasttwoofthethingsthatareinboththeBasicCoreandtheExpandedCore.Forexample,inourinterpretationofthedirections,wetellyoutogroupthedocumentsinatleasttwodifferentways.TheBasicCoreonlyrequiresthatyougroupthedocumentsinoneway,butthesixthrubric of the ExpandedCore is about analyzing the documents in additionalways such asgroupings. By always grouping your documents in twoormore differentways, chances areyouwillearnthisExpandedCorepoint.To earn another Expanded Core point, focus on improving your thesis. To get an extrapoint from the Expanded Core, you need a thesis that is “comprehensive, analytical, andexplicit.”Ifyoudon’tfeelyouhavewrittenagreatthesisbutknowthetopicwellenoughtoaddsomeadditionalhistoricalevidence,addit.Justtobesure,chooseanotheritemthatisinbothcorelistsandmakeanextraeffortonthatitemaswell.ThepointisthatyoudonotneedtowriteanessaythataccomplishesalltheBasicCoreandalltheExpandedCoreitems;instead,chooseatleastthreeExpandedCoreitemsandbesureto include them inall theessaysyouwrite.Thatway,as longasyoudon’tmissanyBasicCoreitems,youshouldearnan8or9.

THEDOCUMENTSOf course, before you canwrite anything, you need to work your way through the givendocuments.Effectivelyworkingthedocuments(notjustreadingthem)isalmostasimportantas writing the DBQ essay. Let’s spend a fewminutes learning exactly how to process the

documentssothatyoucanputtogetherthat7+essay.

GIVEMETENMINUTESANDI’LLGIVEYOUTHEWORLD

Istenminutesreallyenoughtimetogetthroughthedocuments?Thatdependsonhowwellyou know the topic. Most testers need at least the full ten minutes to work through thedocumentsandpreparetowritetheessay.Butwhatiftheproctorsays“go”andyouarenotyet finishedplanningyouressay?Keepworking thedocuments.Theactualwritingofyouressaywilltakelesstimeifyouarewellpreparedwhenyoubegin.Usethetenminutesyouare givenplus any additional timeyouneed (up to tenmoreminutes) to plan your essay.Onceyou’vegottenahandleonthedocumentsandorganizedyourthoughts,itwillprobablytakeyouonlyabout20to30minutestoactuallywritetheessay.

WORKTHOSEDOCUMENTS

When the reading period begins, open to Part A (the DBQ). You do not need to read thedirections thoroughly—youwill have themmemorized before you get to the testing room.Circlethetotalnumberofdocumentsyouhavetoread(containedinthefirstsentenceofthedirections).Next,scanthedirectionsquickly—theyshouldbejustliketheonesyou’veusedforpractice,butmakeaquickscanjusttobesure.Youmaynotbeinstructedtouseallofthedocuments,butyoushouldanyway,justincase.Thengettothequestion.

Step1:ProcesstheQuestionYoucannotbegintothinkaboutthedocumentsuntilyouknowwhatyouarebeingaskedtodo.Readthequestioncarefully.Underlinetheimportantstuff(suchastimeperiod,culture,location)andcirclewhatyouaresupposedtoanalyzeandtheactionsyouneedtotake(e.g.,compare and contrast, change over time, etc.). Also notewhat the additional document issupposedtodo.LookatthefollowingexampleofaDBQ:

1.Usingthedocuments,compareandcontrasttheattitudestowardwomenfoundinvariousculturesfromabout1800B.C.E.untiltheearly200s,C.E.Arethereindicationsofchangeovertime?Whatkindsofadditionaldocument(s)wouldbemosthelpfulinfurtheringyouranalysis?

Basedonthequestion,whatdoyouknowthedocumentsareabout?

Attitudestowardwomeninvariousculturesduringvariousperiods.

Whatareyoubeingaskedtodo?

Compareandcontrasttheattitudesandlookforanychangesovertime.

Whatcouldanadditionaldocumentdo?

Clarifyhowexistingattitudesaffectedwomen’sdailylives.

BUTWHERE?For the essay portion of the test, youwill receive a green booklet that has the essayquestionsinitplusspacetoplanyouressays,andasealedpinkanswerbooklet.Usethespacesinthequestionbooklettodoyourprepwork—outlining,summarizingdocuments,brainstorming. Don’t be shy about what you write in the green booklet—the scorerswon’tseeyournotes.Infact,itisgoodtorememberthatyouwillonlyreceivecreditfor what you wrote in the pink answer booklet. Even if your teachers in schoolsometimesgiveyoucreditforoutlining,APreaderswillnot.

Step2:BuildaFrameworkOnceyou’vegottenahandleonthequestion,useittocreateaframeworkforprocessingthedocuments you are about to read. For example, if a question asked you to compare andcontrast two major religions, you would create a compare-and-contrast chart of the tworeligions in question. You can fill in the chart as youwork through the documents. If thequestionasksyouiftherewasanychangeovertime,createaspaceinwhichyoucaneasilynote any changes you come across. In the example above, the question asks you to bothcompare and contrast attitudes of different cultures and to look for any change over time.Yourframeworkforthisquestionmightlooklikethis.

Changesinattitudestowardwomen?

Thesefirsttwostepsshouldtakeabouttwominutes.Thenit’stimetohitthedocuments.

Step3:WorktheDocumentsNoticewedidn’tsay“readthedocuments.”Readingistoopassiveawordforwhatyouneedto do. As you read each document, summarize and analyze it in light of your framework(whatyouneedtouseitfor).Forexample,lookatthefollowingdocumentthatgoeswithourexample.

Document1

Source:ChristianBible,OldTestament(Deuteronomy),primarilywritteninseventhcenturyB.C.E.butbasedonancientreligiouscode.

Whenamantakesawifeandmarriesher,ifthenshefindsnofavorinhiseyesbecausehehasfoundsomeindecencyinher,andhewritesherabillofdivorceandputsitinherhandandsendsheroutofhishouse,andshedepartsoutofhishouse,andifshegoesandbecomesanotherman’swife,andthelatterhusbanddislikesherandwritesherabillofdivorceandputsitinherhandandsendsheroutofhishouse,orifthelatterhusbanddies,whotookhertobehiswife,thenherformerhusband,whosentheraway,maynottakeheragaintobehiswife,aftershehadbeendefiled;forthatisanabominationbeforetheLord,andyoushallnotbringguiltuponthelandwhichtheLordyourGodgivesyouforaninheritance.

First, circle the source, making note of the writer and time period or other relevantinformation. This document came from the Old Testament.What was the attitude towardwomenat that time?Clearlywomenwere littlemore thanpossessions.Ahusbandhad theabilitytohandhiswifeherwalkingpapersprettymuchatwillandwouldonlycommitasinagainstGodifhetookherbackafterhersecondhusbanddumpedher.Let’sseehowthiscomparestotheseconddocument.

Document2

Source:TheCodeofHammurabi,1792–1750B.C.E.

Ifaman’swife,wholivesinhishouse,wishestoleaveit,plungesintodebt,triestoruinherhouse,neglectsherhusband,andisjudiciallyconvicted:ifherhusbandoffersherrelease,shemaygoonherway,andhegiveshernothingasagiftofrelease.Ifherhusbanddoesnotwishtoreleaseher,andifhetakesanotherwife,sheshallremainasservantinherhusband’shouse.

Ifawomanquarrelswithherhusband,andsays:“Youarenotcongenialtome,”thereasonsforherprejudicemustbepresented.Ifsheisguiltless,andthereisnofaultonherpart,butheleavesandneglectsher,thennoguiltattachestothiswoman,sheshalltakeherdowryandgobacktoherfather’shouse.

This document came from the Code ofHammurabi,written from1800–1700 B.C.E.WhatwastheattitudetowardwomenundertheCodeofHammurabi?Whilewomenstillseemtobeconsideredpossessions,theyhaveafewmorerights.Forexample,ifshetellshimheisajerkandisprovenright,shegetstogohomewithherdowry,guilt-free.Notice,too,theincreasedlevelofjudiciaryinvolvement.Thedecisionsseemtobelessatthewhimofthehusband.Tryworkingthenextthreedocuments.

Document3

Source:Plutarch,excerptfrom“Women’sLifeinGreeceandRome,”Moralia,242C.E.

27.Whenmusicisplayedintwoparts,itisthebasspartwhichcarriesthemelody.Soinagoodandwisehousehold,whileeveryactivityiscarriedonbyhusbandandwifeinagreementwitheachother,itwillstillbeevidentthatitisthehusbandwholeadsandmakesthefinalchoice.

Document4

Source:BanZhou,leadingfemaleConfucianandimperialhistorianunderEmperorHanHedi,fromLessonsforWomen,aninstructionmanualinfemininebehavior,100C.E.

Ifahusbandbeunworthy,thenhepossessesnothingbywhichtocontrolhiswife.Ifawifebeunworthy,thenshepossessesnothingwithwhichtoserveherhusband.Ifahusbanddoesnotcontrolhiswife,thentherulesofconductmanifestinghisauthorityareabandonedandbroken.Ifawifedoesnotserveherhusband,thentheproperrelationshipbetweenmenandwomenandthenaturalorderofthingsareneglectedanddestroyed.Asamatteroffactthepurposeofthesetwo[thecontrollingofwomenbymen,andtheservingofmenbywomen]isthesame.

Document5

Source:Excerptfrom“TheLawsofManu,”theRigVedas,100B.C.E.–200C.E.

[IntheRigVedas(collectionofhymnstotheAryangods)ofClassicalIndia,Manuisthefatherofhumanity.]

74.Amanwhohasbusiness(abroad)maydepartaftersecuringamaintenanceforhiswife;forawife,eventhoughvirtuous,maybecorruptedifshebedistressedbywantofsubsistence.

75.If(thehusband)wentonajourneyafterproviding(forher),thewifeshallsubjectherselftorestraintsinherdailylife;butifhedepartedwithoutproviding(forher),shemaysubsistbyblamelessmanualwork.

76.Ifthehusbandwentabroadforsomesacredduty,(she)mustwaitforhimeightyears,if(hewent)to(acquire)learningorfamesix(years),if(hewent)forpleasurethreeyears.

77.Foroneyearletahusbandbearwithawifewhohateshim;butafter(thelapseof)ayearlethimdepriveherofherpropertyandceasetocohabitwithher.

78.Shewhoshowsdisrespectto(ahusband)whoisaddictedto(someevil)passion,isadrunkard,ordiseased,shallbedesertedforthreemonths(andbe)deprivedofherornamentsandfurniture.

What did you notice about these documents? Any differences or changes? Document 3,writteninGreeceandRomeinthethirdcentury,showsclearlytheattitudesofthattimeandculture—husbandandwifearepartners,butthehusbandisincommand.Document4istheonlydocumentsofarthatwaswrittenbyawoman.NoticehowinDocument4thewomanisstill subservient, but the discussion is about the responsibilities of bothmen andwomen?Document5,whichwaswrittenaboutthesametimeasDocument4,hasfarmoredetailedlawsregardingtheconductofhusbandsandwives.Again,womenareclearlysubservient,yetmenarechargedwithdefiniteresponsibilitiestotheirwives.Yougettheidea.AtypicalDBQwouldhaveafewmoredocuments,butlet’sjustusethesefivetowalkthroughtherestofthesteps.

Step4:FrameThemandGroupThemOnceyou’veworkedthedocuments(orasyougoalong),fill inyourframeworkfromwhatyou’veread.Forexample,usingthefourdocumentswejustread,tryfillinginthecompare-and-contrastchart.

Yourchartshouldlooksomethinglikethis:

Whatare thechanges thathaveoccurredover time inourexampleso far?Womenwentfrombeingmerepossessionswithmen free tomakedecisions (like todivorce theirwives)withoutanyjudicialinvolvement,tomorelawsgoverningmaleconductandmorerightsforwomen (thoughmeager). Although the question doesn’t specificallymention it,we shouldalso be aware of the influence of culturewhen it came to the treatment ofwomen. Somedifferencesthatappearinthesedocumentsmaybearesultofnotonlyachangeinthoughtprocessovertimebutalsoadifferingattitudeofaparticularculture(e.g.,Document3).Ifwewere to read the rest of thedocuments that accompany this question,wewould likely seeevengreaterchangesintheattitudestowardandtreatmentofwomen.

Put t ingThemTogether

Inadditiontofillinginyourframework,youalsowanttobegingroupingthedocumentsinatleast twodifferentways. For this example, you can group thedocuments by the ones thatpertain to specific rules or laws governing a husband’s conduct versus ones that simplydiscussrolesandresponsibilities.Ifweweretoreadtheremainingdocuments,wemayfindafew more that were written by women and look for the similar characteristics in thosedocuments. You may also wish to group the documents to clearly delineate changes thatoccurredovertime.Rememberthatgroupingthedocumentsatleasttwodifferent,insightfulwayscanhelpyouearnuptofourBasicCorepointsandoneExpandedCorepoint:onepoint

for using all the documents; one point for supporting your thesis with the documentgroupings;twopointsforgroupingtheminatleasttwodifferent,insightfulways(thiscangetyouoneBasicCore point andoneExpandedCore point); andonepoint for demonstratingthat youunderstand themeaning of the documents through your ability to group them invariousways.

Step5:AnalyzeandAddInordertogetalltheBasicCorepoints,youmustanalyzeatleasttwodocumentsforbiasorpointofview,andyoumustanswertheadditionaldocumentpartofthequestion.

Point ofView

Chooseonedocumenttoanalyzeforpointofview.Toselectthebestdocumenttoanalyze,paycloseattentiontowhowrotethedocumentandwhenitwaswritten.Bothcaninfluencetheauthor’spointofview.Chooseadocumentthatclearlyexpressesapointofviewandalsooneforwhichyoucanindicateanalternateinterpretationoftheinformation.Forexample,inoursampledocuments,Document4waswrittenbyBanZhou,theleadingfemaleConfucianduringtheHanageinChina.Couldthefactthatsheisawomancoupledwiththefactthatshe was a Confucian have influenced what she chose to write? Absolutely. Look at herdocumentagain.

Document4

Source:BanZhou,leadingfemaleConfucianandimperialhistorianunderEmperorHanHedi,fromLessonsforWomen,aninstructionmanualinfemininebehavior,100C.E.

Ifahusbandbeunworthy,thenhepossessesnothingbywhichtocontrolhiswife.Ifawifebeunworthy,thenshepossessesnothingwithwhichtoserveherhusband.Ifahusbanddoesnotcontrolhiswife,thentherulesofconductmanifestinghisauthorityareabandonedandbroken.Ifawifedoesnotserveherhusband,thentheproperrelationshipbetweenmenandwomenandthenaturalorderofthingsareneglectedanddestroyed.Asamatteroffactthepurposeofthesetwo[thecontrollingofwomenbymen,andtheservingofmenbywomen]isthesame.

She tended to focusonworthinessand the interactionbetweenhusbandsandwives.Sheevenputtheirresponsibilitiesonequalfooting,somethingthatwedidnotseeinanyoftheother documents. Shedid not live in an age inwhichwomenquestioned their subservientrole.Therefore,insteadofchallengingtheroles,shetriedtofindawaytomakesenseofthesubjugationofwomen.Theperiod inwhich she livedclearly influencedherpointofview.Thesearethetypesofissuesyouwanttobringintoyouranalysisofpointofview.

Point ofView

Trytoanalyzeforpointofviewineachdocument.Typicallyanumberofthedocumentswillread in a way that indicates strong or slightly skewed opinions. So pay attention to whowrotethemandwhentheywerewritten.Fromamongoursampledocuments,whichwouldyouconsidereasytoanalyzeforpointofview?HowaboutDocument3?ItpertainstoGreekandRomansocietiesandwaswritteninthethirdcentury.Takealookatitagain.

Document3

Source:Plutarch,excerptfrom“Women’sLifeinGreeceandRome,”Moralia,242C.E.

27.Whenmusicisplayedintwoparts,itisthebasspartwhichcarriesthemelody.Soinagoodandwisehousehold,whileeveryactivityiscarriedonbyhusbandandwifeinagreementwitheachother,itwillstillbeevidentthatitisthehusbandwholeadsandmakesthefinalchoice.

It reads almost as advice from one to another about how a marriage should be.Interestingly, the attitude of the Greeks and Romans toward women seems positive, yetclearlyconsideredtheirroleassecondaryinamarriage.Couldthatbeperhapsaresultofthetime and culture? Absolutely. The person (presumably a man) who wrote this was likelygiving loving,caringadvice toa friend,yethedoesnotacknowledgewhatamoremodernreaderwould likely think about the subjugation of thewoman in themarital relationship.Thisformofbiaswasimbeddedinthecultureofthattime.Thisisthereforeagooddocumenttousetoexemplifyhowcontextandculturecanclearlyinfluenceaperson’sperspective.Nowfindatleasttwo,butpreferablythree,moredocumentsandanalyzethemforpointofview.

Addit ionalDocument

Soasnottoforgetthisstep,makeanoteofitnow,andthenplantoincludeitaspartofyouropeningthesis.Inourexample,theadditionaldocumentpartofthequestionaskedthefollowing:

Whatkindsofadditionaldocument(s)wouldbemosthelpfulinfurtheringyouranalysis?

In order to assess how the attitudes of a culture affected women’s daily lives during acertainperiod,what typeof document ordocumentswouldbehelpful?What about eithermoredocumentswrittenbywomen that reflected their thoughts or daily experiences, or adocument that chronicled the daily responsibilities ofwomen in the given period? Shouldtheybeeveryday-typedocuments,likeshoppinglists,orletterstoafamilymembers?Shouldtheymoreformal, likeinstructionsonhowtodosomething?Besuretoexplainwhyyoufeelthese documentswill add to your analysis; just describing a documentwill not earn you thepoint.

Step6:OrganizetheDocumentsSofaryou’veprocessedthequestion,builtaframework,workedthedocumentstofillinthatframework, grouped and regrouped the documents, analyzed the documents for point ofview,anddeterminedthetypeofadditionaldocumentyouneedandwhy.(Whew!Youmustbeexhausted!)Nowit’stimetoorganizeyourdocumentssothatyouknowwhichonesyouareusingassupport,whichonesyouareanalyzingandexactlyhowyouplantogroupthem.Thislaststepwillactastheoutlineforyouressay.Usethefollowingcharttoorganizeyouressay.

Thesis

Youwillopenyouressaywithathesis.Inyourthesis,referencethestrongestsupportingdocuments.Aspartofyouroutline,decidewhichdocumentsrepresentthecoreofyourthesisandincludetheminyouropeningparagraph.Also,jotdownafewbriefnotesaboutyourthesisbeforemovingon.(Besuretomakeyournotesonscratchpaper—notintheessaybooklet.)

Support

Listthedocumentsthatyouplantousetosupportyourthesis.Includeallthedocumentsyoumentioninyourthesis(inthefirstparagraph).Alsofeelfreetoincludeanyotherdocumentthatwilllendadditionalsupport.

GroupOne

First,groupthedocumentsinthemostobviousway.Forexample,ifyouareaskedtocompareandcontrastasetofdocuments,breakthedocumentsintotwogroupssothateachgroupcontainsdocumentswithsimilarfeaturesbutthetwogroupsclearlycontrasteachother.

GroupTwo

Regroupthedocumentsinawaythatshowssomesortofinsightintohowthedocumentsrelatetoeachother.Forexample,ifyoufirstcreatedgroupsbyputtingtogetherdocumentswithobvioussimilarities,regrouptheminawaythatshowssomethingdifferentorlessobviousaboutthedocuments.Ifthequestionasksaboutchangeovertime,regroupthedocumentstoshowhowthingschangedoversomeperiod.

PointofView

Listthedocumentsyouhavechosentoanalyzeforpointofview.Plantodiscussthemafteroneorbothofyourgroupings.Decidehowyoucancompareandcontrastthemwithyourpointofviewdocumentand/orwithyourthesis.

NumberofDocuments

Usethisasachecklisttobesureyouincludeallofthedocumentsinyouressay.Listthenumberofdocumentsyou’vebeengiven,thengothrougheachcategoryandcheckoffthedocumentnumberasyoucometoit.Ifyoufinishyourcheckandrealizethatyouomitted

one(ormore)documents,gobacktothatdocumenttodeterminewhereyoucanuseit(support,analyze,orgroup).

AdditionalDocuments

Onceyou’vegroupedyourdocuments,considerwhatotherkindorkindsofdocumentswouldaddsomethinginterestingtotheanalysisofthequestionposed.Besuretoincludereasonswhyaparticularextradocumentwouldbeuseful.Useoursampledocumentstofillintheorganizationalchartbelow.

Howdidyoudo?Yourchartshouldlooksomethinglikethefollowing:

Remember that you will have more documents to use, which will make your essaygroupingsmorediverse.Thewayyougroup thedocuments shouldsupportyour thesisandshowchangesorcontrastaswell.

HOWLONGISTENMINUTES?Rightnowthisprocessmayseemasifitwilltaketwohoursasopposedtotenminutes.Youneedtopracticedoingitafewtimestogetafeelforhowmuchtimetospendonwhat.Youmayfindthatyoucanfillinyourframeworkasyouanalyzethedocuments,oridentify the documents’ point of view as you go. The more you practice, the moreefficient you will become. Remember, however, that analyzing the documents is asimportantaswriting theessay. Ifyouneed touse the first five to tenminutesofyourwritingtimetofinishyouranalysisoroutline,itwillbetimewellspent.

DBQThesisTocreateaneffective thesis,youmust firstmakesure thatyouareansweringthequestion

asked. As we talked about in the intro to AP essays beginning here (if you didn’t read itbefore,now’sagoodtime),therearesomebasicrulesofgoodAPessaytheses.

Give’EmWhatTheyWant—Answerthequestionbyrestatingkeyphrasesfromthe question. Don’t simply rewrite what you were given; rather, write yourresponseasananswer,butbesuretoincludetheimportantphrasesthatwereinthequestion.

Show’EmWhereYouGotIt—APWorldHistoryExamessaysareallabout theevidence.Useyourframeworktosupportyourassertionsrightfromthebeginning.Remember that evidence in your thesis ismerely introductory—save the detailsforthebodyoftheessay.

Help ’EmGet There—Make a clear transition from your thesis to the body ofyouressaybyusingaphraselike,“Tobetterunderstandthedifferencesbetweenthese two societies…” or “To better understand the changes that occurred…”Oneway to earn yourBasicCore point for additional documents is to suggest,describe,andjustifytheinclusionoftheadditionaldocumentaspartofthislastsentence.Thatway,youwon’t forget to includeitanditmakesforagoodtransition.

Forourexample,yourthesiswouldflowsomethinglikethefollowing:

Fromareviewofthefivedocumentspresented,itisclearthattheroleofwomeninvariousculturesfrom1800B.C.E.intothe200swasprimarilyoneofservitudeorworseincomparisontoourcontemporaryideasabouttherightsofwomen.However,thereisalsoevidencethatovertime,womenwereseenlessassubjectonlytotheruleoflawlaiddownbyanindividual(usuallyahusband)andmoreaspeoplewhose(albeitlimited)rights were overseen by the rule of law. In earlier eras, women were seen more asproperty than as people, and that only men reserved the right to divorce with nolingering responsibility to care for theirwives.However, some societies began to holdmenmoreaccountablefortheirtreatmentofwomen,atrendwhicheventuallycametoothersocietiesaswell,thoughatdifferenttimes.Withthisaddedprotectionofthelaw,womenarenotonlymoreprotected,butarealsoheldmoreaccountablefortheirownconduct.

Whenyouwriteyourthesisparagraph,imaginethatareaderwillonlyreadyouressayiftheyareconvincedtodosobyyourfirstparagraph(nopressure).Then,useyourframeworkto write the body of your essay. Your framework can act as both your outline and yourchecklist—onceyou’vewrittenthebulkofyouressay,quicklyscanthroughtomakesureyoudidn’t leaveanythingout.Finally,closewitharecapofyourpointsandgeton to thenextessay.Beforegoingon,trywritingyourownthesisandtherestofthisDBQessayonaseparatepieceofpaper.Whenyouhavefinished,takeamomentto“grade”itusingtheDBQrubric,oraskaclassmateorparenttoevaluateitusingtherubric.

HOWLONGSHOULDTHISGOON?TheAPfolkssuggest50minutesfortheDBQ—10minutesofprereadingtimeand40minutesofactualwritingtime.Rememberthatthe10minutesofprereadingtimeisasetthing—youcannotbeginwritingduringthatperiod,andyouwouldn’twanttoanyway.Oncetheproctorsaysyoucanstartwriting,youmaybeginwritingifyouareready,orsimplycontinuewiththesixstepsifyouhavenotyetfinishedthem.Buthowlongistoolong?Werecommendyouspend no more than 10 additional minutes working through the documents and planningyouressay. Inotherwords,youneedtobeginwritingby10minutes intotheessay-writingpart of the test. As we mentioned earlier, you can write a great DBQ essay in 20 to 30minutes,butyoudon’twanttocutintowritingtimefortheothertwoessays.APessaygraderstellusthatspendingtoomuchtimeontheDBQisanobviousproblemfor

manystudents,whooftenendupearningonly1oreven0pointsontheothertwoquestions.Blowingoff the last twoquestionswill seriously endanger your score!Remember:all threequestionscount thesame, sobe sure to leaveyourselfadequate time toget to theother twoquestions.

PUTITALLTOGETHERNowit’syourturntotryouttheDBQprocess.BelowisanothersampleDBQ.Remembertouse all the steps and not to shortchange the prework on the documents. The morecomfortableyouarewiththedocuments,theeasieritwillbeforyoutowritethisessay.Ifyouwish,youcankeep trackofyour time.Donot timeyourself.Rather,noteyour starttime,thennotehowlongittookyoutoanalyzethedocuments.Whenyouarefinishedwiththeessay,notethetimeyoufinished.Thiswillgiveyouaroughideaofhowmuchtimeyouwould like to have for the essay and how much time you need to shave off in practice(remember,theDBQcantakeupto50minutes—10minutesforprereadingand40minutesofthe120minutesyouhaveforwriting).Whenyouhavefinished,askaclassmatetoscoreyouressayusingthescoringrubricatthe

beginningofthischapter.

Directions:ThefollowingquestionisbasedontheaccompanyingDocuments1–6.(Thedocumentshavebeeneditedforthepurposeofthisexercise.)WriteyouransweronthelinedpagesoftheSectionIIfree-responsebooklet.

Thisquestionisdesignedtotestyourabilitytoworkwithandunderstandhistoricaldocuments.Writeanessaythat:

Hasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithevidencefromthedocuments.Usesallofthedocuments.Analyzesthedocumentsbygroupingtheminasmanywaysaspossible.Doesnotsimplysummarizethedocumentsindividually.Takesintoaccountboththesourcesofthedocumentsandtheauthors’pointsofviews.Explainstheneedforatleastoneadditionaltypeofdocument.

Youmayrefertorelevanthistoricalinformationnotmentionedinthedocuments.

1.Giventhedocumentsbelow,compareandcontrastthepreamblesofseveralmodernconstitutions.Whatotheradditionaldocument(s)wouldhelpgiveafullerpictureofhowtheconstitutionsofthesecountriescomparetotheconstitutionsofothercountries?

Document1

Source:PreambletoConstitutionofJapan,1946.

We,theJapanesepeople,actingthroughourdulyelectedrepresentativesintheNationalDiet,determinedthatweshallsecureforourselvesandourposteritythefruitsofpeacefulcooperationwithallnationsandtheblessingsoflibertythroughoutthisland,andresolvedthatneveragainshallwebevisitedwiththehorrorsofwarthroughtheactionofgovernment,doproclaimthatsovereignpowerresideswiththepeopleanddofirmlyestablishthisConstitution.Governmentisasacredtrustofthepeople,theauthorityforwhichisderivedfromthepeople,thepowersofwhichareexercisedbytherepresentativesofthepeople,andthebenefitsofwhichareenjoyedbythepeople.ThisisauniversalprincipleofmankinduponwhichthisConstitutionisfounded.Werejectandrevokeallconstitutions,laws,ordinances,andrescriptsinconflictherewith.We,theJapanesepeople,desirepeaceforalltimeandaredeeplyconsciousofthehighidealscontrollinghumanrelationshipandwehavedeterminedtopreserveoursecurityandexistence,trustinginthejusticeandfaithofthepeace-lovingpeoplesoftheworld.Wedesiretooccupyanhonoredplaceinaninternationalsocietystrivingforthepreservationofpeace,andthebanishmentoftyrannyandslavery,oppressionandintoleranceforalltimefromtheearth.Werecognizethatallpeoplesoftheworldhavetherighttoliveinpeace,freefromfearandwant.Webelievethatnonationisresponsibletoitselfalone,butthatlawsofpoliticalmoralityareuniversal;andthatobediencetosuchlawsisincumbentuponallnationswhowouldsustaintheirownsovereigntyandjustifytheirsovereignrelationshipwithothernations.We,theJapanesepeople,pledgeournationalhonortoaccomplishthesehighidealsandpurposeswithallourresources.

Document2

Source:PreambletotheConstitutionofIndia,1949.

We,thepeopleofIndia,havingsolemnlyresolvedtoconstituteIndiaintoasovereignsocialistseculardemocraticrepublicandtosecuretoallitscitizens:

JUSTICE,social,economicandpolitical;

LIBERTYofthought,expression,belief,faithandworship;

EQUALITYofstatusandofopportunity;andtopromoteamongthemallFRATERNITYassuringthedignityoftheindividualandtheunityandintegrityoftheNation;

Inourconstituentassemblythistwenty-sixthdayofNovember,1949,doherebyadopt,enactandgivetoourselvesthisconstitution.

Document3

Source:PreambletotheConstitutionoftheRepublicof(West)Germany,1949.

ConsciousoftheirresponsibilitybeforeGodandmen,animatedbythepurposetoserveworldpeaceasanequalpartinaunifiedEurope,theGermanPeoplehaveadopted,byvirtueoftheirconstituentpower,thisConstitution.

TheGermansintheStates[Länder]ofBaden-Wurttemberg,Bavaria,Berlin,Brandenburg,Bremen,Hamburg,Hesse,LowerSaxony,Mecklenburg-WesternPomerania,NorthRhine-Westphalia,Rhineland-Palatinate,Saarland,Saxony,Saxony-Anhalt,Schleswig-HolsteinandThuringiahaveachievedtheunityandfreedomofGermanyinfreeself-determination.ThisConstitutionisthusvalidfortheentireGermanPeople.

Document4

Source:PreambletotheConstitutionofFrance,1958.

TheFrenchpeopleherebysolemnlyproclaimtheirdedicationtotheRightsofManandtheprincipleofnationalsovereigntyasdefinedbytheDeclarationof1789,reaffirmedandcomplementedbythePreambletothe1946Constitution.

Byvirtueoftheseprinciplesandthatofthefreedeterminationofpeoples,theRepublicofferstotheOverseasTerritoriesthatexpressthewilltoadheretothemnewinstitutionsbasedonthecommonidealofliberty,equality,andfraternityandconceivedwithaviewtotheirdemocraticevolution.

Document5

Source:PreambletotheConstitutionofthePeople’sRepublicofVietnam,1992.

Inthecourseoftheirmillennia-oldhistory,theVietnamesepeople,workingdiligently,creatively,andfightingcourageouslytobuildtheircountryanddefendit,haveforgedatraditionofunity,humanity,uprightness,perseveranceandindomitablenessfortheirnationandhavecreatedVietnamesecivilizationandculture.

Document6

Source:PreambletotheConstitutionoftheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,1992.

Unity,Work,Progress,Justice,Dignity,Liberty,Peace,Prosperity,andLovefortheFatherlandhavebeensinceindependence,notablyundermono-partyism,hypothesizedorretardedbytotalitarianism,theconfusionofauthorities,nepotism,ethnocentrism,regionalism,socialinequalities,andviolationsoffundamentalrightsandliberties.Intoleranceandpoliticalviolencehavestronglygrievedthecountry,maintainedandaccruedthehateanddivisionsbetweenthedifferentcommunitiesthatconstitutetheCongoleseNation.

5

CrackingtheFree-ResponseQuestions

CHANGE-OVER-TIMEANDCOMPARATIVEESSAYSTheothertwoAPWorldHistoryExamessaysbearsomeresemblancetotheDBQandrequiresimilarstrategiestoachievegoodscores:asolidthesis,evidencetosupportallassertions,etc.However,foreachoftheseessays,youmustprovidetheevidencefromtheresourcesinyourbrainonthissubject—therearenodocumentstoworkfrom.Thiscaneitherbeagoodthingorabadthing,dependingonhowwellyouknowthetopic.Luckily,mostchange-over-timequestionsandcomparativequestionsgiveyou someamountof choice.Whileyouwon’tbeable to pick the topic or period, youwill often be asked to choose one or two countries,religions,orcultures,fromasetthatisprovidedtoyou.The good thing about doing the DBQ first is that your mind is already geared towardsupporting your statementswith evidence, something youmust do to get a good score ontheseessays.Ifitishelpfultoyou,thinkofthebitsofinfoyouknowaboutatopicasyour“mini-documents”whenorganizingyouressay.AswiththeDBQ,youwillcreateaframeworkinwhichtoplacetheevidenceyouwilluse(i.e.,your“documents”orbitsofinfofromyourbrain). Once you’ve completed your framework, writing your change-over-time orcomparativeessayisalotlikewritingyourDBQ.

ALWAYSHAVETOBEDIFFERENT

Therearesomedifferences,ofcourse,asthenameofeachquestionimplies.Therestofthischapterwilldetailthetworemainingessaytypes,provideyouwithstrategiesandguidelinesforeachand,ofcourse,giveyousomepractice.And,ifyouarefeelingalittleanxiousaboutgettinganessay topic forwhichyoudon’tknowthehistory, relax.PartIIof thisbooknotonly reviews the salient points of each period covered on the exam, but also points outimportantchangesandcomparisonswithineachperiod.

BUTBEFOREWEGETSTARTED…First,justareminderaboutthethesis:Asyouwriteyourthesis,keepinmindthebasicrulesofgoodAPessaytheses(if thissounds likeGreektoyou,makesureyourereadChapter3,“CrackingtheEssayQuestions”).

Give’EmWhatTheyWantShow’EmWhereYouGotItHelp’EmGetThere

CHANGE-OVER-TIME(ANDCONTINUITY)ESSAYChangeovertimeisamajorthemeofhistoricalstudy.Animportantaspectofunderstandingworldhistoryisrecognizingthesechangesandunderstandingwhatcausedthem.Theconceptof change is tested in themultiple-choicequestions, but also is the focusof its ownessay.However,thisessayalsoexpectsyoutobeabletodiscusscontinuitiesthataccompanythesechanges. Let’s take a look at the directions and scoring rubric for this type of essay andprepareanapproach.

WHATTHEDIRECTIONSSAY

Thefollowingisasampleofthedirectionsforthechange-over-timeessay:

Directions:Youaretoanswerthefollowingquestion.Youshouldspend5minutesorganizingoroutliningyouressay.Writeanessaythat:

Hasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithappropriatehistoricalevidence.Addressesallpartsofthequestion.Useshistoricalcontexttoshowchangeovertimeand/orcontinuities.

Yeah, we see that and/or in the last line, too, but AP essay graders tell us that this ismisleading. You MUST include continuities as well as changes over time in this essay tomaximizeyourscoringpotential!


Here’swhatyouaresupposedtodo.

1. Writeathesisthatpointsoutthechangeovertime.Supportyourthesiswithhistoricalevidence.

2. Answerallpartsofthequestion.3. Showthechangeovertimeusingrelevanthistory.Contrast how things turned out with how things were originally, and weigh what changedagainstwhatremainedthesame.

4. Analyzetheprocessofchangeand/orcontinuityovertime.Explainhowandwhyithappens.

So,towriteadecentchange-over-timeessayyouaregoingtowriteanessaywithathesisthatidentifiesachangeovertimeforeachcountryorperiodrequired,supportthatthesisbyreferencingrelevanthistoryandcontrastthatchangewithastartingpointorwithsomethingthatdidnotchange.

WHATITWAS,WHATITIS—NOT!It is not enough to simply talk about how it was and then talk about how it is. Forexample,anessaythatsays,“Priorto1948theJewishpeoplehadnohomeland.In1948,Israel was established” does not delineate the causes or events that led up to theestablishmentof thenation.Towritea successful change-over-timeessay,youneed totalk about how things were prior to the change, and then make it clear why thingschanged.“Intheearlytwentiethcentury,fewpeoplesawtheneedfortheestablishmentofan independentJewishstate.However,once theworldsawthemassivegenocideofJewsthattookplaceduringWorldWarII,supportfortheestablishmentofIsraelbegantogrow.”YouMUSTcoverthehistoricaldevelopment!

WHATIFIDON’TKNOWTHESUBJECT?Whilethechange-over-timeessaymaybealittlelessdauntingthantheDBQ,youruntheriskofencounteringatopicwithwhichyouarenotthatfamiliar.Luckily,mostchange-over-timequestionsgiveyouchoices,suchas“Selecttwocountriesanddiscuss…”Theissueson thechange-over-timeessay tend tobeglobalones suchas technology, trade,demographicchange,orculture,somakesureyouarereadytodiscussthesetopics.PartII of this bookwill highlight important historical changes so you can start filing stuffawayinyourbrain.Learnthecontentandthechangesandyoushouldbewellpreparedforthisessay.

LiketheDBQ,thechange-over-timeessayisscoredfirstforaBasicCoreofitems.Ifyouressay has all the Basic Core items (i.e., earns all 7 of the Basic Core points), it is thenconsideredforExpandedCoreitems.

Notice that you can receive partial credit—1 point instead of 2 points—for some of theitems.Theother twopointscomefromExpandedCore items.Onceagain, let’sconnect theBasicCoreitemstowhatyouaresupposedtowrite.

Howdoyougeta9onthechange-over-timeessay?Ifyouearnall7BasicCorepoints,theperson scoringyouressaywill then look forExpandedCore items inyouressay.ThemoreExpandedCoreitemsyouadd,themorelikelyyouwillreceivean8or9onyouressay.

Once again, someof the items in theExpandedCore are amore detailed version of theBasicCore items.Togetan8or9onyouressay,concentrateondoingagreat jobwithatleastthreeoftheelementsthatareinboththeBasicCoreandtheExpandedCore.

PUTTINGPENTOPAPER

Beforeyoubegin,youneedtoplanyouressay.Becauseyoudon’thavetoanalyzedocuments,youwon’tneedasmuchplanningtime.Usethefollowingstepstoorganizeyouressay.

Step1:ProcesstheQuestionOnceagain,beforeyoucanwritetheessay,youneedtobesureyouareclearonexactlywhatyouareexpectedtodo.NoticethattheBasicCoreplacesaheavyemphasisonansweringall

partsofthequestion.Tomakesureyoudon’tmissanypartofthequestion,circleeachkeyphraseasyouprocessthequestion.Takealookatthefollowingexample:

2.ChooseONEofthefollowingpoliticalunits(countries,empires,etc.)anddiscusshowtechnologicaldevelopmentsfrom1450to1750changeditsglobalinfluence.Besuretodescribeitspositionofpowerandinfluenceinthebeginningoftheperiodasyourstartingpoint.

England Russia

Portugal OttomanEmpire

Spain China

Germany France

Whatkeyphrasesdidyoucircle?Yourlistshouldincludeoneoftheabovecountriesplusthephrasestechnologicaldevelopmentsfrom1450to1750,globalinfluence,andpositionofpowerandinfluenceinthebeginningoftheperiodasyourstartingpoint.Whatareyoubeingaskedtodo?Chooseoneofthecountriesorempireslisted,anddiscussitsroleasaglobalplayerintheearly1400sorso(beforesometechnologicalimpact).Thenwalkthroughthetechnologyortechnologies that had an impact on the country, and describe the impact—what changesoccurredasaresult.

Step2:BuildaFrameworkOnceyouhavepulledapartthequestion,buildaframework.Thepurposeofthisframeworkisnotonlytoprovideyouwithanoutlineforyouressay,butalsotoensurethatyoudon’tmissanypartofthequestion.Tobuildyourchange-over-timeframework,beginbychoosingthenumberofcountriesasinstructed.Theabove example asks you to chooseone country.Onceyouhavemadeyourchoices,createachartliketheoneonthefollowingpage.

Ifyouhadbeenaskedtoselecttwocountries,youwouldcreateachartthathadacolumnforeachcountry.

Step3:BuildYourEssay

Afteryou’vecreatedyourframework,fillitintobuildyouressay.Besuretofillinnotonlytheinformationabouteachsegment,butalsotheevidence(bitsofinfostoredinyourbrain)to support each answer. For example, if you chose to discuss the impact of navigationaltechnologyonPortugalandwhatremainedthesamedespitethattechnology,youmightfillinyourchartlikethis:

Completingyourframeworkwithbothwhatchangedandsupportingevidencewillhelpyoucreatemostofyouressay.Hereisthechartagain.Choosethecountryorempireyouwouldliketowriteaboutforthisquestionandcompletethechartbelow.

Step4:WriteItOnceyou’vefilledinyourframework,it’stimetostartwriting.AswiththeDBQ,yourthesisis critical and must be supported by facts. First, Give ’EmWhat They Want—answer thequestionbyincludingkeyphrasesfromthequestion.Next,Show’EmWhereYouGotItbysupportingeachofyourassertionswithsomeintroductoryevidence(savethedetailsforthebodyoftheessay).Finally,Help’EmGetTherebytransitioningthereadersfromthethesistothe bodyof the essaywith a phrase like, “Tobetter understand the changes that occurred

duringthistime…”Here’sanexampleofhowyourthesisforthisessaymightread.

Technologicaladvances in theperiodfrom1450to1750hadamajor influenceonPortugal’s position in the global sphere. The development of nautical technologiesrapidly made Portugal a world leader in exploration because the country wasstrategically placed near the coast of Africa, had long-standing trade relations withMuslimnations,andwashometoPrinceHenrytheNavigator(sonofPortugal’sJohnI), who sponsored and helped train Portugal’s explorers in the most up-to-datenavigationtechnologiesandtechniques.Thedevelopmentoflanteensails,whichallowedships to travel in any direction regardless of the wind direction, and three-mastedcaravels,whichwere largerships thatwerenotonlycapableofholdinghugesailsbutalsohadlotsofstoragespacetoholdprovisionsforlongjourneys,suddenlymadetravelacross the oceans feasible. In addition, the inventions of the astrolabe andmagneticcompass,bothofwhichwereusedtohelpsailorsfindtheirway,significantlyincreasedtheabilityoftheseshipstoreachtheirfinaldestinations.Theresultswerehuge.Portugalsuddenlybecameaglobalpower.ItestablishedcoloniesintheNewWorldandincreasedtradewithAsiaoversearoutes.Asaresult,Portugalspreaditslanguage,religion,andculturetootherpartsoftheworld,changingtheculturallandscapesoprofoundlythatwestilllivewiththeconsequences.TobetterunderstandthechangesinPortugal’sglobalposition that took as a result of these technological developments, one must firstunderstandPortugal’sroleintheglobalspherepriortotheAgeofExploration.

Asyoucontinueyouressay,makesurethatyouaddresseachportionofthequestionandthatyousupportyourclaimswithevidence.Agoodmodeltofollow:afteryourintroductoryparagraph,eachparagraphshouldaddressonechangeorcontinuitywithspecificevidence.Inthis case, a straightforward narrative of Portugal’s historywon’t be enough to answer thequestionsuccessfully.APessayreaderstellusthattheyoftenhavetoreallysearchforwhatthechangesandcontinuitiesare—andtheyoftendon’tfindthem.Besuretospellitoutforthegrader,thesoonertheyfindyourexamples,thesoonertheygiveyoupoints.Beforegoingon,trywritingyourownthesisfortheaboveexample,thencontinueonintoat least the first two paragraphs, one that discusses a change, and one that explainscontinuity.Usethefollowingspaceforyourwork:

IT’SAMATTEROFT IME

For both the change-over-time essay and the comparative essay, the AP folks suggest 40minutes—5 minutes of planning and 35 minutes of writing. We recommend from 5 to 8minutesofplanning,againbecauseawell-plannedessayiseasierandfastertowrite.Youdoneedtobecarefulhere,however.Ifyourunoutoftimeonyourlastessayandfailtoincludesomecorestuff,thatcandefinitelyhurtyouressayscore.

Use the practice essays at the end of this chapter plus the practice tests in Part III todeterminehowlongyouideallywouldhavetowriteeachessay,thenshaveofftimethroughpractice.Truthfully,awell-plannedchange-over-timeorcomparativeessaycanbewrittenin20minutes,leavingyouafewminutestogobackandrereadwhatyouwrote.

COMPARATIVEESSAYTwo down, one to go. By the time you get to the comparative essay, youwill have beentestingformorethantwohoursandwritingformorethananhour.Becauseyouwillwantyourmindtobeonautopilotatthispointinthetest,youneedtomakesureyouaretotallycomfortablewiththisfinaltypeofessay.APessayreaderstellusthat,eventhoughthisessayisperhapstheeasiest,itisalsotheonethatstudentsoftenscoretheloweston.Thismaybetheresultoffatigue,butmayalsobetheresultofpoortimemanagement.Don’tletthishappentoyou!Leaveyourselftimetodoyourbestonthisessay,andtrytofocus;thisisyourlasttask!

I’DRATHERCOMPARETHANCHANGE

By theway, you do not need towrite APWorldHistory Exam essays in the order inwhich theyappear.Youaregiven twohours towrite the threeessays (plus the initialten-minute reading period for the DBQ documents). You can write the essays in anyorderyouwant.Youcanalsospendasmuchtimeononeessayasyouwant;however,themoretimeyoudevotetooneessaymeansproportionatelylesstimefortheothertwo.We strongly recommend you do the DBQ first because you will have processed thedocuments during the prereading period. However, if you read the change-over-timeessayand feeluncomfortablewith the topic,or ifyou justprefer towritecomparativeessays,feelfreetodothecomparativeessaybeforethechange-over-timeessay.

Making comparisons is a huge part of understanding world history. It comes up in themultiple-choicequestionsaswellas theDBQandchange-over-timeessays.Tohelpyououtwiththisaspectofthetest,PartIIofthisbookhighlightssomeofthemorecriticalsubjectsforcomparisonthroughoutthesixperiodsofworldhistory.Thecomparativeessaytypicallyinvolveshowtwosocietiesrespondedtoamajorthemeorevent. (Remember thatcomparingmeans finding similaritiesanddissimilarities!)Rememberhowwementionedatthebeginningofthebooktobeonthelookoutforcertainbig-pictureideas or themes as you review your history? This is where that information will bemosthelpful.ThemajorthemestestedontheAPWorldHistoryExamcomparativeessayincludethefollowing:

Howdifferentsocietiesrespondedtoevents,toeachother,ortoothersocietiesHowdifferentsocietieschanged—ordidn’t—inresponsetoaneventHowdifferentsocietiesdevelopedHowdifferentsocietiesrespondedtonewtechnologiesornewideas

Thedirectionsandscoringrubricsforthecomparativeessayareverysimilartothoseforthechange-over-timeessay.Therefore,thestepstowritingthecomparativeessaywillalsobesimilartothechange-over-timeessay.Herearethedirections.

Directions:Youaretoanswerthefollowingquestion.Youshouldspend5minutesorganizingoroutliningyouressay.Writeanessaythat:

HasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithappropriatehistoricalevidenceAddressesallpartsofthequestionMakesdirect,relevantcomparisons


Here’swhatyouaresupposedtodo.

1. Writeathesisthatmakesyourmajorpointsofcomparison.Supportyourthesiswithhistoricalevidence.

2. Answerallpartsofthequestion.3. Makeatleasttwodirect,relevantcomparisonsofthegivensocieties.Includebothsimilaritiesanddifferences.(Youloseacorepointifyoudon’t.)

4. Analyzerelevantreasonsforthosesimilaritiesand/ordifferences.Explainwhythesesocietiesaresimilarordifferent.

Towriteagoodcomparativeessay,youwillneedtowriteanessaywithathesis,supportthatthesisbyreferencingrelevanthistory(soundfamiliarsofar?),andcompareandcontrastasthequestionindicates,makingsureyouincludenotonlysimilaritiesbutalsodifferences.

AgaintheBasicCoreforthecomparativeessayisworth7points(youcangetpartialcreditforsomeitems).Theother2pointscomefromExpandedCoreitems.Onceagainlet’sconnect

theBasicCoreitemstowhatyouaresupposedtowrite.

Togetan8or9onthecomparativeessay,youneedtofocusonexpandingthreeareasofyour essay that are covered in both the Basic Core and the Expanded Core. Here is theExpandedCoreforthecomparativeessay.

WRITINGYOURCOMPARATIVEESSAY

Usethesamestepstoplanthecomparativeessayasyouusedtoplanthechange-over-timeessay.Takeaboutfiveminutestoplanyouressaybeforeyoubeginwriting.

Step1:ProcesstheQuestionCirclethekeyphrasesinthefollowingexample:

3.Westernincursionwasacommonthemeintheyearsfrom1750–1914.Differentsocietiesrespondedtotheoutsideforcesinavarietyofways.CompareandcontrasttheresponsesbetweenTWOofthefollowingsocieties.Besuretoaddressthereactionofthenativepopulations.ChinaIndiaLatinAmericaAfrica

Doesyourcircledlist includeWestern incursion, from1750–1914,compareandcontrast theresponses,andreactionofthenativepopulation?Rememberalsotocirclethetwosocietiesonthelistthatyouwanttofocuson!Whatareyoubeingaskedtodo?CompareandcontrastthereactionsoftwosocietiestotheinvasionofWesterncultureandideology.Todothis,youwillneed tonotewhat each societywas likebeforeWestern influenceswere felt andhoweachreactedtotheimposedchanges.

Step2:BuildaFrameworkBuildaframeworksimilartotheoneyouusedforthechange-over-timeessay.

Step3:BuildYourEssayAfteryou’vecreatedyour framework, fill it in tobuild theessay.Besure toenterboththeinformationabouteachsegmentandtheevidencetosupporteachanswer.Usingtheaboveexample,selecttwosocietiesandcompletethechartbelow.

Step4:WriteItOnce you’ve filled in your framework, it’s time to startwriting. As youwrite your thesis,remember to Give ’EmWhat TheyWant, Show ’EmWhere YouGot It, andHelp ’EmGetThere.Writeananalytical thesis for the samplequestion in the spaceprovided.Be sure toincludeboththefocusofyouressayandWHYyoubelieveyourclaimistrue.

How did you do?Did youGive ’EmWhat TheyWant?Do your opening sentences readsomethinglikethefollowing?

Western imperialism in both China and Latin America brought about differentresponses,inpartbecausethenatureoftheimperialismwasverydifferentineachplace.While both regions experienced aggressive European influences, in Latin America thesizeof thenativepopulationhadalreadybeendramatically reducedby genocideanddisease and was then replaced by European immigrants and African slaves. In otherwords, Europe established colonies and replaced existing cultures with their own. InChina,ontheotherhand, thenativepopulationwassubjectedtoEuropeanspheresofinfluence—far more economic than cultural—but the underlying culture remainedlargelyintact.TheEuropeansestablishedtheirspheresofinfluence“ontopof”existingChinese culture, as opposed to “instead of.” This difference between the underlyingnatureofimperialisminLatinAmericaandChinahadaprofoundinfluenceinthewayeachregioneventuallyrespondedtoWesternimperialism.

Goingon…

In Latin America the successful independence movements were initiated by thedescendentsofEuropeancolonists,and, in thecaseofHaiti,a freedslave.Therefore,theindependencemovementsweresimilartotheAmericanRevolutioninthattheywere

motivatedmorebywhowouldcontroltheregion(Europeorlocals)ratherthanwhichculturewoulddominate.EvenafterLatinAmericancountrieswontheir independence,the original native population remained subservient to the descendents of Europeans.Spanish and Portuguese remained the official languages. Catholicism remained thedominantreligion.InChina,thereactionagainstEuropeanspheresofinfluencewasfarmoreculturalin

nature.ThenativeChineseweretryingtoremoveEuropeaninfluence,notjustEuropeancontrol…

Takesometimenowto finishwritingyouressayonaseparatesheetofpaper.Onceyouhavewrittenyourown,askaclassmateorteachertocritiqueyourwork.

PUTTINGITALLTOGETHERNowthatyouknowhowtowriteeachoftheseessays, it’stimetopractice.HereareafewmoreessaysforyoutopracticeyourAPessaywritingskills.Ifyoucan,teamupwithanotherstudentinyourAPclassandtaketurnsgradingeachother’sessaysusingthescoringrubric.

EXAMPLE1Directions: You are to answer the following question. You should spend 5 minutesorganizingoroutliningyouressay.Writeanessaythat:

Hasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithappropriatehistoricalevidence.Addressesallpartsofthequestion.Useshistoricalcontexttoshowchangeovertimeand/orcontinuities.

2.Analyzethepolitical,social,andeconomicimpactofONEofthefollowingbeliefsystemsonChinafromabout500B.C.E.toabout1000C.E..Inyouranalysis,besuretodiscussthereasonsforcontinuitiesaswellaschanges.ConfucianismLegalismDaoismBuddhism

EXAMPLE2Directions: You are to answer the following question. You should spend 5 minutesorganizingoroutliningyouressay.Writeanessaythat:

Hasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithappropriatehistoricalevidence.Addressesallpartsofthequestion.Makesdirect,relevantcomparisons.

3.CompareandcontrasttheimpactofexplorationandcolonizationonAfricaandtheAmericas.

PARTII

TheAPWorldHistory

Review

HOWTOUSETHISBOOKTOTAKEONTHEWORLDNowthatyouknowthekindsofquestionstoexpectontheAPWorldHistoryExam,you’rereadytotakeontheworld!—oratleastthereviewofAPWorldHistory.PartIIofthisbookisdesignedtomaximizeyourAPWorldHistoryreview.Here’showitisorganized:

SixPeriods,FiveChapters.TheAPWorldHistoryExamdividesworldhistory into six distinct time periods, as we discussed in Chapter 1.However,we’vedecidedtocombinePeriods1and2,whichcovertheyears8000B.C.E.–600B.C.E.and600B.C.E.–600C.E.respectively,intoonechapter—Ancient Stuff (8000 B.C.E.–600 C.E.)—for ease of reviewing.Together theseperiodsmakeupabout20%of thequestions thatwillappear on the APWorld History Exam. The other four chapters areReallyOldStuff(600–1450),OldStuff(1450–1750),NotSoOldStuff(1750–1914),andRecentStuff(1914–present).GettheBigPicture.Eachchapterbeginswitha“StayFocusedontheBigPicture”sectionsothatyouwill—youguessedit—stayfocusedonthebigpicturewhileyoureview.Todowellonthistest,you’regoingtoneed todemonstrate thatyounotonlyhave specificknowledgeofpeopleandevents (what themultiple-choicequestionsareallabout),but also be able to connect them together and know how to thinkabout conceptswith awide-angle lens (that’swhat the essays are allabout).MakeThoseConnections.Eachchapterreviewsthesalientpointsofthatperiod;theCompareThem,ContrastThem,NotetheChange,andFocusOnboxeshelpyoumakeconnectionsbetweendifferentsocieties(that’sthewholepointofthistest,remember?).Pull It All Together. Each chapter ends with a “Pulling It AllTogether”sectiontoonceagainhelpyoufocusonthemajorpointsoftheperiod.

KNOWWHEREYOUAREINTHEWORLDTheAPexam—particularlyintheessays—frequentlyreferstoculturalregionsoftheworld.Soitisimportanttoknowwhereyouare!Themapshowsyouthemostcommonlydefinedregions.Beaware that theydon’talwaysmatchupwithphysicalboundaries.Forexample,partsofNorthAfricamaybe includedwhenwe’re talkingabout theMiddleEast,and sub-SaharanAfricaandSoutheastAsiamaybeconsideredpartoftheIslamicworld.

HOWTOGETTHEMOSTOUTOFYOURREVIEWHere’swhatwesuggest.Readthrougheachchapteronce.You’llprobablyremembermostofthe people, places, events, and concepts from your AP class. The chapters will help youreviewandpull together themajorpoints.Thispartwon’t beasdetailedas thebook fromyourAPclass,orelsethisbookwouldbeasthickasyourtextbook,whichwouldbekindofpointless. As you read through each chapter, consult your textbook if you’ve forgottensomethingentirely.Afteryoufinishgoingthroughachapteronce,spendsometimeinyourAPtextbook(oranotherworldhistorysource)goingoverthestuffyoueitherdidn’tknowordidn’tremember.Thengobacktothechaptertodomini-reviewsofcertainareasandtofocusonthebig-pictureconceptsandconnectionstakingplaceinthatperiod.

NO,AFTERYOU

It does not matter in which order you choose to review the material. If you love theRenaissanceandhatetheMiddleAges,reviewOldStufffirstandReallyOldStufflater.IfyouknowthatyourknowledgeoftheFoundationseraislackingbutyouareprettyconfidentinwhatyouknowaboutrecenthistory,diveintoAncientStufffirst.Thisreviewismeanttobedynamic—weexpectthatyouwillreturntoitrepeatedlyasyouprepareforyourexam.Inaddition,aswementionedintheintroductiontothisbook,youmaywishtoflipback

andforthbetweenyourhistoryreviewandyourtestingstrategiespractice.Wewouldadviseyoutoworkthroughatleastthemultiple-choicesectionofPartIbeforeyougettothetest,butitisreallyuptoyou.Ifyouwanttogetajumpstartonyourhistoryreviewandsavethetechniquesforlater,goahead.Ontheotherhand,youmaywishtomixthemupandseehowourstrategiesarehelpingyougainpoints.Nomatterhowyoudecide toorganize your review,wedo suggest that you continue to

practiceyourteststrategiesandessaywritingthroughoutthecourseofyourpreparation.Aswesaidbefore,knowingthishistoryisnotenough—youneedtobeabletoshowwhatyouknowontestday.Onceyoureviewachapter,practicewritinganessaybasedononeofthecomparisons or significant changes that took place within the period. Make up multiple-choice questions for a classmate and quiz each other. Once you’ve done your first pass

throughthehistory,takeafull-lengthdiagnostictestsothatyoucangetafeelforwhattherealthingwillbelike.Thebottomlineis:Donotleaveallyourteststrategypracticetothelastminute.Instead,usethatpracticetoenhanceyourhistoryreviewandzeroinonthekeyconceptsofeachperiod.’Nuffsaid.Letthereviewbegin…

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AncientStuff:Around8000B.C.E.toAround600C.E.

I.CHAPTEROVERVIEWThere’salotofstuffinthischapter—ninethousandyears’worth.Sobeforeyoubegin,readthrough theoutlinebelowsoyou’llknowwhere to findwhatyou’re looking forwhenyoureturntothischapterforamini-review.(Remember,thekeytodoingwellistogothroughthe chapter once, delve into the areas you are clueless or semi-clueless about, then returnhereforamini-review.) I. ChapterOverviewYou’rereadingit!

II. StayFocusedontheBigPictureOrganizethezillionsoffactsfromthe9,000yearscoveredinthischapterintosomebig-pictureconcepts.

III. HistoryReviewthrough600C.EThisisthebulkofthechapter,whereweplowthroughthemajorcivilizations,people,andevents.Again,wesuggestthatifyou’retotallycluelessonasection,reviewthecorrespondingsectioninyourtextbook.Here’salistofthemajorsections. A. Nomads:FollowtheFood B. SettlingDown:TheNeolithicRevolution C. TheBig,EarlyCivilizations:RiversDeliver D. EarlyMesoamericaandAndeanSouthAmerica:ForEveryRuleThere’san

Exception E. TheClassicalCivilizations:Mesoamerica F. TheClassicalCivilizations:IndiaandChina G. TheClassicalCivilizations:Mediterranean H. TheLateClassicalPeriod:EmpiresCollapseandPeopleontheMove

IV. MajorBeliefSystemsthrough600C.E.Althoughwe’llmakereferencetothemajorbeliefsystemswithinthehistoryreview,we’veprovidedthisseparatesectionsothatthey’reallgroupedtogetherinoneplaceandyoucanrefertothemeasily.Majorbeliefsystemshadahugeimpactonthedevelopmentofcivilizations,sothey’reimportanttoreviewindetail.Alsokeepinmindthatyou’llneedtoknowthebackgroundofthemajorbeliefsystemsasyoureviewthematerialinlaterchapters.

V. TechnologyandInnovationsthrough600C.E.Farmingtools,metallurgy,andabilitytomanipulatetheenvironmentmovehumansfromnomadichuntersandgathererstobuildersofcivilizationsandempires

VI. ChangesandContinuitiesintheRoleofWomenWomenlosepowerashumansstarttosettledown.Acomparativelookattrendsindifferentregionsoftheworld.

VII. PullingItAllTogetherAquickreviewofthereviewthatfocusesonthemesandtrends

VIII. TimelineofMajorDevelopments8000B.C.E.to600C.E.,organizedbytimeandplace

II.STAYFOCUSEDONTHEBIGPICTUREAsyou review thedetailsof theancient civilizations in this chapter, stay focusedon somebig-pictureconcepts,includingthefollowing:

1. Whatarecivilizationsallabout?Thinkaboutwhatmakesacivilizationacivilizationinthe first place.As you read through this chapter,we’ll give you some ideas. Focus onthings like the existence and development of cities, formal institutions (includingpolitical, economic, and religious), different social levels and occupations, the use oftechnology (we’renot talking the Internethere,butbasicandhugely important thingssuch as wheels and weapons), the arts, and methods of communication andtransportation.

2. Howdoeschangeoccurwithinasociety?Whenchangeoccurs,thinkaboutwhatcausedit. Sometimes a society changed because it was exposed to a different way of doingthings when it interacted with another culture (an effect that is sometimes calledcultural diffusion). Other times a society changed because its members inventedsomethingnew,orrealizedhowtousesomethinginanewway.Alwayspayattentiontowhythingschangedinaparticularsocietyorcivilization.

3. Howarepeopleimpactedby,andhowdotheyimpact,geographyandclimate?Focusonthe interaction between people and nature. We’ll draw your attention to this issueconstantlyinthischapter.Geographyandclimatehelptoexplainwherepeopleliveandbuild cities, why people suddenly move from one place to another, and how earlycivilizations chose to defend themselves against attack. They also greatly influencedwhichcivilizationsinteractedwith,orwereisolatedfrom,othercivilizations.Butpeoplealsousetechnologytoimpacttheirsurroundings.Civilizationschangethelandscapebydivertingwater,movingnaturalresources,andbuildingtransportationnetworks.Natureimpactspeople;people impactnature. It’sagreat,bigcomplicatedcycle…that’swhytheAPpeoplelovetotalkaboutitsomuch.

III.HISTORYREVIEWTHROUGH600C.E.Historians,includingtheAPcourse,useperiodsoftimetoorganizehistory.Beawarethatnoteverythingwillfitneatlyintoapredeterminedperiod,butwe’lltrytogroupevents.The first periodwewill look at is defined by the fact that everything that happened in

these 10,000 years sets the stage or provides the foundation for what happens later. Thisperiodismarkedbysomemajorchanges:Figuringoutfarmingandwhathappenswhenthereactually is enough to eat, developing technologies and ideas to support cities (and to takeoverothercivilizations), theriseofmostmajorworldreligions,and finally, thecollapseoftheclassicalempires.Notbadforonechapter,huh?

A.NOMADS:FOLLOWTHEFOODImagineearlypeople.Reallyearlypeople.Theyhadn’tyetbuiltcities.Theydidn’tknowhowto farm. Their sole focus in life was to satisfy their most basic needs: shelter and food.

Because they didn’t have any advanced tools and hadn’t yet developed anything assophisticatedasfarming,thebestwayforthemtogetshelterwastofindit,andthebestwaytogetfoodwastofollowit.Youwon’tbeaskeda lotofquestionsaboutnomadicsocieties.However,youdoneedto

understandwhythedevelopmentofmorestablecivilizations(whichyouwillbeaskedalotofquestionsabout)wassosignificant,andthebestwaytodothatistolearnwhatcamebeforethem.AsyoureviewworldhistorybeforetheNeolithicRevolution,focusononlythemajordevelopments.During this timeperiod, those include thedevelopmentof spoken language,theabilitytocontrolandusefire,andtheabilitytomakesimpletoolsoutofstone.

ForagingSocieties:HuntandGatherForaging societies (hunter-gatherer clans) were composed of small groups of peoplewhotraveled frompoint topointas the climateandavailabilityofplantsandanimalsdictated.Because they depended on nature for sustenance, they were also at the mercy of nature.Climate changes, disease, famine, and natural disasters could endanger or eliminate entirecommunities.Evenwhentimesweregood,foragingsocietieswerelimitedbythecapacityoftheirsurroundings,andbytheirinabilitytostorefoodlong-term.Membersofthesesocietiesdidnotbuildpermanentsheltersandhadonlyafewpersonalbelongings.Thinkabouthowmuchyoucancarryinyourbackpack:Thatwillgiveyouanideahowmanypossessionstheyhad.

PastoralSocieties:TamingtheAnimalsPastoralsocietieswerecharacterizedbythedomesticationofanimals.Thesesocietieswereoften found inmountainous regions and in areaswith insufficient rainfall to support otherformsof settlement.Manyof these societiesused small-scaleagriculture to supplement themain food supply of animal products (usually milk or eggs, which were much easier toproduceandstorethanmeat).Theextendedfamilywasamajorinstitution.Womenhadveryfew rights; however, these societies were more egalitarian than those that came later.Stratificationandsocial status,whichwere limited in foragingsocieties,werebasedon thesizeofone’sherdinpastoralsocieties.Butasinforagingsocieties,peopleinpastoralsocietieshad few personal possessions. Even though they had domesticated animals (as opposed tohavingtohuntforanimals),theydidn’tsettledownintownsbecausetheyhadtocontinuallysearchfornewgrazingareasandwaterfortheherds.Aspastoralsocietiesincreasinglydomesticatedmoreandmoreanimals,theyalsobeganto

experimentwithsecuringamoredependable foodsupplythroughthecultivationofplants.Thiswasarevolutionarydevelopmentthatledto…

B.SETTLINGDOWN:THENEOLITHICREVOLUTION

AgriculturalSocieties:ThisIsMyLandInaspanofseveral thousandyears fromapproximately8000B.C.E. to3000B.C.E., groupsofpeoplemoved fromnomadic lifestyles toagricultural lifestylesand townandcity life.Thistransition period is often called the Neolithic (“New Stone”) Revolution or theAgricultural Revolution. Keep in mind that we still aren’t talking about full-blown

civilizations.Peoplestilllivedinrelativelysmall,independentgroupsorcommunities.Tobesure, the towns and cities that they builtwere bigger than anything else that camebeforethem,butcivilizationsonagrandscaledidn’tgetrollinguntilaround3000B.C.E.,giveortakeafewcenturies,dependingontheregionoftheworld.Here’showitworked:Whenpeoplefiguredouthowtocultivateplants,theycouldstayinthesameplace,aslongastherewasgoodsoilandastablesourceofwater.Becausetheyalsoknewhowtodomesticateanimalsandusesimpletools,theycouldrelyonarelativelyvariedandconstantsupplyoffood,andthisencouragedthemtostayinthesameplaceforlongerperiodsoftime.Staying in the same place changed things dramatically, because people in a communitystayedwithincloseproximityofeachother,whichaddedtotheirsenseofunityandhelpedthembuildandsustainculturaltraditions.What’smore,unlikenomadicsocieties,agriculturalcommunitieswerenotjustcollectionsofpeople,butpeopletiedtoaparticularpieceofland.Inotherwords,theybegantothinkofpropertyintermsofownership.

ContrastThem:NomadicversusAgriculturalSocietiesThe difference between nomadic and agricultural societies is about more than justmovingaroundversus stayingput. It also involvesemotionalandpsychological issues.Thinkabout it thisway:Whenyouandeverybodyelse is on themovea lot, the landmore or less belongs to everybody. But when people stay in the same place forgenerations,theybegintothinkoftheparticularpieceoflandthattheyliveonashome—theirhome.Ifsomeoneelsecomesalonganddrinksfromtheirriverorbuildsahouseontheirhill,theymightbegintothinkofthenewcomersasintrudersorinvaders,notasneighbors. Once nomads started interacting with sedentary societies through trade orconflicts,thingsstartedtogetcomplicated.

ImportantConsequenceofAgriculture:AFoodSurplusImaginetwopeoplewhoonlygrowenoughfoodforthemselves.Theybothhavetofarmalldayeveryday.There’slittletimelefttodoanythingelse.Nowimaginethatonepersonfarmsenoughfoodfortwopeople.Thesecondpersoncandosomethingelse,say,maketoolsordiganirrigationditchor study tobecomeaphilosopheror religious leader.Now imagine thatonepersoncanfarmenoughfoodforfivepeople,ortenpeople,orahundredpeople.Nowtheotherninety-ninepeoplecanbuildtowns,organizearmies,developasystemofwriting,create art, experiment, and discover new technologies. In other words, individual laborbecomesspecialized.Eachpersoncangetreallygoodatdoingaparticulartaskbecauseheorshenolongerhastoworryaboutwherethenextmealiscomingfrom.As agricultural societies became more complex, organized economies, governmentalstructures, and religious organizations began to emerge to keep things as predictable andorderly as possible. Suddenly, there was society, or the beginnings of what we’d call acivilization.Withtheinventionofirrigationtechniques,landsthatpreviouslycouldn’tbefarmedcouldbe used for additional surpluses. This would lead to more growth and complexity, whichwould lead to more agricultural advancements, which would lead to more growth and

complexity,andsoon.

FocusOn:WhatContributestotheDevelopmentofaCivilization?Asdescribedabove,specializationoflaboriskey.Ifeveryonehastofarmtohaveenoughfood, a great civilizationwon’t develop. If a certain number of farmers can provide asurplusoffood,thenotherpeopleinthecommunityarefreetobuild,invent,andcreatetools,art,andinstitutions.

ImpactofAgricultureontheEnvironmentThere’s no question that the Agricultural Revolution had an impact on the environment.Farmingvillagesbegantodramaticallychangethelayofthelandbydivertingwater,clearinglandforfarming,andcreatingfarmlandwherenonepreviouslyexisted.Asvillagesgrewintomore permanent towns and cities, roads were built to link them, further altering thelandscape. Stones were unearthed and cut to build increasingly large buildings andmonuments.Allofthisactivityledtoaworldinwhichlandandresourceswerecontinuallybeingreconfiguredtofittheneedsofgrowing,geographicallystablepopulations.What’s more, the impact on the animal kingdom was equally momentous. With thedevelopmentoflarge-scaleagriculture,animalsbegantobeusednotonlyasasourceoffoodandclothing,butalsoasadirectsourceofagriculturallabor.Forexample,oxenwereusedtopull plows on ever-expanding farmland. This enabled farmers to increase the size of theirfieldsdramaticallybecausetheynolongerhadtoturnthesoilbyhand.

Technology:MetalWorkersDeserveMedalsIf therehadbeen a stockmarket for new technologies in theNeolithic Era, itwould haveattractedmanyinvestors.Duringthisperiod,hardstonessuchasgraniteweresharpenedandformed into farming tools such as hoes and plows. Pottery was made to use for cooking.Weavingwasinventedtoshapebasketsandnets;morecomplexandcomfortableclothingwasdesigned.Eventually,wheelswereinventedforuseoncarts,andsailsforuseonboats.Thelistgoesonandon.ButperhapsoneofthemostsignificantadvancesoftheNeolithicErawastheknowledgeofhow to use metals. This greatly advanced the development of not only tools, but alsoweapons.Whenpeoplefiguredouthowtocombinecopperwithtintocreateanevenhardermetal, bronze, the building of civilizationswaswell on itsway. This developmentwas sosignificantthatsomepeoplecallthelatterpartoftheNeolithicEratheBronzeAge.Bronzewassupersededbythediscoveryofiron,butmoreonthatlater.

C.THEBIG,EARLYCIVILIZATIONS:THERIVERSDELIVER

Most of the world’s early great civilizations were located in river valleys. Think about it.Riversprovideda regular supplyofwater,which is, of course,necessary for survival.Alsoimportantisthatthelowlandsaroundriverstendtobecoveredwithsoilthatisloadedwithnutrients,which are depositedwhen the river recedes after floods to nourish the soil. Theriver itselfmay be home to animals and plants could also provide food for people. Rivers

werealsoavitalmeansoftransportation.When we talk about civilizations, we’re talking about large areas of land with largepopulationsanddistinct,organizedcultures,asopposedtothesmallerfarmingcommunitiesthat characterized earlier timeperiods. Pay attention to the social, political, and economicdevelopments of the civilizations in this section: These developments arewhatmade themcivilizationsinthefirstplace.Apieceofadvice:Donotassumethatallcivilizationswereheadedbyacentralauthority.Manyearlycivilizations,infact,werecomposedoflooselyconnectedcity-states,whichweremadeupofanurbancenterandtheagriculturallandarounditunderitscontrol.Thesecity-states were sometimes combined into one because they shared common culturalcharacteristics; but they were also independent of each other in many ways and oftencompetedwitheachother.Thisistrueinmoderntimesaswell,ofcourse.WhenwespeakofWestern civilization, for example, we mean a whole host of countries that have similarcharacteristicsandculturesbutthataredistinctfromoneanotherand,often,competewithoneanother.Majorearlycivilizationsdevelopedandbecamedominantstartingataround3000to2000

B.C.E.TheywerelocatedinMesopotamia,Egypt,India,andChina.

1.Mesopotamia:LotsofWater,LotsofHistoryMesopotamia literallymeans“landbetween the rivers”; the riverswere theTigrisand theEuphrates. A series of ancient civilizations—most notably Sumer, Babylon, and Persia—thrived along their banks. Mesopotamia is part of a larger area of relatively arable landknown as the Fertile Crescent, which extends westward from Mesopotamia toward theMediterranean.Unfortunately,thefloodingoftheTigrisandEuphratesRiverswasveryunpredictable,sosomeearlysettlementswerefrequentlywashedaway.Butsoonpeoplelearnedtobuildcanalsanddikes,andbegantobuildtheirtownsfartheruphill,enablinglargecity-statestoemerge.By3000B.C.E.,Ur,Erech,andKishwerethemajorcity-statesofthefirstmajorcivilizationofSumer.

Sumer:TheFirst MajorMesopotamianCivilizat ion

Sumeriancivilization rose in the southern part ofMesopotamia. In addition to successfulagriculture and river management, the Sumerians developed a form of writing known ascuneiform.Scribesusedthisformofwritingtosetdownlaws,treaties,andimportantsocialandreligiouscustoms;soontheuseofcuneiformspreadoverthetraderoutestomanyotherparts of the region. Trade was also enhanced by the introduction of the wheel, a majordevelopment that greatly reduced the time it took to transport both goods and peoplebetweentwopoints.Sumeriansalsodevelopeda twelve-monthcalendarandamath systembasedonunitsofsixty(as insixtysecondsandthree-hundred-sixtydegrees).Theyusedgeometry,aswell, tosurveythelandandtodeveloparchitecturalenhancementssuchasarchesandcolumns.Sumerians were polytheistic, meaning that they worshipped more than one god. Theinteresting thing about Sumerianpolytheismwas that each city-state had its owngod thatwasworshippedonlybyitspeople.Inaddition,therewereabunchofgodsthatallthecity-states worshipped collectively. Sumerians built temples, called ziggurats, which were

terracedpyramids,toappeasetheirgods.Theybelievedthatwhendisasterstruck—suchasaparticularlydevastatingflood—itwasbecausethegodswereangry.Disasteroftenstruck;notemplecouldstoptherelentlessflowofinvasionsofSumeria.Andby around 1700 B.C.E., the civilization had been completely overthrown; however, itsconquerorsadoptedmanySumeriantraditionsandtechnologies.

FromSumertoBabylontoNinevehtoBabylon

AstheSumeriancity-statesdeclined,thecityofAkkad,whichwasnorthofSumer,rosetodominatetheregion.TheAkkadiansmajorcontributionwastheydevelopedthefirstknowncodeoflaws,whichtheywroteincuneiform,whichtheylearnedfromtheSumerians.Butby1700 B.C.E., Akkad was overrun by a new powerhouse in Mesopotamia, Babylon. KingHammurabiofBabylonexpandedonthisideaofacodeoflawsbydevelopinganextensivecodethatdealtwitheverypartofdailylife.TheCodeofHammurabi,asithascometobecalled,isoftencreditedasasignificantsteptowardourmodernlegalcodes.Itdistinguishedbetweenmajorandminoroffenses(abigdealatthetime)anditestablishedasenseofjusticeandfairnessbyapplyingthelawstonearlyeveryone(thebeginningsof“ruleoflaw”).ButBabylonquicklyfellduetotheinvasionsoftheKassitesandthentheHittites.By1500

B.C.E., theHittitesdominatedtheregion,especiallybecause they learnedhowtouse iron intheir weapons. Because iron is a lot stronger than bronze, the Hittites quickly became amilitarysuperpower.Asyou’venodoubtfiguredoutbynow,newsspreadfastevenintheancientcivilizations.As soon as one civilization figured out a new way to do something, the information waspassed via the trade routes to other groups,whowould quickly adopt and adapt the newtechnology to suit their cultures. In this way, within a hundred years, theAssyrians hadlearnedtouse iron, thevery technologytheHittiteshadusedtodefeat them.ThisenabledthemtoestablishacapitalatNinevehand,eventuallybuildanempirethatsweptacrosstheentireFertileCrescent.Highlydisciplinedbutcruel,theAssyrianarmywashatedbythoseitconquered.Asaresult,therewerefrequentuprisingsagainsttheAssyrianauthorities,who,inresponse,sent largegroupsofpeople intoexile.Thisactiontooplayedapart inenhancingculturaldiffusionacrosstheentireregionandbeyond.In spite of their power,within a fewhundredyears, theAssyriansweredefeatedby theMedes and the Chaldeans. The Chaldean king, Nebuchadnezzar, rebuilt Babylon as ashowplace of architecture and culture. He extended his empire throughout the FertileCrescent,astheAssyrianshaddonebeforehim.Butlikeallthecivilizationsbeforeit,thenewBabylonwasdoomedtofall.Anewcivilization,thePersianEmpire,developedintoamajorworldforce.

FocusOn:ContinuitythroughChangeYouprobablywon’tbeaskedalotofspecificquestionsaboutthelonglistofcivilizationsthatemerged,oneaftertheother,inMesopotamiainthecenturiesbetweentheSumerianandPersianEmpires.However,theCodeofHammurabiandthegrowinguseofironarebothprettybigdevelopments.That said,we’ve givenyouaquick reviewbecause it isessentialthatyouunderstand,andcandemonstrate,thatascivilizationswereconquered,their cultural heritage, religions, laws, customs, and technologies were rarely lost.Commonly,conqueringcivilizationsadoptedandadaptedthecustomsandtechnologiesof those they defeated. The series of civilizations that grew, and then fell, inMesopotamiademonstratesthispointwell.

PersianImmersion

ThePersiansestablishedabigempire—areallybigempire—that,by500B.C.E.,stretchedfrombeyondtheNileRiverValleyinEgyptaroundtheeasternMediterraneanthroughpresent-dayTurkeyandpartsofGreece,andtheneastwardthroughpresent-dayAfghanistan.Huge!Toimprovetransportationandcommunicationacrossthevastempire,thePersiansbuiltaseries of long roads. The longestwas theGreatRoyalRoad, which stretched some 1,600milesfromthePersianGulftotheAegeanSea.We’lltalkmoreaboutthePersianEmpirelater,becausetheybuttedheadswiththeothermajorworldempires.

Lydians,Phoenicians,andHebrews,OhMy!

Within and near the Persian Empire, many smaller societies existed and kept their own

identities.AmongtheseweretheLydians,Phoenicians,andHebrews.TheLydiansareimportantbecausetheycameupwiththeconceptofusingcoinedmoneyto conduct trade rather than using the barter system, in which goods are exchanged forothergoods.This,ofcourse,ledtoamonetarysystemofconsistentpricesandallowedpeopletosavemoneyforfutureuse.Theideaofcoinedmoney,likeeverythingelse,spreadoverthetraderoutesandsoonjustabouteverybodywasdoingit.ThePhoenicians are important, first,because theyestablishedpowerfulnaval city-statesall along theMediterranean (you’ll readmore about this later), and, second, because theydevelopedasimplealphabetthatusedonly22lettersasopposedtothemuchmorecomplexcuneiform system. The Greeks later adopted the Phoenician alphabet, and from there itspreadandchanged,andeventuallyledtothesystemoflettersyouarereadingonthispage.TheHebrewsaresignificantbecauseoftheirreligiousbeliefscalledJudaism.TheHebrewswerethefirstJews.Incontrasttopreviouscivilizations in theFertileCrescentandbeyond,theHebrewsweremonotheistic,meaningtheybelievedinonegod.Byaround1000B.C.E.,theHebrewshadestablishedIsrael inPalestineontheeasternshoresoftheMediterraneanSea.Although they were frequently invaded by neighboring empires (e.g., Nebuchadnezzarenslavedthem),theymanagedtomaintaintheiridentity,inlargepartbecausetheybelievedtheywereGod’schosenpeople.Under thePersians, theHebrewswere freed fromcaptivityandcontinuedtodevelopadistinctculturethatwouldlaterleadtothedevelopmentofmajorworldreligions.MuchmoreaboutJudaismcanbefoundinSectionIVofthischapter.

2.AncientEgypt:StayAwhileAlongtheNile

TheancientEgyptiancivilizationdevelopedalongtheNileRiver,wherethesoilwasrichandthe agricultural opportunities were plentiful. The Nile cuts through an otherwise aridlandscape, so the people clustered along the riverbanks,where, in addition to farms, theyconstructed towns and cities. Thoughwe often think of ancient Egypt in terms ofmassiveconstructionprojects,suchasthepyramids,mostEgyptianslivedinsmallertowns.Unlikethe

TigrisandEuphratesRivers,theNilefloodsatapredictabletimeoftheyearandinrelativelypredictable stages. Thismade it possible for the ancient Egyptians to follow a very stableagriculturalcycleandcompilesubstantialfoodsurpluses.

ThreeKingdomsinOneCivilizat ion

Youmightrememberfromyourstudiesthat,asvariousdynastiesrosetoandfellfrompower,ancientEgyptwasreorganizedintodifferentkingdoms.Youdon’tneedtorememberallthedetailsaboutthemanykingdoms,butyoushouldknowthattherewerethreemajorones—Old,Middle,andNew—andthat itwasduringtheNewKingdomthattheancientEgyptiancivilizationreacheditsheight.By1400B.C.E.,itstretchedfromtheupperNileRivervalley(atleast 800 miles upstream from Memphis) through the eastern Mediterranean regions ofPalestineandpartsofAsiaMinor(present-dayTurkey).

Egypt ianAchievements

Even before theOldKingdom, the entire river valleywas united underKingMenes,whobuilthiscapitalatMemphisandledeffortstomanagethefloodwatersandbuilddrainageandirrigation systems. As a result of the unification, the civilization became wealthy andpowerful.Rulers,knownaspharaohs,directedtheconstructionofobelisksandthepyramids,enormous tombs for their afterlife. In addition, the Egyptians used a writing system tocommunicate. Known as hieroglyphics, this system consisted of a series of pictures(hieroglyphs)thatrepresentedlettersandwords.TheEgyptianswerealsoveryinterestedinastronomy,whichledtotheircreationofafairlyreliablecalendar.Overtime,thecivilizationbecamedependentontradebecauseitspeopleneededaconstantsupply of timber and stone for their many ambitious building projects, and because theirculturevaluedluxuriessuchasgoldandspices.Besidesgivingthemaccesstothegoodstheywanted andneeded, trading had an enormous impact on the Egyptians because it broughtthemintocontactwithothercivilizations.

YouCanTakeIt withYou

Like most Mesopotamian societies, the Egyptians were polytheistic. The most significantaspectoftheirreligiousbeliefswasthefocusonlifeafterdeath—theafterlife.Manysocietiessharedthisbelief,buttheEgyptianswereconvincedtheycouldtakeearthlybelongingswiththem to the afterlife,where theywould be happy andwell-fed andwould continue doingmanyof thesamethings theydidwhile in theirearthly lives.Theyalsobelieved that theywould be able to use their bodies in the afterlife, and this led to the invention ofmummification,aprocessofpreservingdeadbodies(althoughthiswasonlyavailabletotheelitemembersofEgyptiansociety).Thepharaohs,asyouknow,builthugepyramidstohousetheirmummifiedbodiesandearthlytreasures.

Egypt ianWomen,HearThemRoar

The first female ruler known in history wasQueen Hatshepsut, who ruled for 22 yearsduringtheNewKingdom.SheiscreditedwithgreatlyexpandingEgyptiantradeexpeditions.The relatively high status of women extended beyond royalty withmost Egyptianwomenenjoying more rights and opportunities to express individuality than their counterparts inMesopotamia.During theNewKingdom inparticular,womencouldbuyand sell property,inherit property, and choose towill their propertyhow theypleased.Womenalsohad the

righttodissolvetheirmarriages.Thatsaid,womenwerestillexpectedtobesubservienttomenandwerevaluedmostwhentheyborechildren.Younggirlswerealsonoteducatednearlyaswellasyoungboys.

Egypt ianSocialSt ructure:AnotherPyramid

Thetombsofthepharaohsweren’ttheonlypyramidsinEgypt.Egyptiansocialstructurewasintheformofapyramidaswell.At the top of the pyramidwas the pharaoh, of course, and belowhimwere the priests.Below the priestswere nobles, followedbymerchants and skilled artisans,which includedphysicians; at the bottom of the pyramid was the largest group: peasants. The peasantsworkedthelandandgeneratedmostofthewealthforthekingdom.Specifically,thepharaohownedallthelandinthekingdom,sothegoodsproducedonthelandwereconsideredhisproperty.Typically, thepeasantswereexpectedtogiveoverhalfofwhat theyproducedtothekingdom.Alsoatthebottomlevelofthepyramidweretheslaves,whoweremostlyeitherprisoners of war captured during the Egyptian conquest of surrounding regions, or thedescendentsofthoseprisoners.Itcannotbedeniedthatmostslaveslivedahardlife,butinmanycasestheywerenotmuchworseoffthanmanyofthefreepeasants.Slavesworkedonthe landoron irrigationorbuildingprojectsalongside thepeasants,andonoccasionwereappointedtotrustedpositionswithinthegovernmentorwithinthepalaces.

Ancient Egypt inDecline

By1100B.C.E.andforthenextthousandyears,ancientEgyptfellintodecline,andboththeAssyrianEmpireandthePersianEmpireconqueredpartsofthisonce-greatcivilization.Later,theGreeksoccupiedEgypt,andeventuallytheRomanscompletelyabsorbedEgyptintotheirempire.MoreontheGreeksandRomanslater.

CompareThem:TheDeclineofEgyptandMesopotamianCivilizationsBe sure to take note of the fact that whenever a civilization became powerful andprosperous, it attracted a lot of attention and envy from its neighbors,whowanted apieceoftheaction.Typically,thiswasthebreedinggroundforinvasions.Bythetimeitcame under attack, the wealthy civilization was often so big it couldn’t adequatelyprotectallitsborders,sooveraperiodoftimeitbegantoweaken.ThiswastrueoftheempiresthataroseinMesopotamiaandinancientEgypt.Asyoucontinuetoread,you’lllearnthatitwastrueoftheGreeksandRomansaswell.

3.IndusValleyCivilization:IndusIndustryRuledLikeMesopotamiaandEgypt, the IndusValley civilizationwas built along the banks of ariversystem.ButbecauseofthehugemountainsnorthandwestoftheIndusRiver,contactwith outside civilizations was more limited there than in Mesopotamia, which was undercontinualthreatbyinvaders.ThatisnottosaythattheIndusValleywasentirelycutoff.TheKhyberPassthroughtheHinduKushMountainsprovidedaconnectiontotheoutsideworldand was used by merchants on trade excursions. Later, as you might guess, it also gaveinvadingforcesawayintotheland.

Fromatleast2500toaround1500B.C.E.,theancientIndusValleycivilizationstretchedformorethan900milesalongtheIndusRiverinwhattodayisnorthwesternIndia.Itstwomajorcities,HarappaandMohenjo-Daro,wereeachhometoperhapsmorethan100,000people—enormouscitiesbyancient standards.There is strongevidence that thecitiesweremaster-planned, uniformly constructed, and had sophisticated wastewater systems. This indicatesthattheInduspeoplehadastrongcentralgovernment,probablyledbyapriest-king.LikethemajorreligionsofEgyptandSumer,thoseintheIndusValleywerepolytheistic.Likethearchitectureofitscities,IndusValleyindustrywastop-notch.Inadditiontousingtechnologies suchaspotter’swheels, the IndusValley farmersgrewcotton,and itsartisansmade cloth. This became an extremely important trade item among merchants travelingthroughtheKhyberPasstoMesopotamia.Sometimearound1900B.C.E., the cities of the IndusValleywere abandoned, for reasonsthatremainunknowntoday.Allthatisknownisthat,by1500B.C.E.,thecivilizationcrumbledwiththearrivaloftheAryans.

TheArrivaloftheAryans

TheAryanswerenomadictribesfromnorthoftheCaucasusMountains(neartheBlackandCaspianSeas).Usinghorsesandadvancedweaponry,theyeasilydefeatedthepopulationsintheIndusValley.EachoftheAryantribesmigratedtoIndiaindependently;overaperiodoftime, they began to settle in the Indus Valley, where they would give up their nomadiclifestyles.The important thing to remember about the Aryan conquest of the Indus Valley is theestablishmentoftheirreligiousbeliefsontheIndiansubcontinent,inparticulartheirbeliefinreincarnation. The Aryans, yet another polytheistic people, recorded their beliefs andtraditionsintheVedasandtheUpanishads.Overcenturies,theseearlyAryanbeliefsevolvedtoformthebasisforwhatlaterbecameHinduism,whichisdiscussedindetailinSectionIVofthischapter.The Aryan social structure also had a major impact on later developments in India.Combined with Hinduism, it formed the basis of what later became the caste system.Initially,theAryansocialstructuredivideditspeopleintothreeclasses,inthisorderfromtoptobottom:warriors,priests,andpeasants.Later,aclassoflandownersandmerchantswouldbeaddedabovethepeasantclass;andthepriestclass(knownasBrahmans)wouldbemovedabovethewarriorclassbecausetheywereconsideredclosertothegods.Intheearlydaysofthissystem,movementbetweenclasseswasallowed.Butasthesystembecamemorecomplexandingrainedinsociety,itbecamemorerigid.Eventually,subcasteswere added to the fourmain castes, and socialmobility among the casteswas prohibited.Becausemembersofdifferentcastescouldnotmarry,childrenwerebornintothesamecastesastheirparents,andstayedthere.

4.EarlyChina:ShangontheHwangShangChina rose in theHwangHoRiverValley (alsoknownas theYellowRiverValley),and likeotherriver-basincommunities,used itsstableagriculturalsurplus tobuilda trade-centeredcivilization.At itsheight,Shangcontrolled largepartsofnorthernChinaandwasmilitarilyquitepowerful.Thousandsof itsworkersbuiltwalls around the townsand citiesalong the river; its warriors used chariots to defeat their enemies. The Shang dynasty

controlledtheYellowRiverValleyfromaround1600toaround1100B.C.E.However,ShangChinahadlimitedcontactwiththerestoftheworld,thoughitdidtradewith Mesopotamia (a very long journey!). The Shang were so isolated, in fact, that theybelieved themselves tobeat thecenterof theworld,whichexplainswhy theycalled theircivilization“AllUnderHeaven.”ThisbeliefcontributedtotheShang’sethnocentricattitude,whichmeanstheyconsideredthemselvessuperiortoallothers.The Shang certainly had reasons to be proud. Not only were they accomplished bronzeworkers,buttheyalsousedhorse-drawnchariots,developedthespokedwheel,andbecameexpertsintheproductionofpotteryandsilk.What’smore,theydevisedadecimalsystemandahighlyaccuratecalendar.

FocusontheFamily

The extended familywas an important institution inmany ancient civilizations across theglobe,butnowherewasitmoreimportantthaninShangChina.There,multiplegenerationsofthesamefamilylivedinthesamehouseholdinapatriarchalstructure(ledbytheeldestmale). Shang religion held that gods controlled all aspects of peoples’ lives; people alsobelievedtheycouldcallonthespiritsoftheirdeadancestorstoactastheiradvocateswiththegods.Thisgavetheextendedfamilyevengreatersignificance.

EntertheZhou

Around1100B.C.E.,theShangwereoustedbyWuWang,whoestablishedtheZhouDynasty(alsospelledChouDynasty),whichmaintainedmanyofthetraditionsandcustomsdevelopedunder the Shang Dynasty (sound familiar?). The Zhou ruled China for nearly 900 years,longer than any other dynasty. Think of how long the United States has existed as anindependent country, thenmultiply it by four. Now you have an idea how long the Zhoudynastyexisted.The Zhou Dynasty believed in what was called theMandate of Heaven, meaning thatheavenwouldgranttheZhoupoweronlyaslongasitsrulersgovernedjustlyandwisely.Putanotherway,theZhouDynastywouldremaininpoweronlyaslongasithadtheblessingofheaven.TheZhoudevelopedafeudalsysteminChina,similartothatofEuropeduringtheMiddleAges(whichwe’lltalkaboutmoreinthenextchapter).Thekingwastheruleroftheentireempire,butbecauseitwastoobigforonepersontomanage,noblesweregivenpoweroversmallerregionswithintheempire.Thisworkedoutwellforacouplehundredyears.Thekinggaveeachnobleprotectionaslongasthenobleremainedloyaltohim.Butastimepassed,anumber of the nobles built up a lot of wealth and power within the regions under theircontrol and eventually split off into independent kingdoms. Some of the most complexkingdoms developed bureaucracies within their governments, which was a way oforganizing government tasks by department, or bureau, so that different parts of thegovernment could specialize and stabilize. A bureaucratic form of government remainedpopularinChinaforthousandsofyears.Eventually,though,fightingandwarfareamongthefeudalkingdomsbroughtanendtotheZhouDynastyin256B.C.E.

5.WestAfrica:BantuMigrationsandthe“StatelessSociety”Beginningaround1500B.C.E., farmers in theNiger andBenueRiver valleys inWestAfrica

beganmigratingsouthandeast,bringingwiththemtheirlanguages(fromtheBantu familyof languages)and theirknowledgeofagricultureandmetallurgy.Thesemigrations,usuallyreferred to as the Bantu migrations, continued over the course of the next 2,000 years.Bantu speakers gradually moved into areas formerly occupied by nomads. Some of thenomads simply moved on, and some of them adopted the more sedentary culture of theBantu.It isgenerallybelievedthatthemigrationwasspurredbyclimacticchanges,whichmadetheareanowknownastheSaharaDeserttoodrytolivein.PeoplemovedsouthoutoftheSahara into the Bantu’s homeland, which in turn caused them to move to the forests ofCentralAfrica,theneventuallybeyondtheforeststotheeastandsouth.However, not all Bantu-speakers moved away. Further north in the upper Niger RivervalleycanbefoundtheremainsofJenne-Jeno,believedtobethefirstcityinsub-SaharanAfrica.Beginningasasmall fishingsettlementaround250B.C.E.andreachingurbansizein400 C.E., Jenne-Jeno is unusual because although it reached urban density, its architecturesuggeststhatitwasnotahierarchicallyorganizedsociety.Instead,archeologistsbelievethatitwasauniqueformofurbanismcomprisingacollectionofindividualcommunities.It justgoestoshow,onceagain,thatnotallhumansocietieshavefollowedthesamepathtowardsophistication,andthaturbanizationdoesn’tnecessarilymeancentralization.

FocusOn:MigrationsWhydopeoplemigrate?Peoplemigrateforthesamereasonanimalsdo:tofindfoodandahospitableenvironmentinwhichtolive.Nomadicpeoplesbydefinitionaremigratory,movingfromplacetoplacewiththeseasonstofollowfoodsources.Agriculturalpeoplesalso migrated, following the seasons and therefore agricultural cycles. To maintain astable home, people also migrated to avoid natural disasters or climatic changes thatpermanently change the environment,making it too hot and dry (the Sahara Desert’sexpansion), toocold(IceAges),or toowet(floodingcyclesofmajorriverssuchas theYellowRiverinChina).Migrationisn’talwayssolelytheresultofrandomenvironmentalchange.Overpopulationofaparticularareacanexhaustthefoodsupply,forcingpeopletomoveelsewhere,oftendisplacingasmallerorweakerpopulation in theprocess.MassivemigrationsofpeoplefromIrelandduringthefaminesofthemid-nineteenthcenturywerecausedbyamixofpolitics, destructive farming methods, and an unpleasant fungus that wiped out thepopulace’smainsourceoffood.TheJewishdiaspora,theslavetrade,andthewavesofimmigrants coming from Europe to the Americas in the late nineteenth and earlytwentieth centuries are examples of more modern-day migrations caused by peopleratherthannature.

D.EARLYMESOAMERICAANDANDEANSOUTHAMERICA:FOREVERYRULETHERE’SANEXCEPTION

In the Americas, two early civilizations existed: the Olmec, in what we know today asMexico,from1500to400B.C.E.,andtheChavinintheAndesfrom900to200B.C.E.

TheOlmecwereanurbansocietysupportedbysurplusesofcorn,beans,andsquash.Likemost early societies, they mastered irrigation techniques and constructed large-scalebuildings;theywerepolytheistic,anddevelopedasystemofwritingandacalendar.TheChavinwereanotherurbancivilization,andtheirpeoplewerealsopolytheistic.But,whilemostlyagricultural,theyalsohadaccesstothecoast,andthereforesupplementedtheirdiet with seafood. The Chavin developed ways to use metals in tools and weapons.Interestingly,theChavinusedllamasastheirbeastsofburden.Ifmuchof this sounds familiar toyou, it’sbecause theOlmecand theChavindevelopedsimilarlytootherearlycivilizationsdiscussedpreviously.Sowhybringthemupseparately?Tworeasons.First, theydemonstrate that thesamepatternsofdevelopmentoccurred inanentirely different part of the globe, a part that had no contactwith the other civilizationsdiscussed in this chapter. This suggests that developments within civilizations can occurindependently—notnecessarilyasaresultofexposuretoothercivilizations.Second,neithertheOlmecnortheChavincivilizationdevelopedinarivervalley.True,theOlmec and Chavin had access towater from streams and small rivers, but nomajor riversystem served as the generator of agricultural production or as the hub of culture andtransportation. Their existence, therefore, disproves the hypothesis that river valleys areessentialfortheemergenceofearlycivilizations.That’snottosay,however,thatriversaren’textremely important—after all, the civilizations in the river valleys were among themostpowerfulandwealthyinallhistory.

ContrastThem:OlmecandChavinCivilizationsandOtherEarlyCivilizationsAlthough you probablywon’t have to remember the details of theOlmec and Chavincivilizations, you shoulddefinitely remember this: They areunique in that theydidn’tdevelopinrivervalleys,asdidalltheothermajorearlycivilizations.

E.THECLASSICALCIVILIZATIONS:MESOAMERICA

Although theMayaareoftengroupedwith laterMesoamericanempires, theAztec and theInca,theywereactuallycontemporarywithRome,Han,andGuptaanddevelopsomeofthesamecharacteristicsoftheseearlyempires.

MayanCivilization:InSearchofMoreSlavesFromabout300B.C.E. toabout800C.E.,Mayancivilizationdominatedpresent-day southernMexico and parts of Central America. The Mayan civilization was similar to many othercivilizationsatthattimeinthatitwasacollectionofcity-states;however,allthecity-stateswere ruled by the same king. Interestingly, like the Egyptians, the Maya were pyramid-builders,andalsowroteusinghieroglyphics.Thegoldenageof theMayanCivilizationwasfromabout500toabout850C.E.Duringthattime,theMayaproducedmanygreatworksofscholarship and developed a complex calendar system, but we know the most about itsarchitectureandcityplanningbecausemanyremainshavebeendiscovered.Noquestion,theMayabuilt tremendouscities—Tikal, themost importantMayanpoliticalcenter,mayhave

beenpopulatedbyasmanyas100,000people.TheMaya divided their cosmos into three parts: the heavens above, the humans in the

middle,andtheunderworldbelow.TheMayabelievedthatthegodscreatedhumansoutofmaize(oneof themainMayandietarystaples)andwater.Theyalsobelievedthatthegodsmaintainedagriculturalcyclesinexchangeforhonors,sacrifices,andbloodlettingrituals.Mayanwarfarewassomewhatuniqueinthatitwasimbuedwithatremendousamountof

religious significance. Days of religious ritual would precede a battle, and the King andnobilitywould actively participate in combat.One unique characteristic ofMayanwarfarewas that itwas generally conductednot to gain territory, but to acquire slaves,whowereused in large-scalebuildingprojectsand inagriculturalproduction.TheMayahadno largeanimals,ashorsesandoxenwouldnotarriveuntilmuchlaterwiththeEuropeans,sohumansweretheirprimarysourceoflabor.Similar tomostagricultural societies, themajorityof thepeoplewerepeasantsor slaves.

Kings,priests,andhereditarynobilitywereatthetopofthesocialpyramid.Merchantsalsoenjoyedahighstatus.TheMayausedadvancedagriculturaltechniques,suchastheridgedfieldsystem,tomake

themostoftherainfallandswampconditionsoftheregion.Cottonandmaizewerewidelycultivated;theMayaareknownfortheirelaboratecottontextiles.Manywell-preservedruinsof this civilization remain today, including the tiered temple at Chichen Itza, which issimilar in design to the Egyptian pyramids and Mesopotamian ziggurats, and several ballcourts,whichwereusedforaritualsportthroughoutancientMesoamerica.Significantly,theMayancalendar,basedonanumbersystemthatincludedzero,wasamongthemostaccurateforitstime.TheMayancalendarrunsonlythrough2012,givingrisetoallsortsofwildend-of-the-world predictions, but if you’re reading this book in 2013, it probably means thecalendaronlystoppedbecausetheMayansgottiredofcountingdays.

F.THECLASSICALCIVILIZATIONS:INDIAANDCHINA

YourAPWorldHistoryExamwilllikelyfocusonfourempiresinIndiaandChinathatexistedfromaround300B.C.E. toaround550C.E.These fourempiresare theMauryaandGupta inIndia, and the Qin and Han in China. Keep in mind that to fully understand these fourempires,youwillalsoneedtoreviewsomeofthemajorbeliefsystemsdiscussedinSectionIVofthischapter.

1.TheMauryanEmpireinIndia(321toapproximately180B.C.E.)Around 330 B.C.E., Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire and continued intoIndia(moreonthis ina fewpages).Duringthis time, theAryancultureandbeliefsystemscontinuedtospreadthroughoutIndia.Then,around321B.C.E.,anewempirearoseinIndia,onethatwouldcometobethelargestinthatcountrytodate.SpanningfromtheIndusRiverValleyeastwardthroughtheGangesRiverValleyandsouthwardthroughtheDeccanPlateau,theMauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who unified the smallerAryan kingdoms into a civilization. But it would be his grandson,AshokaMaurya, whowouldtaketheempiretoitsgreatestheights.A major reason that the Mauryan Empire became so powerful and wealthy was trade.

Indian merchants traded silk, cotton, and elephants (among hundreds of other items) to

Mesopotamia and the eastern Roman Empire. Another reason was its powerful military.Interestingly, it was its military strength that eventually caused a dramatic change in theempire.StrickenwithdisgustandfilledwithremorseforaveryviolentandbloodyvictoryhisforcesclaimedovertheKalingainsoutheastIndia,AshokaconvertedtoBuddhism.Fortherestofhisreign,Ashokapreachednonviolenceandmoderation.(Asyou’lllearninSectionIVof this chapter, during the previous century, Buddhism had recently taken root in thisotherwiseHinduregion.)AshokaisalsoknownforhisRockandPillarEdicts,whichwerecarvedon—youguessed

it—rocksandpillarsthroughouttheempire.TheseedictsremindedMauryanstolivegenerousand righteous lives. Following Ashoka’s conversion and commitment to Buddhism, thereligionspreadbeyondIndiaintomanypartsofSoutheastAsia.

2.TheGuptaDynastyinIndia(320–550C.E.)AfterAshoka’sdeath in232B.C.E., theMauryanEmpire began to decline rapidly, primarilyduetoeconomicproblemsandpressurefromattacksinthenortheast.Butbetween375and415 C.E., it experienced a revival under Chandra Gupta II, known as Chandra Gupta theGreat.TheGuptaEmpirewasmoredecentralizedandsmallerthanitspredecessor,butitisoften referred to as a golden age because it enjoyed relative peace and saw significantadvances in the arts and sciences. For example, Gupta mathematicians developed theconcepts of pi and of zero. They also devised a decimal system that used the numerals 1through9(whichwerediffusedtotheArabsandbecameknownasArabicnumerals).

By the timeof theGuptaDynasty,Hinduismhadagainbecome thedominant religion inIndia.Hinduismreinforcedthecastesystem,meaningthatIndiansocialstructureswereveryrigid.Though theempireas awholewasenjoyinganeraofpeace,prosperity, andartisticendeavors,womenwere increasingly losing their rights. Totally under the control ofmen,Indianwomenlosttherighttoownorinheritproperty,andcouldnotparticipateinsacredrituals or study religion. And stemming from an increasingly urban society that placed agrowingimportanceontheinheritanceofproperty,childmarriage(involvinggirlsasyoungas sixor seven)alsobecame thenormduring thisera.TheGuptaDynastycollapsedunderpressurefromtheWhiteHunsin550C.E.

3.TheQinDynastyinChina(221toaround209B.C.E.)UnliketheZhouDynastythatprecededit,theQinDynastywasextremelyshort.Thoughitlastedlittlelongerthanadecade,itwassignificantenoughtoearnaspotinthisAPreviewbook2,200yearslater.ThestoryoftheQinDynastyissimilartoalltheothercivilizationswe’vereviewed,inthatitdevelopedastrongeconomybasedonagriculture;itorganizedapowerfularmyequippedwithironweapons;anditconqueredthesurroundingterritoriesandunifiedtheregionunderasingleemperor.Samestory,newtimeandplace.Sohowdiditearnitsspothere?

TheQinDynasty is theempire thatconnectedseparate fortificationwalls thateventuallybecametheGreatWallofChina.Thatfactismorethanjustaninterestingpieceoftrivia;ittells us that the empire was incredibly well organized, centralized, and territorial. QinShihuangdi, also known as Qin Shi Huang, was the dynasty’s first emperor, and herecentralizedvarious feudalkingdoms thathad split apart at theendof theZhouDynasty;standardizedallthelaws,currencies,weights,measures,andsystemsofwriting;andrefusedtotolerateanydissentwhatsoever.Ifdissentoccurredinabook,hehaditburned;ifdissentoccurredinthemindofascholar,hehadthescholarkilled.Given that introduction, it should come as no surprise to you that Qin China waspatriarchal.Whatmightsurpriseyou,however,isthatthedominantbeliefsystemoftheQinrulerswasLegalism.(YoucanreviewLegalismandtheotherbeliefsystemsinSectionIVofthischapter.)Although the emperorbelieved theQinDynastywould last forever, it fell onlyoneyearafter his death, at the hands of the peasants, who resented the Qin Dynasty’s heavy-handedness.Thenewdynastythattookitsplacelastedformorethan400years.

4.TheHanDynastyinChina(around200B.C.E.to460sC.E.)DuringtheHanDynasty,theXiongnu,alargenomadicgroupfromnorthernAsiawhomayhavebeenHuns, invaded territoriesextending fromChina toEasternEurope.But theHunsweremuchmoresuccessfulinEuropethantheywereinChina,largelyduetotheskillsofWuTi,oftencalledtheWarriorEmperor,whogreatlyenlargedtheHanEmpiretocentralAsia.TradethrivedalongtheSilkRoadtotheMediterranean;moresignificantly,alongthissameroute,Buddhismspread.Asusual,thetraderoutescarriedfarmorethanluxuryitems;theycarriedculture.OneofthemostsignificantdevelopmentsthattookplaceduringtheHanDynastywasthecivil service system based on the teachings of Confucius. The Han believed that thoseinvolvedingovernmentshouldbehighlyeducatedandexcellentcommunicators.Toensurestrongcandidates,theHandevelopedacivilserviceexamination,averydifficulttestlastingfor several days. Though, ostensibly, the exam was open to everyone, generally only thewealthycouldaffordtoprepareforit.Theconsequencewasagovernmentbureaucracythatwashighlyskilledandthatcontributedtostabilityinthesystemofgovernmentforcenturies.Alsoduringthistime,theChineseinventedpaper,highlyaccuratesundials,andcalendars,aswellasmakingimportantstridesinnavigation,suchastheinventionoftherudderandofthecompass.And,likealltheothermajorcivilizations,theycontinuedtobroadentheiruseofmetals.

G.THECLASSICALCIVILIZATIONS:MEDITERRANEAN

Fromapproximately2000B.C.E. to around500C.E., twoMediterranean civilizations,GreeceandRome,dominatedtheregion.Countlessbookshavebeenwrittenonthesetwoempires.There is no doubt that your AP textbook dedicated a considerable chunk to the details ofthesetwopowerhousecivilizations.Whyallthefuss?Simplyput,Westerncivilizationasweknowittodayessentiallybeganwiththesetwoempires.TheSumerians,theBabylonians,theEgyptians, the Hebrews, the Persians, and the Phoenicians laid the groundwork, but theGreeksandtheRomansleftthemostpervasiveandobviousinfluencebehind.Perhapstheir

mostimportantcontributionistheconceptofrepresentativegovernment,buttheGreeksandRomans also made lasting contributions to art, architecture, literature, science, andphilosophy.

1.GreeceAncient Greece was located on a peninsula between the waters of the Aegean andMediterraneanSeas.Because the land inGreece ismostlymountainous, therewasn’tmuchpossibilityforagriculturaldevelopmentonthescaleoftheancientrivervalleycivilizations.ButGreecedidhavenaturalharborsandmildweather,and itscoastalpositionaidedtradeand cultural diffusion by boat,which is precisely how theGreeks conductedmost of theircommercial activity. The Greeks could easily sail to Palestine, Egypt, and Carthage,exchangingwine and olive products for grain. Eventually, they replaced the barter systemwith a money system (remember where this developed? Hint: Lydia, oh Lydia), and soonAthensbecameawealthycityatthecenterofallthiscommercialactivity.Greece’s limited geographical area also contributed to its dominance. Landwas tight, so

Greecewasalways lookingtoestablishcoloniesabroadtoeaseovercrowdingandgainrawmaterials.ThismeantthattheGreekshadtohaveapowerfulmilitary.Italsomeantthattheyhadtodevelopsophisticatedmethodsofcommunication,transportation,andgovernance.

SocialSt ructureandCit izenship:It TakesaPolis…

Like the other early civilizations, Greecewasn’t a country then in theway that it is now.Instead, it was a collection of city-states, very much like those of early MesopotamiancivilizationsinSumerorBabylon.Eachcity-state,knownasapolis,sharedacommoncultureand identity.Although eachpoliswaspart of a broader civilization and shared a commonlanguageandmanysimilartraditions,eachwasindependentfrom,andofteninconflictwith,theothers.Thetwomaincity-stateswereAthensandSparta.Athenswas thepolitical, commercial,

and cultural center ofGreek civilization. Spartawas an agricultural and highlymilitaristicregion. Most citizens in Sparta lived a very austere, highly disciplined existence (whichexplainswheremodern-daytermssuchas“Spartanexistence”comefrom).Alltheboys,andeven some of the girls, received military training, which stressed equality but notindividuality.Eachpoliswascomposedofthreegroups.

Citizens,composedofadultmales,oftenengagedinbusinessorcommerceFreepeoplewithnopoliticalrightsNoncitizens(slaves,whoaccountedfornearlyone-thirdofthepeopleinAthens,andwhohadnorights)

Among the citizens, civic decisions were made openly, after engaging in debates. Allcitizenswereexpectedtoparticipate.ThispracticeledtoAthensbeingregardedasthefirstdemocracy.Butit’simportanttopointoutthatonlyadultmalescouldparticipate,soitwasnotademocracyinthemodernsenseoftheword.(Interestingly,itwasinSparta,notAthens,wherewomenheldahigherstatusandweregrantedgreaterequality thanwomenofothercity-states.)It’salsoimportanttopointoutthatdemocracyinAthensdidnotdevelopimmediately.As

Athens grew more and more powerful, the government changed from a monarchy to anaristocracy, and finally toademocracy. (Note:YoumaybeaskedaboutDraco andSolon.JustknowthattheywerearistocratswhoworkedtocreatethedemocracyinAthensandtoensurefair,equal,andopenparticipation.)Ironically, itwas slavery that enabled theGreeks to develop their democracy. Itwas by

slavelaborthatGreekcitizensfoundthemselveswithfreetimetomeetandvoteandtocreategreat works of art and philosophy. Slaves, obtained by various means, were the privateproperty of their owners. They worked as laborers, domestic servants, and cultivators.Educated or skilled slaves became craftsmen and businessmanagers. Some owners helpedslavessetupsmallbusinessesandthenkeptpartoftheprofits;andinafewcases,slaveswhoearnedandsavedenoughmoneycouldeventuallybuytheirfreedom.

GreekMythology:ManyGods

The Greeks were polytheistic. The myths surrounding their gods, like those of Zeus andAphrodite,are richlydetailedand stillholdour interest to thisday.Asyouknowbynow,mostearlycivilizationswerepolytheistic(theHebrewsbeinganotableexception),butGreekpolytheismwasuniqueinonemajorrespect:TheGreekgodswerebelievedtopossesshumanfailings—theygotangry,gotdrunk, tooksides,andhadpettyarguments.GreekmythologyremainspartofWesternheritageandlanguage.Everytimewerefertoataskas“Herculean”orreadourhoroscopes,we’retippingourhatstotheancientGreeks.

WarwithPersia:GreeceHoldsOn

PriortothedevelopmentofthedemocracyinAthens,Greecewasinvolvedinaseriesofwarsthat threatened its existence. ThePersianWars (499–449 B.C.E.) united all theGreek city-states against theirmutual enemy, Persia. (Recall that the Persian Empirewas the largestempire in the eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamia to date.) Much of Athens wasdestroyed in thesewars,butGreeceheldonand thewarsended ina stalemate.Twohugevictories by the Greeks, one atMarathon and the other at Salamis, allowed the Greeks tomaintaincontroloftheAegeanSea.WithPersiaheldback,Greecewasfreetoenterintoaneraofpeaceandprosperity,whichisoftencalledtheGoldenAgeofPericles.

TheGoldenAgeofPericles:AthensWowstheWorld

TheGoldenAgeofPericles(480–404B.C.E.)sawAthensbecomeaculturalpowerhouseunderthe leadership ofPericles. Pericles established democracy for all adult males. It was alsounderPericlesthatAthenswasrebuiltafteritsdestructionbythePersians(theParthenonwasbuiltduringthisreconstruction).AnditwasunderPericlesthatAthensestablishedtheDelianLeaguewith theothercity-states,anallianceagainstaggression fromitscommonenemies.Philosophyandtheartsflourished,andcontinuedtodosoforthenexttwocenturies.Inphilosophy,wefindthenamesmanywouldregardasthemostfamousofalltheancient

Greeks:Socrates,Plato,andAristotle.Theybelievedthattruthcouldbediscernedthroughrational thought and deliberate and careful observation, and that virtue and the quest forgoodnesswouldleadtointernalpeaceandhappiness.Someoftheirobservationsprovedfalsein time, especially with regard to the functioning of the universe on a cosmic scale, ormicrocosmicscale,butitwastheprocesstheyestablished,ratherthantheactualconclusionsthey drew, that were so revolutionary. Although our modern understanding of the worlddiffers inmanyways from theirs, these threemen are still revered today as the fathers of

rationalthinking.During the Golden Age, Greek drama was dominated by the comedies and tragedies ofAeschylusandEuripides;thesculpturesofPhidiasadornedthestreets;andGreekarchitectureearneditsplaceinhistorywithitsdistinctiveDoric,Ionic,andCorinthiancolumns.Mathandscience thrived under the capable instruction of Archimedes, Hippocrates, Euclid, andPythagoras(youprobablyrememberthePythagoreantheoremfromgeometry—guesswhichfamousGreekthatcamefrom).Of course, cultural achievement existed in Greece prior to the Golden Age.Homer, forexample,wrote the epic poems the Illiad and theOdyssey a few centuries earlier; they arewidely regarded asWestern civilization’s first twomasterworks of literature. Butmake nomistakeaboutit,duringtheGoldenAge,theartsandsciencesbecamefirmlycementedintotheWesternconsciousness.TheaccomplishmentsofthisperiodservedastheinspirationfortheEuropeanRenaissanceandtheEnlightenmentnearlytwomillennialater—whichiswhywe’remakingsuchabigdealoutofthemhere.

TroubleAheadforAthens

AlthoughAthensdominatedtheDelianLeaguewithitspowerfulnavy,otherGreekcity-statesintheAegeanalliedthemselveswithSparta’sgreatarmytoformthePeloponnesianLeague.Athens andSparta, as leaders of their respective alliances, became increasingly fearful andenviousof eachother’spower.Afteryearsof increasing tensions, a tradedispute involvingthecityofCorinthpushedAthensandSpartaintothePeloponnesianWar(431–404B.C.E.).Athens attempted a defensive strategy, hiding behind its great walls while allowing theSpartanarmytoravageitsfarmlands.ThisworkedwellfortheAtheniansforatimeuntiltwotragedies occurred. First, a great plague afflicted the city, killing vast numbers of thepopulationincludingPericles.Then,Athen’snavysufferedadevastatingdefeatatSyracuseontheislandofSicily.Athenswasneverthesameagain.Although they could have, Sparta didn’t destroy Athens out of respect for the defeatedcity’sformerroleinthePersianWar.Spartafailedtodominatetheregionforlong;despiteitsvictory,itwassoweakenedbythewarthatitbecamevulnerabletooutsideaggression.TheMacedonians,undertheruleofPhilip IIIofMacedon,whoreignedfrom359to336B.C.E.,invadedAthensfromthenorthandconqueredtheentireregion.Fortunately,PhiliprespectedGreekcultureand,ratherthandestroyit,encouragedittoflourish.

AlexanderAddsGreatness

TheMacedoniansdidn’tstopwithGreece.Philip’sson,AlexandertheGreat,whowastaughtbyAristotle,widelyexpandedMacedoniandominance.UnderAlexander,theyconqueredthemightyPersianEmpireandmovedeastwardtotheshoresoftheIndusRiverinwhattodayisIndia, eventually creating the largest empire of the time. To manage his massive realm,Alexanderdivideditintothreeempires:theAntigonid(GreeceandMacedon),thePtolemaic(Egypt),andtheSeleucid(BactriaandAnatolia).Alongwith its size, theMacedonianEmpire isnotable for the fact that it adoptedGreekcustomsandthenspreadthemtomuchoftheknownworld.Consequently,muchoftheworldbecameconnectedunderauniformlawandcommontradepractices.Therefore,Hellenism—the culture, ideals, and pattern of life of Classical Greece—didn’t perish as a result of thevictories over Athens and Sparta; instead, it came to be influential far beyond its originalborders.In the immediate aftermathof the expansionofHellenism, the economiesofAthens andCorinthrevivedthroughtrade.OfthethreeHellenisticempires,thePtolemaicEmpirebecamethe wealthiest. Alexandria, its capital, was built at the mouth of the Nile. Wisely, thePtolemaicrulersdidnotinterfereinEgyptiansociety,and,eventually,PtolemaicEgyptalsobecameaculturalcenter,homeoftheAlexandriaMuseumandAlexandriaLibrary,thelatterofwhichcontainedthemostscrollsofanylocationintheempire,perhapsthewholeworld.When Alexander the Great died at age 33, his empire started to crumble. Because theMacedonianswere focusedon theEastandonEgypt, thedoorwasopen in theWest foranewpowertorisetotheworldstage.ThatpowerwastheRomans.

2.Rome(509B.C.E.–476C.E.)Geographically,Romewasrelativelywell-situated.TheAlpstothenorthprovidedprotectionfromaninvasionbyland(although,ultimately,notenough).TheseasurroundingtheItalian

peninsula limited thepossibilityof anaval attackunless a large armada floatedacross thesea.Yet, although somewhat isolated,Romewas also at a crossroad. It had easy access tonorthern Africa, Palestine, Greece, and the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain andPortugal),whichmeanteasyaccesstotherestoftheworld.

RomanMythology:MoreGods

LiketheGreeks,theRomanswerepolytheistic.(EverytimeyouseeacupidonaValentine’sDaycard,youseetheimpactofRomanmythologyonourworldtoday.)ManyoftheirgodswereofGreekorigin,thoughappropriatelyrenamedtosuittheircultureandlanguage.

SocialSt ructureinRome:OrganizedandPat riarchal

ThesocialandpoliticalstructureintheRomanRepublicconsistedofpatricians(land-owningnoblemen),plebeians (allother freemen),andslaves.Does this sound familiar? It should.It’sverysimilartothesocialstructureofancientGreece.Romangovernmentwasorganizedasarepresentativerepublic.Themaingoverningbodywasmadeupoftwodistinctgroups:theSenate,whichcomprisedpatricianfamilies,andtheAssembly,whichwasinitiallymadeupofpatricians,butlaterwasopenedtoplebeians.TwoconsulswereannuallyelectedbytheAssembly.TheconsulshadvetopoweroverdecisionsmadebytheAssembly.This structurewasmuchmore stable than the direct democracies of the Greek polis, in

whicheverymale citizenwas expected toparticipateona regularbasis. In a republic, thepeoplehaverepresentatives,sotheydon’thavetovoteoneveryissue.Thisissimilartotheconstitutional democracywe have in theUnited States. Everyone in this country votes forrepresentatives,soit’scorrecttocalloursystemademocracy;however,ourrepresentativesinCongress vote on all the major issues, so our system of government is also very much arepublic. Indeed, the structure of our governmentwasmodeled on the systemused in theRomanRepublic.Insteadoftwoconsuls,though,wehaveone,knownasthepresident.Earlyon,Romedevelopedcivil lawstoprotectindividualrights(insomewayssimilarto

ourBillofRights).ThelawsofRomewerecodified(rememberthattheideaofacodewasHammurabi’s,inBabylon)andbecameknownastheTwelveTablesofRome(theconceptof“innocent until proven guilty” originated here). Later, these laws were extended to aninternationalcodethatRomeappliedtoitsconqueredterritories.ThesocialstructureoftheRomanfamilycenteredonthepaterfamilias—eldestmaleinthe

family—though women did have considerable influence within their families, with somesupervisinga familybusinessor familyestate.Romanwomencouldownproperty,aswell,buttheywere,nevertheless,consideredinferiortomen, justas inGreeksociety.And,as inGreece, slavery was an important element of the social structure of Rome—at one point,slavescomprisedone-thirdofthepopulation,mostofwhomcamefromconqueredterritories.Althoughlifewasdifficultforallslaves,generally,thoselivingandworkinginthecitieshadbetterconditionsthantheircountrycounterparts,andsomehadthepossibilityoffreedom.

RomanMilit aryDominat ion:AllDirect ions,AlltheT ime

As Rome expanded,Carthage, a city-state in North Africa with powerful ambitions of itsown,becameitsfirstenemy.Itdidn’ttakelongforthisconflicttoescalateintofull-fledgedwars,whichcametobecalledthePunicWars.Theselastedonandofffrom264through146B.C.E.

TheFirstPunicWar(264–241B.C.E.)wasfoughttogaincontroloftheislandofSicily;Rome

wonthisone.TheSecondPunicWar(218–201B.C.E.)beganwithanattackbyHannibal, aCarthaginian general considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all time. In anamazing feat, Hannibal led his army all the way to northern Italy, crossed the Alps (onelephantsnoless!),andsurprisedtheRomans,whowereexpectinganattackfromthesouth.Hannibal’sarmydestroyedmanytownsandvillages to thenorthofRomeandwereonthevergeofdestroyingRome.ButaRomanarmyhadlandedinNorthAfrica,forcingHannibaltoreturntoCarthagetodefendhiscity.Carthageeventuallyagreedtosueforpeace,andthismadeRometheundisputedpowerinthewesternMediterranean.Fiftyyearslater,theThirdPunicWar(149–146B.C.E.)wasinstigatedbyRome.RomeinvadedCarthageandburnedittotheground.WithCarthageoutofthepicture,RomecontinueditsexpansionthroughouttheMediterranean.Part of that expansionwas to obtainGreecebydefeating theMacedonians.TheRomans

alsofoughttheGaulstothenorthandtheSpaniardstothewest.WarfareaidedthespreadofRomanculture(which,you’llrecall,waslinkedtoGreekculture)throughoutmuchofwesternEuropeandtheMediterranean.Tomaintaintheirvastempire,theRomansbuiltanextensiveroadnetworkandaqueducts,andgreatlyenlargedtheirnavy.

CollapseoftheRepublicandtheRiseofImperialism

Following thePunicWars,andevenasRoman influencegrew, the situation inandaroundRomewasbecomingunsettled.Severaleventscausedthisrestlessness.First,largelandownershad begun using more slaves from the conquered territories. This displaced many smallfarmers, who moved into the cities, causing overcrowding among the plebeians and notenoughjobstosupportthem.Second,theRomancurrencywasdevalued,causingahighrateofinflation.Thismeantthattheplebeiansdidnothaveenoughmoneytobuythethingstheypreviouslycouldafford.Third,politicalleadersbeganfightingamongstthemselves.TheresultwasthatthepoweroftheSenateweakened,ultimatelytobetransferredtothreemen,whocametobeknownasthefirsttriumvirate:Pompey,Crassus,andJuliusCaesar.CaesarwasgivenpoweroversouthernGaul(France)andotherpartsofEurope.Hechose

not to conquer Germany, which would later prove significant. (Germany developed adifferent culture and would ultimately serve as a training ground for groups intent onconqueringRome.)CivilwarbetweentheSenateandCaesar’sfollowersresultedinpushingPompeyandCrassusoutofthepicture,afterwhichCaesarbecame“emperorforlife.”Buthislifedidn’tlastlong.Hisangrysenatorsassassinatedhimin44B.C.E.After the death of Julius Caesar, a second triumvirate, composed of Octavius, Marc

Antony,andLepidus,cametopower.Thingsdidn’timprovethesecondtimearound.Poweragain shifted to one person, Octavius, who rose to power, assumed the name AugustusCaesar,andbecameemperor.Thedaysof theRomanRepublicwereoveronceand forall.Romewasnowanempireledbyasingleemperor.

PaxRomana:PeaceandProsperity

UnderAugustus, Rome became the capital of theWesternworld. Augustus established theruleoflaw,acommoncoinage,civilservice,andsecuretravelformerchants.Withalltheseelementsinplacethroughouttheempire,stabilityreturnedtoitspeople,andfor200years,they enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity known as thePaxRomana (Roman Peace).Interestingly,however,thoughmanyofthelawswereuniformthroughouttheempireduringthis period, a number of traditional customs of the people in the conquered territoriessurvived. This, of course, meant that the distinct groups within the empire, such as theHebrewsortheEgyptians,maintainedtheirindividualculturalidentities.Underimperialpower,theRomanEmpireexpandedtoitslargestgeographicalproportionsthrough additional military conquests. But more important in the history of the Romanempirewas thegrowthof theartsandsciencesduring this time.Forcenturies,GreecehadbeentheartscenteroftheWesternworld.WiththeRomanpeace,however,theartsinRomeflourished, especially literature (notably, Ovid’s Metamorphoses and Virgil’s Aeneid) andarchitecture(markedbythebuildingofthePantheon,Colosseum,andForum).Sciencealsoreachednewheights.Ptolemylookedtotheheavensandgreatlyinfluencedachievementsinastronomy,whileRomanengineerswenttoworkonroadsandaqueducts.

CompareThem:PaxRomanawiththeGoldenAgesofGreece,Gupta,andOthersIncaseyouhaven’tnoticedapattern,we’llpoint itout foryou.Whenamajorempiregreatlyexpandsitsterritory,itbecomesthecenterofartisticandscientificenergy.Thisisbecauseithasatremendousamountofwealthflowingintoitscapitalfromitsconqueredregions,andbecausethepeoplehavethefreedomandconfidencetopursuegoalsotherthanmilitaryprotection.ThishappenedinRome,Athens,GuptaIndia,HanChina,andtheothercivilizationswe’vediscussedsofar.

ReligiousDiversity:NewChiefsofBeliefs

ThroughoutthedaysoftheRomanRepublicandduringtheearlydaysoftheRomanEmpire,paganism was the state religion. Roman citizens were required to make sacrifices totraditionalRomangods.ButshortlyafterthereignofAugustus,anewreligiondevelopedintheMediterraneanandAegeanregions.ThatreligionwasChristianity.Christianitygrewoutof Judaism,whichhadbeenpracticedbyHebrews inPalestine forthousandsofyears.Judaismwas the firstmajormonotheistic religion. (These tworeligionsaredescribedindetailinSectionIVofthischapter.)Initially,bothJudaismandChristianityweretoleratedbytheRomans.TheRomansallowedtheconqueredterritoriestopracticetheirownfaithsaslongasdoingsodidn’tinterferewiththefunctioningoftheempire.Eventually,however,JewishresistancetoRomancontrolledtothesuppressionofJudaism.Andastheapostles of Jesus and missionaries extended the influence of Christianity throughout theempire,theRomansbegantoseethenewreligionanditsleadersasthreatstobothpaganismand their power. To make it clear who was in charge, Emperor Nero began to persecuteChristians, even killing them in open spectacles at the Colosseum. These acts of violencefailedtostopthespreadofChristianity.OnlywhenEmperorConstantinehimselfissuedtheEdictofMilanin313C.E.didthepersecutionend.Andby391C.E.,ChristianitybecametheofficialreligionoftheRomanEmpire.Sincethen,itcontinuestobeoneoftheworld’smostinfluentialreligions.

H.LATECLASSICALPERIOD:EMPIRESCOLLAPSE,ANDPEOPLEONTHEMOVE

Duringthe lateClassicalPeriod(200−600C.E.),all thegreatestcivilizations that theworldhad known collapsed. This included the fall ofHanChina, theGupta Empire in India, thewesternpartof theRomanEmpire in theMediterranean,andthemysteriousdeclineof theMaya.

1.CollapseoftheMayaNobody’ssureexactlywhathappenedtotheMaya.Somesayitwasdiseaseordroughtorthedeclining health of the large peasant population. Others say it was internal unrest andwarfare.Chancesare,likeothercollapses,anexpandingpopulationgraduallyexhaustedtheirenvironment and could not respond to the needs of their population. But whatever thereasons, the Maya started to desert their cities in the ninth century C.E. and the greatcivilizationfizzledout.

2.CollapseofHanChinaTheHandynastywasinterruptedbythereignofWangMang(9–23C.E.),whoestablishedtheXindynastyafterseizingthethronefromtherulingLiufamily,successfullyusingthebeliefintheMandateofHeaven toundermine them.WangManghadbeena respectedgovernmentofficial before he took power, but soonmade some disastrousmissteps thatweakened theempireandhiscontroloverit.Attemptedreformsoflandownershipandthecurrencywereunsuccessfulandcausedchaosinthelocaleconomyamongboththerichandpoor.Wagingwar on the edges of the empire led to conscription of a resentful population and heavytaxation of landowners, which forced them to pay farmers less money for more work.Persistent famines, devastating floods along the Yellow River, and increasing commodityprices added to the resentment and fueled peasant uprisingswhichWangMang’s enemiesusedtotheiradvantage.TheXinDynastycametoanendin23C.E.withthedeathofWangManginbattle.TheHanDynastywasrestoredacoupleofyearslater,butfullrecoveryprovedimpossibleand, in220C.E., thegovernmentcollapsed.For thenext400years,Chinawasdivided intoseveralregionalkingdoms.

3.CollapseoftheGuptaEmpireTheGuptaEmpirefellforonesimplereason:ItwasinvadedbytheHuns—notAttila’sforces,whichinvadedEurope,butanothergroup,theWhiteHuns.TheGuptawereabletoholdofftheHunsforthefirsthalfof thefifthcentury,buttheydidsoatatremendouscost,whichweakenedthestate.Bytheendofthefifthcentury,therewereHunkingdomsinwesternandnorthern India. Though the underlying culture of India (includingHinduism and the castesystem)survivedtheinvasion,theempiredidnot.

4.CollapseoftheWesternPortionoftheRomanEmpire

One historical event that has been endlessly debated over time is the fall of the RomanEmpire. Some of these theories are reasonable, othersmuch less so.Many try to assign asinglecausetothismomentousoccurrence,butthesituationwasmuchmorecomplicated.Inshort,however, itcanbesaidthat itwasinternaldecay, incombinationwithexternalpressure (Attila’s Huns, among others groups), that brought about the fall of the RomanEmpire.Thesheersizeof theempireandthehugeexpenseofmaintaining it,coupledbyasuccessionofweak—orjustplainbad—leaders,andaseriesofepidemics,areallfactorsthatcausedtheempiretocollapse.In 284 C.E.,Diocletian had become emperor. He attempted to deal with the increasingproblemsbydividingtheempire intotworegionsrunbyco-emperors.Healsobrought thearmiesbackunder imperial control,andattempted todealwith theeconomicproblemsbystrengtheningtheimperialcurrency,forcingabudgetonthegovernment,andcappingpricestodealwith inflation.DespiteDiocletian’s innovationsandadministrative talents, civilwarerupteduponhisretirementin305C.E.After rising to power in 306 C.E. as a co-emperor, Constantine defeated his rivals andassumedsolecontrolovertheempirein322C.E.HeorderedthebuildingofConstantinopleatthesiteoftheGreekcityofByzantium,andin340C.E., thiscitybecamethecapitalofaunitedempire.Constantine,too,wasanableemperor,buttheproblemsofshrinkingincomeand increased external pressures proved insurmountable. After his death, the empire wasagain divided into two pieces, east and west. The eastern half thrived from its center atConstantinople;thewesternhalf,centeredinRome,continueditsspiraldownward.Onitsborders,RomefacedexternalpressurefromgroupsofGermanicinvaders(rememberwementionedthisearlier?).Indefense,RomanauthoritiesputGermanicpeoplessuchastheVisigoths (whohadadoptedRoman lawandChristianity)on theborders.But in theearly

fifthcentury,AttilaandhisHunsbegan topresson theGermanic tribes; in response, theybegan to press on the Roman Empire. Because the Germanic tribes had no other place toretreat from theHuns, they crossed the border intoRoman territory. TheVisigoths sackedRome in 410 C.E., and by 476 C.E., the Roman emperor had been deposed. The fall of thewesternhalfoftheRomanEmpirewascomplete.Theeasternhalfwouldsurvive,butnotastheRomanEmpire.ItwaslaterrenamedtheByzantineEmpire.

ContrastThem:TheFallofHanChina,theGuptaEmpire,andRomeTwomajorcausesofdeclinethreatenanyempire:internal(suchaseconomicdepression,natural catastrophes, and social unrest) and external (for example, invading armies).Unlike China, for example, whichwould later see a return to greatness, Romewouldneveragainbeatthecenterofsuchagreatempire.ThemomentumhadclearlychangedtofavortheinvadingGermantribesandthepowerfulByzantiumEmpireintheEast.

WesternRome476C.E. Gupta550C.E. HanChina220C.E.

Taxrevoltsbyupperclassandchurchexemptfromtaxes

Notenoughtaxesformilitarydefense

Officialsexemptfromtaxes;difficulttocollectfrompeasantpopulation

Decreaseintradeuponwhicheconomydepended

Populationincreasesleadtolesslandperfamily

25of26emperorsdiedviolentlyinone50yearspan

Corruptionofcourtofficials

Divisionofempireweakenedthewesthalf

Landdivisionsincreasedpowerofprovincialofficials

Unabletocontrollargeestateowners

UnabletodefendagainstmigratoryinvasionsofGothsandHuns

UnabletodefendagainstinvasionsbytheWhiteHuns

ConstantconflictwiththenomadicXiong-nuwhoinvadedaftercollapse

5.CulturalDiffusion200–600C.E.

Aroundthesametimethatmajorempireswerecollapsing,theknownworldwasbecominganincreasingly smaller place. Trade routes were flourishing, bringing cultures, religions, andinvadingtribesintoconstantcontactwitheachother.Majortraderoutesoverland,liketheSilkRoadfromChinatotheRomanEmpire,tookmonthstotraverse.Pastoralcommunitiesalongthewayprovidedprotection,shelter,andsuppliesforthemerchants, inexchangeforpayment.Thismeantthatmerchantsnotonlyinteractedwithpeopleattheirdestinationbutalsoonthejourney.Unfortunately,diseasetraveledthesametraderoutes(andwithinvadingarmies).Togive

justa coupleof examples, theMongols carried theBlackDeath toChina;RomeandChinasufferedfrommeaslesandsmallpoxepidemics,whichquicklyspreadthroughtheempires.And,aswementionedearlier,religionalsofollowedtheroadsofthemerchants.Buddhism

spreadthroughEastandSoutheastAsiabywayoftraderoutes.ChristianityspreadrapidlyintheMediterraneanviabothlandandsea.EventheinvadingGermanictribeswereconverted.By600C.E.,ChristianityhadtakenrootasfarawayasBritain.Bynow,you’realsowellawarethatitwasnotjustmerchantsandmissionariesthatwere

onthemove.Asentiregroupsexpandedtheirterritories,theyalsoputdownrootsinthenewlands.TheAnglosandtheSaxonsmovedintoBritain.TheHunsmovedintoIndia.OnlyChinaandpartsofEastAsiaseemedsparedmassiveinfluxesofoutsiders.Theworldwasclearlychanging.Thestagewassetforentirelynewdevelopments,whichis

whatthenextchapterisallabout.

IV.MAJORBELIEFSYSTEMSTHROUGH600C.E.Asyoureviewthemajorbeliefsystemsbelow,keepafewthingsinmind.

1. Mostof thesebelief systemshave impactedworldhistory fromtheir inception throughthe present era. That said, the discussion here focuses on the impact of these systemsduringtheancientera.We’lltalkmoreabouttheimpactofthesereligionsonlaterworldeventsinsubsequentchapters.

2. Most of the major religions have had schisms (divisions), resulting in a variety ofsubgroups and sects. The test writers will focusmore on the overall religion than onparticular sects (though therearea fewexceptions thatwe’llget to in futurechapters,suchastheProtestantReformationwithinChristianityandtheriseoffundamentalisminIslam).

3. Don’tfocusonlyonthetheologicalorphilosophicalbasisofeachbeliefsystem,butalsoontheimpacttheyhadonsocial,political,cultural,andevenmilitarydevelopments.

4. Payattentiontowhereeachbeliefsystemstartedandwhereitspread.Asmerchantsandwarriorsmoved,sodidtheirreligiousbeliefs.Bylookingatwherereligionsbranchedoutorcameintoconflictwithoneanother,you’llgetagoodunderstandingofwhichculturesfrequentlyinteractedwitheachother.

Foryourconvenience,here’saquicklistingofthebeliefsystemscoveredinthissection.

A. PolytheismB. ConfucianismC. DaoismD. LegalismE. HinduismF. BuddhismG. JudaismH. Christianity

NotethatIslamisnotincludedhere.Why?BecauseIslamdidn’tcomeontothesceneuntilafter600C.E.We’lltalkalotaboutIslaminthenextchapter.

A.POLYTHEISM

CulturesthatPracticedItThevastmajorityofancientcivilizationswerepolytheistic.Through600C.E.,thereligionsofall of the Mesopotamian and Mediterranean empires were polytheistic, except for theHebrewsandtheChristians. In theeast,Aryanreligions,Hinduism,andtraditionalChinesesystemswerepolytheistic.SomeBuddhistsectswerepolytheistic,asweresomeDaoistsects.

NutsandBoltsPolytheists believe in multiple gods who impact daily life on earth to varying degrees,

sometimes for good, and sometimes not. For example, prior to the rise ofChristianity, theancientGreeksandRomansworshippednumerousgodswhohadveryhumanqualitiesandwho sometimes battled each other. In ancient Egypt, the gods were often consideredbenevolentandkind,whileinancientSumer,thegodsweretobefeared,andhencehadtobeappeasedonaregularbasis.

BroaderImpactPolytheismhadamajor impactonthedevelopmentofcivilization: Itwasabsolutelyat thecenterofartandarchitectureinmostofthecivilizationswehavediscussedsofar.Manyofthegrandworksofthesecivilizationswerededicatedtothegods,ormadetoappeasethem.More significantly, because the practice of polytheism inmost early civilizationswas verycomplicated and filled with rituals, it led to the rise of a priestly class, whose memberscontrolled most of the communication between the people and their gods. Thus, thesecivilizations became dependent on an elevated group of people who controlled theircollectivedestinies, and rigid social structureswithpriestsnear the topquicklydeveloped.Finally,becausesomepolytheisticcivilizationshadseparategodsforeachcity-state,aswellascollectivegodsforthecivilizationasawhole,suchasthesystemspracticedinSumerandancientGreece,theriseandfallofvariouscity-stateswasseenasadramaplayedoutnotonlyonearth,butalsointheheavens.Thisaddedvaliditytoacity-state’sclaimforpredominancewhenitcelebratedmilitarysuccess.

B.CONFUCIANISM

CulturesthatPracticedItConfucianismwasdeveloped specifically for theChinese culture, andwaswidelypracticedthroughoutChinafromaround400B.C.E.onward.

NutsandBoltsThesonofanaristocraticfamilyfromnorthernChina,Confuciusspentmostofhislifetryingtogainahighpositioningovernment.Buthewasverystrong-willed,andoftenhisthinkingwasatoddswithstatepolicy.Asaresult,heneverachievedhisgoal.Instead,heservedasaneducatorandpoliticaladvisor,andinthisrolehehadatremendousinfluenceonChina.Heattractedmanyfollowers,someofwhomhelpedsharehisteachings,andotherswhocollectedhisthoughtsandsayingsintheAnalects,whichwouldcometohaveaprofoundinfluenceonChinesethinking,bothpoliticallyandculturally.Themost important distinction tomake about Confucianism is that it is a political and

socialphilosophy—notareligion.Thoughfundamentallymoralandethicalincharacter,itisalsothoroughlypractical,dealingalmostsolelywiththequestionofhowtorestorepoliticalandsocialorder.Confucianismdoesnotdealwithlargephilosophicalissuesorwithreligiousissues,suchassalvationoranafterlife.Confucianism focuses on five fundamental relationships: ruler and subject, parent and

child, husband andwife, older brother and younger brother, and friend and friend.Wheneach person in these relationships lives up to his or her obligations of those relationships,societyisorderlyandpredictable.

Confucianism concentrates on the formation of junzi, individuals considered superiorbecause they are educated, conscientious, and able to put aside personal ambition for thegoodofthestate.TherearealsoseveralvaluesthatConfucianismstresses:

Ren—asenseofhumanity,kindness,andbenevolence

Li—asenseofpropriety,courtesy,respect,anddeferencetoelders

Xiao—filial piety,whichmeans a respect for family obligation, including to theextendedfamily

Confucius believed that individuals who possessed these traits would be not only goodadministratorsbutalsoinfluentialinthelargersocietybecausetheywouldleadbyexample.Healsowasconvinced that to restorepoliticaland socialorder,morally strong individualswere required to exercise enlightened leadership. This iswhyConfucius did not support aparticularpoliticalsystem,butrather favoredgoodpeoplerunningwhateversystemwas inplace.UnderConfucianism,women inChinawereconsideredof secondarystatus,althoughchildrenweretaughttohonortheirmothersaswellastheirfathers.

BroaderImpactBecause Confucianism was an ethical, social, and political belief system, as opposed to areligion,itwascompatiblewithotherreligions.Inotherwords,apersoncould,forexample,practice both Buddhism and Confucianism simultaneously. This flexibility enabledConfucianismto flourish.Government leaders, too,embraced it,because itwas intendedtocreateanorderly society. Itswidespreadacceptanceeventually led toadistinctiveChineseculture in which communities became extremely tight-knit; members had duties andresponsibilitiestomanyothersinthecommunityfrombirthtodeath.Confucianismdidnot,however,haveasimilarimpactontherestoftheworld,becauseit

evolvedonlywithinthecontextoftheChineseculture.

C.DAOISM

CulturesthatPracticedItSomeChinesepracticedDaoism,fromaround500B.C.E.onward.

NutsandBoltsTheDao(alsospelledTao)isdefinedasthewayofnature,thewayofthecosmos.FoundedbyLao-tzu,alegendaryChinesephilosopher,thisbeliefsystemisbasedonanelusiveconceptregardinganeternalprinciplegoverningalltheworkingsoftheworld.TheDaoispassiveandyielding;itaccomplisheseverythingyetdoesnothing.Oneimageusedtodemonstratethisisofapotonthepotter’swheel:Theopeninginthepotisnothing,yetthepotwouldnotbeapotwithoutit.Daoistssometimesalsousetheimageofwater,softandyielding,yetcapableofwearingawaystone.FromthiscomestheideathathumansshouldtailortheirbehaviortothepassiveandyieldingnatureoftheDao.Thus,ambitionandactivismonlybringchaosto

theworld.Within Daoism is the doctrine ofwuwei, disengagement fromworldly affairs, asimplelifeinharmonywithnature.Daoismisn’tcompletelypassive,however.Daoistpriestsoftenusedmagicthatwasintendedtoinfluencethespirits.

BroaderImpactDaoistsadvocatedtheformationofsmall,self-sufficientcommunitiesandservedasacounter-balance to Confucian activism. And as an advocate of harmony with nature, Daoismpromotedscientificdiscoveries.Daoistsbecamegreatastronomers,chemists,andbotanists.Daoism’s impact, though, is greater than its philosophy. It’s notable because it coexisted

withConfucianism,Buddhism,andLegalisminChina.OneofthethingstorememberaboutDaoism, therefore, is that it added to the complexityofChina,which in turnadded to theuniquenessofChinaandotherEasterncivilizationsasseparateanddistinctfromtheWesternworld.

ContrastThem:DaoismandConfucianismThoughDaoismandConfucianism shareda corebelief in theDao,or “theWay,” theydiverged in how each understood how the Dao manifested itself in the world. WhileConfucianism is concernedwith creating anorderly society,Daoism is concernedwithhelping people live in harmony with nature and find internal peace. Confucianismencouragesactive relationshipsandaveryactivegovernmentasa fundamentallygoodforceintheworld;Daoismencouragesasimple,passiveexistence,andlittlegovernmentinterference with this pursuit. Despite these differences, many Chinese found themcompatible,hencepracticedbothsimultaneously.TheyusedConfucianismtoguidethemintheirrelationshipsandDaoismtoguidethemintheirprivatemeditations.

D.LEGALISM

CulturesthatPracticedItThe Chinese, specifically during the Qin Dynasty, are the most notable practitioners ofLegalism.

NutsandBoltsLegalismdevelopedataroundthesametimeasConfucianismandDaoism.Itmaintainedthatpeaceandorderwereachievableonly throughacentralized, tightlygovernedstate.Simplyput,Legalistsdidn’t trusthumannatureand, therefore,advocated theneed for tough laws.Theybelievedthatpeoplewouldbemadetoobeythroughharshpunishment,strongcentralgovernment,andunquestionedauthority.Theyfocusedonlyonthingsthatwerepracticalorthat sustained the society. Not surprisingly, then, Legalists believed that two of the mostworthyprofessionswerefarmingandthemilitary.

BroaderImpactBy adopting Legalism, the Qin Dynasty was able to accomplish the unification of Chinaswiftly, and the completion of massive projects like the building of the Great Wall. But

because Legalism also caused widespread resentment among the common people, whosuffered under it, Legalism inadvertently led to wider acceptance of Confucianism andDaoism.

ContrastThem:LegalismandConfucianismAlthough both Legalism andConfucianism are social belief systems, not religions, andbothare intended to lead toanorderly society, theirapproachesaredirectlyopposed.Confucianism relies on the fundamental goodness of human beings, whereas Legalismpresupposes that people are fundamentally evil. Therefore, Confucianism castseverythingintermsofcorrespondingresponsibilities,whereasLegalismcastseverythingintermsofstrict lawsandharshpunishment.TheHansuccessfullyblendedthebestofbothphilosophiestoorganizetheirdynasty.

E.HINDUISM

CulturesthatPracticedItThevariousculturesoftheIndiansubcontinentpracticedHinduism.

NutsandBoltsHinduismbeganinIndiawiththeAryaninvaders.ReviewthehistoryofIndiainSectionIIIofthischapterifyouneedto.HindusbelieveinonesupremeforcecalledBrahma,thecreator,whoisinallthings.HindugodsaremanifestationsofBrahma—notablyVishnu,thepreserver,andShiva,thedestroyer.The life goal of Hindus is to merge with Brahma. But because that task is consideredimpossibletoaccomplishinonelifetime,Hindusalsobelievethatwhoyouareinthislifewasdeterminedbywhoyouwereinapastlife;andhowyouconductyourselfinyourassignedroleinthislifewilldeterminetherole(caste)youarebornintoinafuturelife.Ifyoubehavewelland followthedharma (the rulesandobligationsof thecasteyou’reborn into),you’llkeepmoving up the ladder toward unification with Brahma. If not, you’ll drop down theladder.Thiscycleoflife,death,andrebirthcontinuesuntilyouachievemoksha,thehigheststateofbeing,oneofperfectinternalpeaceandreleaseofthesoul.ThereisnocentralsacredtextinHinduism,thoughtheVedasandtheUpanishads,sourcesofprayers,verses,anddescriptionsoftheoriginsoftheuniverse,guideHindus.

BroaderImpactHinduismisareligionaswellasasocialsystem—thecastesystem.Inthecastesystem,youare born into your caste, and if you are dissatisfiedwith it, it’s an indication you are notfollowing the dharma; therefore, you will have an even worse lot in the next life. Thisexplainswhymost faithfulHindusquietlyaccepted their station in life.Though theyknewsocialmobilitywithin one lifetimewas out of the question, theywere confident that theywouldaccomplishitatdeathiftheylivedaccordingtothetenetsofHinduism.Hinduism’s close identificationwith the caste systemand the Indian social structureandcustomshaveprevented itsacceptance inotherpartsof theworld. Inrecentyears,modern

Hindusarebeginning to rebelagainst thestricturesof thecaste system.ButHinduismasawhole remains a powerful force—even regarding its adherents’ relationship to the animalkingdom,becauseHindusbelievetheycanbereincarnatedasanimals.Hinduismlaterspawnedanotherreligion—Buddhism.

F.BUDDHISM

CulturesthatPracticedItEastern civilizations, most notably in India, China, and Southeast Asia, as well as Japan,practicedBuddhism.

NutsandBoltsBuddhismwasfoundedbyayoungHinduprincenamedSiddharthaGautama,whowasbornand lived in Nepal from 563 through 483 B.C.E. He rejected his wealth to search for themeaning of human suffering. After meditating under a sacred bodhi tree, he became theBuddha,orEnlightenedOne.ThereisnosupremebeinginBuddhism.Rather,BuddhistsfollowtheFourNobleTruths.

Alllifeissuffering.Sufferingiscausedbydesire.Onecanbefreedofthisdesire.Oneisfreedofdesirebyfollowingwhat’scalledtheEightfoldPath.

TheEightfoldPathismadeupofrightviews,rightaspirations,rightspeech,rightconduct,rightlivelihood,rightendeavor,rightmindfulness,andrightmeditation.Followingthispathenables you tomove towardnirvana, the state of perfect peace and harmony. The goal inone’s life is to reach nirvana, whichmay ormay not take several lifetimes,meaning thatBuddhistsalsobelieveinreincarnation.Buddhismholdsthatanyonecanachievenirvana;itisnotdependentonanunderlyingsocialstructure,suchasthecastesystem.After the death of Buddha in 483 B.C.E., Buddhism split into two large movements,

Theravada,alsoknownasHinayana,BuddhismandMahayanaBuddhism.Theravada(Hinayana)Buddhismemphasizesmeditation,simplicity,andaninterpretation

of nirvana as the renunciation of human consciousness and of the self. In TheravadaBuddhism,Buddhahimselfisnotconsideredagod,andothergodsandgoddesseshaveverylittle significance. (Theravadameans “theWayof theElders”;Hinayanameans “the LesserVehicle.”)Mahayana Buddhism (“The Greater Vehicle”) is a more complicated form of Buddhism,

involvinggreaterritualthanBuddhaspecified.MahayanaBuddhismappealedtopeoplewhobelieved that the original teachings of Buddha did not offer enough spiritual comfort;therefore,theybegantohypothesizethatotherformsofsalvationwerepossible.InMahayanaBuddhism, the Buddha himself became a godlike deity. Moreover, other deities appear,including bodhisattvas, those who have achieved nirvana but choose to remain on Earth.Mahayana Buddhists also reliedmore on priests and scriptures. Detractors of this form ofBuddhismviewtheseadditionsasbeingtoosimilartotheHinduismthatBuddhadisapprovedof.

You probably won’t have to know the details of the two Buddhist movements, but youshouldknowthattheyexist.

BroaderImpactBecauseitdidrejectedsocialhierarchiesofcastes,Buddhismappealedstronglytomembersoflowerrank.AndbecauseBuddhismisn’tattachedtoanunderlyingsocialstructure,itcanapply to almost anyone, anywhere. As a consequence, it spread rapidly to other culturesthroughoutAsia.When Ashoka, the Mauryan Emperor who became appalled by one too many bloody

battles,wasmoved toconvert toBuddhism, thereligionreally tookoffasamajor force inAsia. Eventually, however, in India, Buddhism was reabsorbed into Hinduism, whichremainedthedominantbeliefsystemthere. InChina,Japan,andSoutheastAsia,Buddhismcontinuedtothrive.Andasitspreadviathetraderoutes,theculturesofAsiaintertwined.

G.JUDAISM

CulturesthatPracticedItTheHebrewspracticedJudaism.

NutsandBoltsJudaismholdsthatGodselectedagroupofpeople,theHebrews,andmadehimselfknowntothem.Iftheyfollowedhislaws,worshippedhim,andwerefaithful,hewouldpreservethemfor all time. This group became the Jews, and Judaism became the first of the greatmonotheisticfaiths.Judaism is not centered on many of the concepts typically associated with a religion,

althoughabelief inanafterlife,a setof traditionsanddoctrines,philosophy,andpersonalsalvation are part of its makeup. At the center of Judaism is the awareness of a uniquerelationshipwithGod.Jews believe that theywere created by God and live in aworld created by a personal,

sovereignGodwhocreatedtheworldforhumanstoliveinandenjoyandexercisefreewill.Thedestinyoftheworldisparadise,reachedbyhumanbeingswithdivinehelp.ThetaskofhumanbeingsistohonorandserveGodbyfollowingtheLawsofMoses,ascontainedintheTorah(theJewishBible,madeupof thefirst fivebooksof theOldTestament), topromotetheethicsoftheprophets,andmaintaintheidentityofthepeople.Judaism,therefore,isbothareligiouspracticeandasocietalcustom.

BroaderImpactJudaismwas the first of themajormonotheistic faiths; as such, it spawned the other twomajormonotheisticreligions,ChristianityandIslam.

CompareThem:Confucianism,Hinduism,andJudaismAtfirstglance,thesethreebeliefsystemsseemverydifferentfromoneanother.Afterall,Confucianismisn’tareligion;Hinduismispolytheistic;andJudaismismonotheistic.Buttheyaresimilarinthattheyareallcloselytiedtothecultureinwhichtheyarepracticed,andthereforearenotpartofthesweeping,evangelicalmovementsthatseektoconvertthe rest of the world. Each not only arose out of a specific culture, but was used tosustainthatculturebyprovidingguidelinesandmoralauthority.

H.CHRISTIANITY

CulturesthatPracticedItOriginallya splintergroupof Jewspracticed the religion,but itquicklyexpanded into thenon-JewishcommunityandthroughouttheRomanEmpire.

NutsandBoltsChristianity came into existencewith JesusofNazareth, a charismatic Jewish teacherwhoclaimedtobetheSonofGod,theMessiah,forwhomJewshadlongawaited.Manypeoplewereattracted tohis teachingsofdevotion toGodand love forhumanbeings.TheRomanandJewish leaderswerenotamongthem,so inapproximately30C.E., Jesuswas crucified.Hisfollowersbelievedthatherosefromthedeadandascendedintoheaven,andChristianitywasborn.ChristianityisbasedonboththeOldandNewTestamentsoftheBible.Christiansbelieve

thatJesusChrististheSonofGodandthatforgivenessofsins,andultimatelyeverlastinglife,is achievable only through belief in the divinity, death, and resurrection of Christ. TheChristianviewisthattheworldwasmadebyapersonalandsovereignGod(likeJudaism),butthattheworldhasfallenfromharmonywithGod’swill.AstheSonofGod,ChristwasthelinkbetweenGodandhumanbeings.Humanbeingsareexpected to seek toknowGod, toworshiphim,andtopracticeloveandservicetohimandtootherhumanbeings.ManyearlyChristiansalsobelievedthatitwastheirdutytosharethismessagewiththeunconverted(asdomanyChristiansectstoday).

BroaderImpactIntheearlydays,ChristianitywasspreadbythedisciplesofJesusandbyPaulofTarsus.Pauloriginallywasanextremeanti-ChristianwhowasconvertedbyavisionofChristandbecameaprincipal figure inpropagating thenewreligion.With its emphasisoncompassion,gracethrough faith, and the promise of eternal life regardless of personal circumstances,Christianity appealed widely to the lower classes and women. By the third century C.E.,ChristianityhadbecomethemostinfluentialreligionintheMediterraneanbasin.Followingaperiod of persecution, it became legalwithin, and then the official religion of, theRomanEmpire;itcontinuedtobranchnorthwardandwestwardintoregionsbeyondtheboundariesof theRomanEmpire. Incomingcenturies, thismarriageofChristianityandempirewouldprofoundly affect developments in a large segment of the world. More on that in futurechapters.

MapofWorldReligionscirca600C.E.

By 600 C.E., interaction through trade, warfare, and migration had spread Christianity,Hinduism,andBuddhismfarbeyondtheirareasoforigin.Christianitybecamethedominantforce inwhatwas left of the Roman Empire,while the Silk Road and IndianOcean traderoutesbroughtBuddhismandHinduismintoeastandSoutheastAsia.

V.TECHNOLOGYANDINNOVATIONSTHROUGH600C.E.Farmingtools,metallurgy, and the ability tomanipulate the environment causehumans totransitionfromnomadichuntersandgathererstobuildersofcivilizationsandempiresinthis10,000yearperiod.Inordertofarmsuccessfully,peopleneedtools,awaytotransportwhatthey’ve grown, and finally a place to store their surplus. Thus, the most importanttechnologiesdevelopedbytheearlycivilizationsincludedfarmingtools:ploughs,hoes,rakes,thewheel(andthereforethecart),andfinally,potteryinwhichtostoresurplusfortheoff-season.Whileeffectivetoolscanbemadeoutofboneandstone,theylastlongerandworkmore efficiently if they’re made of metal. Copper was the first metal used, and othermetallurgicaltechniquesdevelopedfromthere.Onceasocietyhadenoughgoods,itneededawaytodefenditself,andtheknowledgethat

hadhelpedmakefarmingtechnologywasusedtocreateweaponsanddefensesystems.Itisnot surprising that the first empires developed at the same time as iron technology andwheeledchariotsaround1500B.C.E.!Amajordevelopmentinwarfare,thestirrup,developedamong the nomadic societies of the Eurasian steppe and spread toChinese as early as thethirdcenturyB.C.E.ThestirruparrivedlateinEuropebecausethemountainousgeographyoftheMediterraneanworldlimitedtheuseofchariotsandhorsesthere.Additionally,thehorseswereinitiallytoosmalltocarryheavilyarmoredsoldiers.Becauseofthis,thearmiesofRomeandGreeceweremostlymadeupoffoot-soldiersarmedwithspearsandbowsandarrows.

Ultimately, new technologies develop because they benefit society in some way. Theearliestpublicworksprojectsfocusedonirrigation—oftensimpledikesandcanalstocapturefloodswaterandpreciousfertilesilt.Ascitiesgrew,populationsneededsteadywatersuppliesandafairlyreliableplumbingandsewagesystem.ThelargecitiesoftheIndusRiverValley(around2500B.C.E),hadelaboratepublicandprivatesewers,andsimilarsystemswerebuiltmuch later in theRomanEmpire.Themostvisible technologicalachievementsaremassivearchitectural monuments built by all civilizations—pyramids, ziggurats, walls, temples,aqueducts,coliseums,theaters,andstadiums,androads.Thesestructureswereusedtoassertthe authority of leaders, facilitate the functioning of the state, and to keep the populacehealthy,employed,andentertained.Astablesupplyoffoodallowedpeopletodevelopspecializedskillsandcraftsbeyondthe

basicneedsoftheirneighbors.Althoughalotthetradeinearlysocietiestendedtobesmallerluxuryitems—silk,cottonandwool,workedsemi-preciousgems,andjewelry;heaviergoodsincludingoliveoilandspiceswerealsotraded.To accomplish and keep track of all of the above, early societies developed means of

communication and record keeping. Relatively accurate calendars were developed in allcivilizations,butonlytheMayahada365-daysolarcalendar.BoththeMayaandtheGuptaseparatelyinventedtheconceptofzero.ThiswasanespeciallyinventivetimefortheChinese;inaddition to thebuildingofGreatWall and themassive terra cotta armyof theQin, theDaoistscholarsoftheHanDynastydevelopedwindmillsandwheelbarrows,workedonsomeearly forms of gunpowder, figured out how to distill alcohol, and produced paper from avarietyofaccessiblematerialsincludingtreebark.

VI.CHANGESANDCONTINUITIESINTHEROLEOFWOMENAnunfortunate factof sedentarysocieties is thatwomen losepoweraspeoplesettledown,and women’s roles in high status food-production became more limited. But womenmaintained power within the private sphere—by managing their households and takingresponsibilityforchildren’seducation,wivesandmotherswereoftentheunrecognizedpowerbehindthethrone.Although all of the early civilizations were decidedly patriarchal, women’s freedoms

differed depending on social status and class. Upper-class or elite women were morerestrictedintheirpublicappearances,whilelower-classwomen,peasants,andfemaleslavescontinuedtoworkoutsidethehome.Publicveilingofupper-classwomenappearsasearlyastheBabylonianEmpireandiswidespreadbyGreekandRomantimes.Cultural and religious values also impacted the status ofwomen. In both Buddhism and

Christianity,womenwereconsideredequalsintheirabilitytoachievesalvationornirvana.Inbothreligions,womencouldchoosetoremovethemselves fromtraditionalrolestobecomenuns and live separate from society in convents. Hinduism and Confucianism were muchmore structured and restricted. A Hindu woman could not read the sacred Vedas orparticipate in the prayers, and could not reachmoksha in her lifetime. Daoism in Chinapromotedabalanceofmaleandfemale,butasConfucianismcametodominate,menwereclearlyconsideredsuperiortowomen.UnderConfucianrule,someeducationwasopentoalarge percentage of the female population, as it was believed they needed to be taught“proper”behaviorandvirtues.

Women’sStatusinAncientSocieties

Rome/Greece India China

strictandpatriarchalsocialdivisions

strictpatriarchalcastesystem

strictConfuciansocialorderandguidelinesforvirtuousbehavior

littlelandownershipwomenwerenotallowedtoinheritproperty

onlysonsinheritproperty

highliteracyamongupperclass

forbiddentoreadsacredtexts

upperclasseseducatedinartsandliteratureandalleducatedinvirtues

Spartanwomenwerecitizens

nope nope

womencouldownbusinesses(especiallywidows)

neededlargedowryandnoremarriageforwidows

arrangedmarriagesthoughwidowswerepermittedtoremarry

womencouldbepriestessesorlaternuns

womencouldnotachievemoksha

BuddhistconventsandDaoismbalancesmaleandfemale

VII.PULLINGITALLTOGETHERThere are many ways to think about the big-picture themes that have emerged in thischapter,butwe’llstayfocusedonthethreepresentedinSectionIIofthischapter.

1.CIVILIZATIONS

By now, you should have a good understanding of the types of developments common tomost civilizations; for example, agriculture, written language, and the use of metals allcontributed to the growth of early civilizations. You should also be able to explain howcivilizationsgrowwhenpeoplearelessconcernedwithwheretheirnextmealiscomingfrom,andhowtheyspreadtheirinfluence(primarilythroughtraderoutesandconquest).Andyoushouldbeable todescribewhathappenswhencivilizationsbecome sodominant that theyhavenorivals(aperiodofpeaceandprosperity,oragoldenage,emerges,makingitpossibletodevotetimeandmoneytotheartsandsciences).Finally,youshouldbeableexplainwhythose dominant civilizations begin to fall apart (they get too big, their own people getrestless,foreignthreatsgainconfidenceandpower).By taking note of the patterns woven throughout the expansion and contraction of

civilizations,you’llbewellpreparedtotackletheessays.

2.SOURCESOFCHANGE

Regardingchangeoccurringincivilizationsthroughculturaldiffusion,keepinmindthatthetwomainmethodsare through tradeandconquest.Expansionofmajorbelief systemsalsoplaysamajorrole,butdon’tforgetbeliefsystemsfollowedthetraderoutesandthemilitarymovements,too.Youshouldbeabletodiscusssomeexamplesofchangesbroughtaboutbyinventionand

innovation.Twoimportantonesaretheuseofthewheelandtheuseofiron.Noticethatsomecivilizationsweremoreinnovativewhileothersmoreadaptive,butmost

culturesdobothsimultaneously.Whatevertheyinvent,theyspreadtoothers;whatevertheyborrow, they adapt for their own purposes. That said, certain civilizations adapted anincredible amount from others—the Romans and the Macedonians, for example, from theGreeks.

3.HUMANSVERSUSNATURE

You should be able to name many ways in which civilizations have changed theirsurroundingstosuittheirownpurposes.Thediggingofcanalsandirrigationditches,stone-cutting, plowing, and metal-working are just a few examples. And don’t forget the moresubtle examples, such as the development of calendars and sundials, which were verysignificantinthehumanquesttopredictandcontrolnatureforitsownpurposes.Tobesure,humans can’t change the repetitive patterns that underlie the yearly calendar, but byunderstandingthosepatternsandkeepingtrackof them,humanscanpredictanduse themfortheirownpurposes.Noticethatascivilizationsdeveloped,theywerelesssubjecttonaturaleventscausingtheir

demise, but more subject to other civilizations doing so. Notice also that as major beliefsystemsdeveloped,civilizationsbecamelessinterestedinappeasingthegodstoprotectthemfromthegreatunknowns,andmoreinterestedininternalpeace,onenesswithagreathumanforce,orsalvation.Thiscorrespondstohumans’abilitytofigureoutnature.Thus,theirfocusofconcernshiftedfromtheneedforbodilyprotectiontothedesireforinternalpeace.Asyoucontinuetoreviewthemajorworldeventsintheupcomingchapters,alwayskeep

inmindthatifyoucancompare,contrast,andfigureouthowthingsarechanging,youwillbeabletowriteverythoughtfulessays.

4.IMPORTANTTERMS

Agriculture Monarchy

Agrarian Monotheism

Bands/Clans Neolithic

Barbarian Nomadic

Bureaucracy Pastoral

Civilization Paleolithic

City-states Philosophy

Classical Polytheism

Domestication RiverValley

Economy Sedentary

Egalitarian Settlement

Emperor Subsistence

Empire Surplus

Feudalism Sustenance

Foraging Theocracy

Hierarchy Traditional

Hierarchical Urbanization

Hunter-Gatherer Vassals

Irrigation

5.PEOPLE,PLACES,ANDESVENTS

AlexandertheGreat IronAge

AnalectsofConfucius JewishDiaspora

BronzeAge Legalism(China)

Byzantium PaxRomana

Calendar Pyramids

CodeofHammurabi RomanRepublic

Cuneiform RomanSenate

Democracy ShangCivilization(China)

EightFoldPath ShiHuangDi(QinChina)

FourNobleTruths SiddharthaGautama

GothicMigrations SilkRoadTrade

GreatWall TheTorah

HanDynasty TheVedasofHinduism

Hellenism Xiongnu

TheHuns Ziggurats

IndianOceanTrade

Clickheretoviewalargerimage.

7

ReallyOldStuff:Around600C.E.toAround1450

I.CHAPTEROVERVIEWThis chapter picks upwhere the last one left off—kind of. You’ll notice that a few thingsdiscussedinthischapteractuallyoccurredbefore600C.E.Weincludedthembecausetheyfitinbetterwiththetopicscoveredhere.Remember: Read through this chapter once, then go back and focus on the things thatyou’renotentirelyclearabout.Here’sthechapteroutline. I. ChapterOverviewYou’rereadingit.

II. StayFocusedontheBigPictureOrganizethemanyeventsthatoccurredduringthe800or900yearscoveredinthischapterintosomebig-pictureconcepts.

III. ReviewofHistoryWithinCivilizationsfrom600C.E.–1450.Thisisthelargestsectionofthechapter.Init,we’lldelveintodevelopmentsineachregionormajorcivilization.Ifyou’retotallycluelessonanypartofthissection,consideralsoreviewingthecorrespondingtopicinyourtextbook.Afterall,we’retalkingabout850yearsofhistory,andthissectionisintendedasareview,notasaprimarysource.Here’showwe’veorganizedtheinformation. A. TheRiseofIslam B. DevelopmentsinEuropeandtheByzantineEmpire C. DevelopmentsinAsia D. TheRiseandFalloftheMongols E. DevelopmentsinAfrica F. DevelopmentsintheAmericas

IV. ReviewofInteractionsAmongCulturesfrom600C.E.–1450TodowellontheAPWorldHistoryExam,youneedtounderstandmorethanjusttheeventsthatoccurredwithineachregionorcivilization.Youneedtounderstandhowtheyinteractedwithandaffectedeachother.Thisgetsverycomplicated,sowe’vegiventhetopicitsownsection.MakesureyoureviewthematerialinSectionIIIfirst.Onceyouhaveafirmunderstandingofthedevelopmentswithineachregionoftheworld,thissectionwillmakealotmoresense.Here’showwe’veorganizedit: A. TradeNetworksandCulturalDiffusion B. ExpansionofReligionandEmpire:CultureClash C. OtherReasonsPeopleWereontheMove

V. TechnologyandInnovations600C.E.–1450Majoradvancesinnavigation,warfare,andship-buildingastradeexpandsandinteractionincreases.

VI. ChangesandContinuitiesintheRoleofWomenThewealthierasocietyis,thelesspublicpresenceandfreedomwomenhave.

VII. PullingItAllTogether

Areviewofthereview. VIII. TimelineofMajorDevelopments600C.E.–1450Majordevelopmentsorganizedbytimeandplace.

II.STAYFOCUSEDONTHEBIGPICTUREAsyoureviewthedetailsofthecivilizationsinthischapter,stayfocusedonthebig-pictureconceptsandaskyourselfsomequestions,includingthefollowing:

1. Do cultural areas, as opposed to states or empires, better represent history? Culturalareasarethosethatshareacommonculture,anddon’tnecessarilyrespectgeographicallimitations. States, like city-states and nation-states (countries), and empires, havepoliticalboundaries,evenifthoseboundariesaren’tentirelyagreedupon.

2. How does change occur within societies? As you review all the information in thischapter,you’llnoticealotoftalkabouttrading,migrations,andinvasions.Payattentiontowhypeoplemovearoundsomuchinthefirstplace,andtheimpactofthesemoves.And, don’t forget, sometimes change occurs within a society because of internaldevelopments,notbecauseofexternalinfluences.Payattentiontothattoo.

3. Howsimilarweretheeconomicandtradingpracticesthatdevelopedacrosscultures?Payattentiontomonetarysystems,traderoutes,andtradepractices.Howdidtheylinkup?

4. How does the environment impact human decisionmaking? Pay attention to thewaystatesrespondtoenvironmentalchanges.Dotheymoveorsendoutraidingparties?Aretheyabletorespondquicklyandsuccessfullytoenvironmentalchanges?

III.REVIEWOFHISTORYWITHINCIVILIZATIONS600C.E.–1450ThisperiodisdefinedbywhatrisesoutofthecollapseoftheClassicalcivilizationsandbytheinteractions—bothpositiveandnegative—thatdevelopbetweenthesenewstates.Thisperiodisoneoftremendousgrowthinlong-distancetrade:thecaravansofthevariousSilkRoutes,the multi-ethnic Indian Ocean sailors, the trips across the Sahara to West Africa, andcontinuedtradeintheMediterraneanalloccurfrom600to1450C.E.These850yearswerealsodefinedbya longperiodofdecentralization inWesternEurope,andexpansionon thetradingempiresoftheMiddleEastandChina.Rememberinteraction!

A.THERISEOFISLAMIntheseventhcentury,anewfaithtookholdintheMiddleEast.Thisfaith,calledIslam,wasmonotheistic,likeJudaismandChristianity.ThefollowersofIslam,calledMuslims,believethatAllah(God)transmittedhiswordstothefaithfulthroughMohammad,whosefollowersbegantorecordthosewords inwhatcametobecalledtheQu’ran (recitation;also spelledKoran).MuslimsbelievethatsalvationiswonthroughsubmissiontothewillofGod,andthatthiscanbeaccomplishedbyfollowingtheFivePillarsofIslam.Thesefivepillarsinclude

confessionoffaithprayerfivetimesperdaycharitytotheneedy

fastingduringthemonth-longRamadanpilgrimagetoMeccaatleastonceduringone’slifetime

Islamisalsoguidedbytheconceptofjihad,whichmeans“tostruggle.”ThisreferstoboththestruggletobeabetterMuslimandthestruggleagainstnon-believers.IslamsharesacommonhistorywithJudaismandChristianity.ItacceptsAbraham,Moses,

andJesusasprophets(althoughitdoesnotacceptJesusasthesonofGod),andholdsthatMohammadwas the lastgreatprophet.LikeChristians,Muslimsbelieve thatallpeopleareequalbeforeGodand that everyone shouldbe converted to the faith.Earlyon, Islam splitintotwogroups:ShiaandSunni.ThesplitoccurredoveradisagreementaboutwhoshouldsucceedMohammadastheleaderofthefaith.

AllahBePraised:IslamTakesHoldGrowing up in the city of Mecca in the Arabian desert (present-day Saudi Arabia),Mohammadwasexposed tomanydifferentbeliefs, inpartbecauseMecca layon the traderoutesbetween theMediterraneanand the IndianOcean.Hewasexposed tobothJudaismand Christianity as a child, as well as the many polytheistic faiths that had traditionallyinfluencedtheregion.OncehebeganpreachingthemonotheisticreligionofIslam,which,asstatedabove,sharesafoundationwithJudaismandChristianity,hecameintoconflictwiththe leaders ofMecca, who had both a religious and economic interest inmaintaining thestatus quo. In other words, the leadership in Mecca wanted to maintain the polytheisticshrines that attracted pilgrimages and brought wealth to the community. Persecuted, andthreatenedwithdeath,Mohammadandhis followers fled toMedina in622C.E. inwhat isknownasthehijra(whichalsomarksyear1ontheMuslimcalendar).Mohammadandhisfollowers found support in Medina and, in 630, he returned to Mecca and destroyed thepaganshrines—exceptfortheKa’ba,whichbecamethefocalpointofMuslimpilgrimage.From there, Islam spread throughout the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. The tenets of

Islam came to be officially practiced in Muslim culture, similar to the way the tenets ofChristianity were practiced in the Roman and Byzantine Empires. Lands where Islamwaspracticedwereknownas“DaralIslam,”orHouseofIslam.AsIslamspreadrapidlythroughthe Middle East and Africa and toward Europe, Christian leaders became increasinglyalarmed.Moreonthatlater.

TheEmpireGrowsastheReligionSplitsWhenMohammaddiedunexpectedlyin632,AbuBakr,oneofhisfirst followersinMecca,becamecaliph,theheadofstate,militarycommander,chiefjudge,andreligiousleader.Youcanthinkofthecaliphasasortofemperorandreligiousleaderwrappedupinoneperson.Heruledanempire,buthealsomadepronouncementsonreligiousdoctrine.Inotherwords,the Islamic empire was what’s known as a theocracy, a government ruled by immediatedivineguidanceorbyofficialswhoareregardedasbeingdivinelyguided.Butbecauseitwasruledbyacaliph,thetheocraticIslamicEmpirewasreferredtoasacaliphate.Islamwouldeventually branch out beyond the boundaries of the Islamic Empire, and therefore existindependently as a religion, but in these early years, the growth of Islamwas inextricablylinkedtothegrowthofthisempire.Astimewenton,thecaliphsbegantobehavemore likehereditaryrulers, likethose ina

monarchy, except that there was no clear line of succession. The lack of clear successioncausedagreatdealof troubledown the road.The first fourcaliphswereAbuBakr,Umar,Uthman,andAli.The lastof the four,Ali,wasassassinatedandwas succeededbyhis son,Hasan.Butunderpressure fromaprominent family inMecca,Hasan relinquishedhis title,makingwayfortheestablishmentoftheUmayyadDynasty.ThisdynastywouldenlargetheIslamic Empire dramatically, but it would also intensify conflict with the Byzantine andPersianEmpiresforalmostacentury.DuringtheUmayyadDynasty,thecapitalwasmovedtoDamascus,Syria,althoughMeccaremained the spiritual center. Also during the Umayyad reign, Arabic became the officiallanguageof thegovernment;goldandsilvercoinsbecamethestandardmonetaryunit;andconquered subjectswere “encouraged” to convert to Islam in order to establish a commonfaiththroughouttheempire.Thosewhochosenottoconvertwereforcedtopayatax.Asnotedabove, the IslamicEmpiregrewenormouslyunder theUmayyads,expandingasfarasnorthernAfricaandintoSpain,wheretheyruledthesouthernIberianpeninsulafromthecityofCórdoba.Numeroustimesduringtheearlyeighthcentury,theUmayyadsattackedtheByzantinecapitalofConstantinople,butfailedtooverthrowthatregime.Thatdidn’tstopthem fromgoingelsewhere, and in732C.E., the IslamicEmpirebegan tomakeamoveonEurope,bywayoftheIberianPeninsula(Spain).Atthetime,MuslimsheldpartsofsouthernIberia and southernparts of Italy,whileChristiansdominated all the regions to thenorth.CharlesMartel(686–741C.E.),aFrankishleader,stoppedtheMuslimadvanceinitstracksasittriedtoadvancetowardParis,andsotheIslamicEmpireneverflourishedinEuropebeyondpartsofSpainandsouthernItaly.(MoreontheFranksandtheiractivitiesalittlelaterinthechapter.)DespitethesuccessoftheUmayyadDynasty(theDomeoftheRockwasbuiltonTempleMount in Jerusalem during this time, and Córdoba was one of the richest and mostsophisticatedcities inEurope),problemswithsuccessionstarted toemerge.Eventually, theMuslimssplitintotwocamps,ShiiteandSunni.Shiite(Shia)IslamholdsthatMohammad’sson-in-law,Ali,wastherightfulheirtotheempire,basedonMohammad’scommentstoAli.Sunnis, in contrast, though they hold Ali in high esteem, do not believe that he and hishereditarylinearethechosensuccessors;rather,theycontendthattheleadersoftheempireshouldbedrawnfromabroadbaseofthepeople.ThissplitinIslamremainstothisday.AstheShiabegantoassertthemselvesmoredramatically,theUmayyadDynastywentintodecline,andultimatedemise.InabattleforcontroloftheempireagainsttheforcesofAbual-Abbas(adescendentofMohammad’sunclewhowassupportedbythedescendentsofAli,theShia, and theMawali—non-ArabMuslims), theUmayyadEmpirewasdefeated (punctuatedby the slaughter of somemembers of the family). Itwas replacedby theAbbasidDynastyaround750inallareasexceptSpain.

TheAbbasidDynasty:AnotherGoldenAgetoRememberThe Abbasid Dynasty reigned from 750 to 1258, that is, until the Islamic Empire wasdefeatedbytheMongols(moreonthemlater).Throughoutthistime,likeallmajorempires,theAbbasidshadmanyupsanddowns,buttheyoversawagoldenage,fromtheearlytomidninth century, during which the arts and sciences flourished. The Abbasids built amagnificentcapitalatBaghdad,whichbecameoneofthegreatculturalcentersoftheworld.

Likemostoftheotherancientcivilizationswe’vediscussedsofar,theIslamicEmpirewasbuiltaroundtrade.Themerchantsintroducedtheuniqueideaofcredittotheempire’strademechanismstofreethemoftheburden—andthedanger—ofcarryingcoins.Necessarily,theyalso developed a systemof itemized receipts andbills, innovations thatwere later used inEuropeandelsewhere.In addition to the importance of trade, manufacturing played an important role in theexpansionoftheIslamicEmpire.Steel,forexample,wasproducedforuseinswords.Islamicadvancementswerealsoseeninthemedicalandmathematicsfields.Mohammadal-Razi,forexample, published a massive medical encyclopedia, which was unlike anything compiledbeforeit.AndIslamicmathematiciansexpandedtheknowledgetheyhadlearnedfromIndia;theircontributionsareespeciallynoteworthyinalgebra.AnAbbasidarmyhadthegoodfortunetodefeataT’angChinesearmy(moreontheminafewpages)duringtheBattleoftheTalusRiverin751C.E.ThisfightforcontrolofSilkRoadtradingpostsincentralAsiaisrelativelyunimportant(theMuslimswon)exceptforthefactthat theChinesePOWswere carryingpapermoney.Once theAbbasids figuredouthow tomakepaper,theycouldcontinueoneoftheirmostimportantactivities,buildinglibrariesanduniversitiesandstockingthemwithscholarshipfromallovertheknownworld.Thelocationof the Muslims at the cross-roads of Europe and Asia allowed them to monopolize traderoutes.ThecosmopolitancitiesoftheIslamiccaliphsthrivedontrade,internationalscholars,andexpansion,bothmilitaryandcultural.So despite the hostility between the European and Islamicworlds, the Islamic Empire iscredited with playing a significant role in preserving Western culture. (Recall that theByzantinesdidthistoo.)IncontrasttoEuropeancivilizationsduringtheMiddleAges,whichwere highly decentralized and dismissive of their ancient past (more on that later in thischapter), the Arabs kept theWestern heritage of the region alive. For example, when theMuslims encountered the classic writings of ancient Athens and Rome, including those ofPlato and Aristotle, they translated them into Arabic. Later, whenMuslims and ChristiansbattledforcontroloftheLevant(present-dayIsrael,Jordan,Syria,Lebanonandpointsnorthand south) during the European Crusades, Europe found its own history among the othertreasures preserved in Arabic libraries and museums. This again demonstrates how theinteractionbetweentwopeoples(evenwhenviolent)canleadtotradeandculturalexchange.TheMuslims,similartotheRomans,wereoftentolerantofthelocalcustomsoftheareasthey conquered—althoughChristians and Jewswereoftenpersecuted in theLevant.That’snottosaythattheIslamicEmpiredidn’tmakeeveryefforttoconvertthepeopleitconquered(rememberthetaxwementioned)?Thepointis,thoughitwasatheocracy,itsmoreflexibleapproachcontributedtoitsrapidgrowth.TheSufis,Islamicmystics,wereitsmosteffectivemissionaries.TheystressedapersonalrelationshipwithAllah, incontrast tootherreligionsthat emphasize a particular form of ritual. As you might guess, this made Islam highlyadaptabletomanydifferentcircumstances.Byallowing,andevenencouraging,followerstopractice their ownways to revereAllah, and by tolerating otherswhoplacedAllah in theframework of other beliefs, the Sufis succeeded in converting large numbers of people toIslam.

WomenandIslam:ForBetter,forWorseIn Arabia, women traditionally did not have property rights or inheritance rights; rather,womenwereessentiallyviewedaspropertythemselves—ofmen.Ifamandivorcedawoman,for example, hewould keep her dowry (themoney and property fromher father that shebroughtwith her into themarriage). Thiswidespread—really, institutionalized—low statusforwomeneventually led to a culture inwhichbabygirlswere seenas less valuable thanbabyboys.Tragicallythisoftentranslatedintofemaleinfanticide,thekillingofanunwantedbabygirl.(Thisgenderbiaswas,bytheway,commoninmanypatriarchalsocieties.)TheQu’ran,thesacredbookofIslam,establishedbetween651and652,changedmuchofthis.Althoughwomen remained subservient tomen andunder their direction and control,theybegantobetreatedwithmoredignity,hadsomelegalrights,andwereconsideredequalbeforeAllah. If amandivorcedhiswife,hewouldhave to returnherdowry toher.Moreimportant, infanticidewas strictly forbidden.Women gained considerable influencewithinthehome—andinearlyIslamicsociety,womensometimeshadinfluenceoutsideit.Khadija,Mohammad’sfirstwife,hadbeenasuccessfulbusinesswoman,forexample.Islamicsocietywasstillaman’sworld,however.Menwerepermittedtohaveasmanyasfourwives,aslongastheywereabletosupportthemandtreatedthemequally.Women,ontheotherhand,hadtobefaithfultooneman—inpartbecauseinthissocietylandwaspassedthroughthemales,andtheidentityofaboy’sfathercouldn’tbequestionable.And,legally,womenweretreatedunequally;awoman’stestimonyincourt, forexample,wasgivenonlyhalftheweightofaman’s.Restrictionsforwomenevenincludedwhattheywore:Theyhadto be veiled in public—although this custom began in Mesopotamia and Persia, Islamicsocietyadoptedandadaptedit.Over time, Islamic society became more structured and more patriarchal. A woman’sprimarydutywassingular: tobeloyaltoandcareforherhusbandandfamily.Withinthatstructure,however,womenwerehighlyprotected,andinsomewaysmorerespected,undertheQu’ranthantheypreviouslyhadbeen.

DeclineoftheIslamicCaliphates:InternalRivalriesandMongolInvasionsThe Islamic empire regularly endured internal struggles and civil war, often arising fromdifferencesbetween theSunniandShia sects, and from ethnic differences between diversegroups in the rapidly expanding Muslim world. Numerous rival factions and powers

developed, and although none of these threatened Islam, they did destabilize the centralauthority at Baghdad and cut tax revenues. The final blows camewhen Turkish slaves ormamluks revolted and established a new capital at Samarra in central Iraq, while othergroupscarvedoutpiecesoftheempire.TherewasanewShiadynastyinnorthernIranandconstantthreatsfromtheSeljukTurks,anomadicSunnigroup.AndliketheRomansbeforethem, weakened by internal problems, the Abbasids also had external foes: the Persians,Europeans,andByzantine.It would be theirmost distant enemy, however, theMongols, whowould defeat them.During the crusades, in 1258, the Mongols overran the Islamic Empire and destroyedBaghdad,therebysignalingtheendof theAbbasidDynasty. ItspeoplewouldfleetoEgypt,where they remained intact but powerless. Eventually, theOttomanTurks would reuniteEgypt,Syria,andArabiainanewIslamicstate,whichwouldlastuntil1918.

B.DEVELOPMENTSINEUROPEANDTHEBYZANTINEEMPIRE

DevelopmentsinEuropeandpointseastbecamequitecomplicatedduringtheMiddleAges,which is theperiodafter the fallofRomeandbefore theRenaissance.Asyoumight recallfromthelastchapter,theRomanEmpire,andeventuallyChristianity,wasdividedintotwofactions that split, reconnected, then split again. Ultimately, the eastern Roman Empire,centered in Constantinople, became the highly centralized government known as theByzantineEmpire;whereas,inthewest,theempirecollapsedentirely,althoughthereligionretained a strong foothold. The important point to remember about all this is that eventhoughbothsegmentsoftheempirefollowedChristianity,theypracticeddifferentformsofthereligion;moreover,theirpopulationscompetedforsupremacy.

NotetheChange:AstheEmpireTurnsTheymeet.Theyflirtforalongtime,thenmarryandsettleinRome.Thingsgettough,so they take a short break from each other, but get back together in Constantinoplewhere they build a new house. After a time they separate from each othergeographically,butremainmarriedbyreligion.Eventually,theygetadivorceandfollowtheirownreligiouspaths.Willtheyeverbeabletorekindletheromance?ThehistoryoftheRomanEmpirereadsalotlikeabadsoapopera.RecallfromChapter6 that theRomanEmpireunited theentireMediterranean forcenturies.But itbecametoounwieldytogovernasawhole,so in286C.E., theempirewassplit intoaneasternhalf and a western half, in what were hoped to be more manageable administrativeregions. Then, in 313, Christianity was accepted in the empire; and in 330, whenConstantineconvertedtoChristianity,hereunitedtheempireatConstantinople. ItwasstilltheRomanEmpire,itjustwasn’tcenteredinRome.Theempiresplitagainin395,atwhichtimetheeasternhalfbecameknownas theByzantineEmpire.Almost400yearslater, in800,yetanotherempirewasestablished, theHolyRomanEmpirecentered inRome. The Byzantines continued on as before in the east. So again there were twoempires,butstillonereligion.That,however,wastochangeaswellsometwohundredyears laterwhen, in 1054, Christianity began to be practiced as two entirely separatereligions:RomanCatholicismandChristianOrthodoxy.

Asyoureviewtheeventsinthisregion,theimportantpointstorememberare

theByzantineEmpirewasalotmorecentralizedandorganizedthantheWesternempirebothpracticedChristianity,thoughnotinthesameway

TheByzantineEmpire:TheBriefDetailsTheByzantineEmpirewasdistinctfromtheRomanEmpire.ItusedtheGreeklanguage;itsarchitecturehaddistinctivedomes;itscultureingeneralhadmoreincommonwithEasterncultureslikethoseofPersia;anditsbrandofChristianitybecameanentirelyseparatebranchknownasOrthodoxChristianity.ComparedwithwhatwasgoingonattheheightoftheRomanEmpire,muchofEuropeatthetimewasfragmentedintosmallfeudalkingdomswithlimitedpowerandfewerculturalandintellectualadvancements.TheByzantineEmpire, liketheIslamicEmpiretothesouth,was significantly different. The Byzantine emperors ruled by absolute authority, especiallyover the economy,whose industries, such as silk production (a trade learned fromChina),they monopolized. The Byzantines also used coined money, the value of which remainedremarkablystable,makingitaverydesirablecurrencyforbusiness.UnderJustinian,whoreignedfrom527to565,theformergloryandunityoftheRomanEmpirewassomewhatrestoredinConstantinople.Theregionflourishedintradeandthearts.ChristianConstantinopleandIslamicBaghdadrivaledeachotherforculturalsupremacy.TheJustinian period is perhaps most remembered for two things: (1) the Justinian Code, acodificationofRomanlawthatkeptancientRomanlegalprinciplesalive(intheWestthesewent unused for a time), and (2) the flowering of the arts and sciences, evident in the

construction of major buildings and churches, most notablyHagia Sophia, an enormouscathedralthatstillstandstoday(butnowasamosque).TheByzantinesarealsorememberedandadmiredfortheirmasteryofthemosaicartformtheyusedtodecoratechurches.In contrast to theRomanCatholic emperors of theWest,who regarded thepope as theleader of Byzantium’s church, secular rulers headed the church (which, remember, wasOrthodox).Forcenturies the twochurchesmanaged to tolerateeachother,but in time thedifferences became too great. They disagreed over the sacrament of communion, whetherpriestsshouldbeallowedtomarry,andtheuseoflocallanguagesinchurch.TheyevenwereatoddsregardingthenatureofGod,specificallyGodasatrinity,andtheydisagreedovertheplacement of icons duringworship. In 1054 C.E., unable to reconcile their differences, thepopeexcommunicatedthepatriarchofConstantinople,whodidthesametothepope.Fromthis point forward, Orthodoxy influenced the East and Roman Catholicism influenced theWest.KeepthisschisminmindasyoureviewtheCrusades,ChristianEurope’swarwiththeIslamicworld;theByzantineisrightinthemiddle!

ContrastThem:ReligionandStateinRomanCatholicismandChristianOrthodoxyRememberthatwesaidthesecularempirewasmorecentralizedintheeast(ByzantineEmpire) than in the west (Roman Empire) during theMiddle Ages? Interestingly, thereversewastrueintermsoftheirreligions.ChristianityaspracticedbyRomanCatholicswasverycentralizedwithpowerstemmingfromRomeandservicesheldintheRoman(Latin)form.Intheeast,OrthodoxChristianitywasmorelocalized.Russianchurches,forexample,conductedservices in theirownlanguage. In thissense localcustomsmergedwithChristianpracticesintheOrthodoxChurch. A great deal of the evolution of these religions in these two empires centered oncontrol.Forstability,eithertheheadsofthechurchortheheadsofthestateneededtobeincontrol.DuringtheMiddleAges,theWestcentralizedpowerinthechurch,therebydecentralizing political power. Essentially that meant the existing political leadershipwasblessedbythechurch,henceoftenunderthecontrolofthechurchaswell,atleastintheearlycenturiesoftheMiddleAges.IntheEast,thesituationwastheexactopposite:Politicalemperorswereincontrolofbothpoliticsandthechurch,andchurchpracticeswere localized, but not political authority. The point to remember here is that in theearlycenturiesoftheMiddleAges,theEastwasmoreofasecularempirewithanofficialchurchreligion;theWestwasmoreofareligiousempirewithsubservientpoliticalunits.

ImpactofOrthodoxyonRussia:FeastintheEastIntheninthcentury,theSlavicpeoplesofsoutheasternEuropeandRussiawereconvertedtoChristianity bySt. Cyril, anOrthodox Christian,who used theGreek alphabet to create aSlavicalphabetthattothisdayisusedinpartsoftheregion.Mostoftheseareaswerenotpart of the Byzantine Empire itself, butwere influenced by it.WhenVladimir, a RussianprincefromKiev,abandonedthetraditionalpaganreligionandconvertedtoChristianity,healsoconsideredIslam,Judaism,andRomanCatholicism.RumorhasitthathechoseChristian

Orthodoxybecauseithadnorestrictionsaboutwhenorwhathecouldandcouldnoteat.ThedominanceofChristianOrthodoxyinthisregionissignificantbecausewhilewesternEurope followed one cultural path, eastern Europe followed another, and this had atremendousimpactonthedevelopmentofRussia.TheRussianOrthodoxChurchwasalignedwith Byzantine but not Roman traditions. So, when the Roman church reformed later(discussedinChapter6),theRussianandGreekchurchesdidnot.Asaresultofthis,andtheMongol invasion(comingupsoon),Russiabecameculturallydifferent fromtheothergreatpowersofEurope,whichgrewoutoftheRomanCatholictradition.

MeanwhileOutWest:TheFranksversustheMuslimsThe best place to begin a discussion of political developments in western Europe in theMiddleAges iswith theFranks.After theclassicalRomanEmpire fellapart,due inpart toinvasionsfromGermanictribes,thesetribessettledthroughoutwesternEurope.Mostofthetribes converted toChristianity relatively quickly, thoughpolitically they continued to runtheir own shows. That meant they came into regular conflict with each other, and theyformed alliances and expanded, sometimes enough to be considered kingdoms. The mostsignificantoftheseearlykingdomswastheFranks.TheFrankswereaGermanictribethatunitedundertheleadershipofKingClovisinthelate fifth century.He built a rather large empire that stretched frompresent-dayGermanythroughBelgium and into France.He converted toRomanCatholicism and established hiscapitalinParis.Afterhedied,hisempirewasdividedamonghissons,afterwhichitdeclinedininfluence.Nevertheless, theempiredidhelp thevariouspeoplesofwesternEuropesolidifyunderacommonculture,whichmadeiteasierforthemtounifyagainstMusliminvasions,whichinthe eighth century took over parts of Spain and Italy. Charles Martel (remember wementionedhimatthebeginningofthechapter?)ledtherevoltagainsttheadvancingMuslimarmiesandin732defeatedthemattheBattleofTours,notfarfromParis.Again,interactionthroughconflict.MartelthenusedhispositionasapoliticalandmilitaryleaderunderthedecliningFrankishMerovingianDynasty to put his sons forth as successors, thus founding theCarolingianDynasty(“Carolus”isLatinforCharles).Martelhadworkedduringhistenuretoreunitetheregionunderhis control, andwhenhis sonPepin theShort (therewere several Pepins inFrankishhistory)ascendedtothethronein752C.E.,hechosetohavehissuccessioncertifiedbythepope,asignificantstepthatsenttheclearsignalthatanempire’slegitimacyrestedontheRomanCatholicChurch’sapproval.

Charlemagne:TheEmpireStrikesBack

In the centuries following the breakup of the Roman Empire, no true empire existed inwesternEurope.TheFrankshadbuiltalargekingdom,butitcouldhardlybeconsideredanempirebyhistorical standards. ItwouldbePepin’s son,Charles (747–814C.E.),whowouldrevitalizetheconceptoftheempireinwesternEurope.Likehisfather,Charleswascrownedbythepopein800andbecameknownasCharlemagne(“CharlestheGreat”).TheempireCharlemagnebuiltwouldcometobecalledtheHolyRomanEmpireuponthecoronationofOttotheGreatin962.It’simportanttopointoutthatthisempirehadlittleincommonwith the original Roman Empire, other than the fact that powerwas once againcentralizedandRomebegantothinkof itselfagainasaworldcenter.Thesizeof theHolyRoman Empire, in comparison to its namesake, was relatively small. It included northernItaly, Germany, Belgium, and France. Nevertheless, it marked the beginning of westernEuropeanambitionintermsofempire-building,especiallyamongthoseinthechurch.Under Charlemagne, a strong focus was placed on the arts and education, but notsurprisinglywithamuchmorereligiousbent—muchofthiseffortcenteredinthemonasteriesunderthedirectionofthechurch.AndthoughCharlemagnewasverypowerful,hisrulewasnot absolute. Society was structured around Feudalism (more on feudalism shortly). ThusCharlemagnehadoverallcontroloftheempire,butthelocallordsheldpoweroverthelocalterritories,answeringtoCharlemagneonlyonanas-neededbasis.AndbecauseCharlemagnedidnot levy taxes, he failed to build a strong andunited empire.After his death, and thedeathofhissonLouis, theempirewasdividedamonghisthreegrandsonsaccordingtothe

TreatyofVerdunin843.

TheVikings:RaidersfromtheNorseDuringthistime,westernEuropecontinuedtobeattackedbypowerfulinvaders,notablytheVikings fromScandinaviaand theMagyars fromHungary.Although theVikingswerenotthe only raiders, theywere perhaps themost successful. Beginning around 800, they usedtheirhighlymaneuverable,multi-oaredboatstoraidwellbeyondtheirborders—ontheopenseas,upanddowntheNorthAtlanticcoast,andalongtheinlandrivers.TheVikings got a bad reputation for raiding theRomanCatholicmonasteries, but don’tblametheVikings.Islandlifemeanslimitedresources,andraidingwasanormalconsequenceofthepressuresonagrowingsociety.Themonasteriesheldmuchwealthandfood,sotheywerenatural targets. But raidingwas just one aspect ofNorse economy.TheVikingswerealso merchants and fishermen and developed some of the earliest commercial fisheries innorthern Europe. These activities, along with the raids, led to settlements as diverse asNewfoundland, Canada around 1000 C.E., inland Russia, and northern France. The VikingsevengotasfarsouthasConstantinople,raidingitatleastthreetimes.InFrance,theVikingswere known as Normans (or north-men), the most famous of whom is William, whoconquered Anglo-Saxon England in 1066. (Vikings, in the form of the Normans, had anenormousinfluenceonEngland,particularlyontheEnglishlanguage.)Remarkably,however,inspiteoftheirvariousvictories,theVikings,too,wereconvertedtoChristianity. This continued in a pattern of invading tribes assimilating to a commoncivilization inwestern Europe because of religion, not political power. RomanCatholicismbecameinstitutionalizedateveryleveloflife.BythemiddleoftheMiddleAges,theCatholicChurch had become themost powerful institution inwestern Europe and one of themostpowerfulinstitutionsintheworld.

EuropeanFeudalism:LandDividedFeudalism, thenameof theEuropeansocial,economic,andpolitical systemof theMiddleAges,hadastricthierarchy.Atthetopwasaking,whohadpoweroveranentireterritorycalledhiskingdom.Beneathhimwerethenobles,whoinexchangeformilitaryserviceandloyalty to the kingwere grantedpower over sections of the kingdom.Thenobles, in turn,dividedtheirlandsintosmallersectionsunderthecontroloflesserlordscalledvassals.Thevassalscouldalsosplittheirlandsintosmallerpiecesandgivecustodyofthemtosubordinatevassals,whocoulddivide their lands intoeven smallerpieces in thecustodyof evenmoresubordinatevassals,andsoon.Belowthevassalswerepeasants,whoworkedtheland.Forthis system towork, everyone had to fulfill obligations to others at different levels in thehierarchy:toserveinthemilitary,producefood,orservethosewhowereatahigherlevel.If,say, youwere a lesser-lord, youwere obliged to your lord, and youwere obliged to yourvassalsaswell.The estates that were granted to the vassals were called fiefs, and these later becameknownasmanors.Thelordandthepeasants livedonthemanor.Thepeasantsworkedthelandonbehalfofthelord,andinexchangethelordgavethepeasantsprotectionandaplaceto live.Manyof themanorswereremarkablyself-sufficient.Everything thatwasneededtolivewasproducedonthem.Foodwasharvested,clothingandshoesweremade,andsoon.Advancesmadeinthescienceofagricultureduringthistimehelpedthemanorstosucceed.

Onesuchadvance,calledthethree-fieldsystem,centeredontherotationofthreefields:oneforthefallharvest,oneforthespringharvest,andonenot-seededfallowharvest(thelatterallowing the land to replenish its nutrients). In thisway,manorswere able to accumulatefoodsurplusesandbuildonthesuccess.Lordsdirectedwhatwascalledthe“GreatClearing,”theclearingofhugeareasofforestforthecreationofmorefarmland.

CompareThem:AncientCivilizationsandThoseoftheMiddleAgesYouhavenodoubtnoticedthatEuropeancivilizationsduringtheMiddleAgesevolvedinmuch the sameway as theMediterranean, Indus, and Shang civilizations a couple ofthousandyearsearlier,andforthesamereason:Agriculturalsurplusesenabledtheearlycivilizationstobuildcities,whichthenmadeitpossibletoformcomplicatedinstitutionsandpromotetheartsandsciences.InwesternEuropeafterthefalloftheRomanEmpire,thepracticeoffeudalismcausedlife to be centered on small, self-sustaining communities that didn’t initially generatemuchofa surplus.Butas theysubsequentlybuiltupstorehousesof foodandsupplies,andaspeoplecameintogreatercontactwitheachother,theywerefreedtopursueotherendeavors(atthediscretionoftheiroverseer,ofcourse).Asaresult,webegintoseetheemergence of craftspeople, individuals skilled in highly specialized ways. Towns andcities,too,begantogrow,and,eventually,theMiddleAgescametoanend.

Thelord,asnoted,owedhisallegiancetotheking,butonlyhaddirectcontactwithhimwhenthekingcalleduponthelordtoprovideaservice.Otherwise,thelordwasinchargeofhisownmanor—hisown life.And though thevarious fiefswere, in theory, self-sustaining,and the lords all beholden to the same ruler, conflicts erupted between feudal lords on aregularbasis (this iswhere the term feud comes from).Theetiquetteof thesedisputesandrules of engagement was highly refined and flowed from the code of chivalry, an honorsystem that strongly condemned betrayal and promotedmutual respect.Most of the lords(andknights,whowerealsoconsideredpartofthenobility)followedthecodeofchivalry.The feudal system, like most of the civilizations we’ve discussed so far, was male-dominated.Landequaledpower,andonlymalescould inherit land, sowomenwereprettymuch powerless. Specifically,when a lord died under the feudal system his land and titlepasseddownviaprimogeniture,tohiseldestson.Evennoblewomenhadfewrights—thoughthey were socially elevated (and have come to be romanticized in literature). They couldinherit a fief, but they couldnot rule it.And their educationwas limited toonlydomesticskills.Asusual inmostearlysocieties,noblewomenwereadmiredandvaluedprimarilyfortheir “feminine” traits—their beauty or compassion—but were regarded essentially aspropertytobeprotectedordisplayed.Peasants(calledserfs)inthefeudalsocialsystem,whethermaleorfemale,hadfewrights.Asmanorial life evolved, an increasing number of peasants became tied to the land quiteliterally: They couldn’t leave themanorwithout permission from their lord. Peasantswerenotquiteslaves,butnot freeeither. Ironically,however, itwasthis“imprisonment”onthelandthatledtotheserfsbecominghighlyskilledworkers.Inshort,theylearnedhowtodowhateverittooktomakethemanoronwhichtheyworkedself-sufficient.

ContrastThem:FeudalEuropeandtheIslamicEmpireRemembertheAbbasidDynasty?ItfloweredintheIslamicworldatthesametimethatfeudalismwas taking root inwesternEurope. Islamicmerchantswere tradingwith theworldwhileEuropean lordsweregoverningtheirmanors.Baghdadbecameacenteroflearning and art in the Islamic Empire, whereas small, secluded monasteries becamecentersoflearningintheearlyHolyRomanEmpire.Insummary,itcanbesaidthatinthe early Middle Ages, educated Europeans became very provincial, while educatedArabsbecamemoreworldly.

Asmanyof theserfsbecameskilled intradesother thanfarming,andEuropeslowlybutsurelystartedtradingwiththerestoftheworld,someoftheseskilledcraftspeoplebegantoearnextraincome.Overtime,thischippedawayattherigidsocialstratificationofthemanorsystem.When banking began in Europe, towns and cities started to gainmomentum. Theresultwas theemergenceofa “middle class,”madeupofurbancraftsmenandmerchants.Theirsuccessluredmorepeopleintotowns,inthehopesofmakingmoremoneyorlearningnewskills.Bytheeleventhcentury,westernEuropewasre-engagingwiththeworld.

HeightoftheMiddleAges:TradingandCrusading

Giventhenewimportanceof trade, townswithwealthymerchantsarosenear theonceall-powerful manors. Towns were chartered on lands controlled by feudal lords (the chartersgave the townspeoplecertain rights); andwithin the towns, themiddle-classmerchants,orburghers, became politically powerful. Like their manorial predecessors, the towns had agreat deal of independence within the empire but were intrinsically more interdependentthantheself-sufficientmanorsofthefeudalsystem.Eventually,townsformedalliances,not

unlikeacity-statestructure.Oneofthemostsignificantalliances,theHanseaticLeague,hadan economic basis; established in 1358, it controlled trade throughout much of northernEurope. One effect of the interdependence of the towns was to initiate a drive towardnationhood;anotherwastoincreasesocialmobilityandflexibilityamongtheclasses.Among the greatest artistic achievements of the Middle Ages was its architecture,specifically its cathedrals. In the early Middle Ages, churches were built in the bulkyRomanesquestyle;laterarchitecturaladvancementsledtowhatcametobecalledtheGothicstyle.Gothic cathedralsweredesigned todrawworshippers closer toGod.Toachieve this,architects of the day used “flying buttresses,” which gave support for tall windows andvaultedceilings.Overtime,thecathedralbecamemorethanaplaceofworship;itbecameanartformandanarenaforart.Thechurchsponsoredartiststoadorntheinsideofcathedralswithpaintingsandsculpture.Music,too,suchasGregorianchants,becameanintrinsicpartofceremonies.European contact with the Muslim world during the Crusades (military campaignsundertakenbyEuropeanChristiansoftheelevenththroughthefourteenthcenturiestotakeovertheHolyLandandconvertMuslimsandothernon-ChristianstoChristianity)andoverthetraderouteshelpedspurnewthoughtandbroadenedtheperspectiveofthesepreviouslyinsularpeople(moreontheCrusadesinSectionIVofthischapter).Intime,peoplebegantoquestionorganizedreligion(citing“reason”),whichofcoursethechurchfoundthreatening.This process of reasoning gave rise to heresies, religious practices or beliefs that do notconformtothetraditionalchurchdoctrine.Sometimeswhatbecamedefinedasheresiesweresimplyolderbeliefsthatdidnotadapttomoremainstreamchangesinreligiousthought.Inwhatmayseemanironytoday,manyhereticswantedareturntothesimplerwaysofearlyChristianity;theyrejectedhowworldlyandwealthythechurchhadbecome.Anotherimportanteffectofpeoplethinkingmoreopenlywasthefoundingofuniversities,where men (not women) could study philosophy, law, and medicine, and learn from theadvances made in Muslim cultures. In science, the ideas of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and otherGreekswerebroughttoEuropethroughcontactswithIslamicandByzantineEmpires(again,viatradingandcrusading).Thisprogression,calledscholasticism,alsosometimescameintoconflictwiththechurchbecauseitreliedonreasonratherthanfaithasitsbasis.Doubtsaboutthesupremacyofreligiousdogmacontinuedtoemergeuntilthebeginningofthe thirteenth century when Pope Innocent III issued strict decrees on church doctrine.Under Innocent III, heretics and Jewswere frequently persecuted, and a fourth, ultimatelyunsuccessfulcrusadewasattempted.Duringthiscrusade,whichseemedmotivatedbygreed,theCrusadersconquered—andsacked—thealreadyChristianConstantinople,anddeclaredaLatinEmpire.(Thisempirewasshort-lived,lastingonlysomefiftyyears,andendedwhentheByzantinesoverthrewtheLatinsin1261).Afewyearslater,PopeGregoryIXsetintomotionthe now-notorious Inquisition, a formalized interrogation and persecution process ofheretics. Punishment for so-called nonbelievers ranged from excommunication and exile totortureandexecution.Duetothepervasivenessofthechurchanditsultimatepoweratthistime,itissometimesreferredtoastheUniversalChurchortheChurchMilitant.Late in the thirteenth century, Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 C.E.), a famous Christianrealistofthisperiod,madesignificantinroadsinalteringChristianthought.HewroteSummaTheologica,whichoutlinedhisviewthatfaithandreasonarenotinconflict,butthatbothare

giftsfromGodandeachcanbeusedtoenhancetheother.Hiswritingshadamajorimpacton Christian thought, although the church remained a strict guardian of its owninterpretations.

FocusOn:TheBubonicPlagueReferred to as the Black Death, this epidemic originated in China where it killed anestimated 35 million people. It spread rapidly through Europe in the mid-fourteenthcentury.Itstransmissionwasfacilitatedbynewformsofcommerceandtrade,includingMongolcontrolofthecentralAsianSilkRoutes, that increasedtheinteractionbetweenEurope and Asia. First occurring in the 1330s, the epidemic spread westward withtraders and merchants, and arrived in Italian port cities as early as 1347. CrowdedconditionsinEurope’scitiesandthelackofadequatesanitationandmedicalknowledgeallcontributedto itsrapidspread.Within50years,athirdofEurope’spopulationwasdead, traditional feudal hierarchies were obsolete, religious hatred intensified, andpeople lost faith in the power of the church. The dramatic changes brought by theepidemicspedupsocialandeconomicmovementsthatwerealreadyimpactingEurope.These included a shift toward a commercial economy,more individual freedoms, anddevelopmentofnewindustries.

TheEmergenceofNation-States:PowerSolidifiesKeep inmind thatduring theMiddleAges,westernEuropewasn’torganized intocountries(nation-states);ratheritwasbrokenupintofeudalkingdoms.ButbythecloseoftheMiddleAges,westernEuropebegantoorganizealongculturalandlinguisticlines.PeoplewhospokeFrenchalignedthemselveswithFrance.ThosewhospokeEnglishunitedunderthebannerofEngland.We’llbetalkingalotmoreaboutthisinthenextchapter,butfornow,justkeepthisgeneralconceptinmind.ThevariouspartsofEuropetookdifferentpathstoachievestatehoodduringthethirteenth

century.InGermany,forexample,thereigningfamilydiedoutwithoutasuitablesuccessorto the emperorship, so the region entered a period known as an interregnum (a timebetweenkings).GermanyandItalybecamedecentralizedinagroupofstrong, independenttownships and kingdoms, similar to city-states. In this environment, merchants andtradespeople became more powerful. In northern Germany, for example, the HanseaticLeague(theinfluentialassociationofmerchantsmentionedearlier)ledtheregion’sprogressininternationaltradeandcommerce.England, in contrast, unified much more quickly. Since the time of William the

Conqueror,Englandhad followeda traditionofa strongmonarchy.Butduring theruleofKingJohn,powerfulEnglishnoblesrebelledandforcedhimtosigntheMagnaCarta(1215C.E.).Thisdocumentreinstatedthefeudalrightsofthenobles,butalsoextendedtheruleoflaw to other people in the country, namely the growing burgher class. This laid thefoundationfortheParliament.Initially,anassemblywasestablishedmadeupofnobleswhowereresponsibleforrepresentingtheviewsofdifferentpartsofEnglandonlaw-makingandtaxationissues.Afteratrialperiod,theParliamentwasestablished.Later,itwasdividedintotwobranches: theHouseofLords (noblesandclergy)and theHouseofCommons (knights

andwealthyburghers).TheHouseofLordspresidedoverlegalissuesandadvisedtheking;theHouseofCommonswasconcernedwithissuesoftradeandtaxation.TheresultwasthatEnglandestablisheditsidentityprettyearlyon.TheformationofFrancewasboundupwithEngland.In987,KingHughCapetruledonly

a small area around Paris; for the next couple of hundred years, subsequent French kingsexpanded the territory.Butbeginning in the twelfthcentury,Englandbegan toclaim largepartsofpresent-dayFrance.TheEnglishoccupationoftheFrench-speakingterritoriesledtorevolts and, eventually, to French statehood (the goal being tounite Franceunder its ownleadership).Thiseffortwouldbespearheadedbyanunlikelycandidate.As a teenager, Joan of Arc, a farm girl, claimed to have heard voices that told her to

liberateFrancefromthehandsoftheEnglish,whohadbytheearlyfifteenthcenturyclaimedthe entire French territory by the early fifteenth century. Remarkably, this uneducatedyoungster somehow managed to convince French authorities that she had been divinelyinspiredtoleadmenintobattle,andtheysuppliedherwithmilitarybacking.Withherarmy,sheforcedtheBritishtoretreatfromOrleans,butwaslatercapturedbytheFrench,triedbytheEnglish,andburnedatthestakebytheFrench.Nevertheless,shehadasignificantimpacton theHundredYears’War (1337–1453) between England and France,which eventuallyresultedinEngland’swithdrawalfromFrance.After theHundredYears’War, royal power in Francebecamemore centralized.Under a

seriesofmonarchsknownasBourbons,FrancewasunifiedandbecameamajorpowerontheEuropeancontinent.At around the same time, Spain was united by Queen Isabella, the ruler of Castille

(present-daycentralSpain).PowerintheSpanish-speakingregionofEuropehadbeendividedfortworeasons:first,CastillewasoneofthreeindependentSpanishkingdoms,andthereforenosinglerulercontrolledtheregion,andsecond,thepeasantsweresplitalongreligiouslines(mostlyChristianandMuslim),due to the lasting influencesof theMuslimconquestof theIberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. To overcome these obstacles, Isabella marriedFerdinand,heirtotheSpanishKingdomofAragon,in1469,thusunitingmostofSpaininasinglemonarchy.Ratherthancompetewiththechurchforauthority,IsabellaandFerdinand,both Christians, enlisted the Catholic Church as a strong ally. Spanish statehood thrivedunder the new monarchy and the alignment with the Catholic Church effectively endedreligioustolerationintheregion.Theresultwasthatnon-Christians(predominantlyMuslimandJewishpeople)wereforcedtoconverttoChristianityorleavethecountry.Thismarkedthe beginning of the Spanish Inquisition. The consequences for non-Christian Spaniardswere tragic; the consequences for the Spanish monarchy were huge. Newly unified andenergized,Spainembarkedonan imperialquest that leadto tremendouswealthandglory,eventuallyresultinginthespreadoftheSpanishlanguage,Spanishcustoms,andChristianitytomuchoftheNewWorld(asyouwillseeinthenextchapter).

FocusOn:UrbanizationIf trade is thewayyoumakeyour living,chancesareyouarespending lotsof time incities. Traders and merchants needed a place to meet and conduct business and thisperiodsawthegrowthofurbanculturethroughouttheworld,mostlyasaresultoftradecontactsandnetworks.Alongwithtrade,citiesshowcasedthewealthandpoweroftherulers who both controlled and benefited from the trade. Urban centers usuallydevelopedalongtraderoutesorinlocationsnecessaryforstrategicdefense.Intheearlyyears,themostpopulouscitieswereintheMuslimworldandChina—citiesthat were part of the network of Silk Routes: Baghdad,Merv, and Chang’an. Prior to1400,ConstantinoplewastheonlyEuropeancityofanysizeanditwasreallyconsideredpartoftheEasternworld.Alongwiththeireconomicrole,thesecitiesbecamepoliticalandculturalcentersforthenewtradeempires.After1400,EuropeancitiesbegintogrowwithParisandtheItaliancity-statesemergingasnewtradingpowers.

WhatAboutRussia?Recall that eastern Europe andRussia at this timewere very different from theWest. TheEasternOrthodox Christians of this area spentmuch time and effort defending themselvesfromthecolonizationofvariouswesterninvaders.Itwasn’tuntil1242thatRussiasuccumbedto theTatars (a groupofMongols from the east) underGenghisKhan.TheTatars ruled alargechunkofRussiafortwocenturies,leadingtoaculturalriftthatfurtherspliteasternandwesternEurope.BythefourteenthcenturytheMongolpowerstartedtodeclineandtheRussianprincesofMuscovy grew in power. By the late 1400s, Ivan III expandedMuscovy territory (the areasurrounding Moscow) into much of modern-day Russia and declared himself czar, theRussianwordforemperororCaesar.AsthecenteroftheEasternOrthodoxChurch,Moscowwas declared the Third Rome, after the real Rome and Constantinople. By themid-1500s,Ivan the Terrible (or the House of Rurik) had centralized power over the entire Russiansphere,rulingruthlesslyandusingthesecretpoliceagainsthisownnobles.Thenextchapterwill go intomoreof thedetails aboutRussia.By this time,nationalism inRussiawaswellunderway.

C.DEVELOPMENTSINASIA

1.ChinaandNearbyRegionsThe three powerfulChinese dynasties during this period, T’ang (618–907 C.E.), Song (960–1279 C.E.), andMing (1368–1644 C.E.), developedGoldenAgeswith unique characteristics.T’angandSongaregroupedtogether(althoughtheyareverydifferent)whiletheMingcametopowerafterabriefperiodofdominationbyMongolinvaders.YoushouldunderstandfromtheoutsetthatwhenwespeakofChina,we’reactuallytalkingaboutitsinfluencethroughoutmuch of east and southeast Asia. We’ll talk more specifically about Korea, Vietnam, andCambodia inaminute.Fornow,you justneed tounderstand thatChinahadanenormousimpactonculturalandpoliticaldevelopmentsinthosecivilizations.

AQuickReviewoftheRiseandFallandRiseandFallandRise

TheT’angDynastyruledChinabeginningin618C.E.UnderEmperorXuanzong, theT’angexpanded Chinese territory into parts of Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, and Korea. By 907,however,theempirehadbecomesolargethatlocalwarlordsgainedmoreandmorepower,andtheT’angdynastycollapsed.In960,afterabrieferaofrestlessness,ChinawasreunifiedundertheSongDynastyandEmperorTaizu.Despitealongperiodofpeaceandprosperity,the Song eventually fell to the Jurchen and then the Mongols until finally in 1279, theMongolsestablishedtheYuanDynastyinitsplace.Thatdynastylastedlessthanacentury.TheMongolswere driven fromChina, and in 1368 theMingDynasty restored traditionalChineseruletotheempire.From the seventh to the thirteenth centuries, the T’ang and then the Song Dynasties inChinawereaccomplished invirtuallyeverycategoryofhumanendeavor—art,architecture,science,philosophy,porcelain-making, silk-weaving, constructionof transportation systems,andmore.Yet,itisprobablypoetrythatmadetheT’angDynastytrulyunique.Today,T’angpoetry tells us about daily life in China during that time. The Song built on the T’angDynasty’s talent for poetry with more practical applications of words, in the form ofencyclopedias and histories. Under the Song Dynasty, China developed printing processes,which facilitated the spread of its literary accomplishments throughout Asia, and laterinfluencedthedevelopmentofliteratureinKoreaandJapan.

AttheheightofboththeT’angandSongDynasties,Chinawasrelativelystable.Oneofthemanyreasonsforthestabilitywasthebureaucraticsystemthatwasbasedonmeritthroughthe use of the civil service examinations (remember which dynasty created it? The HanDynasty—seepreviouschapter for review).TheT’angandSong rulerscontinued tomodifythe civil service examination, but kept it focusedonConfucianprinciples,which created alarge core of educated, talented, and loyal government workers. The T’ang and Song alsobuilt an extensive transportation and communication network, including canals. Theydevelopednewbusinesspractices, including the introductionofpapermoneyand lettersof

credit(hmmm…wherehaveweseenthesebefore?).Allofthis,ofcourse,ledtoincreasedtradeandculturaldiffusion.Becausethepowerofthedynastieswasbasedontradeandexpansion,eachdevelopedan

urban base to pursue their economic and political strategies. T’ang power was based onmilitarygarrisonsalong thecentralAsian traderoutesand theircapitalatChang’an(todayXi’an), theeastern terminusof theSilkRoadand the largestcity in theworldat this time.Thiscosmopolitancityhostedamultinationalandmultireligiouspopulation.ItwasalsothecenteroftheT’angtributesystem,throughwhichindependentcountriesincludingVietnam,Korea,Tibet, andvariouscentralAsian tribes,acknowledged the supremacyof theChineseemperorandsentambassadorstothecitywithgifts.IndirectruleofthesevassalstatesspreadChinese influence far and wide and brought religion, among other things, into China. AsimilartributesystemwouldberepeatedduringtheearlyyearsoftheMingDynasty.

FocusOn:CivilServiceinChinaThebureaucracycontributedtoChina’sstabilityinhugewaysbecauseitgenerallystayedin effect even as dynasties changed. Regardless of who was in charge, the leadersgenerallydependedon thebureaucracy to carryout the functionsof government.Andremember, since appointment to a civil service position was earned by a strongperformanceonthecivilserviceexamination,thecivilservicewasameritocracy(earned)asopposedtoanaristocracy (inherited).Sowhenpowerchangedfromruling family torulingfamily,itdidn’timpacttheearnedpositionsinthecivilservice.ThinkaboutitintermsoftheU.S.bureaucracy.Nomatterwhogetselectedpresident,mostofthebureaucracyremainsthesame.MostCIAagents,DepartmentofAgricultureemployees, and IRSagentsaregoing tokeep their jobs regardlessofwho ispresident.Someofthehigher-uppositionsgetnewlyappointedleaderswhenaU.S.administrationchanges,buttheunderlyingfunctionsofthegovernmentremainremarkablystable. Evenwhen theMongols ruled in China, the underlying bureaucracy remained. TheMongolsbroughtinforeigngovernmentadministrators,butthelower-levelsupportandservicejobswerekeptbylocals.Thusthesystemreturnedandstayedintact.

The Song Dynasty, under pressure from northern nomads, withdrew to the south andestablished a capital city at Hangzhou, the southern end of the Grand Canal. Here theyconcentrated on developing an industrial society, building on many of the ideas of theprevious dynasty.An early formofmoveable type resulted in an increase in literacy andbureaucratsamongthelowerclasses.Printedbooksalsospreadagriculturalandtechnologicalknowledge,leadingtoanincreaseinproductivityandpopulationgrowth.Bythe1100s,theSongwereanurbanpopulationwithsomeofthelargestcitiesintheworld.TheirwealthwasbasedinpartontheirpowerfulnavyandtheirparticipationininternationaltradethroughoutsoutheastAsia.During the Song Dynasty, new technologies were applied to the military. Gunpowder

started tobeused inprimitiveweapons.Themagnetic compass,watertightbulkheads,andsternpostruddersmadetheChinese junks,as theirshipswerecalled, thebestof their time.

Thejunkswerealsousedasmerchantships,ofcourse.Between800and1100,ironproductionincreasedtenfoldtoabout120,000tonsperyear,

rivaling the British production of iron centuries later (in the 1700s). Song technology alsoincluded the production of steel, using water-wheel-driven bellows to produce the neededtemperatures.The introduction of Champa rice from Vietnam, a fast-ripening rice, linked with new

agriculturaltechniques,increasedfoodsupplies.Thisledtoarapidpopulationrisefrom600to1200C.E.China’spopulationmorethandoubled,increasingfrom45millionto115million.Theurbancentersexpandedgreatly.

ChineseWomen:OneBoundtoLead,Most Just Bound

OneofthemoreincredibleeventsduringtheT’angDynastywastheriseofWuZhao,whobecamethefirst(andtodate,only)EmpressofChinaatthedeathofherhusband,EmperorGaozong. An able ruler, she was both ruthless toward her adversaries and compassionatetowardpeasants.ThevastmajorityofwomeninChina,however,nevergainedthatkindofpower.Highlypatriarchal,Chinesemenconsideredwomeninferior,andlikeEuropeanmenof the Middle Ages, they considered a woman’s beauty and femininity as virtues worthprotecting. During the Song Dynasty, adherence to a new Confucianism justified thesubordinationofwomen,and footbinding becameawidespreadpractice.Awoman’s feetwouldbeboundshortlyafterbirthinanefforttokeepthemsmall—ifkeptboundforalongenoughtime,theywouldn’tgrowevenastherestofthebodydid.Largefeetwereconsideredmasculineandugly.Thispractice,which lasted for centuriesamongelite families,wasnotonlypainful,butalsooftendeformingandsometimescrippling.

ReligioninChina:DiverseBeliefs

FollowingthefalloftheHanDynasty,therewereanumberofdifferentreligiousinfluencesinChina,suchasNestorians,Manicheans,Zoroastrians,andIslam.Butthereligionthathadthegreatest impact by farwas Buddhism, especially in two of its forms:Mahayana andChan.Mahayana Buddhism appealed to many because of its emphasis on a peaceful and quietexistence,alifeapartfromworldlyvalues.Withitsemphasisonmeditationandappreciationof beauty, Chan (or Zen) Buddhism, won converts in the educated classes, who generallyfollowedthetenetsofConfucianism.Both the Confucians and the Daoists reacted strongly to the spread of Buddhism.Many

Confucians saw Buddhism as a drain on both the treasury and the labor pool, especiallybecauseBuddhismdismissedthepursuitofmaterialaccumulation.TheDaoistssawBuddhismas a rival religion that was winning over many of its adherents. In the mid-800s underEmperorWuzong, awave of persecutions destroyed thousands ofmonasteries and reducedtheinfluenceofBuddhisminChina.

Neo-ConfucianisminChina

AsChina turnedaway fromotherworldly ideasof theBuddhistsduring the lateT’angandearlySong,newideasaboutConfucianphilosophydeveloped.WhereolderConfucianismhadfocused on practical politics and morality, the neo-Confucianists borrowed Buddhist ideasaboutthesoulandtheindividual.ThisnewtraditionbecametheguidingdoctrineoftheSongDynasty and the basis for civil service. At its corewas a systematic approach to both theheavensandtheroleofindividual.Filialpiety,themaintenanceofproperroles,andloyalty

toone’ssuperiorswereagainemphasized.

2.JapanBecauseJapanconsistsoffourmainislandsoffthecoastofmainlandAsia,itwasrelativelyisolatedforthousandsofyears.Ideas,religions,andmaterialgoodstraveledbetweenJapanandtherestofAsia,especiallyChina,buttherateofexchangewasrelativelylimited.OnlyinrecentcenturieshasJapanallowedWesterninfluences.LittleisknownofearlyculturesinJapanpriorto400C.E.,exceptthattheywereinfluencedby Korea and China. The first important ruling family was the Yamamoto clan, whoseinternational connections helped them emerge as leaders in the fifth century. One of theuniquethingsaboutJapanisthattheYamamotoclanwasboththefirstandtheonlydynastytoruleit.Thecurrentemperorisadescendentofthissameclan.Earlyon,theShintoreligiontookholdinJapan.UnderShinto,whichmeans“thewayofthegods,”theJapaneseworshippedthekami,whichreferstonatureandalloftheforcesofnature,both theseenandunseen.ThegoalunderShinto is tobecomepartof thekamibyfollowing certain rituals and customs. The religion also encourages obedience and properbehavior.TheYamamotoclanclaimedthattheemperorwasadirectdescendantofthesungoddess,oneofthemainforcesintheShintoreligion.ThisclaimhelpedtheYamamotostayinpower—ifyoubelievetheemperor isdivine,you’reprobablygoingtowanttokeephimaround.

Can’t Get EnoughofChina?GotoJapan.

Inthesixthcentury,theinfluenceofChinainJapanincreaseddramatically.In522,Buddhistmissionaries went to Japan and brought with them Chinese culture. In no time, Chinesethingswerealltherage.Buddhismspreadquickly,butinterestingly,itdidn’treplaceShinto.Instead,most JapaneseadoptedBuddhismwhilealsohangingon to theirShintobeliefs. Inotherwords,theyfollowedbothreligionssimultaneously.By the early seventh century, Chinese influence increased yet again. Prince Shotokuborrowedbureaucraticandlegalreforms,whichweremodeledonthesuccessesoftheT’angDynasty inChina. These reformswere enacted after his death as theTaikaReforms (645C.E.).Intheeighthcentury,whentheJapanesebuilttheirnewcapital,theymodeleditontheT’angcapital.At the riskofgiving the impression thatJapanbecamea“LittleChina,”youshouldkeep inmindone thing: the Japanese largely rejectedConfucianism, aswell as theideaofthecivilserviceexamination.Why?Bothofthesesystemsheldtheeducatedinhighesteem. In Japan, education wasn’t nearly as important as birth. The noble classes werehereditary,notearned.

ContrastThem:ChinaandJapanEven thoughChina influencedJapanenormously, itdidn’tpenetrateJapanese identity.Birthwasmoreimportantthanoutsideinfluenceoreducation.Thearistocracyremainedstrong. Despite the widespread influence of Confucianism and Chan (now Zen)Buddhism,Japanesecontinuedtoobserve theritesof their indigenousreligion,Shinto.Evenat theheightofT’ang influence, it canbe said that Japandrew inspiration fromChina,butmaintaineditsowndistinctivetraditions.

HereCometheFujiwara:At HomeinHeian

In794,thecapitalwasmovedtoHeian,andaneweraofJapaneseconsciousnessbegan.TheChineseinfluenceabated,whilethepowerofaristocraticfamiliesincreased.Oneofthemostpowerful families, theFujiwara, intermarried over several generationswith the emperor’sfamilyandsoonrantheaffairsofthecountry.Theemperorremainedasafigurehead,buttherealpowerhadshiftedtomembersoftheFujiwarafamily.UndertheFujiwara,Japanesesocietyexperiencedsomewhatofagoldenage,especiallyinterms of literature. Japanese noblewomen were particularly prolific, especially whencompared towomen of other cultures. But by the twelfth century, power in Japan spreadamongalargerandlargerpoolofnoblefamilies,andsoontheywerefightingwitheachotherfor control over their small territories. In other words, Japan had devolved into a feudalsystemnotunliketheoneinEurope.

FeudalJapan

TheinterestingthingaboutfeudalisminJapanisthatitdevelopedataroundthesametimeasfeudalisminwesternEurope,butitdevelopedindependently.In 1192, Yoritomo Minamoto was given the title of chief general, or shogun, by theemperor.AswiththeFujiwarafamily,theemperorwasthefigureheadbuthedidn’tholdtherealpower.Therealpowerwasinthehandsoftheshogun.Belowtheshoguninthepeckingorderwerethedaimyo,ownersoflargetractsofland,orthecounterpartsofthelordsofmedievalEurope.Thedaimyowerepowerfulsamurai,whichwerelikeknights.Theywerepartwarrior,partnobility.They,inturn,divideduptheirlandsto lesser samurai (vassals), who in turn split their land up again. Peasants and artisansworkedthefieldsandshopstosupportthesamuraiclass.JustasinEuropeanfeudalism,thehierarchywasboundtogetherinaland-for-loyaltyexchange.ThesamuraifollowedastrictcodeofconductknownastheCodeofBushido,whichwasverysimilartothecodeofchivalryinEurope.Thecodestressedloyalty,courage,andhonor;somuchsothatifasamuraifailedtomeethisobligationsunderthecode,hewasexpectedtocommitsuicide.Interestingly, unlike under European feudalism, women in Japan were not held in highesteem.RememberthatinEurope,noblewomenweregivenfewrights,buttheywereadored,at least to the extent that they were beautiful and possessed feminine traits. In contrast,JapanesewomenlostanyfreedomtheyhadduringtheFujiwaraperiodandwere forcedtoliveharsher,moredemeaninglives.

CompareandContrastThem:EuropeanandJapaneseFeudalismTheyweresimilarintermsofpoliticalstructure,socialstructure,andhonorcode.Theywere different in terms of treatment ofwomen and legal arrangement. In Europe, thefeudalcontractwasjustthat,acontract.Itwasanarrangementofobligationsenforcedinlaw. In Japan, on the other hand, the feudal arrangementwas based solely on groupidentityandloyalty.Inbothcases,thefeudalarrangementwasbasedonculture,andsothefeudalsystemstayedaroundforaverylongtime.

3.VietnamandKoreaBecause China’s dynastic leaders were intent on expanding by means of trade and force,ChinesearmieshadbeeninKoreaandVietnamasearlyastheHanDynasty.Butitwasthelarge-scalemilitarycampaignsoftheT’angthatresultedinculturalexchangeinbothregions.Korea had its own independent and powerful dynasty, but in order to maintain the

appearanceofcordialrelationswiththeirpowerfulChineseneighbors,theKoreansbecameavassal-stateof theT’ang.Thegift-givingandexchanges resulted inKorean schools and theimperial court being organized like those of the Chinese, although the power of the royalhouses and nobility in Korea prevented the development of a true bureaucracy based onmerit.ThetributerelationshipwasalsoresponsibleforthespreadofbothConfucianismandChanBuddhismtoKorea.TheVietpeopleofSoutheastAsiaweremuchlesswillingtoaccepteventheappearanceof

a tributerelationshipwith theirnorthernneighbors,andactivelyresisted theT’angarmies.Although a tribute relationship was eventually established, Confucian education wasaccepted,andanactivetraderelationshipexistedbetweenthetwoentities, theVietnamesemaintained local traditionsandcontinued toactively revoltagainstT’angauthorities.AfterthefalloftheT’ang,theVietnamesewouldmaintaintheirindependenceinthefaceoflaterChineseexpansion.

4.IndiaAs you should remember from the last chapter, India was the birthplace of two majorreligions:HinduismandBuddhism.Inthetenthcentury,anothermajorreligionmadeitswaytotheIndusvalley:Islam.

TheSultanAteat theDeli?Yes,theDelhiSultanate

AfterdefeatingthedisorganizedHindus,theIslamicinvaderssetupshopinDelhiundertheirleader,thesultan.Hence,thiskingdomisreferredtoastheDelhiSultanate.Foroverthreehundred years beginning in about 1206, Islam spread throughoutmuch of northern India.WhilemanyHindusheldontotheirreligiousbeliefsunderthistheoreticallytolerantregime,individualsultanswerehighlyoffendedbyHinduism’spolytheisticwaysanddidtheirbesttoconvert them. Like non-Muslims under the Umayyads in Arabia, non-Muslims under thesultansinIndiahadtopayatax.Butmorethanthat,thesultanswerecapableofreligiouslymotivateddestruction.Hindu templeswere sometimesdestroyed,andoccasionallyviolenceeruptedincommunities.

ContrastThem:HinduismandIslamIslamontopofHinduismwasastrangeconcoction.HinduismispolytheisticwhileIslamismonotheistic.IslamholdsthatallpeopleareequalunderGod,whileHinduismupholdsthecastesystem.ToIslamicpeople,cowsarefood;toHindus,cowsaresacred.Hinduismseesitselfasuniversalandexclusive;Islamseesitselfastolerantofotherbeliefsandevenmixedwithotherbeliefs.Thesetworeligionshavealwaysbeenastrangemixandhaveoften clashed. If you don’t remember how bad things got between the two groups inIndia,you’llreviewtheconsequenceslaterinthisbook.

Despite the differences between the Islamic and Hindu cultures, an amazing amount ofprogressoccurredinIndiaunderthesultans.Collegeswerefounded.Irrigationsystemswerevastlyimproved.Mosqueswerebuilt,oftenwiththehelpofHinduarchitectsandartists.AndmanyHindus in northern India converted. Sometimes the conversionswere genuine; othertimes, they justmade lifeeasier. Inanycase,aconsiderablenumberofHindus innorthernIndiaconvertedtoIslamwhilethevastmajorityofHindusinsouthernIndiaheldontotheirtraditions.

D.THERISEANDFALLOFTHEMONGOLS

TheMongols, theepitomeofanomadicculture,existedasasociety fora long timebeforetheybecamea force on thebroaderworld scene.TheMongolswere superbhorsemenandarchersandprobablycouldhavebeenaworldpowerearlyoninthedevelopmentofmajorcivilizations. However, rivalries between tribes and clans kept them from unifying, so forcenturiestheyfoughtwitheachotherandremainedfairlyisolatedfromtherestoftheworld.In the early 1200s, all that changed. Using his tremendous military and organizational

skills,GenghisKhan(alsospelledChingissKhan)unifiedtheMongoltribesandsetthemonapathofexpansionthatwouldleadtothelargestempiretheworldhadeverseen.GenghisKhanunifiedseveralnomadictribesofMongoliaandledtheMongolinvasionof

Chinain1234,whichwasthebeginningoftheenormousMongolianconquests.TheMongolEmpireeventuallyspannedfromthePacificOceantoeasternEurope.Theempirewassplitinto hordes, or small, independent empires. TheGolden Horde conquered the region ofmodern-dayRussia.InChina,KublaiKhanruled.Mongolsdestroyedcitiesandwereruthlesswarriors, but once their domain was established, the empire was relatively peaceful,sometimes called the Pax Mongolica. The continuous empire allowed for the exchange ofgoods, ideas,andculture fromonedistant region toanother.Mongols,whowere illiterate,nomadic people prior to their conquests and education reforms brought about by GenghisKhan,eventuallybecameassimilatedintotheculturesofthepeopletheydefeated.

Warning!YouAreNowEnteringaGolden-Age-FreeZoneOneofthemoststrikingthingsabouttheMongolsisthattheirempirewasoneofterritory,infrastructure, and conquest, but not one of “culture.” Because theMongol Empirewas soenormousandconqueredsomanydifferentkindsofcivilizations,itdidnotattempttoforceaunifiedreligionorwayof lifeonitspeople.Thatbeingsaid,althoughtheMongolsdidnotmakemanyadvancesintheartsandsciencesthemselves,theirsuperiorinfrastructureallowed

for the exchangeand spreadof ideas.GenghisKhanalso established the firstponyexpressand postal system and gave tax breaks to teachers and clericswithin his empire. In otherways,however,theMongolEmpirehadaprofoundlynegativeimpactonconqueredcultures,stiflingculturalgrowthratherthancontributingtoitbyhavingbeensobrutalintheirinitialraids.

ContrastThem:TheMongolEmpireandAllOtherMajorCivilizationsWe’veseenthegoldenageofGupta.ThegoldenageofShang.ThegoldenagesofGreece,Rome,andIslam.TheMongolEmpirewaslargerthananyoftheempiresthatproducedthose golden ages. Yet rather than imposing their own cultural developments on theareasitconquered,itgenerallyacceptedorignoredthoseofthepeopletheyconquered.Unlike the sultanswho tookover India, theMongolsallowed their subjects topracticetheir own religions without interference. It should be pointed out that because theMongol empirewas so expansive, it tiedmuch of theworld together and served as aconduitacrosswhichideasandculturespreadfromthePacifictotheMediterraneanandviceversa.It’sjustthatitwasn’ttheMongols’ownculture.

TimurWasn’t T imid

InadditiontoinvadingRussia,Persia,CentralAsia,andChina,theMongolsalsofoundtimeontheiritineraryforalayoverinIndia.Theysweptinundertheirleader,theuntamedTimurLang,whodestroyedjustabouteverythinginsightandmassacredthousands,andthenjustasquicklysweptout.Thesultanatewasdestroyed,butafterTimurLang(sometimesreferredtoasTamerlane)returnedtohiscapitalinSamarkand,theMongolspulledoutaswell.Justafewyearslater,thesultanatewasrestored.IslamcontinuedtogrowinIndiaforthenextfewcenturiesunder theMogulEmpire,evenasmanyHindushungonto theirbeliefs.Lookformoreonthislater.

HowtheMongolsDidIt:NoRestUntilConquestImaginethatyouliveinavillagethatliesinthepathofanadvancingMongolhorde.You’veheard the stories. If you put up a fight, they’ll pummel you. If you retreat to your house,they’llburnit.Ifyouorganizearesistanceinyourplaceofworshiporcivicbuilding,they’lllevelit.You’vealsoheardthatifyoujustgivein,theymightspareyourcity,buttheyalsomightnot.They’renotreallyinterestedinchangingyourculture.Soyouronlyrealchoice,ifyouwanttostayalive,istogivein.Ifyoudo,youmayormaynotbeabletokeepyourlifeandyourculture,butifyoudon’t,you’llsufferacertainlygrotesquedeath.Whatwouldyoudo?Inthe1200sand1300s,alotofpeoplegavein.Andthosethatdidn’tmettheirdeath.TheMongolsweren’tcalledruthlesswarriorsfornothing.Theyknewhowtofight.Buttheyweremore than fierce fighters. Theywere also highly organized and highlymobile. Unlike themuch-feared Roman army, which in its heyday could cover about 25 miles per day, theMongol horsemen could cover about 90. Their bows, designed to be launched fromhorseback,hadarangeofupto300yards,waymorethananybodyelse’s.Theirarmiesweredividedintounits,whichwerefurtherseparatedintolightandheavycavalriesandscouting

units.Theywereextremelymotivated—GenghisKhanpunishedtraitorsswiftlyandrewardedthecourageousgenerously.Theywerestealthy—theyhadanextensivenetworkofspiesthatscoutedtheirenemiesbeforebattle.Finally, theirgoalsweremadeunmistakablyclear—theconsequences of putting up a fight against the Mongols meant certain destruction of theentirevillage,somostlearnednottoresist.Inshort,theywerereally,reallygoodatwhattheydid:conquering.

TheMongolImpactAs mentioned earlier, the Mongols were great diffusers of culture. Some Mongols wereassimilatedbythosetheyconquered.InPersia,forexample,mostMongolsbecameMuslim.Elsewhere,Mongols either couldn’t absorb those they conquered or intentionally didn’t. InChina,forexample,KublaiKhan,thegrandsonofGenghis,dismissedtheConfucianscholars,forbademarriagebetweenMongolsandChinese,andwouldn’tallowtheChinesetolearntheMongollanguage.BecausetheChineseweren’tallowedtoMongolize,theydidn’t.Theykepttheirownidentity,andwhentheyfinallykickedtheMongolsoutin1368,theChinesewereabletoestablishtheMingDynastyundertraditionalChinesepractices,whichtheyhadneverlost.There were, however, twomajor consequences of Mongol rule. The first is that Russia,which was conquered by the Golden Horde and treated as a vassal state, didn’t unify orculturallydevelopasquicklyasitsEuropeanneighborstothewest.Thesecond,andgloballymoreimportantimpactwasthatworldtrade,culturaldiffusion,andawarenessgrew.Thinkabout it: TheMongol empire touched Europe and very nearly touched Japan. It stretchedsouthwardtoPersiaandIndiamakingpossiblenotonlytradebutalsothetransmissionoftheBlack Plague in the fourteenth century. This one empire touched nearly all the majorcivilizationsoftheday.So,strangeasitsounds,theoftenbrutalMongols,intheirownway,brought theworld together. By 1450, as theMongol Empirewaswell into its decline, theworldwouldneveragainbedisconnected.

E.DEVELOPMENTSINAFRICA

Themost significantearlycivilizations inAfrica forAPpurposeswereEgyptandCarthage,bothofwhichwerediscussedinthepreviouschapter.BothofthesecivilizationswerelocatedinNorthAfrica along theMediterranean,northof the SaharaDesert.But therewereothercivilizationsinAfricatoo.Someofthemexistedlongbefore600C.E.,butwe’veincludedtheminthissection(ratherthaninthepreviouschapter)sothatyoucanstudythemasagroup.

InteractionKush,Axum,andtheSwahiliCoastTheKushandAxumcivilizationsdevelopedtothesouthofEgyptintheupperreachesoftheNileRiver.KushdevelopedataboutthesametimeasancientEgypt,andatonepointaround750 B.C.E. actually conquered it. Less than a hundred years later, however, Kush retreatedsouthwardbacktoitscapitalatMeroe,whereitbecameacenterforironworksandtrade.After the Kush decline around 200 C.E., another empire,Axum, rose to greatness to thesouth (inmodern-dayEthiopia).AlthoughAxumnever conquered any other civilization, ittraded with them frequently, especially ivory and gold. In the fourth century, Axumconverted to Christianity, and in the seventh century, many converted to Islam. TheseconversionsillustratethatthepeopleofAxumwereinconstantcontactwiththeempiresoftheMediterraneanworld.Andthatcontacthashadalong-standingimpact.Ethiopia’s largeChristiancommunityinpresenttimesisadirectresultoftheAxumconversion.

Remember that this entire period is dominated by interactions. In addition to interactionwiththeMediterraneanworldthroughtheRedSea,theeasterncoastofAfricawaslinkedtoIndiaandSoutheastAsiathroughtheshippinglanesoftheIndianOceantrade.Theeastcoastof Africa was populated by Bantu-speaking peoples who settled into lives of farmers,merchants,andfishermen.ThisareaisknownastheSwahiliCoast,fromtheArabicwordfor“coasters”ortraders,andindeedtheSwahililanguageisamixoftheoriginalBantulanguagesupplementedbyArabic.TradewiththeMuslimsbeganintheearlytenthcenturyasSwahilitradersbroughtgold,slaves,ivory,andotherexoticproductstothecoast.Theincrediblewealthgeneratedbythistraderesultedinthegrowthofpowerfulkingdomsandtradingcitiesalongthecoastinadvantageouslocations(seemap).Likewealthytradingcities throughout the world, they became cultural and political centers. By the fifteenthcentury,whathadpreviouslybeenmudandwoodenout-postshadbecomeimpressivecoralandstonemosques,publicbuildings,and fortifiedcitieswith tradegoods fromallover theworld.Tofacilitatepoliticalandeconomicrelationships,therulingelitesandmerchantclassesoftheeasternAfricankingdomsconvertedtoIslam,butmaintainedmanyoftheirownculturaltraditions.Eventually,IslamspreadthroughoutmostofEastAfrica.

TheOtherSideoftheSand:Ghana,Mali,andSonghaiKushandAxumwereineasternAfrica,alongtheNileRiverandneartheRedSea.Therefore,theyhadeasyaccesstoothercultures.TheculturesofGhana,Mali,andSonghai,however,wereinwestAfrica,southoftheSahara.WhentheMuslimEmpirespreadacrossNorthAfricaintheseventhandeighthcenturies,these African kingdoms began trading with the larger Mediterranean economy. Islamictraderspenetrated theunforgivingSaharadesertandreachedthe fertilewealthy interiorofAfrica, called sub-Saharan (beneath the Sahara), while African traders pushed northwardtowardCarthageandTripoli.Previously,thedeserthadactedasonegigantic“don’t-want-to-deal-with-it” barrier, so people typically didn’t. Increasingly, however, caravans of traderswerewillingtodowhattheyhadtodotogettotherichesontheothersideofthesand.Atfirst,thewestAfricanswereinsearchofsalt,whichtheyhadlittleofbutwhichexistedintheSahara.WhentheyencounteredtheIslamictradersalongthesaltroad,theystartedtradingforalotmorethanjustsalt.Theconsequencewasanexplosionoftrade.WhyweretheIslamictraderssointerestedintradingwithwestAfricankingdoms?Becausein Ghana (about 800–1000 C.E.) andMali (about 1200–1450 C.E.), there was tons, and wemeantons,ofgold.Alittlesandinyoureyeswasprobablyworthsomegoldinyourhand.SotheIslamictraderskeptcoming.The constant trade broughtmore than just Islamic goods toGhana andMali; it broughtIslam.ForGhanatheresultwasdevastating.TheempirewassubjectedtoaHolyWarledbyanIslamicgroupintentonconverting(orelsekilling)them.WhileGhanawasabletodefeatthe Islamic forces, their empire fell into decline. By the time theMali came to power, theregionhadconvertedtoIslamanyway,thistimeinamorepeacefultransition.OneofthegreatestMalirulers,MansaMusa,builtacapitalatTimbuktuandexpandedthekingdom well beyond the bounds of Ghana. In 1324, Musa made a pilgrimage to Mecca(remember the Five Pillars of Islam?) complete with an entourage of hundreds of gold-

carryingservantsandcamels.Thejourneywassoextravagantandsolongandsoimpressiveto everyone who saw it, that Musa became an overnight international sensation. Had theentertainment industry been fully established during that time, you can bet that AccessHollywoodandUSWeeklywouldhavebeenallovertheMusamoment.But the largest empire in west Africa was formed in the mid-fifteenth century, when

SonghairulerSonniAliconqueredtheentireregionandestablishedtheSonghaiEmpire.TheSonghaiEmpirelasteduntilaround1600C.E.,andduringitsreign,Timbuktubecameamajorculturalcenter,completewithauniversitythatdrewscholarsfromaroundtheIslamicworld.

TheArtsinAfricaOral literature was an important part of life in most African communities. History andstorieswerepassedfromonegenerationtothenext,notthroughwrittentexts,butthroughstorytelling. But the storytelling wasn’t just grandpa sitting next to the fire. It was aproductionakintoadramaticperformance.Thestoriesweretoldthesamewayforsomanygenerationsthatpeopleknewthelines.Everyonewasabletoparticipateinthestorytellingbyrecitingresponsesattheappropriatetimes.Thinkaboutwhatit’sliketowatchStarWarswitharoomfullofpeople—parents,grandparents,kids—who’vealreadyseenit;thatwillgiveyouagoodsenseofwhatoralliteraturemeanttothosecultures.Earlysub-SaharanAfricanculturesarealsoknownfortheirsculptures,particularlyoutof

pottery and bronze. The Benin culture (near present-day Nigeria) mastered a bronzesculptingtechnique.Theymadeclaymoldsaroundawaxcarving,meltedthewax,filledthemold with melted bronze, and, after breaking the clay mold, revealed some of the mostbeautifulearlybronzeworkcreatedbyanycivilization.

F.DEVELOPMENTSINTHEAMERICAS

TherewerethreegreatcivilizationsinwhatisnowCentralAmericaandSouthAmericathatdeveloped before the arrival of the Europeans.One of the civilizations, theMaya, actuallybeganaroundthetimeofthemajorclassicalcivilizationsandwerediscussedinthepreviouschapter.Theothertwocivilizations,theIncasandAztecs,wereconqueredbytheEuropeansafter1450.Theywillbediscussedagaininthenextchapter.Thatsaid,weareincludingallthreeoftheminthischaptersothatyoucanreviewtheculturalcharacteristicsofthesethreecivilizationsinoneplace.We’lltalkabouttheirconquestsinthenextchapter.

MayanDecline:WhereDidTheyGo?As a review, theMaya were organized in city-states ruled by a single king. Their largelyagricultural peasant populationwasbound tonobility by ties of loyalty and religion.Theyoccupied poorly drained lowlands in Central America and adapted by building terraces totrap the silt drained by numerous rivers. Some of these cities grew to be quite sizable—10,000 to 40,000 inhabitants, and engaged in long-distance trade as far north as centralMexico.ButthecitieswereoftenatoddswithoneanotherandinMayanterritory,warwasaboutcapturingslavesorsacrificialvictims.Thedeclineof theMaya remainsa sourceofdebate.Theybegan toabandon their cities

around 800 C.E. Environmental degradation and overuse of land, political dissension andsocialunrest,naturaldisaster,andoutsideinvadershaveallbeenproposedascausesoftheirdecline.

TheAztecs:TradeandSacrifice

TheAztecs,alsoknownastheMexica,arrivedincentralMexicointhemid-1200sandbuilttheircapitalatTenochtitlan(modern-dayMexicoCity).Morethananythingelse,theAztecsare known for their expansionist policy and professional army, which allowed them todominatenearbystatesanddemandheavytaxesandcaptives.WarriorsweretheeliteintheAztec social structure (the majority of the people were peasants and slaves). Throughconquestandalliances,theAztecsbuiltanempireofsome12millionpeople.Butdespitethehuge size, they didn’t use a bureaucratic form of government. The conquered areas weregenerallyallowedtogovernthemselves,aslongastheypaidthetributedemandedofthem.Roadswerebuilttolinkthefar-flungareasofthehugeempire,andtradeflourished.Aztecwomenhadasubordinatepublicrolebutcouldinheritproperty.Likewomeninmost

all other traditional civilizations, Aztec women were primarily charged with running thehousehold, but theywere also involved in skilled crafts, especiallyweaving, and—to someextent—incommerce.Notably,theAztecreligioussystemwastiedtothemilitarybecauseoneofthepurposesof

themilitarywastoobtainvictimsforhumansacrifice.Tensofthousandsofmenandwomenwere killed annually; many would be sacrificed simultaneously for an important religiousoccasion,suchasthededicationofanewtemple.

CompareThem:TheAztecCivilizationandtheRomanEmpireAlthoughtheAztecsandRomansdevelopedlargecivilizations,continentsandcenturiesapart,theyweresimilarinatleasttwomajorrespects.First,theytiedtogethertheirvastempiresbybuildingroads.Second,theygenerallyallowedthepeopletheyconqueredtogovernthemselves,aslongastheypaidtheirtaxesortributes.Becauseoftheimprovedtransportationsystems(roads)andthediversityofculturesundertheircontrol,boththeAztecsandtheRomanswereabletoadaptideasfromthepeopletheyconqueredandusethem for their own purposes. In other words, the Aztecs and the Romans wereconquerors,butalsoborrowers.

TheIncas:MyLandIsYourLandTheIncaEmpire,setintheAndesMountainsinPeru,wasalsoexpansionistinnature.Atitszenith, it is thoughttohavecontrolledmorethan2,000milesofSouthAmericancoastline.The Incas controlled this territoryusingaprofessional army,anestablishedbureaucracy, aunifiedlanguage,andacomplexsystemofroadsandtunnels.Like theMaya (and theAztecs), the Incas had no large animals, so the prime source of

laborwashuman.Alargeproportionofthepopulationwaspeasants,whoworkedthelandoronconstructionprojects.Theywereexpectedtogiveaproportionoftheirharvesttosupportthe ruling classes and to provide famine relief. These surpluses eventually became largeenoughtosupportlargecities.ThecapitalatCuzcomayhavehadasmanyas300,000peopleinthelate1400s.Incan women were expected to help work the fields, weave cloth, and care for the

household.Theycouldpasspropertyontotheirdaughtersandevenplayedaroleinreligion.TheIncaswerepolytheistic,butthesungodwasthemostimportantandwasatthecenterofthestatereligion.LiketheAztecs,theIncaspracticedhumansacrifice,butinmuchsmaller

numbers,usuallychoosinginsteadtosacrificematerialgoodsoranimals.Incanreligionalsohadaverystrongmoralquality,emphasizingrewardsforgoodbehaviorandpunishmentsforbad.LiketheEgyptians,Incanrulersweremummifiedafterdeathandbecameintermediariesbetweenthegodsandthepeople.FortheIncas,theconceptofprivatepropertydidn’texist.Rather,therulerwasviewedas

havingdescendedfromthesunandthereforeowningeverythingonEarth.Themilitarywasveryimportantbecauseeachnewrulerneededtoensurehisplaceineternitybysecuringnewland,andthatmeantconquest.Therewasastatebureaucracy,mannedbythenobility,whichcontrolledtheempirebytravelingonacomplexsystemofroads.The Incawereexcellentbuilders, stonecutters,andminers.Their skillsareevident from

theruinsoftheTempleoftheSuninCuzcoandthetemplesofMachuPicchu.Theyneverdevelopedasystemofwriting.However,theywereabletorecordcensusdataandkeepanaccountingofharvestsonquipu,asetofknottedstrings.

IV.REVIEWOFINTERACTIONSAMONGCULTURES600C.E.–1450Thepurposeofthissectionistohelpyoupulltogetherthehistoryfromthistimeperiodandviewitfromaglobalperspective.Theexamplesbelowarebynomeansanexhaustivelistofthe ways that civilizations or groups of people interacted from 600 to 1450 C.E. To thecontrary,theyareexamplesthatserveasastartingpointinyourstudies.Westronglysuggestthatyouaddexamplestotheonesbelowasyouworkyourwaythroughthisreviewandyourmaterialsfromyourclass.

A.TRADENETWORKSANDCULTURALDIFFUSION

Trade has always been a big deal historically speaking.Getting stuff and buying stuff is ahugeincentivebehindinteractions.Ifyouhaveeverythingyouneedandwant,youcanliveinisolation.Ifyoudon’t,andsomebodyelsedowntheroadhaswhatyouwant,you’vegottwochoices:takeitortradeforit.Ifyou’renotintothewholeconquestthing,thentradingisprobablyyourbestoption.From600to1450,tradeexplodedontotheworldscene—somuchsothattheworldafter

1450isinseparablefromglobalinteraction.Let’squicklyreviewtheglobaltraderoutesthatyoureadaboutinthischapter.

TheMediterraneanTradebetweenwesternEurope,theByzantineEmpire,andtheIslamicEmpireTheHanseaticLeague(moredetailsbelow)TheSilkRoad(usedheavilyagainfromabout1200C.E.untilabout1600C.E.—seenextpage)ThelandroutesoftheMongolsTradebetweenChinaandJapanTradebetweenIndiaandPersiaTheTrans-SaharantraderoutesbetweenwestAfricaandtheIslamicEmpire

Remember,too,thattradewasnotonlyaidedbybetterboatsandbetterroads,butalsobymonetary systems, lines of credit, and accounting methods that helped business boom.

Record-keeping and money management is key. If you’re able to keep records or borrowmoney,youarebydefinitionestablishingabusinessrelationshipthatextendsintothefuture.Onceyoustartthinkingaboutaregularbusiness-traderelationshipextendingintothefuture,you can get people to invest in that future, and pretty soon the wheels of internationalbusinessaregoing’roundand’round.

Thetraderoutesareimportant,ofcourse,notjustbecauseoftheirimpactonbusiness,butalsobecauseof theirrole inculturaldiffusion. It isover the traderoutes thatreligionsandlanguages spread. It is over the trade routes that literature and art and ideas spread.And,unfortunately, it is over the trade routes that disease and plague sometimes spread. TheBubonicPlague(alsocalledtheBlackDeath)startedinAsiainthefourteenthcenturyandwascarriedbymerchantsalong the traderoutesall theway toEurope,where itdestroyedentirecommunitiesandkilledasmanyasoneoutofeverythreepeopleinwesternEurope.The plague quickened the decline of feudal society becausemanymanors weren’t able tofunction.Inadditiontothetraderoutesmentionedabove,there’sonethatwehaven’tmentionedyet

—theIndianOceanTrade.It’simportant,sowe’llgointoitinsomedetail.

IndianOceanTradeThroughout the period covered in this chapter, the Persians and the Arabs dominated theIndian Ocean Trade. Their trade routes connected ports in western India to ports in thePersianGulf,whichinturnwereconnectedtoportsineasternAfrica.UnlikeboatsthatwereusedontheMediterraneanSea,boatsthatsailedtheIndianOcean

were, necessarily, more resilient to the large waves common in those waters. The traderslearnedtounderstandthemonsoonseasonsanddirectionofthewinds,andscheduledtheirvoyagesaccordingly.Despitethesedifficulties,theIndianOceantraderouteswererelativelysafe,especiallywhencomparedtothoseontheMediterranean,whereconstantwarfarewasaproblem.Since sailors often married the local women at the ends of their trade routes, cultures

startedtointermixrapidly.Manysailorstookforeignwiveshomeandcreatedbilingualandbiculturalfamilies.

MoreontheSilkRoadYou already know that the Silk Road connectedChina to theMediterranean cultures evenwaybackintheearlydaysoftheRomanEmpire.YoualsoneedtoknowthattheSilkRoadwasusedheavily again fromabout1200C.E. until about1600C.E., during the reignof theMongols.TheimportantthingtoknowabouttheSilkRoadisthatitcarriedsomuchmorethansilk.

It carriedporcelain andpaper. It carriedmilitary technologies. It carried religions, suchasBuddhism, Islam,andChristianity. Itcarriedfood.Because itextendedso farandwasusedfor so long, it’s safe to say that EastmetWest on the SilkRoad. It’s impossible to have adiscussionaboutinternationaltradeandculturaldiffusionwithoutmentioningitbyname.

MoreontheHanseaticLeagueAsyoualreadyknow,theHanseaticLeaguewasacollectionofcity-states intheBalticandNorth Sea regions of Europe that banded together in 1241 to establish common tradepractices, fight off pirates and foreign governments, and essentially establish a trademonopoly from the region tomuch of the rest of theworld. Itworked for a few hundredyears.Morethan100citiesjoinedtheleague.Theresultwasenormousfortworeasons.First,itresultedinasubstantialmiddleclassinnorthernEurope,adevelopmentthatwoulddrivechangesinthatregioninlatercenturies(moreonthatinthenextchapter).Second,itsetaprecedentforlarge,EuropeantradingoperationsthatprofoundlyaffectedtheDutchandtheEnglish,whichwouldalsodeeplyaffecttheworldinlatercenturies.

WasThereaGlobalTradeNetwork?Ifyouthinkaboutit,afterabout1200C.E.orso,theworldwasveryinterconnected.Europewas tradingwith the IslamicworldandRussia.The Islamicworldwas tradingwithAfrica,India,andChina. Indiawas tradingwithChinaandeasternAfrica.Chinawas tradingwithJapanandsoutheastEurope.Ifyoulinkupallthetraderoutes,goodscouldmaketheirwayfromEnglandtoPersiatoIndiatoJapan.Theycouldalsotraveltopointsnorthandsouth,fromMuscovytoMali.The global network wasn’t entirely controlled by one entity or laid out by one trading

organization. It was more like a web of interconnected but highly independent parts. Itrequiredlotsofmanagersateachsite.Itrequiredpeopletobelinkedupthroughthirdandeven fourthparties.Noonepersonwasmanaging it, andyet almost allmajor civilizations(except those in theAmericas)were a part of it. In short, itwas like the Internet, only ingeographicspaceinsteadofcyberspace.

B.EXPANSIONOFRELIGIONANDEMPIRE:CULTURECLASH

One of the most significant influences on cultural interaction and diffusion has been theexpansionofempiresandtheintentionaldiffusionofreligion.Keepinmindthatwhenwesayintentionaldiffusionofreligion,wemeanmethodslikemissionaryworkorreligiouswarfare.This isopposed to thenatural spreadof religious ideas thatoccurswhenpeoplecome intocontactwitheachother,likeoverthetraderoutes.Here’saquicklistingofsomeoftheexamplesdiscussedinthischapter.

TheMongolexpansionintoRussia,Persia,India,andChinaTheGermanictribesintosouthernEuropeandEnglandTheVikings’expansionfromScandinaviaintoEnglandandwesternEuropeTheMagyars’pushfromeasternEuropeintowesternEuropeTheIslamicEmpire’spushintoSpain,India,andAfricaTheCrusadesBuddhistmissionariestoJapanOrthodoxChristianmissionariesintoeasternEurope

When you think about it, the bulk of this chapter is about two things: the expansion ofreligion and empires leading to cultural contact, or the relative isolationism that resultedunderthefeudalsystemsinEuropeandJapan.Anotherwaytoencapsulatethisperiod:atimefueled by conquest and religious expansion. We’ve talked a lot about the efforts ofexpansionists that succeeded.We need to give you somemore details about the efforts ofsomeexpansioniststhatdidn’tsucceed,namely,thecrusaders.

ThePlaygroundIsn’tBigEnoughforTwoBullies:CrusadersandJihadYou’llrecallthatintheMiddleAges,theIslamicEmpireexpanded,andtheMoorsconqueredmuchofSpain.TheChristiansfeltthreatenedbytheexpansionoftheMuslims,especiallyasIslambecameentrenchedinareasthattheChristiansidentifiedwithhistorically.So,in1096C.E. PopeUrban initiated theFirstCrusade in response to the success of the Seljuk Turks,who took control of the Holy Land (present-day Israel and Palestine). The Pope wantedJerusalem,themostimportantcityinChristianity,tobeinthehandsofChristians.HewasalsohopingthattheeffortswouldhelpreunitetheRomanCatholicChurchwiththeEasternOrthodoxChurch inConstantinople,which had split apart 50 years before the start of thecrusades.ThecrusadersimmediatelysetouttoconquertheHolyLand,andinitiallycapturedseveral cities, including Antioch and, most important, Jerusalem. However, both citiesquicklyfellbackintothehandsoftheArabs.Through the year 1204 C.E., a total of four crusades failed to produce results, and theEasternOrthodoxChurchandtheRomanCatholicChurchseparatedevenfurther(fivemorecrusadesfollowed,butwerenotsuccessfulinachievingmajorgoals).Asmentionedearlier,intheFourthCrusadetheCatholicChurchsackedConstantinopleandestablishedashort-livedLatinEmpirethere(mostofthecrusaderseitherdiedorreturnedtoEurope).TheimpactontheHolyLandwasviolenceanduncertainty.MostoftheregionremainedinthehandsoftheMuslim Arabs, and the whole mess led to centuries of mistrust and intolerance betweenChristiansandMuslims.Asyou thinkaboutglobal interaction throughconquest, there’smuch topointoutabouttheCrusades.First,theCrusadeswerenotonlymotivatedbyreligiousbeliefsandpurposes.Therewereeconomicandpoliticalincentivesaswell.Nodoubtthereweresomewhofoughtforreligiousreasons,especiallyintheearlycrusades,butthelureofempireandwealthwascertainlyamajorfactorformany.Second,eventotheextentthatitwasareligiouseffort,theCrusadesillustratethatreligion,whencombinedwithconquestand feelingsof superiority,canbeaverybloodyenterprise.Thedeath,rape,pillaging,andslaveryperpetratedinthenameofreligionwasstartling.Thesame, of course, was true of Islamic conquests in India, Persia, and Africa. Because the

religiouslydevoutaresometimeswillingtobemartyredfortheirbeliefs,intentionalreligiousexpansionismcanbejustasdevastatingandpowerfulasapoliticallydrivenmilitaryinvasion.Third,andperhapsmostimportantlyfortheAP,theCrusadesprovethateventheeffortsof

conquest and expansion that fail to reach their goals still have a major impact on worldhistory: They lead to interaction between cultures that might not otherwise interact. TheCrusadesputEuropeback into the sphereof theEasternMediterranean for centuries.Thatinteractionfueledtradeandanexchangeofideas.ItalsoledtowesternEurope’srediscoveryof its ancientpast,whichwasbeingpreservedby theByzantineand IslamicEmpires.ThatrediscoveryfueledhugechangesinEurope,whichwe’lltalkaboutinthenextchapter.

C.OTHERREASONSPEOPLEWEREONTHEMOVE

Interaction amongandwithin civilizations occurredduring this period inhistory formanyreasons other than trade or conquest. As populations grew, people needed more room tospread out. This not only led to hugemovements of people, like theGermanic tribes intosouthernEurope,butalsotomorecrowdedconditionsonthemanororinsmalltowns.Theresult was the burgeoning of ever-larger cities; once the cities became larger, moreopportunities were created there, which pulled more and more people in from thecountryside.Somecitiesgrewnotjustbecauseofageneralpopulationincrease,butbecausetheywere

intentionallyestablishedas centersof civilization.Thinkabout theempires in this chapter.TheeasternRomanEmpire,whichofcoursebecametheByzantineEmpire,wasspecificallyheadquarteredatConstantinople,whichwasspecificallybuiltasacentertodrawpeople.Infact,capitalsweremovedallthetimetocreateanauraofarisingempire.TheIslamicEmpiremovedtoBaghdadundertheAbbasidDynasty.TheFujiwaramovedthecapitalofJapantoHeian.TheMongolsbuiltacityatSamarkand,asdidtheMaliansatTimbuktu,andtheMayaatTikal.The list goesonandon.Every timeanempirebuilt anewcity to flaunt itself, itdrewthousandsofpeople.This is trueespecially to thedegree that thesecivilizationsbuiltuniversities,whichbytheirnaturedrewpeoplefromaroundtheempire.Thatmeantpeoplewhoweren’t livinginthesamecity inthepastwerenowlivingtogether.Theresult?Moreculturaldiffusion.Pilgrimageswereathirdreasonthatpeopleduringthistimeperiodwereconstantlyonthe

move.RomeandConstantinoplecertainlyattractedthousandstotheirgrandcathedrals,buttheIslamicdutytotraveltoMeccawasnodoubtthemostsignificantdestinationofreligiouspilgrimages.ImaginethethousandsuponthousandswhotraveledfromthevastreachesoftheIslamicworld.Imaginetheamountofculturaldiffusionthatoccurredasaresult.JustthinkofMansaMusaandyou’llbeconvinced.

V.TECHNOLOGYANDINNOVATIONS600C.E.–1450Once again, it is interaction that leads to innovation. This period ismarked by expandingtrade,expandingempiresandexpandinginteractions.Allleadtoincreasedwealth,frequentculturalborrowing,andthedevelopmentofnewideas.Manyofthesenewinnovationscamefromtheeasternsocieties–ChinaandIndia,filteredthroughtheIslamicworld.By1450,mostofthesenewideashadmadetheirwaybacktoEurope,followingtheCrusaders,merchants,

andmissionaries.IslamicWorld China

papermills(fromChina) gunpowdercannons

universities moveabletype

astrolabeandsextant papercurrency

algebra(fromGreece) porcelain

chess(fromIndia) terracefarming

modernsoapformula water-poweredmills

gunsandcannons(fromChina) cottonsails

mechanicalpendulumclock waterclock

distilledalcohol magneticcompass

surgicalinstruments(syringeetc.) state-runfactoriesIn addition to ideas that began to move around the world, trade networks moved

agriculturalproducts.Someofthesewouldresult ingreatenvironmentalchanges, influencetradenetworks,andmotivateexplorationandconquest.

VI.CHANGESANDCONTINUITIESINTHEROLEOFWOMENThe spread of Islam, the openness of Christianity and Buddhism, the development of newempires based on wealth and acquisition of property, and the revitalization of neo-Confucianismimpactedthestatusofwomenaroundtheworld.Continuingfromtheprevioustime period, restrictions on women’s freedoms depended on which caste or class theybelongedto.Attheupper-mostlevels,awomancouldovercomethestatusofhergenderandassume leadership roles if therewasnomaleheiror if themaleheirwasveryyoung.Butgenerally,associetiesbecamemoreurbanandwealthy,women,especiallythoseoftheeliteorupperclasseshadtheirfreedomsfurtherrestrictedevenastheirstatusinsocietyrose.Thiscan be seen in the increased veiling of women in the Islamic world, the custom of foot-bindinginneo-ConfucianChina,andtheyoungageofmarriageinSouthAsia.Tradeand thearrivalofnewreligionsdidnot significantlychange the roleofwomen in

African societies—as pastoral nomads many of the African societies were relativelyegalitarian. Evenwhen sedentary lifestyles developed,womenhad a great deal of freedomandsocietieswereoftenmatrilinealandmatriarchal.Womencommandedabride-priceratherthanhavingtogiveadowry,andwereconsideredavaluablesourceofwealth.“MotheroftheKing” was a political office in many African societies and women participated in specificreligious rituals controlled solely by women. Although both Islam and Christianity foundconverts inAfrica,womenwere less eager to convert thanmenand thepracticeofveilingwasmetwithmixedreactions.Changes in the status and role ofwomen included access tomore education as societies

continuedtoprosperandinteract.ThisistrueoftheConfucianculturesofChinaandJapan,wherewomenwerehighlyliterateandexpectedtounderstandpropervirtueandtheirroleinthehousehold.Butoverall,evenwheneducatedandwealthy,mostwomenhadfarlesspowerthan their male counterparts and were subject to any number of cultural and legalrestrictions.

Women’sStatusinAncientSocieties

Europe Islam India China

strictandpatriarchalsocialdivisions

equalityinreligion,butseparateinmosque

strictpatriarchalcastesystem

strictConfuciansocialorderandguidelinesforvirtuousbehavior

couldinheritlandandtakeoathsofvassalage,butpropertybelongedtohusband

receivedhalfinheritanceofmalechildren

childmarriages

accesstodowriesandownedbusinesses

couldbringacourtcase,butnotparticipateindecision

testimonyhadlessweightthanmale

practiceofsatiforwidows

widowtoremainwithson;nopropertyifremarried

divisionoflabor;womenintextiles

familytextilelabor

silkweavingasfemaleoccupation

Christianmonogamyconcubinesandseclusioninharems

marriagelimitedtocastemembers

concubinesandseclusioninharems

educationlimitedtoupperclassmales

literatesocietyeducationlimited

literatesociety,butstateeducationlimitedtomen

didnotrecognizeillegitimatechildren

allchildrenareseenaslegitimate

veilingofupperclassveilinginpublic

purdah:veilingorseclusion

foot-binding

VII.PULLINGITALLTOGETHERIntheprevioussection,wehopethatyouwereabletopullalotofthehistoryfromthistimeperiodtogetherinsomemeaningfulways,especiallyasitrelatestoculturalinteraction.There’s no question that the spread and growth of religion had enormous consequences

duringthistimeperiod.Thatshouldbecleartoyou.There’salsonoquestionthattheissueofcentralization verses noncentralization seems to have an impact on a civilization. Look atwhat it meant for Europe, or for Japan, or China, or India. But beyond the issues ofinteraction,centralization,andthegrowthofreligion,there’salsosomethingelseyoushouldbethinkingabout:howtoorganizetheworldinyourhead.Inmodern times, we have clear boundaries between countries. But in addition to using

thosepoliticalboundaries,wetalkofculturalregionsallthetime.We’llsaythingslike“theWest”or“theEast.”That’sfine,butwhere’sthedividingline?Ismodern-dayRussiapartoftheEastortheWest?WhataboutSaudiArabia?WhataboutJapan?In addition, we’ll split even our own country into manageable pieces that don’t have

specific,exactgeographicboundaries.We’llsay“theSouth”andwhatwe’rereferringtoisaculturemorethanaplace.IsFloridapartof“theSouth?”NorthernFloridaprobablyis,buttherestofFloridahasaverydifferentfeel.We bring all this up because this kind of stuff is a big deal for the AP test writers.

Sometimesit’seasiertothinkaboutandwriteabouthistoryintermsofculturalareas,ratherthanpoliticalboundaries.“TheMuslimWorld,”forexample,wouldmeannotjustcountriesthatarepredominatelyMuslim,butcommunitiesorindividualswithinnon-MuslimcountrieswhoparticipateinthecultureofIslam.Orthinkaboutthe“Jewishcommunity.”Inthetimeperiod covered by this chapter, Jews were scattered throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia.There was no Jewish state, only a Jewish culture. Yet, the Jewish culture maintained itsidentity.Intermsoftheerathatyou’vejustreviewed,youmightwanttothinkoftheworldinterms

ofmajor culturaldivisions.Religionshelp.You can thinkofdevelopments in theChristiansphere,theIslamicsphere,theHindusphere,andtheBuddhistsphere.Butthendon’tforgetthatsomeof thesespheresoverlap,andsomeof themcoexistwithotherreligionsorbeliefsystems(ConfucianismandBuddhism, forexample).Youcanalso thinkofdevelopments intermsofexpandingempiresandfeudalsystems.Orevenmoregenerally,thinkoftheworldintermsofculturesthatinteractedandthosethatdidn’t.However you choose to think about the world in terms of cultural areas or structural

similarities,theimportantthingisthatyoutrytoanalyzethehistory.Doingsowillforceyoutomakecomparisonsandcontrastsamong thecultures.Anddoing thatwillgetyourbraincrankinginthewaytheAPexamwillexpectyoutodemonstrate.Themoreyouthinkabouthowtheseculturescanbeorganized,themorefamiliaryou’llbewithworldhistory.

IMPORTANTTERMS

Aristrocracy Medieval

Bureaucrats/Bureaucracy Meritocracy

Caliph/Caliphate MiddleAges

Chivalry Migration

City-State MonetarySystem

CivilService Mosque

Credit Muslim

CulturalDiffusion Nation-State

Decentralized Orthodox

Dowry Patriarch

EasternOrthodox Patriarchal

Fiefs Persecution

Garrisons Pilgrims

Gothic Pilgrimage

Hajj Primogeniture

Heresy RomanCatholic

Heretic Schism

Hijab(veil) Secluded

Illegitimate Serfs

Infrastructure Submissive

Interaction Subordinate

Inquisition Theocracy

Interrogation Trans-Continental

Islam TributeSystems

Literate Urbanization

Matriarch Vassals

Matrilineal

PEOPLE,PLACES,ANDEVENTS

ByzantiumBaghdad,IraqBlackDeathBubonicPlagueChang’an(Xi’an,China)

Constantinople(Istanbul,Turkey)Crusades(1095–1291)EmpressWu(T’angChina)Feudalism(JapanandEurope)Foot-BindingFranksincludingCharlemagneGhengisKhanHanseaticLeagueHundredYearsWar(1337–1453)IndianOceanTradeCodeofJustinianMagnaCarta(1215)MansaMusaNeo-ConfucianismSackingofConstantinopleSt.CyrilandCyrillicAlphabetSchisminChristianity(1054)SchisminIslam(650s)ShintoismSilkRoadTimbuktuTenochtitlanWilliamtheConqueror

8

OldStuff:Approximately1450to

Around1750

I.CHAPTEROVERVIEWBy1450C.E.,globalinteractionreallygotcranking.That’swhythischapteronlycoversabout300 years, whereas the previous chapter covered nearly 800 years, and the first chaptercoveredanastonishing8,000years.Sincethetimeperiodcoveredinthischapterisnarrower,theamountofdetailprovidedisgreater.TheriseofEuropeasamajorplayerontheworldscenewasveryimportantduringthistimeperiod,andbecausetheAPfocusessomuchontheinteractionamongcultures,mostoftheregionsoftheworldinthischapterarediscussedintermsoftheirrelationtoEurope.Aswithpreviouschapters,wesuggestthatyoureadthroughthischapteronce,andthengobackandfocusonthethingsthatyou’renotentirelyclearabout.Tohelpyoudothat,here’sthechapteroutline. I. ChapterOverviewYou’rereadingitnow.

II. StayFocusedontheBigPictureOrganizethehugesocial,political,andeconomicchangesthatoccurredduringthistimeperiodintosomebig-pictureconcepts.

III. MajorEuropeanDevelopments1450to1750ThissectionfocusesondevelopmentsthatinfluencedallofEurope,asopposedtomorelocalizeddevelopmentsthataffectedparticularcountriesorempires.Ofcourse,thedevelopmentsdiscussedinthissectionhadanimpactbeyondthebordersofEurope,whichiswhythey’resoimportanttothestudyofworldhistory.We’veorganizedthemajordevelopmentsintotwomaingroups. A. RevolutionsinEuropeanThoughtandExpression B. EuropeanExplorationandExpansion:EmpiresoftheWind

IV. DevelopmentsinSpecificCountriesandEmpires1450to1750Afteryou’vestudiedthemajorsocial,religious,economic,andpoliticaldevelopmentsthatsweptthroughEuropeandbeyond,youshouldbeabletoputdevelopmentsinindividualcountriesandempiresinthepropercontext.InadditiontoreviewingdevelopmentsthatoccurredwithintheindividualEuropeanpowers,we’llhelpyoureviewtheuniquecivilizationsthatexistedelsewhereontheglobe,particularlytheOttomanEmpire,India,China,andJapan.DevelopmentsintheAmericas,ofcourse,arecoveredintheprevioussectionunderEuropeanExplorationandExpansion.Inthenextchapter,we’llreviewtheimpactofEuropeanexpansionismonAfricaandAsiainthenineteenthcentury.Here’showwe’veorganizedthissection. A. TheEuropeanRivals 1. SpainandPortugal 2. England 3. France 4. GermanAreas(TheHolyRomanEmpire,SortOf) B. RussiaOutofIsolation

C. IslamicGunpowderEmpires:Ottoman,Safavid,andMughal D. Africa E. IsolatedAsia

V. TechnologyandInnovations1450–1750Europegetsguns,buildsbigships,andexplorestheworld

VI. ChangesandContinuitiesintheRoleofWomenConcubines,queens,andbusinesswomen

VII. PullingItAllTogetherRefocusonthebig-pictureconceptsnowthatyou’vereviewedthedetails.

VIII. TimelineofMajorDevelopments1450–1750Majordevelopmentsorganizedbytimeandplace

II.STAYFOCUSEDONTHEBIGPICTUREAs you review the details of the developments in this chapter, stay focused on some big-pictureconcepts.Asyouread,keepinmindthefollowingquestions:

1. Why did Europe become a dominant power during this time period? Was it becauseEuropeannationsviedforworlddominancewhileothercivilizationsdidn’t,orbecauseoftechnologicalsuperiority?Wasitforsomeotherreason?WhydidsomeoftheEuropeannation-states develop vast empires while others did not? There are lots of legitimateanswers to these questions, and the content of this chapterwill help you think aboutsomeofthem.

2. What were some of the differences among the ways in which non-European culturesinteractedwithEurope?Whatinfluencescontributedtothesedifferences?Whatweretheconsequences?You’llnoticethatEuropeanpowerspenetrateddifferentpartsoftheglobetodifferentdegrees.Payattention towhy thiswas true—itwillnotonly tellyoua lotaboutEurope,butalsoaboutthoseindividualnon-Europeanculturesaswell.

3. Howdidtheglobaleconomychangeduringthis timeperiod?Whatwasthe impactontheworld’scivilizations?Asyouread,noticehoweconomicconsiderationsdrovemuchoftheworld’sinteractions.Payattentiontohowthelargerglobaleconomyimpactedthevariousregionsoftheglobe.

4. Whatweretheimpactsofglobalinteractionontheenvironment?Conversely,whatwerethe impacts of the environment on human societies?What ideas, diseases, plants, andanimals traveled the globe alongwith human settlement? The need for new resourcesbrought massive changes, but at the same time, the environment acted on humansocieties,sometimeswithdisastrousconsequences.Payattentiontotheeffectsofthe500yearperiodofglobalcoolingthatbeganaround1500andresultedinshortagesofcrops,famines,andsusceptibilitytodiseases.

III.MAJOREUROPEANDEVELOPMENTS1450–1750During the three centuries covered in this chapter, profound changes occurred on theEuropean continent. These changes affected life on all levels: the way people viewed

themselves(theirpast,theirpresent,andtheirfuturepotential),thewaygovernmentsviewedtheir authority, the way religion intersected with politics and individuality, and the wayEuropeansthoughtaboutandinteractedwiththerestoftheworld.By the end of these 300 years, the European countries will have used their new

technologies,newideasofgoverning,andnewformseconomicorganizationtobecomethedominantworldpowers.Muchoftheirsuccesswasbasedoncompetitionandrivalryastheyracedtosecurefastertraderoutes,newcolonialpossessions,andattemptedtogaincontrolofkeyresources.Andmuchoftheirsuccesscameattheexpenseof the land-basedempiresofAsiaandthedecliningempiresintheAmericas.So while the previous chapter was all about interactions, this one covers the period of

Europeanmaritimeempire-building that resulted from those initial interactions acrossAsiaand the IndianOceanAs you review the enormous developments in PartsA andB below,thinkabouthowtheywerelinkedtogetherandimpactedeachother.

A.REVOLUTIONSINEUROPEANTHOUGHTANDEXPRESSION

By the1300s,muchofEuropehadbeenChristian fora thousandyears.The feudal systemhad dominated the political and social structures for five hundred years, and the ancientclassicalcivilizationsofGreeceandRomehadbeenalmostentirelyforgotten.Life in theMiddle Ageswas dominated by local issues, concern for salvation, territorial

disputes,theBlackDeath,alackofeducationoutsidemonasteries,andsmall-scaletrade.Asyoureadinthelastchapter,neartheendoftheMiddleAges,countriesbegantounifyundercentralized rule. The Crusades exposed Christians to the advanced Islamic civilizations,increased trade fueledcontactwithotherpartsof theworld,anduniversitiesbecamegreatcenters of learning. This increased contactwith foreign powers, and scholasticism exposedEuropeansnotonlytodevelopmentsintherestoftheworldbutalsotohistory.RecallthattheByzantineandIslamicEmpireshadpreservedmuchoftheheritageofancientGreeceandRome,evenas theybuiltuniquecivilizationsof theirownandmadehugecontributions toancient texts, especially in the areas of mathematics and science. As Europe expanded itsworldview and interactedmore frequentlywith these two empires, it rediscovered its ownpast.Thecombinationofarediscoveredpastandaproductivepresentledtomajorchangesin

the way Europeans viewed the world and themselves. These new perspectives led to fourmassive cultural movements: the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, the ScientificRevolution,andtheEnlightenment.Theserevolutionsinexpressionandthoughtchangedtheworld.Inaspanofjustafewhundredyears,Europewentfrombeingabackward,isolated,self-involvedoutpostontheperimeterofthemajorcivilizationstotheeasttothedominantcivilizationintheworld.We’ll talk about the details of European global exploration and expansion later in this

chapter. In themeantime,youshouldunderstand that thisexplorationandexpansionwerepartly causing—and partly caused by—themajor developments in thought and expressionthatarelistedbelow.

1.TheRenaissance:ClassicalCivilizationPartIIAfter theBlackDeathabatedand thepopulationofEuropeonceagainbegan to swell, the

demandforgoodsandservicesbegantoincreaserapidly.Individualsmovedtothecities.Amiddle classmadeup of bankers,merchants, and traders emergeddue to increased globaltrade.Inshort,Europeexperiencedaninfluxofmoneytogoalongwithitsnewfoundsenseofhistory. It shouldn’t be too surprising that a sizeable chunk of this money was spent onrecapturingandstudyingthepast.

Humanism:ABit MoreFocusontheHereandNow

InmedievalEurope,thoughtsofsalvationandtheafterlifesodominatedpersonalprioritiesthat life on Earthwas, formany, something to be suffered through on theway to heavenrather than lived throughasapursuitof itsown.AsEuropeans rediscoveredancient texts,they were struck with the degree that humanity—personal accomplishment and personalhappiness—formedthecentralcoreofsomuchoftheliteratureandphilosophyoftheancientwriters.Theemphasisbegan to shift from fulfillment in theafterlife toparticipating in thehere-and-now.This is not to say that Europeans suddenly became hedonistic, focused only onworldlypleasures. To the contrary, the Catholic Church and a focus on the afterlife remaineddominant.However,EuropeanswerefascinatedwiththeancientGreekandRomanconceptsofbeautyandcitizenship,andasaconsequencetheybegantoshifttheirfocustolifeonEarthand tocelebratinghumanachievements in the scholarly,artistic, andpolitical realms.Thisfocusonhumanendeavorsbecameknownashumanism.Itsimpactwasfar-reachingbecausea focus on present-day life leads to a focus on individuals, and a focus on individualityinevitablyleadstoareductionintheauthorityofinstitutions.

TheArtsStageaComeback

TheRenaissanceliterallymeans“rebirth,”andthiswasnowheremoreapparentthaninthearts. In Italy, where powerful families in city-states such as Florence, Venice, and Milanbecamerichontrade,artwasfinancedonascalenotseensincetheclassicalcivilizationsofGreeceandRome.TheMedicifamilyinFlorence,forexample,notonlyruledthegreatcityandbeyond(severalfamilymembersnotcoincidentallybecamepopes!),butturneditintoashowcaseofarchitectureandbeautybyactingaspatronforsomeofthegreatestartistsofthetime,includingMichelangeloandBrunelleschi.Unlikemedievalpaintings,whichdepictedhumansasflat,stiff,andoutofproportionwiththeirsurroundings,paintingsoftheRenaissancedemonstratedtheapplicationofhumanisticideals learned from the ancients. Painters and sculptors such as Leonardo da Vinci andDonatello depicted the human figure as realistically as possible. Careful use of light andshadowmadefiguresappearfullandreal.Manyartistsweresocommittedtothisrealismthatthey viewed and participated in autopsies to fully understand the structure of the humanbody.Artists also employed a technique known as linear perspective, developed by TommasoMasaccio and Fillipo Brunelleschi, in which nearby objects were drawn bigger while farobjectsweredrawnsmaller;thelinesofperspectivemergedintoadistantfocalpoint,giving

thepaintinga three-dimensionalquality.Thisuseofperspectivewas ahugedevelopmenttowardrealism.TheCatholicChurchnoticedthedevelopmentsinartistictechniques,andsoonthegreatestartistswerehardatworkadorningthegreatpalacesandcathedralsofItaly.Forfouryears,1508to1512C.E.,Michelangelopaintedthenow-famousceilingoftheSistineChapelwhilelyingonhisbackonscaffolding.Meanwhile,Renaissancearchitectsborrowedheavily fromtheGreekandRomantraditionstobuildhugedomesoncathedralsinFlorenceandRome.The artistic movement that engulfed the Italian city-states also spread northward andwestward through much of western Europe, although it was generally more subdued andoftenmorereligioustherethanitwasontheItalianpeninsula.Still,eveninnorthernEurope,especiallyinartisticcenterssuchasFlanders,theinfluencesoftheresurgentWesternheritagecouldbefelt.Forexample,theDutchVanEyckbrothersandtheGermanpainterAlbrechtDüreradopted thenaturalismof the Italianpaintersandgained fameasportraitists.Whilehighly realistic in style,most northern paintingswere religiouslymotivated, and thereforeeven secular paintings or portraits were filled with religiously symbolic objects and colorchoicesthatresonatedwiththeChristianfaithful.Still,whilethenorthernpaintersandsculptorswerequitetalented,theywereoutnumberedand in many cases outdone by their Italian counterparts. The bigger contribution of thenorthernRenaissancecamenotfromthevisualarts,butfromliterature.

ContrastThem:ArtintheMiddleAgesandtheRenaissanceMedieval art was almost entirely religious; Renaissance art was religious and secular,combining both Christian and humanist elements. Medieval art existed mostly incathedrals;Renaissanceartwascommissionedbybothreligiousandsecularleaders,andadornedpublicplazas andhomes.Medieval artwas flat and stiff;Renaissanceartwasrealistic, softer, and more human. In short, Medieval art didn’t try to be worldly;Renaissancearttriedverymuchtobeofthisworld.

WesternWritersFinallyGet Readers

Althoughprintingwasdeveloped inChinacenturiesearlier (rememberwhichdynasty?TheSong), moveable type wasn’t invented in Europe until the mid-1400s, when JohannesGutenberginventedtheprintingpress.PriortoGutenberg’sinvention,thecreationofbookswassuchalongandlaborioustaskthatfewweremade.Thosethatweremadewereusuallyprinted inLatin, the languageof scholarsand theRomanCatholicChurch.Asa result, thetypicalpersondidn’tread.Withtheinventionoftheprintingpress,allthatchanged.Booksbecameeasytoproduceandthuswerefarmoreaffordable.Thegrowingmiddleclassfueleddemandforbooksonavariety of subjects thatwerewritten in their ownvernacular, ornative language, such asGerman or French. The book industry flourished, as did related industries such aspapermaking, a craft thatwas learned from theArabs (who learned it from theChinese—gotta love those trade routes!).More books led tomore literate and educated people. Thenewly literate people desiredmore books,which continued tomake themmore educated,whichagainincreasedtheirdesireforbooks,andsoon.

Manyof the firstbooksandpamphlets thatwerepublishedwerepracticalorpolitical innature. In 1517 C.E.,Machiavelli, for example, published The Prince, a how-to book formonarchswhowantedtomaintaintheirpower.Theworkhadaprofoundimpactbecauseitsuggested thatmonarchy should be distinct from the church and that a leader should actpurelyinself-interestofthestateratherthanonthebasisofvaguemoraltenets(sincethen,thetermMachiavellian oftenhasanegative connotation, implyinga rulerwho is ruthlesslyselfish,scheming,andmanipulative).Buttheprintedwordextendedwellbeyondthecourtsofnobles. It changed life for thedevelopingmiddle classbecause readingbecamea casualendeavor.Bookswereprintedfornopurposeotherthanentertainmentordiversion,andthisledtoliteraturethatincreasinglyfocusedonthedailylivesofregularpeople,andhumanizedtraditionalinstitutionssuchasthemilitaryorthenobility.Literature blossomed in the Renaissance of northern Europe, especially in the LowCountries (todayknownas theNetherlands,Luxembourg,andBelgium) and inEngland. Intheearlysixteenthcentury,Erasmus,oneofthemostwell-knownlearnedmenofthetime,counseledkingsandpopes.HewroteInPraiseofFolly,whichsatirizedwhathethoughtwerethe most foolish political moves to date. At around the same time, Sir Thomas More ofEnglandwroteUtopia,whichdescribedanidealsociety,inwhicheveryonesharedthewealth,andeveryone’sneedsweremet.MoreandErasmuswereChristianhumanists,meaningthattheyexpressedmoralguidelinesintheChristiantradition,whichtheybelievedpeopleshouldfollow as they pursued their personal goals. The Renaissance also produced WilliamShakespeare,arguablythemostfamousEuropeanwriterfromthistime.Shakespeare’sworksreflected the period well because they not only exemplified humanism in its extreme—focusingoncharacterstrengthsandflaws,comedyandtragedy—butalsoillustratedtheera’sobsessionwiththepoliticsandmythologyofclassicalcivilization.HisplayJuliusCaesarandhispoemVenusandAdonisareamonghismanyworksthatexploredtheClassicalworld.

2.TheProtestantReformation:StreamliningSalvationYoumight recall from the previous chapter that during theMiddle Ages (600–1450), theRomanCatholicChurchwas an extremely powerful force in Europe.While political powerwasdiffusedunderthefeudalsystem,andwhilethevariousEuropeanprincesandpoliticalpowers frequently clashed with the pope, emperors and princes knew that their powerincreasedifthechurchblessedtheirreign.Asaconsequence,thepopewieldedconsiderablepoliticalpower.ThechurchwastheoneinstitutionthatthepeopleofwesternEuropehadincommon.Itwas a unifying force, an institution believed to be sanctioned by God. With such widelyacceptedcredentials, the churchheld itselfoutasnotonly theundisputedauthorityonallthingsotherworldly,butalsotheultimateendorsementonallthingsworldly.Withonefooton Earth and the other in heaven, the pope—andwith him the hierarchy of the CatholicChurch—acted as the intermediary between man and God. Nearly everyone in Europeunderstoodthisclearly:Togettoheaven,youhadtoproceedbywayoftheCatholicChurch.Thechurchunderstood thepower ithadover the faithful.When itneeded to finance itsimmensebuildingprojectspluspayforthehugenumberofRenaissanceartistsitkeptinitsemploy, itbegan to sell indulgences.An indulgencewasapieceofpaper that the faithfulcouldpurchasetoreducetimeinpurgatory(theplaceRomanCatholicsbelievedtheywould

goafterdeath).There,theywouldexpiate(lookitup!)theirsinsandthenbeallowedtoenterheaven.Becausepurgatorywasnotahappyplacetogo,peoplegreatlyvaluedtheconceptofreducingtheirtimethere.Sellingindulgenceswasnotonlyameansofgeneratingincomebutalsoawayforthechurchtomaintainpoweroverthemasses.Duringthistime,land-owningnoblesgrewincreasinglyresentfulofthechurch,whichhadamassedanenormousamountofpowerandwealthandexploitedahugenumberofresourcesattheexpenseofthenobles.Thisresentmentandmistrustfueledanti-churchsentiments.Thesellingofindulgencespropelledthefrustrationintotheranksofthepeasantclassandhelpedsetthestageforconfrontation.Thesellingofindulgencesalsoconfirmedtomanythecorruptnatureofthechurch.

Mart inLuther:MonkonaMission

In1517,aGermanmonknamedMartinLuther supposedlynaileda list of95 thesesonachurch door—a list that was distributed quickly and widely by aid of the new-fangledprintingpress.His listoutlinedhis frustrationswithcurrentchurchpractices, including thechurch’s practice of selling indulgences, which he said amounted to selling salvation forprofit.Luther’sfrustrationshadbeenbuildingforsometime.HehadtraveledtoRome,andwas unnerved by theworldly nature of the city and the Vatican (the seat of the CatholicChurch), which was in the midst of getting a Renaissance makeover—upgrades that wereclearlypaidforwithmoneyfromchurchgoersinfar-awayplaces.Among Luther’s many complaints was his insistence that church services should beconducted in the local languages of the people, not in Latin, a language that the Germanpeopledidn’tunderstand.Tohelpinthiseffort,hetranslatedtheBibleintoGermansothatitcouldbereadandinterpretedbyeveryone,asopposedtomakingpeopledependentonthechurch for biblical understanding. Luther’s most significant claim was that salvation wasgiven directly by God through grace, not through indulgences, and not through theauthorization of the church. In other words, Luther suggested that the Bible teaches thatpeoplecouldappealdirectlytoGodforforgivenessforsinsandsalvation.ThisrevolutionaryconceptsignificantlyreducedtheroleofthechurchastheexclusivemiddlemanbetweenGodandman.Inessence,thechurchwasmarginalizedtoanaidforsalvationasopposedtothegrantorofsalvation.Pope LeoXwas outraged, and ordered Luther to recant, or formally retract, his theses.Meanwhile,Luther’s ideaswerespreadingthroughmuchofnorthernEuropeastheprintingpressescontinuedtoroll.WhenLutherrefusedtorecant,hewasexcommunicated.Whenhewas allowed to address church leaders and princes at an assembly in Worms (1521), herefused to abandon his convictions. The pope called for his arrest, but a nobleman fromLuther’shometownprotectedhim,andLuthercontinuedtowriteandspreadhisideas.

Christ ianitySplitsAgain

The consequences of Luther’s actions were enormous. Luther’s followers began to refer tothemselvesasLutherans,andbegantoseparatethemselvesfromtheCatholicChurch.What’smore, other theologians began to assert their own biblical interpretations, some of whichwereconsistentwithLuther’s;otherswerewildlydifferent.Oncethefloodgateswereopened,Lutherhadnocontrolovertheconsequences.JohnCalvin from France led a powerful Protestant group by preaching an ideology of

predestination.CalvinistdoctrinestatedthatGodhadpredeterminedanultimatedestinyforallpeople,mostofwhomGodhadalreadydamned.Onlyafew,hepreached,wouldbesaved,andthosepeoplewereknownas theElect. In the1530s, thecityofGeneva inSwitzerlandinvitedCalvintoconstructaProtestant theocracy in theircity,whichwascentrally locatedandnearFrance.Fromthere,Calvinistteachingsspread,andwereasinfluentialtosuccessiveProtestant Reformations as were the doctrines of Luther. Calvinism, for example, greatlyinfluenced religious development in Scotland under John Knox, and in France with thegrowthoftheHuguenots.In time, the Reformation spread to England, motivated by political as well as religiousreasons.KingHenryVIIIdidnothaveasonasheirtohisthroneandsoughttoabandonhiswife, Catherine of Aragon, because of it. When the pope denied an annulment of themarriage,HenryVIII renouncedRomeanddeclaredhimself theheadof religiousaffairs inEngland. This satwellwith those in Englandwho alreadywere becoming Protestants, butmuchofEnglandremainedCatholic.Nevertheless,Henrypushedforwardandpresidedoverwhatwas called theChurchof England, also known as the Anglican Church. Henry VIIIwent on to marry five more wives and to father a son, who died young. His daughterElizabeth, also a Protestant, rose to the throne, but more on that later when we discusspoliticaldevelopmentsinEngland.

FocusOn:IndependentThinkingTheProtestantReformationwasahugedealinworldhistory.Itssignificancewentwellbeyondthereligiousarena.Whilepreviousskirmishesbetweenthepopeandthenobleshad been about papal political authority, Luther’s challenges were theologically basedanddirectedatthepope’sreligiousrole.LutherassertedthatthepeopledidnotneedtheCatholic Church, or its priests, in order to interact with God; they only needed theirBibles.Ifthereligiousauthorityofthepopecouldbesoopenlyandbrazenlychallenged,and commonly accepted understandings of God’s relationship to man could be re-evaluatedandrearticulated,thenpeople’sunderstandingofotherconceptsmightneedtobere-evaluatedaswell.Putsimply,bychallengingthepope,Luthermadeitacceptabletoquestiontheconventionalwisdomofthechurch.WithnewlyprintedBiblesavailablein their own languages, lay people could learn how to read and form their ownrelationships with God. As the common masses became literate and better educated,more and more Europeans began to question both the world around them and theauthority of the church. Europeans desired to search for their own answers to thequestions of the universe. In short, the Protestant Reformation paved the way forrevolutionsineducation,politics,andscience.

TheCounter-Reformat ion:ThePopeReassertsHisAuthority

DuringtheCatholicReformation(alsoknownasthecounter-reformation)ofthesixteenthcentury,theCatholicChurchitselfreformed,whilealsosucceedinginwinningbacksomeofthesoulsithadlosttothefledglingProtestantdenominations.Atfirst,theCatholicChurchrespondedineffectivelytothenewreligioustrends.ButwhenLutherrefusedtorecantandGermanprincesstartedtoconverttoLutheranism,theCatholic

Churchbegantoinstitutereforms,whichwereledbySpain,adedicatedCatholiccountry.Bybanningthesaleof indulgences,consultingmore frequentlywithbishopsandparishes,andtrainingitsprieststolivetheCatholiclifeinsteadofmerelypreachingit,theCatholicChurchregainedsomeofitslostcredibility.However,makenomistake,thecounter-reformationwasasmuchaboutreaffirmingasitwasaboutreforming,andthechurchmadeitclearthatitwasnot bowing to Protestant demands, but rather clarifying its position.Weeklymass becameobligatory, and the supreme authority of the popewas re-established. During this time, aformer Spanish soldier and intellectual, Ignatius Loyola, founded the society of Jesuits,which was influential in restoring faith in the teachings of Jesus as interpreted by theCatholicChurch.TheJesuitspracticedself-controlandmoderation,believingthatprayerandgoodworksledtosalvation.ThepiousexampleoftheJesuitsledtoastrictertrainingsystemandhigherexpectationsofmorality for theclergy.Becauseof theiroratoricalandpoliticalskills,manyJesuitswereappointedbykingstohighpalacepositions.A group of church officials held a series ofmeetings known as theCouncil of Trent todirectthecounter-reformationperiodfrom1545to1563,dictatinganddefiningtheCatholicinterpretationofreligiousdoctrineandclarifyingtheCatholicChurch’spositiononimportantreligiousquestions,suchasthenatureofsalvation.Duringthisperiod,“heretics”wereonceagaintriedandpunished,andtheCatholicChurchre-establishedLatinasthelanguagetobeusedinworship.The result? The Catholic Church staged an amazing comeback. The counter-reformationproved successful in containing the southward spread of Protestantism. By 1600, southernEurope (especially Italy, Spain, andPortugal), France, and southernGermanywereheavilyCatholic.NorthernGermanyandScandinaviaweremostlyLutheran.ScotlandwasCalvinist,aswere pocketswithin central Europe and France.AndEngland, asmentioned previously,wasAnglican.Theresultoftheresult?Wars,ofcourse.Butmoreonthatwhenwediscussdevelopmentsinindividualcountries.

3.TheScientificRevolution:ProveItorLoseItPrior to the Scientific Revolution, Europe and most of the world believed, as Aristotleasserted, that Earth was the center of the universe and that the sun, stars, and planetsrevolved around the earth. There certainly were numerous inconsistencies observed byscientistswithregardtothistheory,butmostscientistscontinuedtoattemptexplainingtheinconsistencyratherthaninvestigatingthetheoryitself.DuringtheMiddleAges,theCatholicChurchandthepoliticalstructurereinforcedthelackof scientific investigation. The church focused everyone’s attention on salvation,while thefeudalsystemfocusedeveryone’sattentiononmundane,localconcerns.Inotherwords,thelives of the vast majority of Europeans, including the nobility, were not engaged in big-pictureconceptsbeyondmilitaryconquestandeternalsalvation.But as Europe changed dramatically due to the Renaissance and the ProtestantReformation,andasthegrowthofuniversitiesgavestructuretoburgeoningquestionsabouttheworld,educatedEuropeansbegantoexaminetheworldaroundthemwithnewvigor.Theresultswererevolutionary.

TheCopernicanRevolut ion:ARevolut ionAbout Revolut ions

Justasthecounter-reformationwasgainingmomentum,NicolausCopernicusdevelopedamathematical theory that asserted that the earth and the other celestial bodies revolvedaroundthesunandthattheearthalsorotatedonitsaxisdaily.Thiswasprettyshockingstufftomanyinthe“establishment.”Althoughmosteducatedpeoplehadacceptedtheworldwasasphere forcenturies,evenwellbeforeColumbus’svoyage in1492, theearth’spositionatthecenteroftheuniversewaswidelyaccepted.Copernicus’sheliocentrictheoryofthesolarsystembroughtaboutmuchdebate,andmuchskepticism.In1543,CopernicuspublishedOntheRevolutions of theHeavenlySpheres toprovehispoints,but itwasn’tuntilGalileo—whodiscovered themoonsofJupiterwithhis telescope—that theCopernicanmodel really tookoff.In1632,GalileopublishedhisDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefSystemsof theWorld.Hewrote the work in Italian in order to reach a wide audience and hopefully defeat thedefendersofPtolemy(thescientistwhopromotedtheearthasthecenteroftheuniverse).Heshowed how the rotation of the earth on its axis produced the apparent rotation of theheavens,andhowthestars’greatdistancefromtheearthpreventedmanfrombeingabletoseetheirchangedpositionastheearthmovedaroundthesun.HisproofsmadeitdifficulttocontinueacceptingthePtolemaicmodel,whichjustsohappenedtobethemodelsanctionedbytheRomanCatholicChurch.ThechurchputGalileoontrialbeforetheInquisitioninRomeforheresyandhewasforcedtorecant.HisbookwasplacedonTheIndex,alistofbannedheretical works (where, astonishingly, it remained until 1822!). Nevertheless, while underhousearrest,Galileocontinuedtoresearchanddocumenthisfindings.

TheScient ificMethod:InSearchofTruth

RecallthatduringtheHighMiddleAgesandtheearlyRenaissance,thescholasticmethodofreasoning was deemed the most reliable means of determining scientific meaning.ScholasticismwasbasedonAristotelianismandthereforeusedreasonasthechiefmethodofdeterminingtruth.Sometimesreasonledtoheresies,othertimesreasonwasusedtoexplainandcomplementfaith,aswasthecasewithThomasAquinas.Thescientificmethodwasbornoutofthescholastictradition,butittookittoconsiderablenewlevels.Reasonalonewasn’tgoodenough.Underthescientificmethod,onehadtoprovewhat the mind concluded, document it, repeat it for others, and open it up toexperimentation. At its highest stage, the scientific method required that any underlyingprinciplesbeprovenwithmathematicalprecision.CopernicusandGalileo, of course,were two fathers of the scientificmethod, but it tookmorethanacenturyforthemethodtobewidelyused.Thereweremanycontributors.TychoBrahe(1546–1601)builtanobservatoryandrecordedhisobservations,andFrancisBacon(1561–1626)publishedworkson inductive logic.Bothassertedthatscientistsshouldamassall the data possible through experimentation and observation and that the properconclusionswould come from these data. Then, JohannesKepler (1571–1630) developedlawsofplanetarymotionbasedonobservationandmathematics.SirIsaacNewton took itone step further. In The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1697), he inventedcalculus to help prove the theories of Copernicus, Galileo, Bacon, and others. He alsodevelopedthelawofgravity.Together, thesemen and others developed awidely used system of observation, reason,experiment, and mathematical proof that could be applied to every conceivable scientific

inquiry.Withprecisescientificinstruments,likethemicroscopeandthetelescope,ascientistcould retest what another scientist had originally tested. Many scientific inquires wereconductedwithpracticalgoalsinmind,suchasthecreationoflabor-savingmachinesorthedevelopmentofpowersourcesfromwaterandwind.FrancisBacon,forexample,arguedthatsciencewaspursuednotforscience’ssakebutasawaytoimprovethehumancondition.AllofthisledtotheIndustrialRevolution,whichwillbediscussedinthenextchapter.Inthemeantime,however,youneedtounderstandthattheScientificRevolutionledtoamajorrift in society. While many Christians were able to hold on to their beliefs even as theystudiedscience,manyalsobegantorejectthechurch’srigidpronouncementsthatconflictedwith scientific findings.Manyof thesepeopleeitherbecameatheists (whobelieve thatnogodexists)ordeists(whobelievethatGodexistsbutplaysapassiveroleinlife).

Deism:GodasaWatchmaker

The Scientific Revolution contributed to a belief system known as deism, which becamepopularinthe1700s.Thedeistsbelievedinapowerfulgodwhocreatedandpresidedoveranorderly realm but who did not interfere in its workings. The deists viewed God as awatchmaker,onewhosetuptheworld,gaveitnaturallawsbywhichtooperate,andthenletitrunbyitself(undernaturallawsthatcouldbeprovedmathematically).Suchatheoryhadlittleplaceinorganizedreligion.

FocusOn:TheChurchDefendsItselfonTwoFrontsBoth the Protestant Reformation and the Scientific Revolution challenged the absoluteauthorityof thepope.TheReformation challenged thepope’s authorityon theologicalgrounds; the Scientific Revolution challenged his authority on scientific andmathematical grounds. Don’t presume that the Protestant Revolution was the maininstigatorof religiouschangeduring this timeperiod.Thereligious implicationsof theScientificRevolutionwerejustashuge.

4.TheEnlightenment:OutofDarkness,IntotheLightWhile the scientists put forth revolutionary ideas, thephilosophers and social critics had arevolution of their own. The Enlightenment of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuriesfocusedontheroleofmankindinrelationtogovernment,ideaswhichgreatlyinfluencedtheframersoftheU.S.Constitution.BecausetheU.S.Constitutionhassincebeenamodelforsomanyothersacrosstheglobe,soforthisreasonalone,it’ssafetosaythatthewritersoftheEnlightenmentperiodchangedtheworld.KeepthisinmindwhenyoumoveontoChapter9andtheAtlanticRevolutions.

First aLit t leBackground:DivineRight

During the High Middle Ages and through the Renaissance and counter-reformation, thechurch allied itself with strongmonarchs. Thesemonarchs came to power by centralizingauthority, uniting people under a common banner of nationalism, forming empires bypromotingexplorationandcolonization(muchmoreonthislater),andrulingwithabsoluteauthority.BecausethevastmajorityoftheirpopulationswereChristian,thebestwaytorule

wastoalignoneselfwithGod.MonarchsbecameconvincedthatGodhadordainedtheirrightto govern, and thatmeant that peoplehad amoral and religious obligation to obey them.This conceptwas known as thedivine right ofmonarchs. James I of England,who ruledfrom1603to1625,summeditupthisway:“ThekingisfromGodandthelawisfromtheKing.”Hisstatementmadeitprettyclearthatanillegalactwasanungodlyact.BecausethepopealsoclaimedtobeordainedbyGod, thequestionofultimateauthoritybecameveryconfusingindeed.DuringtheReformation,monarchswhoresentedthepowerofthe church supported the reformists (Luther, Calvin, and others). Other monarchs,particularly in Spain and France, allied themselves with the church during the counter-reformation.Inbothcases,monarchsclaimedtohavedivineright.Divinerightcouldbeusedto support either position because the bottom line was that God supported whatever themonarchschose.

ContrastThem:DivineRightandMandateofHeavenRecall that under the Chou Dynasty in China, the emperor ruled under what becameknownasaMandateofHeaven,whichsoundsawholelotlikeDivineRight,anditwasexceptforanimportantdifference.UndertheMandateofHeaven,theemperorsbelievedtheywere divinely chosen, butwould only be given authority to rule so long as theypleasedheaven.Iftheydidn’trulejustlyandliveuptotheirresponsibility,heavenwouldensure their fall. Divine Right, on the other hand, was used to justify absolute rulewithoutanycorrespondingresponsibilities.MonarchswhoruledunderastricttheoryofDivineRightsawthemselvesasGod’spersonalrepresentatives,chosenspecificallyforthetaskof ruling. Inotherwords,DivineRightwasaprivilegewithoutanycorrespondingresponsibilities,whereastheMandateofHeavenwasupheldonlysolongasrulersactedjustly.

TheSocialCont ract :PowertothePeople

During the seventeenth century, philosophers and intellectuals began to grapple with thenature of social and political structures, and the idea of the social contract emerged. Thesocial contract held that governments were formed not by divine decree, but tomeet thesocial and economic needs of the people being governed. Philosopherswho supported thesocial contract theory reasoned that because individuals existed before governments did,governmentsarosetomeettheneedsofthepeople,nottheotherwayaround.Still,becausedifferentphilosophers lookedathumannaturedifferently, theydisagreedabout the roleofgovernmentinthesocialcontract.ThomasHobbes (1588–1679),whowroteLeviathan, thought thatpeoplebynatureweregreedy and prone to violentwarfare. Accordingly, he believed the role of the governmentunder the social contract should be to preserve peace and stability at all costs. Hobbestherefore advocated an all-powerful ruler, or Leviathan, whowould rule in such a heavy-handedwayastosuppressthenaturalwar-liketendenciesofthepeople.JohnLocke(1632–1704),whowroteTwoTreatisesonGovernment,hadamoreoptimisticview of human nature, believing that mankind, for the most part, was good. Locke alsobelievedthatallmenwerebornequaltooneanotherandhadnaturalandunalienablerights

tolife,liberty,andproperty.Sincemankindwasgoodandrational,andthuscapableofself-rule,Lockebelieved theprimaryresponsibilityof thegovernmentunder thesocialcontractwastosecureandguaranteethesenaturalrights.If,however,thegovernmenteverviolatedthis trust, thus breaking the social contract, the people were justified in revolting andreplacingthegovernment.Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) took the social contract theory to its furthestextreme,arguingthatallmenwereequalandthatsocietyshouldbeorganizedaccordingtothegeneralwill,ormajorityrule,ofthepeople,anideaheoutlinedinhisfamousworkTheSocialContract(1762).Inarationalsociety,heargued,eachindividualshouldsubjecthimselftothisgeneralwill,whichservesasthesovereignorrulinglawmaker.Underthisphilosophy,theindividualisprotectedbythecommunity,butisalsofreeto(orasfreeasonecanbeinorganizedsociety).Hearguestheessenceoffreedomistoobeylawsthatpeopleprescribeforthemselves. Needless to say, Rousseau’s beliefs not only had a tremendous effect onrevolutionarymovementsinthecoloniesoftheEuropeanempires,butalsoinspiredtheanti-slaverymovement.Inadditiontophilosophers,thereweremanyEnlightenmentwriters.Voltaireespousedtheideaofreligioustoleration.Montesquieuarguedforseparationofpowersamongbranchesofgovernment. Inallcases,Enlightenmentwritersdidn’tpresumethatgovernmenthaddivineauthority, but instead worked backward from the individual and proposed governmentalsystemsthatwouldbestservethe interestof thepeoplebyprotectingindividualrightsandliberties.While the real fruits of the Enlightenment were the revolutionary movements in thecolonies and later in Europe, the new political ideas also affected the leadership of someeighteenth-centuryEuropeanmonarchs.Theidealsoftolerance,justice,andimprovementofpeople’s lifestyle became guidelines for rulers known as EnlightenedMonarchs, such asJoseph IIofAustriaandFrederick II ofPrussia.Tobe sure, they still ruledabsolutely,butthey internalized the Enlightenment philosophy and made attempts to tolerate diversity,increaseopportunitiesforserfs,andtakeontheresponsibilitiesthattheirrulerequired.

B.EUROPEANEXPLORATIONANDEXPANSION:EMPIRESOFTHEWIND

Explorationbefore the late fifteenthcenturywas largely limited to land travel.Tobe sure,shipswereusedontheMediterraneanandIndianOceantraderoutesforcenturies,buttheywerelinkeduptolandroutesthroughPersia,Arabia,northernAfrica,orcentralAsiaontheSilkRoad.EagertoeliminateMuslimmiddlemenanddiscovermoreefficienttraderoutestoAsia,thePortugueseandtheirIberianrivals,theSpanish,setouttosea.Advancesinnavigation,ship-buildingandthedevelopmentofgunpowderweaponsallowedforincreasedseatravel.These“floating empires of thewind” soon controlledmajor shipping routes in the IndianOcean,Indonesia,andtheAtlanticOcean.

TheincreaseinEuropeantradeencouragedbytheformationoftheHanseaticLeagueandtheCrusades spawneda search fornew,efficient traderouteson theseas.Portugal led theway because itwas strategically situated near the coast of Africa, had long-standing traderelationswithMuslim nations, and,most important of all, was led by a royal family thatsupported exploration (King John I of Portugal’s most famous son wasPrince Henry theNavigator).In1488,PortugalfinancedavoyagebyBartholomewDiaswhoroundedthetipof Africa (which became known as the Cape of Good Hope). In 1497, Vasco da GamaroundedtheCapeofGoodHope,exploredtheeastAfricankingdoms,andthenwentallthewaytoIndia,whereheestablishedtraderelations.Shortly thereafter, Spain,whichhad recentlybeenunifiedunder Isabella and Ferdinand,wantedinontheaction.Asyouwellknow,in1492ChristopherColumbusconvincedthemto finance a voyage to reach the east by going west. While those who were educatedunderstoodthattheearthwasasphere,fewpeopleunderstoodhowlargeitwas.Despitethefact that some scholars had accurately estimated the earth’s size, most people, includingColumbus,thoughtitwassmaller.Asaresult,ColumbusthoughtthatChinaandIndiawerelocatedwheretheAmericancontinentsare.Hesailed,foundCubaandtheislandsthatcametobeknownastheWestIndies,andtheexplorationoftheAmericaswasunderway.By1494,PortugalandSpainwerealreadyfightingoverlandinthenewlyfoundAmericas.To resolve their differences, the two countries drew up the Treaty of Tordesillas, whichestablishedalineofdemarcationonalongitudinal(north-south) linethatrunsthroughthe

western Atlantic Ocean. They agreed that everything to the east of the line belonged toPortugal;everythingtothewestbelongedtoSpain.Thewesternsidewasenormous(theyhadnoideahowenormousatthetime)soSpainbecameamega-powerquickly.Brazilhappenedtolietotheeastoftheline,whichiswhymodern-dayBraziliansspeakPortugueseinsteadofSpanish.Soon, England, the Netherlands, and France launched their own expeditions. These

seafaring nations competed with each other by rapidly acquiring colonies and conqueringnew lands. The cost and risk associated with these explorations made it necessary forexplorerstorelyonthebackingofstrongandwealthystates.Inaddition,merchantswantedprotection for their trade routes, which could also be acquired through allegiance to aparticularsovereignty.Colonialismandtheexpansionofthetraderoutescontributedtotheriseinnationalismandthedevelopmentofstrongmonarchies.

Aquicklistofotherexplorers

AmerigoVespucci—HeexploredSouthAmericaonseveraltripsaround1500;realizedthatthecontinentwashugeandnotpartofAsia;Americawasnamedforhim.PoncedeLeon—In1513,heexploredFloridaforSpaininsearchofthefountainofyouth.VascodeBalboa—In1513,heexploredmuchofCentralAmericaforSpain;laidsightonthePacificOcean.FerdinandMagellan—In1519,hesailedaroundthetipofSouthAmericatothePacificOceanforPortugal.HemadeitasfarasthePhilippines,wherehedied;hiscrewcontinued,however,andbecamethefirsttocircumnavigatetheglobe.GiovannidaVerrazzano—In1524,heexploredtheNorthAmericancoastforFrance.SirFrancisDrake—In1578,hebecamethefirstEnglishmantocircumnavigatetheglobe.JohnCabot—In1597,heexploredthecoastofNorthAmericaforEngland.HenryHudson—Beginningin1609,hesailedfortheDutch,lookingforaNorthwestPassagetoAsia.HeexploredtheHudsonRiverandmadeclaimstotheareaforthe

Dutch.

AndNowaWordfromOurSponsors

Why, all of a sudden, were so many explorers sailing around the globe?Why didn’t thishappensooner?Inthelatefifteenthcentury,innovationwascombinedwithdeterminationtoapplynewtechnologiestopoliticalandeconomicgoals.Inadditiontoadvancedmapmakingtechniques,theAgeofExplorationwasbroughttoyoubythefollowingfineproducts:

TheSternpostRudder—InventedinChinaduringtheHanDynasty,thesternpostrudderallowedforbetternavigationandcontrolofshipsofincreasingsize.HowdiditendupinthehandsoftheEuropeans?Trade,ofcourse.LateenSails—Thesesails,inventedduringtheearlyRomanEmpire,allowedshipstosailinanydirection,regardlessofthewind.Thiswasahugeimprovementtoshipsthatweredependentonthewind,especiallyintheIndianOceanwaters,wheremonsoonskeptshipsdockedforlongperiodsoftime.OncethesesailswereusedregularlyontheIndianOceanroutes,theyquicklybecamestandardontransatlanticvoyages.TheAstrolabe—Sailorsusedthisportablenavigationdevice,developedintheHellenicworldaround150B.C.E.,tohelpthemfindtheirway.Bymeasuringthedistanceofthesunandthestarsabovethehorizon,theastrolabehelpeddeterminelatitude.TheMagneticCompass—BorrowedfromtheChinese,whodevelopeditduringtheHanDynasty,themagneticcompasstraveledwestthroughtradewithArabsandallowedsailorstodeterminedirectionwithoutstayinginsightofland.Three-MastedCaravels—Theselargeshipsemployedsignificantlylargerlateensailsandcouldholdprovisionsforlongerjourneysintheirlargecargorooms.

Tobesure,manyoftheseinventionsexistedpriortothefifteenthcentury,butsomuchofhistoryisabouttiming.Inthelatefifteenthcentury,theseinventionshadconvergedononecontinent, a continent that was fiercely competitive about trade routes, newly wealthy,increasinglyorganizedunderstrongleaders,andracingwiththeinnovationandimaginationoftheRenaissance.We’vesaiditbeforeandwe’llsayitagain:Theeventsofthistimeperiodaresointerrelatedthatyoucan’tseparatethem.Theeraneedstobeunderstoodasonegiantglobofinseparable,indistinguishableforces.

TheNewWorld:AccidentalEmpire

AlthoughColumbus failed to locate gold or spices in theAmericas, the next generation ofSpanishexplorersfoundgreatwealthintheAztecandIncaEmpires.In1519,HernanCorteslandedonthecoastofMexicowithasmallforceof600men.He

foundhimselfattheheartoftheAztecEmpire,whichyoureadaboutinthepreviouschapter.As you might recall, the Aztecs used the conquest of neighboring communities to securehumansforreligioussacrifices.ManyoftheseneighboringstatesloathedtheAztecsandweremore than willing to cooperate with the Spaniards. Cortes alternatively subjugated orslaughteredthosethatwerenot.Cortes,aidedandguidedbytheresentfulneighbors,firstapproachedthemagnificentAztec

capital of Tenochtitlan on horseback. Horses were as yet completely unknown in America(andinfactwereintroducedtothecontinentbySpanishconquistadores).Montezuma, the

Aztecruler,atfirstmistookCortes,withhispaleskinandhorselegs,foragod.Hesentagiftofgoldtoappeasethisnewdeity,butunfortunatelyfortheAztecs,thisofferingonlyfueledtheappetiteofthenewconquerors.BecausetheSpaniards’solemotivationforexploringtheNewWorldwastoacquiregoldandspices, theSpanishdidn’thesitate toseizeMontezumaandbeginasiegeofTenochtitlan.

Disease:TheUlt imateWeaponofMassDest ruct ion

Although theAztecs resisted theoccupationand fought to rid theircapitalof the invaders,the Spanish had incredibly powerful weapons on their side, including diseases such assmallpox.TheseinfectionswerecompletelynewtotheAmericas,thankstotheirgeographicisolationpriortoEuropeans’arrival,andquicklydecimatedtheAztecs,whohadnonaturalresistancetothem.Thecombinationofdisease,superiorweapons,andassistancefromAztecenemies reduced thenativepopulationof the region fromwell over20million in1520 tofewerthan2millionby1580.Becausesomanyofthedeathsoccurredinthefirstfewyears,theSpaniardswereabletoseizecontroloftheempirebyaround1525.A similar fatemet the IncaEmpire. In1531,FranciscoPizarro set out in search of theIncaswithatinyforceof200men.Disease,superiorweapons,andhelpfromenemiesquicklydestroyedwhatlittleresistancetheIncascouldmount.By1535,Pizarrowasincontroloftheregion.

ContrastThem:ExpansionintheAmericasversusEmpire-BuildingElsewhereWe’ve talked about a lot of empires that expanded into far-reaching territories: theRomans,theMongols,theMuslims,andtheMacedonians,forexample.Ineachofthesecases, the empires either allowed existing cultural traditions to remain intact, orconverted the existing population to their way of doing things, forcibly or not. Bycontrast,inthecaseoftheAmericas,theexistingpopulationswerelargelywipedout.Inaddition,hugenumbersofpeoplemovedin,faroutnumberingthenumberofnativesthatsurvived.EventheMongols,whodidn’thesitatetowipeoutcommunitiesintheirpaths,didn’ttotallysupplantthenativepopulationsthewaytheEuropeansdidintheAmericas.Neverbeforehadanempiremoved into suchavast territory thatwas sounpopulated(or,moreaccurately,depopulated).Alloftheotherempireshadtomergewith,convert,orbeconvertedbytheexistingpopulations.IntheAmericas,theEuropeanscreatedtwonewcontinentsstrictlyintheirownimage.

TheEncomiendaSystem:AmericanFeudalism

OnceSpainestablishedafootholdintheNewWorld,thousandsofSpaniardsarrivedtobuildanewcolonialempire.Thecolonialsocietywasahierarchicalorganization.Atthetopwerethepeninsulares, the select group of Spanish officials sent to govern the colonies. Belowthem, thecrillosorcreoles,were people born in the colonies to Spanish parents. Becausetheyweren’tborninSpain,theywerelookeddownuponbytheSpanishmonarchyandwereconsequentlybarred fromhighpositions.Yet,because theywere thechildrenofSpaniards,the creoles were educated and wealthy, and after many generations, they were able to

organize and demand recognition. They later became the leaders of the independencemovements(moreonthatinthenextchapter).Belowthecrillosweremestizos, thosewithEuropeanandNativeAmericanancestry,followedbythemulattos,thosewithEuropeanandAfricanancestry.Finally,therewerethenativeAmericans,whohadlittleornofreedomandworkedonestatesorinmines.Toruntheempire,theviceroys,whowereappointedgovernorsofeachofthefiveregionsofNewSpain,establishedtheEncomiendaSystem,whichwassortof likea feudalsystem.Thesystemprovidedthepeninsulareswithlandandaspecifiednumberofnativelaborers.Inreturn, the peninsulares were expected to protect the natives and convert them toChristianity.Shockedatthetreatmentofsomeofthenatives,Christianmissionariesappealedtotheviceroys,emperor,and theCatholicChurch to improve thenatives’ lot.Some in theempireagreedthatreformwasneeded,butdisastrously,thereformthatwasviewedasmostimportantwastheneedformoreworkers.Theyagreedtoreducethestrainonthenativesbybringing innewworkers for thehardest jobs.ThosenewworkerswereAfrican slaves.Notonlywasthisacruelandironicwaytosolvetheproblem(relievetheburdenononegroupofvictimsbycreatingasecondgroup),itendedupnotimprovingthelotofthenatives.Withinafewdecades,bothslavesandnativeswereatthebottomofthesocialstructure,andneitherhadsignificantrights.

TheAfricanSlaveTrade:TheLoveofMoneyat theRoot ofEvil

Evenbeforetransatlanticvoyagesbegan,Europeanshadbegunexploitingasystemofslaverythat already existed in Africa.Whilemany African tribes and nations practiced a form ofslaverybyrequiringprisonerstakeninbattletoservetheircaptorsforaperiodoftimebeforebeingeventuallyreleased(whentheircaptorsjudgedthatprisoners’honor,lostinbattle,hadbeenrestoredbytheirservice),EuropeanstradedgunsandothergoodstoAfricanleadersinexchangefortheirsurplusslavesbutdidnotunderstand(orchosetoignore)thecustomofeventual release. By the mid-fifteenth century, the Portuguese were also capturing slaveswhile exploring the coasts of Africa.When the plantations (andmines) of theNewWorlddemandedmorelabor,themoney-hungryempirebuildersknewwheretogo.Andsobeganaforcedmigration of people thatwould forever change the fate ofmillions of lives and thehistoryoftheNewWorld.SomeAfricanrulerscooperatedwiththeslavetrade,whileothersprotested,buttheywerein a difficult position—as demand for the transatlantic slave trade increased, Europeansbecame increasingly ruthless in their methods, kidnapping Africans in their own raids orpitting groups against one another through control of theweapons trade. Kings and otherleaders facedthechoiceofcooperatingwiththeEuropeansorseeingtheirpeopleseizedorslaughtered. So the slave trade expanded. Africans were rounded up, forced onto ships,chainedtogether,takenbelowdeck,andforcedtoendurethebrutalMiddlePassagetotheAmericas. By historians’ best estimates, at least 13 million Africans were taken from thecontinentandcarriedtotheNewWorld;approximately60percentwenttoSouthAmerica,around35percenttotheCaribbean,andabout5percenttoNorthAmerica.Alongtheway,some suffocated from the hot, unventilated conditions below deck, others starved or diedfromoutbreaksofdisease,andyetotherswerekilledattemptingrevoltorjumpedoverboardtotheirdeaths,preferringsuicidetothedishonorofslavery.Basedonslavetraders’existingrecords, historians believe average mortality rates were around 20 percent, though some

voyages lost amuch larger portion of their human cargo. Those that survived the journeyweretakentotheauctionblocks,soldintoslavery,andforcedtoworkinplantationfieldsorinminesuntiltheirdeaths,asweretheirchildrenandtheirchildren’schildren.

FocusOn:DemographicShiftsThedemographic changes of the sixteenth and seventeenth centurieswere, in aword,huge.TheAztecs and Incaswerewipedout.Huge citiesweredepopulated. Europeansmovedby thehundredsof thousands.Africanswere forced tomigrateby themillions.Cities in Europe swelled as the feudal system evaporated and urban, middle classmerchants lined their pockets with the fruits of trade and empire. By 1750, thecontinents of Europe, Africa, North America, and South America were unrecognizablefromtheir1450portraits.

TheColumbianExchange:Cont inentalShift

One consequence of the Spanish and Portuguese empires in the New World was whatbecame known as the Columbian Exchange—the transatlantic transfer of animals, plants,diseases, people, technology, and ideas among Europe, the Americas, and Africa. AsEuropeansandAfricanscrisscrossedtheAtlantic,theybroughttheOldWorldtotheNewandback again. From the European and African side of the Atlantic, horses, pigs, goats, chilipeppers,andsugarcane(andmore)flowedtotheAmericas.FromtheAmericanside,squash,beans,corn,potatoes,andcacao(andmore)madetheirwaybackeast.SettlersfromtheOldWorldcarriedbubonicplague, smallpox, typhoid, influenza,and thecommoncold into theNew, then carriedChagas and syphilis back to theOld.Guns,Catholicism, and slaves alsocrossedtheAtlantic.Neverbeforehadsomuchbeenmovedacrosstheoceans,asshipaftershipcarriedthecontentsofonecontinenttoanother.TheAmerican food crops (cassava, corn, peanuts, and potatoes) that traveled eastmade

population increases possible throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa. Urban populations andcommercialinterestsgrewthroughoutEuropeandledtoincreasedcultivationandenclosureofland.Withincreasedcultivationcameincreaseduseofpreviouslyruralareas.Despitesomethreatoffamine,shortagesduetoalongcoolingperiodor“littleiceage,”andout-migration,overallthetrendthroughoutmuchofnorthernEuropewasthatofagrowingpopulation.TwokeyproductsoftheColumbianExchangeweresugarandsilver.Sugarcanerootshad

arrivedintheCaribbeanfromIndiawithColumbus,whosawanopportunitytomonopolizeaprofitablecropinanewenvironment.Sugarcaneproductionresultedinthedevelopmentofplantations throughout the Spanish colonies and an increased need for enslaved or forcedlaboroncetheNativepopulationsoftheislandsdeclined.Theresultsoftheplantationsystemwerebrutal,dangerouslaborandatransformationofthenaturallandscape.TheSpanishalsomonopolizedtheworld’ssilvermarketfromtheminestheycontrolledin

MexicoandintheAndesMountainofPeru.Thisindustryalsoresultedinaharshsystemofforced labor: the previouslymentioned encomienda. Like the sugar plantations, early silvermining depended onNative labor until that grew too scarce tomake a profit,when laborshiftedtoAfricanslavesprovidedbyPortuguesetraders.More importantly,SpanishcontrolofLatinAmerican silveropeneddoors inMingChina.

SpanishaccesstothePhilippines,ChinaandthePacificOceantraderoutesmadetheworldamuchsmallerplace.

TheCommercialRevolut ion:TheNewEconomy

Thetrading,empirebuilding,andconquestoftheAgeofExplorationwasmadepossiblebynew financing schemes that now form the basis of our modern economies. Thoughmanyelementshadtocometogetheratoncefortheneweconomytowork,timingwasonthesideoftheEuropeans,andeverythingfellintoplace.First, the church gave in to state interests by revising its strict ban on what are now

standardbusinesspractices,likelendingmoneyandcharginginterestonloans.Oncebankingbecame respectable, a new business structure emerged: the joint-stock company, anorganizationcreatedtopooltheresourcesofmanymerchants,therebydistributingthecostsandrisksofcolonizationandreducingthedangerfor individual investors. Investorsboughtshares,orstock,inthecompany.Ifthecompanymademoney,eachinvestorwouldreceiveaprofitproportionaltohisorherinitialinvestment.Becausehugenewshipswereabletocarryunprecedentedcargoes,andbecause thegoodswereoftenoutright stolen fromtheirnativecountries, successful voyages reaped huge profits. A substantial middle class ofmerchantscontinuedtodevelop,whichinturnattractedmoreinvestors,andthemodern-dayconceptofastockmarketwaswellunderway.Thesecorporationslatersecuredroyalchartersforcolonies,liketheJamestowncolonyin

Virginia,and funded them forbusinesspurposes.Evenwhen theydidn’t establishcolonies,monarchies granted monopolies to trade routes. The Muscovy Company of EnglandmonopolizedtraderoutestoRussia,forexample.TheDutchEastIndiaCompanycontrolledroutestotheSpiceIslands(modern-dayIndonesia).IncreasedtradeledtoanearlytheoryofmacroeconomicsforthenationsofEurope.Under

thetheoryofmercantilism,acountryactivelysoughttotrade,buttriednottoimportmorethan it exported; that is, it attempted to createa favorablebalanceof trade.Tradedeficitsforced dependencies on other countries, and therefore implied weakness. Of course, onecountry’s surplus had to be met with another country’s deficit. To resolve this dilemma,European countries were feverish to colonize. Colonies gave the mother country rawresources(notconsideredimportsbecausethemothercountry“owned”them),whilecreatingnewmarketsforprocessedexports.Tofurtheraidtheeffort,monarchiespromoteddomesticindustry and placed tariffs on imports from competing empires. As you’ll see in the nextchapter,oncetheIndustrialRevolutionwasunderway,mercantilismreallytookoff.It shouldn’tbe surprising thatmercantilism fostered resentment in colonies.Thecolonial

resourceswere shippedback toEuropewhile thecolonistswere forced topay forproductsfrom Europe. Add taxes, and you’ve got major resentment. You already know that theAmericanRevolutionwas in part due to colonial fury over this arrangement.One by one,beginning with the America, European colonies revolted against the abuses by theunforgivingmercantilisteconomiesoftheEuropeanpowers.

OhYeah…RememberAsia?

RecallthattheoriginalPortugueseexplorersweretryingtofigureoutashortcuttoIndiaandChina.Oncetheystumbleduponacoupleofcontinentsalongthewayandbeganwipingoutnative civilizations, building empires, and forcibly transporting millions of Africans to do

hardlabor,theyforgottheoriginalpurposeoftheirexploration.Intime,Europeanexplorers,armedwithbottomlessresourcesofenergyandgreed,rememberedandpursuedtheEast.Asian colonization didn’t really get rolling until the nineteenth century, so that will becovered in thenextchapter.Fromthesixteenththroughtheeighteenthcenturies,however,the Europeans managed to establish trade with the Asian empires, although it was morelimited than theywouldhave likeddue toAsianprotectionistpoliciesand thedifficultyoftravel.Aftermaking theirwayaround theCapeofGoodHope, thePortuguese set up a tradingpost inGoaon thewest coastof India.Theyalsogained control over theSpice IslandsbyestablishingnavalsuperiorityintheStraitsofMalacca.Inlessthanacentury,however,otherEuropeanpowers covetedAsian riches.TheDutch,under thebackingof thenewly formedDutchEastIndiaCompany,conducteddeliberateraidsonPortugueseshipsandtradingposts.In the seventeenth century, the Dutch became the biggest power in the spice trades.Meanwhile,EnglandandFrancesetuptradingpostsinIndia.As for China and Japan, both empires severely limited trade with the Europeans.Throughout this time period, the twoAsian empires couldn’t have beenmore unlike theirEuropeancounterparts.Theywerehighlyisolationist.Notonlydidtheynotgooutandtrytofindtherestoftheworld,theyalsopushedtherestoftheworldawaywhenitcametofindthem.You’llreadmoreaboutChinaandJapaninthenextsection.

IV.DEVELOPMENTSINSPECIFICCOUNTRIESANDEMPIRES1450–1750It’s dangerous to presume that because the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, theScientificRevolution,theEnlightenment,andtheAgeofExplorationeventuallyhadenormousconsequencesthattheydidsoquickly,broadly,orinequalproportions.Inreality,themajormovements impacted different parts of Europe at different times and took a long time topenetrateallcirclesofsociety.Mostpeoplewithpowerguardeditjealously,regardlessoftheintellectual or religious movements that brought their power into question. What’s more,most of the peasant class didn’t participate in the intellectual, scientific, or commercialdevelopmentsbecausetheyweren’teducatedorinapositiontobeimmediatelyimpactedbytheconsequences.Outside of Europe, themajor developments of the time period also had widely varyingconsequences.Intheprevioussection,wediscussedtheconsequencesontheAmericasandonmuch of Africa. But lest you think the rest of the world remained passive in the face ofEuropeangrowth,itisimportanttonotethatpowerfulandcentralizedstateswereestablished(orreestablished)intheMiddleEast,India,ChinaandJapan.TheempiresofAsia,too,hadunique experiences, which are discussed in detail later in the chapter. As you review thedevelopments in the European empires, keep in mind that most nations were led bymonarchs,orsovereigns,whofeltthattherighttogovernwasordainedbyGod.Underthisideaofdivine right, itwas essential for royal families to retainpurebloodlines toGod, sointermarriageamongroyalfamiliesofdifferentnationswascommon.Thus,themonarchiesofonecountryalsogainedinternationalinfluenceasthetiesofmarriageandinheritanceledtoalliances.Monarchiesalsocontributedtothedevelopmentofstrongnationalloyalties,whichledtomany conflicts, internally and externally. The European wars of this time fall into three

categories: religious fightsbetweenProtestantsandCatholics, internalcivilwarsbetweenamonarchanddisgruntlednobles,andbattlesstemmingfromthetradedisputesbetweenrivalnations. In the beginning of this era, Spain became the world’s strongest nation with apowerfulnavalfleetandanextensiveempire.AsthebalanceofpowerinEuropeshifted,therivalnationsofEnglandandFranceemergedasgreatpowers.

A.THEEUROPEANRIVALS

1.SpainandPortugalAsyoureadinthepreviouschapter,in1469,KingFerdinand,fromtheChristianKingdomsin northern Spain, andQueen Isabella, from themoreMuslim regions of southern Spain,initiated the consolidation of Spanish authority under one house, and thereby created anation-state that would become one of the world’s most powerful forces over the nextcentury. By aggressively supporting exploration (initially by underwriting Columbus’sexplorationandthenlaterbyestablishingempiresintheNewWorld),FerdinandandIsabellahad a long-term impact on cultural world developments—they ensured the survival andexpansionof theSpanish languageandculture, includingRomanCatholicism,byextendingthemacrosstheAtlantic.FerdinandandIsabellaalsobuiltaformidablenavalfleet,allowingSpaintoruletheseasforthenextcentury.AsSpainfocusedonwesternexplorationanditsempireintheNewWorld,thePortuguesecontinuedtheirdominationofcoastalAfrica,theIndianOcean,andtheSpiceIslands.Asmallcountrywithlimitedmanpower,Portugalhadtobecontentasthemiddlemanofa“floatingempire.” Itwas an early player in the transatlantic slave trade, controlled sea routes, andgarrisonedtradingposts,butwasunabletoexertcontroloverlargesectionsoftheinteriorofAfricaandIndia.Inevitably,Portugalcouldnotmaintaincontrolofitsfar-flungcoloniesandlostcontrolofthemtotheDutchandBritishwhohadfastershipswithheavierguns.The international importance of Spain grew under Charles V, who inherited a largeempire.CharleswasaHapsburg,afamilythatoriginatedinAustriaand,throughaseriesofcarefullyarrangedmarriages(recallthatdivinerightpromotedintermarriageamongroyalty),created a huge empire stretching from Austria and Germany to Spain. While one set ofCharles’sgrandparentswereHapsburgs,hisothergrandparentswereFerdinandandIsabella,whothemselveshadmarriedtosolidifytheSpanishempire.Talkaboutfamilyconnections.Anyway, in 1519, Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor by German princes, whichmeantthathethenheldlandsinpartsofFrance,theNetherlands,Austria,andGermanyinadditiontoSpain.Thesepossessions,plusthenewcoloniesintheAmericas,broughtwarsaswellasriches.SpainfoughtFranceforcontrolofItalyandtheOttomanTurksforcontrolofeasternEurope,whichledtoanexpansionofOttomanruleintomuchofHungary(moreonthat later). In Germany, Charles defended Catholicism from the encroachment ofProtestantism (recall that Spain was allied with the Catholic Church during the counter-reformation). Frustrated over trying to manage such an enormous empire at a time ofexpansion in the New World and revolution in Europe (the Protestant Reformation andScientificRevolution,forexample),hedecidedin1556toretiretoamonasteryandtherebyabdicatethethrone.Hegavecontroltohisbrother,FerdinandI,overAustriaandtheHolyRoman throne of Germany. To his son, Philip II, he conferred the throne of Spain and

jurisdictionoverBurgundy(inFrance),Sicily,andtheNetherlandsaswellasSpain’sclaimintheNewWorld.We’ll talkmoreaboutFerdinand’shalfof theempire later in this chapter.PhillipIIalsogainedcontroloverPortugal.UnderPhilipII,theSpanishEmpireinthewestsawsomeofitsgreatestexpansioninthe

New World and a rebirth of culture under the Spanish Renaissance, but it also startedshowing signs of decay. A devoutly religiousman, Philip oversaw the continuation of theSpanishInquisition tooustheretics, led theCatholicReformationagainstProtestants,andsupportedan increase inmissionarywork in theever-expandingempire in theNewWorld.IncreasinglyProtestantandincreasinglyeagertodeveloptheirownempire,theDutch(oftheNetherlands)revolted.By1581,themostlyProtestantnorthernprovincesoftheNetherlandsgained their independence from Spain and became known as the Dutch Netherlands. ThemostlyCatholicsouthernprovincesremainedloyaltoSpain(thisregionwouldlaterbecomeBelgium).Exhibitingfurthersignsofweakness,SpanishforcesfightingforCatholicisminFrancefared

poorly, and to the shockofmanySpaniards, theEnglishdefeatedanddevastated theoncemightySpanishArmada as it tried to attack the British Isles. The defeat invigorated theEnglish,whoby the late sixteenthcenturywereexpanding theirownempire, and signaledcontainmentofSpanishforces.AlthoughSpainamassedenormoussumsofgold fromtheNewWorld, it spent itswealth

quickly on wars, missionary activities, and maintenance of its huge fleets. By the mid-seventeenth century, Spain still had substantial holdings, but its glory days had passed.EnglandandFrancewerewellpoisedtoreplaceitasthedominantEuropeanpowers.

2.EnglandAs you read above in the discussion of the ProtestantReformation, KingHenryVIII,whoruled from 1509 to 1547, nullified the pope’s authority in England, thereby establishing(under the1534ActofSupremacy) theChurchofEnglandandplacedhimself asheadofthatchurch.ThiswassothathecoulddivorcehiswifeandmarryAnneBoleyninanefforttofatheramaleheir.Hedidn’tsucceedingettingamaleheir.Instead,hegotanotherdaughter,ElizabethI,whooversawagoldenageintheartsknownastheElizabethanAge.The Elizabethan Age (1558–1603) boasted commercial expansion and exploration and

colonization in the New World, especially after the English fleet destroyed the SpanishArmada in1588.During this time, theMuscovyCompanywas founded as the first joint-stock company, and the British East India Company quickly followed suit. Drakecircumnavigatedtheglobe.ThefirstEnglishcolonistssettled inRoanokecolony inpresent-dayVirginia.Andtotopitalloff,Shakespearewrotehismasterpieces.Simplyput,EnglandunderElizabethexperiencedagoldenage.ThereligiousbattlesthatwereunleashedbytheProtestantReformationstillunsettledthe

region.Anglicans(ChurchofEngland)werebattlingCatholics,whileotherProtestantgroupssuchasthePuritanswereregularlypersecuted.WhenJamesIcametopowerin1607afterthedeathofElizabeth,areignthatbroughttogetherthecrownsofEnglandandScotland,heattempted to institute reforms to accommodate the Catholics and the Puritans, butwidespreadproblemspersisted.ThePuritans(whowereCalvinists)didn’twanttorecognizethepowerofthekingoverreligiousmatters,andJamesreacteddefensively,claimingdivineright.ItwasatthispointthatmanyPuritansdecidedtocrosstheAtlantic.ThePilgrimscross

toPlymouthcolony(1620)occurredduringJames’sreign.Jamestowncolony,asyoumighthaveguessed,was also foundedduring the reignof James I.TheEnglisharen’t known fortheirinnovativeplacenames.Charles I, son of James, rose to power in 1625. Three years later, desperate formoney

fromParliament, he agreed to sign thePetitionofRight,whichwas a document limitingtaxes and forbidding unlawful imprisonment. But Charles ignored the petition after hesecured the funds he needed and, claiming divine right, ruled without calling anothermeetingofparliamentforelevenyears.In 1640, when Scotland’s resentment toward Charles resulted in a Scottish invasion of

England,CharleswasforcedtocallParliamentintosession.LedbyPuritans,thisParliamentwasknownastheLongParliamentbecauseitsatfortwentyyearsfrom1640through1660.TheLongParliamentlimitedtheabsolutepowersofthemonarchy.In1641,theparliamentdeniedCharles’srequestformoneytofighttheIrishrebellion,andinresponseheledtroopsinto the House of Commons to arrest some of the members. This sparked a civil war.Parliamentraisedanarmy,calledtheRoundheads,tofighttheking.TheRoundheads,underthe leadership of Oliver Cromwell, defeated the armies of Charles I, who were calledCavaliers.Thekingwastriedandexecuted.OliverCromwellrosetopower,notasamonarch,but firstas leaderofwhatwascalledtheEnglishCommonwealth, thenafter reorganizingthegovernment,asLordProtector.WhenCromwellruledasProtector,heruledwithreligiousintoleranceandviolenceagainst

CatholicsandtheIrish.HeencouragedProtestants tosettle inNorthernIreland(thiswouldcause many problems in future centuries). All of this caused much resentment, and afterCromwelldied,ParliamentinvitedCharlesII,theexiledsonofthenow-beheadedCharlesI,totakethethroneandrestorealimitedmonarchy.ThisiscalledtheStuartRestoration(1660–1688).A closet Catholic, Charles II acknowledged the rights of the people, especiallywithregardtoreligion.In1679,heagreedtotheHabeasCorpusAct(whichprotectspeoplefromarrestswithoutdueprocess).FollowingCharlesII’sdeath,hisbrotherJamesIItookover.JamesIIwasopenlyCatholic,andhewasunpopular.Likesomanybeforehim,hebelieved

in the divine right of kings. In a bloodless change of leadership known as the GloriousRevolution, he was driven from power by Parliament, who feared he’d make England aCatholic country, and he fled to France. He was replaced in 1688 by his son-in-law anddaughter,WilliamandMary,theProtestantrulersoftheNetherlands,whopromptlysignedtheEnglishBillofRights in1689.TheGloriousRevolutionensured thatEngland’s futuremonarchswouldbeAnglican,andthattheirpowerswouldbelimited.

FocusOn:TheEnlightenmentWritersKeep inmind that the Enlightenmentwriterswere busy atwork by this time.HobbespublishedLeviathan in1651 in response to theEnglishCivilWar,a timeduringwhichthemonarch,CharlesI,wasbeheaded.Hobbes’sviolentviewofhumannatureanddesirefor an all-powerful ruler to maintain peace are completely understandable within thecontextoftheEnglishCivilWar.WhileHobbesmissedthepeacefulresolutionofthewarin theGloriousRevolutionand theEnglishBillofRights (1688–1689),JohnLockedidnot.Locke’smoreoptimisticviewofhumannaturecanbeviewedinthecontextofthebloodless transition of power between James II and William and Mary. In addition,Locke’s writings in Two Treatises on Government justified this change of leadership bysuggestingJames IIhadviolated thesocialcontract.Politicalevents inEnglandduringthistime,andsucheventsingeneral,cannotbeseparatedfromthedevelopmentofsocialandpoliticalphilosophyandvisaversa.

3.FranceAftertheHundredYears’War(1337–1453)drovetheEnglishfromFrance,theFrenchbeganto unify and centralize authority in a strong monarchy. But, as elsewhere, religiousdifferences stood in the way. France was largely Catholic, but during the ProtestantReformation,agroupofFrenchProtestants,knownasHuguenots,developedintoasizeableand influential minority. Throughout the mid- to late-sixteenth century, Catholics andHuguenotsbitterlyfoughteachother,sometimesbrutally,until,in1598,HenryIVissuedtheEdictofNantes,whichcreatedanenvironmentoftoleration.HenryIVwasthefirstBourbonking.TheBourbonsruledFranceuntil1792,nearlytwocenturies.

ContrastThem:EnglandandFranceDuringtheSeventeenthCenturyUnlike England, Francewas ruled by a series of strong and ablemonarchs under theBourbon Dynasty. After the death of Elizabeth, England went from monarchy toCommonwealthtoRestorationtoGloriousRevolution.Hardlystable.Ontheotherhand,France’sEstates-General (agoverningbody representingclergy,nobles,merchants,andpeasants)wasnotnearlyaspowerfulastheEnglishParliament.Itdidn’tevenmeetforthebulkoftheseventeenthcenturybecausetheFrenchkingsruledsuccessfullyunderthejustificationofdivineright.

Cardinal Richelieu, a Catholic, played an important role as the chief advisor to theBourbons. His primary political role was to strengthen the French crown. While clasheserupted amongCatholics andHuguenots (Protestants) in France, Richelieu did not seek todestroy the Protestants; he compromised with them and even helped them to attack theCatholicHapsburgsoftheHolyRomanEmpire,anempirethathewantedtoendinordertomakeFrancea strongerpower inEurope.Anewbureaucraticclass, thenoblessede la robe,was established under Richelieu. The bureaucracy that Richelieu and then later successor,CardinalMazarin,establishedpreparedFrancetoholdthestrongpositionitwouldachieve

inEuropeunderLouisXIV.LouisXIV was four years old when he inherited the crown of France. His mother andCardinalMazarinruledinhisnameuntilhereachedadulthood,atwhichtimehebecameoneof themost legendarymonarchs of European history. Louis XIV’s long reign (1643–1715)exemplified the grandiosewhims of an absolutemonarchy.Calling himself the “SunKing”and “TheMost Christian King,” he patronized the arts as long as they contributed to theglorification of France and its culture,which becamemuch admired and emulated. Rulingunderdivineright,hereportedlydeclared,“IamtheState,”andhebuiltthelavishpalaceofVersaillestoproveit.HeneversummonedtheEstates-General,thelawmakingbody,tomeet.He revoked the Edict of Nantes, forcing many Huguenots to leave France. Perhaps mostimportantly,heappointedJeanBaptisteColberttomanagetheroyalfunds.A strict mercantilist, Colbert wanted to increase the size of the French empire, therebyincreasingtheopportunityforbusinesstransactionsandtaxes.Toaccomplishthis,Francewasalmost constantly atwar. For awhile,warfare andmercantilist policies allowed France toincrease itsoverseasholdingsandgain the revenueneeded for theextravagancesofakingnamedforthesun.ButtheWarofSpanishSuccession(1701–1714)provedtobeadisasterforthegrandplansofFrance.Recall that European royalty was intermarrying and reproducing. It turned out that thetwistedbranchesoftheroyalfamilytreesledtoasituationinwhich,in1701,oneofLouisXIV’s grandsons inherited theSpanish throne.This alarmed the rest ofEurope,who fearedthat Spain, although substantially weaker than it had been in the previous century, andFrance, already quite powerful,would formanunstoppable combo-power, especially giventheirAmericanholdingsatthetime(FranceownedahugechunkofNorthAmerica,SpainthebulkofCentralandSouthAmerica). It’sacomplicatedstory,butEngland, theHolyRomanEmpire, and German princes all united under the perceived common threat, and thirteenyearslater,thequestionofSpanishsuccessionwassettled.PhilipV,thegrandson,wasabletoruleSpain,butSpaincouldn’tcombinewithFrance,andFrancehadtogiveupmuchofitsterritorytoEngland,acountrythatthenbecameevenmorepowerful.ThebottomlineisthatColbertandLouisXIV’smanyterritorialinvasionsandwarsprovedcostlyandineffective.Franceremainedpowerful,butbytheeighteenthcentury,itspositionasamilitarypowerwasweakening.Nevertheless,by1750, itspositionasacenter forartswasfirmlyestablished.

4.GermanAreas(TheHolyRomanEmpire,Sortof)The situation in German and Slavic areas of central Europe during this time period wascomplicated.TheHolyRomanEmpirewasn’treallyinRomebutratherinpresent-dayAustriaandpartsofGermanyandsurroundingregionsbecauseItalywascontrolledbyrulingfamiliesintheItaliancity-states.TheHolyRomanEmpiregeographicallydominatedtheregion,butwasalsostillveryfeudalwithlotsoflocallordsrunningtheirownshows.Therefore,theHolyRoman emperor was pretty weak. This is further complicated by the rise of the powerfulHapsburg family of Austria, which, as we already stated, kept intermarrying so that itdominatednotonlysubstantial territorywithintheHolyRomanEmpirebutalsoSpainandparts of Italy. It was complicated even more by the fact that northern Germany wasessentially a collection of city-states, such as Brandenburg, Saxony, and Prussia. Finally,remember that northernGermanywent Lutheran during the ProtestantReformation,while

southernareasoftheHolyRomanEmpirestayedCatholic,alongwithSpainandFrance.Gotit?It’snutty,sowe’reonlygoingtohitthehighlights,orelseyourheadwillbespinning.

ContrastThem:“Germany”withSpain,England,andFranceGermanyunifiedunderacentralgovernmentmuchlaterthanSpain,England,andFrancedid.You’ll readaboutGermanunification in thenextchapter.Youwon’t readaboutahuge German empire in the New World or a strong German monarchy, because forcenturiesitremainedcaughtinacomplicatedwebofrulersoftheHolyRomanEmpire,theHapsburgsofAustria,andtheprincesofcity-states.Itwasalsoatangleofreligiousmovements,becauseitwasattheheartoftheProtestantReformation.

Youneedtograspthefollowingthreethingsfromthistimeperiod:

TheHolyRomanEmpirelostpartsofHungarytotheOttomanTurksintheearlysixteenthcentury(thisisdiscussedinthesectionontheOttomanEmpire).TheThirtyYears’War(1618–1648)devastatedtheregionandsignificantlyweakenedtheroleoftheHolyRomanemperors,whichinthenineteenthcenturywouldfinallyleadtotheriseofhundredsofnation-statesintheregion.Bytheeighteenthcentury,thenorthernGermancity-states,especiallyPrussia,weregainingmomentumandpower.

Nowforafewofthedetails.

In1555, thePeace ofAugsburgwas intended to bring an end to the constant conflicts

between Catholics and Protestants that engulfed the region during the Reformation andcounter-reformation.Thepeacedidn’tlast.TheThirtyYears’Warbeganin1618whentheProtestant territories inBohemia(whichwasunder theruleof theCatholicHapsburgclan)challenged the authority of the Holy Roman Catholic emperor, a situation that frequentlyarose prior to the Peace of Augsburg. This time, though, the conflict grew bigger thananythingbeforeit,anddevelopedintoahugereligiouswar,aswellasamajorpoliticalwar.Everyoneseemedtowantapieceoftheaction,includingothercountries,likeFrance(underRichelieu),Denmark,andSweden.Although thisgrew intoawarbetweenmajorEuropeanpowers,actualfightingstayedwithintheGermanempire,whichmeantthatafter30yearsoffighting, many parts of Germany were left depopulated and devastated. Some estimatessuggest that theHolyRomanEmpire lostone-thirdof itspopulationduring these30years,some7millionpeople.WhenthePeaceofWestphaliawasnegotiatedin1648,theindependenceofsmallGermanstateswasaffirmed,andPrussiabecamethestrongestofthem.TheHolyRomanEmpirewasleft barely limping along. Its territories had been reduced and its emperor, alongwith theHapsburg family, wasmuch less powerful. Somehow the Holy Roman Empire survived innameuntil1806,butithardlyhadanypowerafterWestphalia.The biggest beneficiary of thewarwas France. It became themost powerful country inEuropeduringtheseventeenthcenturyunderLouisXIV,although,asyoualreadyread,bytheeighteenth century it was weakened after the country overspent and overplayed its hand,particularlyduringtheWarofSpanishSuccession.TheotherwarbeneficiarywasPrussia,theGermancity-statecenteredinBerlin,whichalsocontrolledpartsofPoland.Prussiaeventuallyrose to dominate the German territories, unifying them into the powerful country ofGermany,butyou’llreadaboutthatinthenextchapter.

B.RUSSIAOUTOFISOLATIONWhen the Turks conquered Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire fell, the center ofOrthodox Christianity moved northward to Moscow, which was called the “Third Rome”(afterRomeitselfandthenConstantinople).Ataroundthesametime,RussianleaderswereoverthrowingtheMongols.In1480,IvanIIIofMoscowrefusedtopaytributetotheMongolsand declared Russia free of Mongol rule. He, and later his grandson Ivan IV, establishedabsolute rule inRussia, uniting it and expanding it ever eastward.They recruitedpeasantsandofferedthemfreedomfromtheirfeudallordsiftheyagreedtosettleinnewlandstotheeast. The catch was that these peasants had to conquer the land themselves! Known asCossacks, these peasant-soldiers expanded Russian territories in the sixteenth through theeighteenthcenturieswellintoSiberiaandsouthwardtotheCaspianSea.IvanIVwassuchastrongleaderandheldsuchabsolutepowerthathebecameknownasIvan the Terrible (not necessarily meaning bad, but instead formidable or impressive).Taking on the title of czar (Russian for “Caesar”), Ivan the Terrible expanded Russia’sholding,butnotwithoutcosttotheRussianpeople.Bythe1560s,heruledunderareignofterror,regularlyexecutinganyonewhomheperceivedasathreattohispower,includinghisownson(executedin1580).

ContrastThem:RussiaandWesternEuropeDespite the centralization of authority under the Ivans, Russia remained verymuch afeudal arrangement, with local lords exercising considerable power. While westernEurope basked in the glow of the Renaissance, explored and expanded its influenceacross oceans, and debated about religion, science, and government in a series ofmovements, Russia remained isolated from the west and pushed eastward instead. Itsgrowthwasterritorial,butnotintellectualorartistic.Duringthefifteenth,sixteenth,andmostoftheseventeenthcenturies,ithadnothingthatcouldbelabeledaRenaissanceorEnlightenment.Itwasn’tpartoftheRenaissancebecauseitwasunderthecontroloftheMongols at the time. It wasn’t part of the Reformation because it wasn’t part of theCatholic Church in the first place. So even though today we often see Russia as aEuropeanpower,itshistoryprogressedalongaverydifferentpath.Itwasn’tuntilthelateseventeenthcenturythatRussiaturneditseyeswestward.

After thedeath of Ivan IV in1584, andwithno strongheir to take the throne,Russia’sfeudal lords continually battled over who should rule the empire. The situation grewespecially messy from 1604 to 1613, a period that historians refer to as the Time ofTroubles,becauseonepretendertothethronewouldbekilledbyanotherpretenderandyetanother. In 1613, themadness subsidedwhenMichaelRomanovwas elected czar by thefeudallords.TheRomanovDynastyaddedstabilitytotheempire.Itruleduntil1917.LiketheIvans,theRomanovsconsolidatedpowerandoftenruledruthlessly.Thepeasants,

nowserfs,werepracticallyslaves.Bythelate1600s,theRomanovshadexpandedtheempire,with thehelpof theCossacks, eastward throughSiberia.By1689,Russian territory spreadfromtheUkraine(westofMoscow)tothePacificOcean,northofManchuria.

CompareThem:ForcedLaborSystemsAlthough slavery was not a new system, the demands of the newly global economyresulted in an expansion of systems of forced labor in the empires. At the same time,Russia’s attempts to control their large land mass relied on the forced labor of thepeasantsorserfs.All threesystemstookadvantageof the laborersandwerefrequentlymanagedbyharshandbrutaloverseers.IntheSpanishpartoftheNewWorld,haciendaswere established in which Natives owed labor to their landlords—not unlike thefeudalismofEurope.ThissystemfellapartastheNativepopulationsdiminishedduetodisease, and as Natives converted to the Roman Catholic faith. The Portuguese tookadvantage of the already thriving intra-African slave trade and transformed it into atrans-oceanicone.ThemajorityoftransportedAfricanswoulduponplantationsinBraziland theCaribbeanwhere life expectancywas just three to fiveyears.Russian serfdomdiffered in that the Russian economy was domestic and both the laborers and thelandownerswereRussian.

Ataroundthissametime,PetertheGreat,whoruledfrom1682through1725,cameto

power.Hewas convincedheneeded towesternizeRussia.HebuiltRussia’s first navy andfoundedSt.Petersburgon theBalticSeaashisnewcapital.The“windowto thewest,”St.Petersburg became the home to hundreds of western European engineers, scientists,architects, and artists whowere recruited specifically towesternize Russia.Women of thenobilitywereforcedtodressinwesternfashions.Menwereforcedtoshavetheirbeards.Mostofthehardlaborofbuildingthegreatnewcitywasaccomplished,ofcourse,byserfsturnedslaves.UnderCatherinetheGreat,whoruledfrom1762until1796,moreenlightenedpoliciesof

education and western culture were implemented. Still, Russia suffered because Catherinefiercelyenforcedrepressiveserfdomandlimitedthegrowthofthemerchantclass.Catherinecontinuedtheaggressivewestwardterritorialexpansion,gaininggroundinPolandand,mostsignificantly, territory on the Black Sea. This advance ensured Russia’s access to theMediterraneantoitssouthandwest.

FocusOn:WesternizationofRussiaBothPeterandCatherineareimportantbecausetheypositionedRussiaforengagementwiththerestoftheworld,particularlytheWesternworld.Bythelateeighteenthcentury,Russiawasinasignificantlydifferentpositionthanithadbeenatthebeginningofthatcentury.ItgainedaccesstothewestbyboththeBalticandtheBlackSeas,anditgainedculturalaccesstotheWestbyactivelyseekinginteraction.UnlikeChinaandJapan,whorepelled theWest from their shores in the same time period, the Russians wanted toengageandemulatetheWest.

C.ISLAMICGUNPOWDEREMPIRES:OTTOMAN,SAFAVID,ANDMUGHAL

ThehistoryoftheOttomanEmpireactuallyextendsbefore1450.Youmightrecallfromtheprevious chapter that the territories of the former Islamic Empire were overrun by theubiquitousMongolsinthethirteenthcentury.RecallalsothattheByzantineEmpire,centeredinConstantinople,controlledmostofTurkeyandinfluencedsoutheasternEuropeandRussia.As theMongol Empire fell, theMuslimOttoman Empire, founded byOsmanBey, rose inAnatolia(easternpartsofTurkey)tounifytheregionandchallengetheByzantineEmpire.Asitgrewinthefourteenthcentury,theTurks(astheOttomanswerecalled)cametodominatemostofmodern-dayTurkeyandeventually,in1453,invadedConstantinople,therebyendingtheByzantineEmpire.Soperhaps1450isn’tsuchanartificialboundaryafterall.TheOttomansmadeConstantinople theircapitalcity, renamed it Istanbul,andconverted

the great cathedrals such as the Hagia Sophia into mosques. In the expanding empire,ChristiansandJewswereallowedtopracticetheirreligions,makingtheempiremoretolerantthan both the previous Islamic Empire and the other major regimes of the era. Within ahundredyears, theOttomansconqueredmostof theregionspreviouslyheldby theancientRoman Empire, except for Italy westward. In other words, the Ottoman Empire extendedfromGreeceeastwardtoPersia,andthenall thewayaroundtheMediterraneanintoEgyptandnorthernAfrica.As the empire grew, so too did religious persecution. To conquer large territories, the

OttomansenslavedchildrenoftheirChristiansubjectsandturnedthemintofightingwarriors,known asJanissaries.Much of this expansion occurred during the reign of Selim I, whocametopowerin1512.Significantly,SelimclaimedthathewastherightfulheirtoIslamictradition under the Arab caliphs.With that claim, andwith such a huge empire, IstanbulbecamethecenterofIslamiccivilization.Justeightyearslater,SuleimanI(a.k.a.SuleimantheMagnificent)rosetopower.Henot

onlybuiltuptheOttomanmilitary,butalsoactivelyencouragedthedevelopmentofthearts.Forthisreason,theOttomanEmpireexperiencedagoldenageunderhisreign,whichlastedfrom 1520 until 1566. During this time, the Ottomans tried to push into Europe throughHungary.YoualreadyreadthattheHolyRomanEmpirewasweakeningduringtheProtestantReformation.TheOttomanstookadvantageofthisweakness;aftertakingpartsofHungary,theTurkstriedtomoveintoAustria.In1529,theempirelaidsiegetoVienna,asignificantEuropean cultural center. Had the Turks successfully taken Vienna, who knows what thehistoryofwesternEuropewouldhavebeen.FromVienna,theTurkscouldhaveeasilypouredintotheunstablelandsoftheHolyRomanEmpire.Butitwasn’tmeanttobe.ViennawasasfarastheTurksevergot.AlthoughAustrianprincesandtheOttomansbattledcontinuallyforthe next century, the Ottomans were never able to expand much beyond the EuropeanterritoriesofByzantineinfluence.Still,theOttomanEmpirelasteduntil1922,makingitoneoftheworld’smostsignificant

empires. In that time, it greatly expanded the reach of Islam, while also keeping easternEuropeinaconstantstateofflux.ThisallowedthepowersofwesternEuropetodominate,and once they started exploring the oceans, they were able to circumvent their easternneighborsandtradedirectlywithIndia,China,andtheirAmericancolonies.It isworthmentioning the chief rivals of theOttomanwere their easternneighbors, the

Safavids.ThiscentralizedstatewasbasedonmilitaryconquestanddominatedbyShiaIslam.ItslocationbetweentheOttomansandtheMughals,inwhatismodern-dayIran,resultedinoften contentious relationships between theMuslim states, allianceswithEuropean againsttheOttomans,andacontinuationofthelong-standingriftbetweentheSunniandShiasects.RemembertheMongols?Afterseveralfalsestarts,in1526,Babur,aleaderwhoclaimedto

be descended fromGenghis Khan butwas verymuchMuslim, invaded northern India andswiftlydefeatedtheDelhiSultanate(alsoMuslim).Baburquicklyestablishedanewempire,knownas theMughalEmpire,whichdominated the Indian subcontinent for thenext 300years.TheMughalEmpirewasdistinctiveforseveralreasons.First,withinabout150years,ithad

united almost the entire subcontinent, something that hadn’t previously been done to thesameextent.RecallthatnorthernIndiaexperiencedaseriesofinvasionsandempires,manyofwhichyoureviewed inpreviouschapters.Thesamewasnot trueof southern India.TheDeccanPlateauinsouthernIndiahadremainedmostlyisolated.ItwastherethatHinduismbecameveryfirmlyestablished.Babur’sgrandson,Akbar,whoruledfrom1556to1605,wasabletounifymuchofIndia

by governing under a policy of religious toleration.He allowedHinduism and Islam to bepracticedopenly.Heeliminatedthejizya,theheadtaxonHindusthathadbeenasourceofgreat anger to the people, and tried to improve the position of women by attempting toeliminatesati, thepracticeinwhichhigh-casteHinduwomenwouldthrowthemselvesonto

theirhusbands’funeralpyres.HeevenmarriedaHinduwoman,andwelcomedHindusintogovernmentpositions.Fornearly100years,HindusandMuslimsincreasinglylivedside-by-sideand,consequently,becamemoregeographicallymixed.Theresultwasagoldenageofart, architecture, and thought. Under Shah Jahan, Akbar’s grandson, the Taj Mahal wasbuilt.However,afterAkbar,twodevelopmentsforeverchangedIndia.Thefirstwasthatreligioustolerationended.TheMuslimgovernmentreinstatedthe jizya;

Hindu templeswere destroyed. The consequences of this developmentwere significant forlater centuries, but for themoment, understand that by1700,Muslimsbegan to persecuteHindusandHinduswereorganizingagainsttheirMuslimrulersandneighbors.The second development was the arrival of the Europeans. In the early seventeenth

century,thePortugueseandBritishwerefightingeachotherforIndianOceantraderoutes.Inthe beginning, Portugal had established trade with the city of Goa, where it also sentChristianmissionaries. By 1661, the British East IndiaCompany had substantial control oftradeinBombay.By1691,theBritishdominatedtradeintheregionandfoundedthecityofCalcuttaasatradingoutpost.WhiletheMughalemperorswereannoyedwiththeEuropeans,they generally permitted the trade and regarded the Europeans as relatively harmless. Ofcourse,theIndustrialRevolutionwouldturnBritainintoanimperialsuperpower.Butbefore1750—thecalmbeforethestorm—Indiadidn’tfeelparticularlyvulnerabletotheEuropeans,except in its port cities. Itwas a huge countrywith tons of resources united under strongMuslimrulers.Itcouldn’tbeconquered,right?Atthetime,Indiansprobablycouldn’timaginethatacenturylater,aBritishwomannamedVictoriawouldbecrownedEmpressofIndia.

D.AFRICA

Beginninginthetenthcentury,strongcentralizedstatesdevelopedinsouthernandwesternAfricabasedonthewealthaccumulatedfromtrade.Thetrendofincreasedpowercontinuedwith the trans-Atlantic slave trade and the establishment of powerful kingdoms by theSonghai, and in the kingdoms of Kongo and Angola, among others. While you are notexpectedtoknoweachofthesekingdomsindetail,youshouldrecognizethepatternofstate-buildingandtherelationshipofAfricatoboththeIslamicworldandtheEuropeans.Thesub-SaharanempireofSonghaiwasmentionedbrieflyinthepreviouschapter.Likeits

predecessors,Ghana andMali, thiswas an Islamic statewith economic ties to theMuslimworldthroughthetrans-Saharantradeofsaltandgold.Likeotherempires,thiswasbuiltonconquests andmilitary force. Sunni Ali (ruled 1464–1493) consolidated his empire in thevalleyof theNigerRiverusing an imperial navy, established a central administration, andfinancedthecityofTimbuktuasamajorIslamiccenter.Andlikeallgreatempires,Songhaifell,inthiscasetoMoroccanswithmuskets,asuperiormilitaryforce.OnthewestcoastofAfrica,thecentralizedkingdomofKongowasbolsteredbyitstrade

withPortuguesemerchantsasearlyasthe1480s.TheEuropeansestablishedcloseeconomicandpoliticalrelationshipswiththeking,whichinitiallyworkedtoeveryone’sadvantage.Thekings of the Kongo converted to RomanCatholicism, andKingAlfonso I was particularlysuccessfulatconvertinghispeople.Overthelongterm,Portuguesetacticsandthedesireforslaves from the interior undermined the authority of the kings of Kongo and the stategradually declined. Eventually, there were outright hostilities and war between the twoformeralliesandthekingdomwasmostlydestroyed.

SouthofKongo,thePortugueseestablishedasmalltradingpostinNdongo,orAngola,asearlyas1575forthesolepurposeofexpandingtheirtradeinslavesfromtheinterior.Asaresult,AngolagrewintoapowerfulstateandwhenthePortugueseattemptedtofurtherexerttheirauthorityandcontrol,QueenNzingafiercelyresisted.For40years,thewarriorqueenledhertroopsinbattle,studiedEuropeanmilitarytactics,andmadeallianceswithPortugal’sDutchrivals.Despiteherefforts,intheend,shecouldnotunifyherrivalsnorovercomethesuperiorweaponryofthePortuguese.

E.ISOLATEDASIA

1.ChinaBy1368, theMingDynastybootedout the lastof theMongol rulers inChinaand restoredpowerovertheempiretothenativeChinese.TheMingDynastyruleduntil1644.Duringthistime, the Ming built a strong centralized government based on traditional Confucianprinciples, reinstated the civil service examination, and removed theMongol influence byreinvigoratingChineseculture.In the early fifteenth century, the Chinese also did something quite extraordinary: They

builthugefleets.ZhengHe,aChinesenavigator,ledfleetsthroughoutsoutheastAsiaandtheIndianOcean,allthewaytoEastAfrica,acenturybeforetheEuropeansdidthesame.HadtheChinese continued to explore and trade, theymayhavebecome thedominant colonialpower.Butinstead,withinafewdecades,theChineseabruptlystoppedtheirnavalvoyages.Increasingly,Chinesesocietyturnedinward.The Ming government attempted to prop up their failing economy by changing easily

counterfeited paper money to a “single-whip” system based on silver currency. Initially,Japan supplied the silver (much to the benefit of the shoguns in Japan), but with thediscovery of American silver sources, China established trade relations with the Spanishthrough the Philippines. Although this exchange fueled a period of commercial expansion,inevitably,thesilverfloodedtheChinesemarketandthegovernmentwasunabletocontroltheresultinginflation.Bythesixteenthcentury,theMingdynastywasalreadyinitsdecline,justastheEuropeans

were beginning to sail toward China. Pirates increasingly raided port cities, and thePortuguesesetupshopinMacao.Still,theChinesewereabletokeeptheEuropeansatasafedistance.However,internalproblemspersisted.Bytheseventeenthcentury,faminescrippledtheChinese economy, andpeasant revolts erupted against the increasingly powerlessMingrulers.In1644,theMingemperorinvitedagroupofQingwarriorsfromnearbyManchuriatohelphimquellapeasantuprising,butinstead,theQingoustedtheemperor.Withthatact,theMingDynastyendedandtheQing(orManchu)Dynastybegan.TheManchusruledChinauntil1912.

FocusOn:EnvironmentalChangeandCollapseThenewfoodcropsthatarrivedinEurope,Africa,andAsiafromtheAmericas(cassava,corn, peanuts, and potatoes) were high in calories, easy to grow in previouslyuncultivated areas, and, as a result, allowed for massive population increases. Therecrops along with new agricultural technologies, and political stability were initially aboon to China’s economy and productivity.However, the new population levels couldnot be sustained over the long term, and a period of global cooling in the lateseventeenthcenturyputpressureonagriculturallandsandhastenedthecollapseoftheMingDynasty. InEurope, thearrivalofpotatoes finally stabilizeda food supplyandapopulation that had been devastated by centuries of cold weather, poor farming, andepidemicdisease.

BecausetheQingwerefromManchuria,theywerenotethnicallyChinese.Theyattemptedtoremainanethnicelite,forbiddingtheChinesetolearntheManchulanguageortomarryManchus. Yet, because the Manchus comprised a mere 3 percent of the population, theyneededthehelpofethnicChinesetorunthecountry.Therefore,thecivilserviceexaminationgained new heights. Even members of the lower classes were able to rise to positions ofresponsibilityastheManchusopenedupthefloodgatestofindthebesttalent.Manchuemperorswerewell steeped inChinese traditions.BothKangxi,whoruled from

1661 to 1722, and his chief successor, Qianlong, who ruled from 1735 to 1796, wereConfucianscholars.Bothemperorsnotonlysupportedthearts,butalsoexpandedtheempire.Kangxi conqueredTaiwanandextended the empire intoMongolia, centralAsia,andTibet.QianlongaddedVietnam,Burma,andNepaltothevassalstatesofChina.Inallofthisexpansion,theChinesedidnotaspiretoconquertherestoftheworld,oreven

interactwithitverymuch.TheystayedfocusedonChinaanditssurroundingneighbors.TheManchus did trade with the Europeans, and granted rights to the Portuguese, Dutch, andBritish,buttheywerevigilantaboutandsuccessfulatcontrollingtraderelationsthroughthemid-eighteenthcentury.TheManchuwere fierceprotectorsof theirculture.WhentheyfeltthreatenedbyEuropeanadvances,theyexpelledthem.In1724,forexample,Christianitywasbanned.In1757,tradewasrestrictedtojustonecity,Canton.Still,tradewithEuropeanswassubstantial.TheEuropeansbought largequantitiesof tea, silk, andporcelain. In exchange,themerchantsreceivedhugesumsofsilver,whichcreatedanewrisingclassofmerchantsinChinesecoastalcities.

2.JapanDuring the sixteenth century in Japan, a series of shoguns continued to rule while theemperor remainedmerelyasa figurehead.Butas thecenturywenton,Japanese feudalismbegantowaneandcentralizedpowerbegantoemerge.Theshogunstillruled(asopposedtotheemperor),butthepowerofthefeudal lordswasreduced.ThiscoincidedwithJapaneseexposure to theWest. In1542, thePortugueseestablishedtradewith theempire(theyalsointroducedgunstotheJapanese).Withinadecade,Christianmissionariesstreamedin.Bytheendofthecentury,notonlyhadafewhundredthousandJapaneseconvertedtoChristianity,buttheJesuitstookcontroloftheportcityofNagasakiandtradeflourished.Japanwaswell

onitswaytowesternization.In 1600, the trend changed dramatically. In that year, Tokugawa Ieyasu established theTokugawa Shogunate, a strict and rigid government that ruled Japan until 1868. Theshogunfurtherconsolidatedpowerawayfromtheemperorandattheexpenseofthedaimyo(feudallords).IeyasuclaimedpersonalownershiptoalllandswithinJapanandinstitutedarigid social classmodel, inspired somewhat byConfucianismbut in practicemore like thecaste system. Four classes (warrior, farmer, artisan, and merchant) were established andmovementamongtheclasseswasforbidden.The Tokugawa period—also known as the Edo period because Tokugawa moved thecapital toEdo(modern-dayTokyo)—wasmarkedbyareversal inattitudes towardWesterninfluences.Withintwodecades,Christianswerepersecuted.By1635,aNationalSeclusionPolicy prohibited Japanese from traveling abroad, and prohibited most foreigners fromvisitingJapan(limitedrelationswerekeptwithChina,Korea,andtheNetherlands).Inotherwords, Japan became increasingly secluded. The policy remained in place for nearly 200years.Tokugawawasveryseriousaboutthispolicy.HewasworriedthatJapanwouldbeoverrunbyforeigninfluences.KeepinmindthatSpainhadclaimedthenearbyPhilippinesandthattheEnglishandPortuguesekept trying tomake theirway intoChina.So, in1640,whenagroup of Portuguese diplomats and traders sailed to Japan to try to negotiate with theemperor and convince him to open up a dialogue, the shogun had every member of thePortuguesedelegationexecutedonthespot.Themessagewasclear.Japanwasofflimits.The absence of foreign influences allowed Japanese culture to thrive. During this timeperiod, Buddhism and Shinto remained at the center of culture, and unique Japanese artformsalsoprospered.Kabukitheatreandanewformofpoetry,haiku,becameverypopular.Artists gave their lives to the creation of richly detailed scrolls, wood-block prints andpaintings. Inotherwords,undera strongcentralauthority, Japanesecultureunderwent itsown renaissance. Unlike the European Renaissance, however, it was strictly intended fordomesticconsumption.

ContrastThem:India,China,andJapanonEuropeanAggressionNodoubtaboutit,theJapaneseundertheTokugawaShogunatereactedmostdecisivelyagainst European colonialism. China and India both allowed trade and Europeanoccupationofportcities,althoughChinaincreasinglylimiteditundertheManchus.IndiawastheleastsuspectingoftheEuropeans,anditpaiddearly.Inthenextchapteryou’llseetheconsequencesofthesethreeattitudestowardtheEuropeans:Indiawasoverrun,Chinawas partially overrun, and Japan, after briefly falling prey to outside influence,turnedthetablesandbecameacolonizingempireitself.

V.TECHNOLOGYANDINNOVATIONS1450–1750Europebecameapowerfulforceduringthistimeperiodbecauseoftheirwillingnesstoadaptandusethreekeyinnovationsthatexistedinotherpartsoftheworld:gunpowderweapons,navigation and ship-building technology, and finally the printing press (which developed

independentlyinGermany).ButatatimewhencompetitionamongtheEuropeansresultedinbigrisksandinnovations,theChineseandJapanesereturnedtomoretraditionallifestylesinorder tomaintain stability, and theMuslims,while retainingpowerful land-based empires,allowedinnovationsinshippingandweaponrytopassthemby.Thebiggest impactof thesenew technologieswas theexpandedknowledgeof theworld

that resulted from exploration by the European nations.Using their superiorweapons andlargertradingships,theEuropeansestablishednewoverseastradingempires,movedlotsofplantsandanimals,enslavedandtransportedpeopleacrossoceans,andgenerallytransformedtheinteractionsoftheentireworld.TheyfoughtwarswithoneanotherinEuropeand—whentheywereunabletoestablishsuitabletradingrelationships—wenttowarintheplacestheywishedtoconquer.Increased contact meant the spread of new ideas and technology (such as the printing

press), and the exposure to new cultures transformed both education and religion. Theestablishment of new Protestant churches in northern Europe increased the power of thekingsandnation-statesattheexpenseoftheCatholicChurch.Conversely,religiousconflictsled to increasedmigrations fromnorthernEuropeandtheresettlementof largenumbersofcolonistsintheNewWorld.

VI.CHANGESANDCONTINUITIESINTHEROLEOFWOMENAnumberofpowerfulwomentookchargeofthemostpowerfulempiresofthistime.TheseincludedElizabethIofEngland,IsabellaofSpain,andNurJahanofMughal,India.WiththeexceptionofElizabeth,whochosenevertomarry,mostofthesewomensharedpowerwiththeirhusbands.Andinspiteofthegreatpowerandvisibilityofthesefewelitewomen,forthemostpart, thestatusandfreedomsofwomenchangedlittlefromthepreviousperiod—legally theywere often considered property of their husbands, inherited less than sons orbrothers,andhadfewrightsinlegalorpoliticalspheres.Thebiggest change in the livesofwomencame from themixingofpreviouslyunknown

cultures.Theresultofglobalexplorationandcolonization,thesenewrelationshipsproducedoffspring consideredmixed ormestizo. Racial categories began to bemore widely used indetermining status or class hierarchy, and restrictions developed regarding marriages andlegal relationships between classes. Changes in trade and production also placed a greaterpremium onmale labor and jobs that women had traditionally held, like textile weaving,wereincreasingdominatedbymen.Some regions of theworld served as exceptions to these general patterns, butwere still

impacted by the global interactions. The forced migration of males in African societiesresultedinadisproportionatenumberoffemalesleftbehindinwhatwerealreadymatrilinealsocieties.Thesenumbersreinforcedpolygynyormultiplemarriages.Althoughlargenumbersof men also migrated from Europe, the predominately Christian societies did not allowmultiplemarriages,andasthenumberofunmarriedwomenincreasedthiscreatedaprobleminsocietiesthatregardedmarriageasthegoalofallwomen.Thenon-Europeanareasoftheworldtendedtoregardolderorwidowedwomenwithboth

respectandsuperstition.InbothAfricaandmanyNativeAmericansocieties,councilsofolderwomenwerepartofthepoliticaldecisionmakingprocess.However,olderwomenwerealsotobefearedastheycouldn’tnecessarilybecontrolled.Itwasthisneedforcontrolthatledto

acontinuationofNeo-ConfucianismvaluesineasternAsia.Thissocialphilosophydesignatedproperrolesandvirtuesforwomenwithinthehomewiththeunderstandingthatifthehomewerestablesowasthestate.InEurope,therevolutionarynewideasoftheRenaissanceandtheEnlightenmentincluded

women at least nominally. Education was more widely available to all classes, butopportunities for girls lagged far behind those of boys, and thehighest levels of educationwereonlyopentomales.Eventheless-hierarchicalnewProtestantreligionslimitedtherolesofwomentowifeandmotheranddidnothaveconventsormonasticsystemsasalternativestotraditionalroles.Eventually,theProtestantcountriesgrewevenmorepuritanicalintheirregulationofsex,marriage,andillegitimacy.

VII.PULLINGITALLTOGETHERInthecontextoftheAgeofExploration,“exploration”haslotsofconnotations.Ofcourse,themostobviousisthatitinvolvedEuropeanexplorationoftheAmericas,andthebeginningsofdirect contact with Asia. But more than that, its exploration was also internal. In theRenaissance, Europe explored its own lost history. During the Protestant Reformation itexplored its relationship with God. During the Scientific Revolution Europe explored theuniverse and the laws by which the universe functioned. During the Enlightenment itexplored the rights of man and the appropriate role of government, even as its empiredependedonslavery.AndduringtheCommercialRevolution,Europeexploreditspotential.Combined, these explorations were going in all directions—outward, upward, inward,

backwardtothepast,forwardtothefuture—anditwasallgoingonsimultaneously.Ifyou’reconfused by the developments, you should be. It’s hard to figure outwhichmovements inwhichcombinationimpactedwhichevents.Historianshaven’tsorteditouteither.It’sopentodebate.Whatwecansayisthis:Duringthetimeperioddiscussedinthechapter,Europewaswhere

theenergywas.Therewassomuchchange,forsomanyreasons,thattheboundariesofthecontinentliterallycouldn’tcontainit.UnlikeChinaandJapan,whichlargelylookedinward,andunliketheIslamicworld,whichdidn’ttaketotheseasorradicallyshakeupreligiousandsocialorders,Europeansweredynamicatthisparticulartimeinhistory.Theywereanalyzingeverythingandtheywerefullofinconsistencies.Othercivilizationsatothertimesinhistoryhadatleastasmuchenergyandunrest,butbecausetheEuropeanshadthetechnology,thepoliticalmotivation,andthefinancialstructure,theywereabletoquicklyexplodeontotheworldscene.AddintheevangelicalnatureofChristianity(anexplicitdesire toconvert theworld)andit’sclearthatthedesireforexpansionrandeep.Some would say that European monarchs ruled absolutely during this time period and

adopted a controlling, ethnocentric attitude with regard to the cultures they dominated.Perhaps this was precisely because Europe was in such cultural chaos itself.Who knows?We’llleavethattoyourfurtherstudies.Inanycase,it’shardtodenythatevenasEuropeansexploredtheirownhistory,culture,andstructurestounprecedenteddegrees,theyhadlittletroublemarginalizingthecomplexitiesofothers.

WHATABOUTTHENON-EUROPEANCULTURES?WHYWASTHEIRINTERACTIONWITHTHEWEST

SOVARIED?

Therearelotsofwaystoanswerthesequestions,butwe’llgetyoustarted.ChinaandJapanwerebothhighlyorganized,confidentcivilizations.ThecontingenciesofEuropeansontheirshoresweremodest.BecausetheJapaneseandChinesewanteddesperatelytopreservetheirowncultures,andbecausetheyhadthepowerandsophisticationtokeeptheEuropeans,forthemoment,atbay,that’spreciselywhattheydid.Whydidn’ttheothers?InAfrica, the societieswere fragmented.Nocentralizedpowerexisted, so theEuropeans

were harder to fend off. What’s more, the Europeans weren’t initially obsessed withpenetratingtheentirecontinent.Becausetheydidn’thavetoovertakeentirecivilizationstoachievetheirgoals, theywereable totradegoodsandabduct individualsonebyone,withlittleconcernforlong-termimpactonthecontinent.IntheAmericas,ofcourse,civilizationswerequicklyoverwhelmedbyEuropeantechnology

anddisease.AndintheOttomanEmpireandArabia, the interactionwassomewhat limitedbecausetheEuropeansweren’tasdependentontheoverlandroutesintheireffortstotradewithIndiaandChina.ThisdiminishedtheimportanceoftheMiddleEasttotheEuropeans.What’smore, because theCrusades endedunsuccessfully for theEuropeans, tradewith theMuslimswasimportantbutconquestoftheregionwasofftheradar.

FINALLY,WHATABOUTTHEGLOBALECONOMY?HOWDIDITCHANGE?Inshort,sailing,mercantilism,andprivateinvestmentchangedtheglobaleconomy.Inafewmore words: Improvements in sailing diminished the need for the Asian land routes andconnectedtheworldlikeneverbefore.Mercantilismanditsdependenceontheestablishmentofimperialismmarriedeconomicandpoliticaldevelopments.Andtheestablishmentofjoint-stockcompaniestookmajoreconomicmotivationoutofthehandsofgovernmentsandputitinto thehandsof theprivate sector.Thismeant thatnow thousands, tensof thousands,oreven hundreds of thousands of people had a direct stake in trade routes and conquest.Because the benefits of economic prosperity were diffused among a larger group ofindividuals thaneverbefore,governmentsbeganto losetheirgriponcontrollingtheirowneconomies.

IMPORTANTTERMS

AbsoluteMonarch Jurisdiction

Agrarian Left-Wing

Atheists Mercantilism

Capitalism Monarchy

CashCrop Monastic

Circumnavigate Monk

Colonization Monopoly

Commerce Monotheism

Commercial Morality

Commonwealth Nun

Consequences Papacy/Papal

Continuity Parliament

Convent Patriarch

Currency Pope

Deists Revolution

Demography Right-Wing

Divine Salvation

DivineRight Sanctioned

Dominant Satire

Economy Subsistence

Hedonism Urbanization

Hinder Utopia/Utopian

Humanism Vassals

Institution Venerate

Vernacular


AgeofReason Inquisition

AkbartheGreat(MughalIndia) JannissaryCorps

Batavia,Indonesia JesuitOrder

Calvin,John LawofHeavenlyBodies

ColumbianExchange Luther,Martin

CounterReformation LouisXIV(France)

DutchEastIndiaCompany Manchu(QingDynasty)China

EasternOrthodox PetertheGreat(Russia)

EdictofNantes PhilipIIofSpain

EdictofFountainbleu PotosiSilverMine

ElizabethIofEngland ProtestantReformation

EncomiendaSystem Renaissance

EnglishBillofRights RomanCatholicChurch

EnglishCommonwealth ScientificMethods

EuropeanExploration ScientificRevolution

FloatingEmpires Shogun

Goa,India SilverorSingleWhipSystem

Gutenberg’sPrintingPress StraitsofMalacca,Indonesia

HaciendaSystem SuleimantheMagnificent(Ottoman)

HapsburgSpain ThirtyYearsWar(1618–1648)

HenryTudor(HenryVIII) TokugawaBakufuSystem

HeliocentricTheory TreatyofWestphalia(1648)

HolyRomanEmpire TheVatican

Huguenots ZhengHe(Ming,China)

Indulgences

9

NotSoOldStuff:SometimeAround1750toAbout1914

I.CHAPTEROVERVIEWLessthantwocenturies iscoveredinthischapter,butduringthattime,theworldchangeddramatically.Europe’s influence in theWestwanedevenas itwaxed in theEast.NapoleontriedtoconquerEurope.ItalyandGermanyunifiedintomodernnation-states.Japanbecamean imperial power. India was entirely overrun by the British. The United States rose tobecomeaworldpower.AndtheIndustrialRevolution—thesinglebiggesteventof thetimeperiod—seemedtoimpacteverythingittouched,frompoliticalandeconomicdevelopments,tothedriveforcolonialholdingsinAfricaandAsia,todailylife.Here’sthechapteroutline. I. ChapterOverviewYou’reinit.

II. StayFocusedontheBigPictureOrganizethemajorsocial,political,andeconomicchangesthatoccurredduringthistimeperiodintosomebig-pictureconcepts.

III. IndustryandImperialismThissectionfocusesontheIndustrialRevolutionanditsconsequences,especiallyasitimpactedsocialandeconomicdevelopmentsinEuropeandEuropeanimperialisminAfricaandAsia.Here’showwe’veorganizedthissection. A. TheIndustrialRevolution B. EuropeanImperialisminIndia C. EuropeanImperialisminChina D. JapaneseImperialism E. EuropeanImperialisminAfrica

IV. PoliticalDevelopmentsintheAmericasandEuropeWhileAfricaandAsiawereincreasinglydominatedbyEuropeintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,theEuropeanslostmostoftheirholdingsintheAmericasduetosuccessfulrevolutionarymovements.Inthemeantime,Europeunderwentcontinuouspoliticalrestructuring,andstrongcentralizednation-stateswereformed.Here’showwe’veorganizedthissection. A. TwoRevolutions:AmericanandFrench B. LotsofIndependenceMovements:LatinAmerica C. TwoUnifications:ItalyandGermany D. OtherPoliticalDevelopments

V. TechnologyandIntellectualDevelopments1750–1914Bigmachines,assemblylines,andnewproducts.

VI. ChangesandContinuitiesintheRoleofWomenMoreeducationandmorework!

VII. PullingItAllTogetherRefocusonthebig-pictureconceptsnowthatyou’vereviewedthehistoricaldetails.

VIII. TimelineofMajorDevelopments1750–1914

II.STAYFOCUSEDONTHEBIGPICTUREAs you review the details of the developments in this chapter, stay focused on some big-pictureconceptsandaskyourselfsomequestions,includingthefollowing:

1. How are the events of this time period interconnected? The Industrial Revolution andimperialismarenotonlyinterconnected,butareconnectedtootherdevelopmentsinthistimeperiodaswell.Stayfocusedonhowdevelopmentsinoneregionoftheworldhadanimpactondevelopmentsinanother.Also,stayfocusedonhowregionaldevelopmentswere able to have a global impact through improvements in communication andtransportation,aswellasthroughcolonialism.

2. Whydidnationalismgrowduringthistimeperiod?Howdidtheimpactofnationalismvaryamongdifferentcountries?Whether intheAmericas,Europe,orAsia,nationalismwas a huge force. It sparked rebellions, independence movements, and unificationmovements.Italsosparkeddominationandcolonialism.

3. Howandwhydoeschangeoccur?Stayfocusedonthecomplexityofsocial,political,andeconomic developments, as opposed to presuming that the dominant economic orpolitical philosophies were shared universally among people in a certain country orregion. Think about change as an evolving process in which certain ideas gainmomentum,whileotherideaslosesteambutdon’tentirelydieout.

4. Howdidtheenvironmentimpactindustrialandeconomicdevelopment?InEurope,theearliest phases of the Industrial Revolution were fueled by the resources available inEngland, so the resulting imperialism on a global-scale was driven by the need foradditionalresources.Keepinmindthepoliticalandeconomicdecisionsthatresultedinenvironmentalchange.Atthesametime,theenvironmentimpactedpeople.Thegeneralglobalcoolingthatbeganaround1500C.E.putpressureonthepopulationsofEuropeandcontributedtogreatpovertyandpeasantrevolts,especiallyinthenortherncountries.

III.INDUSTRYANDIMPERIALISMTheIndustrialRevolution,whichbeganinthemid-eighteenthcenturyinBritainandspreadrapidly through the nineteenth century, is inseparable from theAge of Imperialism,whichreached itspeak in the latenineteenthandearly twentiethcenturies. Industrial technologyhadtwoenormousconsequences:(1)Countrieswithindustrialtechnologybydefinitionhadadvancedmilitaryweaponsandcapacity,andwere thereforeeasilyable toconquerpeoplewhodidnothavethistechnology;(2)Tosucceed,factoriesneededaccesstorawmaterialstomakefinishedproducts,andthenmarketstosellthosefinishedproducts.Coloniesfitbothoftheserolesquitewell.BecausethebulkofthewesternhemispherefreeditselffromEuropeancontrolbytheearly

nineteenth century (a lot more on this later), the industrial imperialists turned their eyestowardAfricaandAsia,whereexploitationwaseasyandmarketswerehuge.

A.THEINDUSTRIALREVOLUTION

The IndustrialRevolutionbegan inBritain,helping topropel the country to itsundisputedrankingasthemostpowerfulinthenineteenthcentury.ButBritainwasn’ttheonlycountrythat industrialized. The revolution spread through much of Europe, especially Belgium,France,andGermany,aswellas toJapanandultimately to thecountry thatwouldeclipseBritain as themost industrialized—theUnited States. Still, sincemost of thedevelopmentsoccurred in Britain first, and since the social consequences that occurred in Britain arerepresentative of those that occurred elsewhere, this section will focus heavily on therevolutioninBritain.Referencestoothercountrieswillbemadewherewarranted.

AgriculturalRevolutionPartIIHopefully you remember that early civilizations came about, in part, because of anAgricultural Revolution that resulted in food surpluses. This freed some of the populationfromfarming,andthosepeoplethenwentaboutthebusinessofbuildingthecivilization.Intheeighteenth century, agriculturaloutput increaseddramaticallyonceagain.This time, itallowednotjustsomepeople,butasmuchashalfofthepopulationtoleavethefarmsandheadtowardthecities,wherejobsinthenewindustrialeconomywerebecomingavailable.Keepinmindthatagriculturaltechniqueshadbeenslowlyimprovingthroughouthistory.

Sincesomanydevelopmentshappenedsoquicklyintheeighteenthcenturythisperiodwasconsideredarevolution.Agriculturaloutputincreasedforawholehostofreasons.Potatoes,corn, and other high-yield cropswere introduced to Europe from the colonies in theNewWorld.Farmersstartedrotatingtheircrops,ratherthanleavingone-thirdoftheirlandfallow(astheyhaddoneintheMiddleAgesunderthethree-fieldsystem),whichallowedthemtofarm all of their land each season without stripping the land of its nutrients. Through aprocessknownsimplyasenclosure,public lands thatwere sharedduring theMiddleAgeswereenclosedbyfences,whichallowedforprivatefarmingandprivategain.But what really cranked up the efficiency and productivity of the farms was the

introduction of new technologies. Newmachines for plowing, seeding, and reaping, alongwiththedevelopmentofchemicalfertilizers,allowedfarmerstogreatlyincreasetheamountof land they could farm, while decreasing the number of people needed to do it.Urbanization was a natural outgrowth of the increased efficiencies in farming andagriculture. In short, cities grew. In 1800, there were only 20 cities in Europe with apopulation of more than 100,000. By 1900, 150 cities had similar populations, and thelargest,London,hadapopulationofmorethan6million.Cities developed in areas where resources such as coal, iron, water, and railroads were

available formanufacturing. Themore factories that developed in favorable locations, thelargercitieswouldgrow.In1800,alongwithLondon,theChinesecitiesofBeijing(Peking)andCantonrankedinthetopthree,butjust100yearslater,nineofthetenlargestcitiesintheworldwereinEuropeortheUnitedStates.

TechnologicalInnovations:TheLittleEngineThatCouldPrior to the Industrial Revolution,most Europeansworked on farms, at home, or in smallshops. Even after Britain started importing huge amounts of cotton from its Americancolonies,most of the cottonwas woven into cloth in homes or small shops as part of aninefficient,highly labor-intensivearrangementknownas thedomestic system.Middlemenwoulddropoffwoolorcottonathomeswherewomenwouldmakecloth,whichwouldthenbepickedupagainby themiddlemen,whowould sell the cloth tobuyers.All of thiswasdoneonepersonatatime.However, a series of technological advancements in the eighteenth century changed allthis.In1733,JohnKayinventedtheflyingshuttle,whichspeduptheweavingprocess.In1764, JohnHargreaves invented the spinning jenny, whichwas capable of spinning vastamounts of thread. When waterpower was added to these processes, notably by RichardArkwrightandEdwardCartrightinthelateeighteenthcentury,fabric-weavingwastakenoutofthehomesandwascentralizedatsiteswherewaterpowerwasabundant.In1793,whenEliWhitneyinventedthecottongin,therebyallowingmassiveamountsofcottontobequicklyprocessedintheAmericasandexportedtoEurope,thetextileindustrywastakenoutofthehomesandintothemillsentirely.Although industrialization hit the textile industry first, it spreadwell beyond into otherindustries.Oneofthemostsignificantdevelopmentswastheinventionofthesteamengine,which actually took the work of several people to perfect. In the early 1700s, ThomasNewcomerdevelopedaninefficientengine,butin1769,JamesWattdramaticallyimprovedit. The steam enginewas revolutionary because steam could not only be used to generatepower for industry but also for transportation. In 1807, Robert Fulton built the firststeamship, and in the 1820s, George Stephenson built the first steam-poweredlocomotive.Inthehandsofahuge,imperialpowerlikeBritain,steamshipsandlocomotiveswould go a long way toward empire-building and global trade. Because Britain had vastamountsofcoal,andbecause thesteamenginewaspoweredbycoal,Britain industrialized

veryquickly.

ButWait,There’sMoreDuring the next 100 years, enormous developments changed how people communicated,traveled,andwentabouttheirdailylives.Thesechangesarefartoonumeroustolistentirely,butwe’vepickedafewmajor inventionsandlistedthembelow.It’sunlikelyyou’llneedtoknow all of these for the exam, but an understanding of the impact of the IndustrialRevolutionisperhapsbestgraspedbylookingatthedetails.Thereisn’toneitemonthelistbelowthatyoucandenyhaschangedtheworld.

TheTelegraph—Inventedin1837bySamuelMorse.Allowedpeopletocommunicateacrossgreatdistanceswithinseconds.TheTelephone—Inventedin1876byAlexanderGrahamBell.Don’tansweritwhileyou’restudying.TheLightbulb—Inventedin1879byThomasEdison.Kindofabigdeal:nowfactoriescanrunallnight.TheInternalCombustionEngine—Inventedin1885byGottliebDaimler.Ifyou’veeverbeeninacar,you’vepersonallybenefitedfromtheinternalcombustionengine.TheRadio—Inventedinthe1890sbyGuglielmoMarconi,basedondesignsbyThomasEdison.TheAirplane—Inventedin1903byOrvilleandWilburWright.Ittravelseversoslightlyfasterthanasteamship(inventedjustonehundredyearsprior).

At thesametime, therewerehugeadvances inmedicineandscience.Pasteurizationandvaccinations were developed. X-rays came onto the scene.CharlesDarwin developed theconceptofevolutionbymeansofnaturalselection.Thedevelopmentsofthistimeperiodgoonandonandon.

CompareThem:TheScientificRevolutionandtheIndustrialRevolutionBothchangedtheworld,ofcourse.Onewasabouttheprocessofdiscovering,learning,evaluating, and understanding the natural world. The other was about applying thatunderstanding to practical ends. In both cases, knowledge spread and improvementsweremade across cultures and across time. Even though patents protected individualinventions, one scientist or inventor could build on the ideas of colleagueswhoweretackling the same issues, thereby leading toconstant improvementandreliability.Thissame collaborative effort is used today. Universities and research organizations shareinformationamongcolleaguesacrosstheglobe.TheInternet,ofcourse,allowsdatatobeanalyzedalmostinstantaneouslybythousandsoflike-mindedindividuals.

TheFactorySystem:Efficiency(Cough),NewProducts(Choke),BigMoney(Gag)TheIndustrialRevolutionpermittedthecreationofthousandsofnewproductsfromclothingtotoystoweapons.Theseproductswereproducedefficientlyandinexpensivelyinfactories.

Under Eli Whitney’s system of interchangeable parts, machines and their parts wereproduceduniformlysothattheycouldbeeasilyreplacedwhensomethingbrokedown.Later,HenryFord’suseoftheassemblylinemeantthateachfactoryworkeraddedonlyoneparttoa finished product, one after another after another. These were incredibly importantdevelopmentsinmanufacturing,andtheymadethefactorysystemwildlyprofitable,buttheycamewith social costs.Manwasn’tmerelyworkingwithmachines; hewas becomingone.Individualityhadnoplaceinasystemwhereconsistencyoffunctionwasheldinsuchhighesteem.The factories were manned by thousands of workers, and the system was efficient andinexpensive primarily because those workers were way overworked, extremely underpaid,andregularlyput inharm’swaywithoutanyaccompanying insuranceorprotection. In theearlyyearsoftheIndustrialRevolution,16-hourworkdayswerenotuncommon.Childrenasyoung as sixworked next tomachines.Womenworked long hours at factories,while stillhavingtofulfilltheirtraditionalrolesascaretakersfortheirhusbands,children,andhomes.Thiswasahugechangefromrurallife.Whereasthefarmsexposedpeopletofreshairandsunshine,thefactoriesexposedworkerstoairpollutionandhazardousmachinery.Thefarmsprovided seasonal adjustments to the work pattern, while the factories spit out the sameproductsdayafterday,allyear long.Thedespairandhopelessnessofthedaily livesofthefactoryworkerswerecapturedbymanynovelistsandsocialcommentatorsof the time (forexample,CharlesDickens).

FocusOn:TheFamilyThe biggest social changes associated with industrialization were to the family. Bothwomenandchildrenbecamepartoftheworkforce,albeitatlowerwages,andinmoredangerousconditions than theirmalecounterparts.Factory-runboardinghouseshousedworkers dependent on the company for housing, food, and personal items. These newlivingarrangementsremovedworkers fromfamiliesandtraditionalstructures. Inmanyways, this lessened the restrictions onyoungwomenandmen.Theywere able to liveawayfromhome,managetheirownincomes,andpursueindependentleisureactivities—theatres, dance halls, recitals, dining out in restaurants—all of which developed tosupportthenewurbanworkingclass.Theemergenceofamiddleclassalsobroughtchangestothefamily.Homeandworkwere no longer centered in the same space. Middle- and upper-class women wereexpected tomaster the domestic sphere and to remain private and separate from therealities of the working world. This was a time of great consumption as desirableproductsweremassproducedandwomenwereexpectedtoarrangeparlorsanddiningroomswithfancytea-cupsandservingtrays.

NewEconomicandSocialPhilosophies:NoShortageofOpinionsIndustrializationcreatednewsocialclasses.Thenewaristocratswerethosewhobecamerichfromindustrialsuccess.Amiddleclassformed,madeupofmanagers,accountants,ministers,lawyers,doctors,andother skilledprofessionals.Finally,at thebottomof thepyramidwas

theworkingclass—and itwashuge—madeupof factoryworkers in the cities andpeasantfarmersinthecountryside.

ContrastThem:SocialClassStructuresBeforeandAfterIndustrialismKeepinmindthatthroughouthistory,thewealthyclasswassmallandthepoorestclasswashuge,but industrialismgave it anew twist.Becauseofurbanization,peoplewerelivingsidebyside.Theycouldsee thehugedifferencesamong theclasses rightbeforetheir eyes. What’s more, the members of the working class saw factory owners gainwealth quickly—at their expense. The owners didn’t inherit their position, but insteadachievedsuccessbyexploitingtheirworkers,andtheworkersknewit.Inthepast,underfeudalism,peoplemorereadilyacceptedtheirpositionbecause,asfarastheyknew,thesocialstructurewasthewayithadalwaysbeen,andthat’sthewayitwasmeanttobe.Ifyourdadwasafarmer,youwereafarmer.Ifyourdadwastheking,youwereaprince.After industrialism,people literally sawfor the first time theconnectionbetween theirsacrificesandthearistocracy’sluxuries.

Theriseoftheindustrialclasshaditsorigins intheconceptofprivateownership.AdamSmithwrote inTheWealth ofNations (1776) that economic prosperity and fairness is bestachievedthroughprivateownership.Individualsshouldownthemeansofproductionandselltheirproductsandservicesinafreeandopenmarket,wherethedemandfortheirgoodsandserviceswoulddeterminetheirpricesandavailability.Afreemarketsystem(alsoknownascapitalism),Smithargued,wouldbestmeettheneedsanddesiresofindividualsandnationsas awhole.When governments remove themselves entirely from regulation, the process iscalledlaissez-fairecapitalism.SmithwrotehisbookinresponsetothewesternEuropeanmercantilistpracticesthathaddominatedduring theAgeofExploration. In theNewWorld,monarchies—whichwerenotonlycorrupt,butalsohighlyinefficient—closelymanagedtheireconomies.Inthenineteenthcentury,Europeancountriescontinuedtodeveloptheirmercantilistphilosophies(especiallyusingcoloniesasawayofobtainingrawmaterialswithouthavingtoimportthemfromothercountries and as a way of increasing exports). European countries also permitted andencouragedthedevelopmentofprivateinvestmentandcapitalism.HencetheriseoffactoryworkersandtheriseofmajorinvestmentfirmsliketheBritishEastIndiaCompany.WhileAdamSmithbelievedthatfreemarketcapitalismwouldleadtobetteropportunitiesforeveryone,KarlMarx,aGermaneconomistandphilosopherwhospentagoodpartofhisadult life living inpoverty,pointedout that the factoryworkershadgenuineopportunitiesbutwerebeingexploitedasaconsequenceofcapitalism.Inotherwords,theabusesweren’tmerelytheresultofthewayinwhichcapitalismwaspracticed,butaninherentflawinthesystem.InTheCommunistManifesto(1848),MarxandFriedrichEngelswrotethattheworkingclasswouldeventuallyrevoltandtakecontrolofthemeansofproduction.Alltheinstrumentsofpower—thegovernment, thecourts, thepolice, thechurch—wereonthesideof therichagainst the workers. Once the class struggle was resolved by the massive uprising of theexploited, Marx predicted that the instruments of power wouldn’t even be needed. The

impact of Marxism was enormous, and served as the foundation of socialism andcommunism.MarxandEngelswerenot just theorizing, theywerealsoobserving,andtherewasmuchdiscontenttosupporttheirview.InEnglandintheearly1800s,groupsofworkersknownasLuddites destroyed equipment in factories in the middle of the night to protest workingconditionsandpitifulwages.Thegovernmentunequivocallysidedwiththebusinessowners,executingsomeoftheworkers,whilealsoenactingharshlawsagainstanyfurtheraction.At the same time,however, agreaternumberofpeoplewith influence (themiddle classand the aristocracy) began to realize how inhumane the factory system had become andstarted to do something about it. These reformers believed that capitalism was a positivedevelopment, but that lawswere needed to keep its abuses in check. In otherwords, theybelievedthat thegovernmentneededtoactonbehalfof theworkersaswellas thefactoryowners. By the mid-nineteenth century, there was a major split in thought amongintellectualsandpolicymakers.

In Britain and the United States, where the impact of the Enlightenment was strong,democracywas developing, and themiddle classwas growing, reforms to the freemarketsystem that lessened the negative impact of capitalism on workers took root. In othercountries like Russia where absolute rule was strong and the peasant class extremelyoppressed,reformwasalmostnonexistent.There,Marxistideasgrewpopularamongasmallgroupofurban intellectuals, eventually includingVladimir Lenin,whobelieved they couldlead a worker revolution and end the tyranny of the czars. Elsewhere,Marxism impactedsocial thoughtandintermixedwithcapitalist thoughttocreateeconomicsystemsthatwerepartlysocialist(inwhichthegovernmentownedsomeofthemeansofproduction)andpartlycapitalist (inwhich individuals owned some of themeans of production).Most of Europe,includingBritainafterWorldWarII,mixedsocialistandcapitalistideas.

CapitalismandEnlightenmentCombine:ReformCatchesOnInthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,aftertheabusesandsocialconsequencesoftheIndustrial Revolution became clear, a series of reforms occurred. The British Parliamentpassed laws, such as theFactoryAct of 1883, which limited the hours of eachworkday,restrictedchildrenfromworkinginfactories,andrequiredfactoryownerstomakeworkingconditions safer and cleaner. Meanwhile, labor unions were formed. The unions were

vehiclesthroughwhichthousandsofemployeesbargainedforbetterworkingconditions,orthreatenedtostrike,therebyshuttingdownthefactory.Inaddition,anincreasingnumberoffactoryownersrealized thatahealthy,happy,andreasonablywell-paidworkforcemeantaproductiveandloyalone.Allofthesedevelopmentscombined,thoughslowlyandsporadically,toimprovenotonlythe conditions in the factories and cities, but also the standard of living on an individualfamily level. Themiddle class became substantially larger. Public education becamemorewidely accessible. Socialmobility—the ability of a person to work his way up from onesocialclasstothenext—becamemorecommonplace.In1807,theslavetradewasabolished,which meant that no new slaves were transported from Africa, though the ownership ofexisting slavescontinued. In1833, theBritishoutlawedslavery,and threedecades later, itwasoutlawedintheUnitedStates.Asmenearnedmoremoney,womenleftthefactoriesandreturnedtotheirtraditionalrolesin the home, which limited their influence socially, politically, professionally, andintellectually, even as democratic reforms greatly increased the power of most men,especiallythroughtherighttovote. Inresponse,womenbeganorganizingto increasetheircollectiveinfluence.Itwasn’tuntil1920intheUnitedStates,and1928inBritain,however,thatthewomen’ssuffragemovementfullysucceededingivingwomentherighttovote.Despiteimprovementsintheoverallstandardsoflivinginindustrializednations,by1900extremehardshipspersisted.Inmanycases,Europeansdreamedofstartingoversomewhereelse, or escaping cruelties athome. From1800 to1920,50millionEuropeansmigrated toNorthandSouthAmerica.MillionsfledfromfamineinIreland,oranti-SemitisminRussia,orpovertyandjoblessnessingeneral.

InSearchofNaturalResources:StealingIsCheaperthanDealingThefactoriesoftheIndustrialRevolutioncreatedusefulproducts,buttodosotheyrequirednaturalresources.Europehaditsshareofcoalandironoreusedtoprovidepowerandmakeequipmentforthefactories,butrawmaterialssuchascottonandrubberhadtobeimportedbecausetheydidn’tgrowintheclimatesofwesternEurope.Industrialnationsamassedincrediblewealthbycolonizingregionswithnaturalresources,andthentakingthoseresourceswithoutcompensatingthenatives.Theresourcesweresentback toEurope,where theyweremade into finishedproducts.Then, the industrialnationssent the finished products back to the colonies,where the colonists had to purchase thembecause the colonialpowerswouldn’t let the colonies tradewithanyoneelse. In short, thecolonialpowersbecamerichattheexpenseofthecolonies.Themorecoloniesanationhad,thericheritbecame.Soon,Europe colonizednationson everyother continent in theworld.Europebecameaclearinghouse for raw materials from around the globe while the rest of the worldincreasinglybecameexposedtoEuropeandEuropeanideas.What’smore,theneedforrawmaterialstransformedthelandscapeoftheconqueredregions.Limitedrawmaterialsdepletedfasterthanatanytimeinhumanhistory.TheIndustrialRevolution, inadditiontocreatingpollution,begantohaveanimpactontheenvironmentbygobblingnaturalresources.

TheEuropeanJustification:SuperiorityIsaHeavyBurdenEvenasprogressivesarguedforanendtotheslavetradeandbetterworkingconditionsinthe

factories, a huge number of Europeans—not just the industrialists—either supported oracquiescedinthecolonizationofforeignlands.MostEuropeanswereveryethnocentricandviewedotherculturesasbarbariananduncivilized. Ironically, thisethnocentrismmayhavedrivensomeofthesocialadvancementswithinEuropeansocietyitself—afterall,ifyouthinkofyourselfascivilized,thenyoucan’texactlybrutalizeyourownpeople.Two ideas contributed to thismindset.First,socialDarwinistsappliedCharlesDarwin’sbiological theory of natural selection to sociology. In other words, they claimed thatdominant races or classes of people rose to the top through a process of “survival of thefittest.” This meant that because Britain was the most powerful, it was the most fit, andthereforetheBritishweresuperiortootherraces.Second,manyEuropeans believed that theywere not only superior, but that theyhad amoralobligationto(crasslysaid)dominateotherpeopleor(politelysaid)teachotherpeoplehowtobemorecivilized—inotherwords,howtobemorelikeEuropeans.RudyardKiplingsummeditup inhispoem“WhiteMan’sBurden.”AsEuropeannations swallowedup therestoftheworldinanefforttoadvancetheireconomies,militarystrategicpositioning,andegos, Kipling characterized these endeavors as a “burden” in which it was the duty ofEuropeans to conquer each “half-devil and half-child” so that they could be converted toChristianity and civilized in theEuropean fashion.Nevermind if thenon-Europeansdidn’twanttobe“civilized.”TheEuropeanssupposedlyknewwhatwasbestforeveryone.

ContrastThem:EthnocentrisminEuropeandElsewhereTobe sure,manycultureswereethnocentric.TheChinese, for example,believed theirkingdomtobetheMiddleKingdom,literallythe“centeroftheworld,”andthemselvesethnicallysuperiortootherraces.SimilarattitudesexistedinJapanandinmostmajorcivilizations. So the Europeans were hardly unique in their self-important attitudes.However,intheirabilitytoactonthoseattitudes,theyweredangerouslyunique.Armedwith the most technologically advanced militaries and strong economic motives, theEuropeans were quite capable of subjugating people whom they considered to beinferior, barbaric, or dispensable. Their success at doing so often reinforced theethnocentricattitudes,leadingtofurthercolonialismandsubjugation.

B.EUROPEANIMPERIALISMININDIAAsyouknowfromthepreviouschapter,theIndiansubcontinenthadlongbeenadestinationofEuropeantraderseagertogettheirhandsonIndia’smanyluxuries,suchastea,sugar,silk,salt,andjute(anextremelystrongfiberusedforropes).Bytheearlyeighteenthcentury,theMughalEmpire(rememberthat?)was indecline followingdecadesof fightingwarsandbyrenewed religious conflict between Muslims and Hindus. Lacking a strong leader and aunifiedpeoplecreatedanopening(asitsooftendoes)forexternalpowerstomovein.AndthatispreciselywhatBritainandFrancedecidedtodo.In the 1750s, the rivalry between France and England reached fever pitch. During theSevenYears’War(moreon it later), the twocountriesbattledeachother in three theaters:NorthAmerica, Europe, and India. Englandwon across the board. TheBritishEast India

Company, a joint-stock company that operated like a multinational corporation withexclusive rightsoverBritish tradewith India, then led in IndiabyRobertClive, raised aneffectivearmythatriddedthesubcontinentoftheFrench.Duringthenexttwodecades,ClivesuccessfullyconqueredtheBengalregion(present-dayBangladesh),quiteafeatgiventhattheEastIndiaCompanywasacorporation.Itwasn’tBritishtroopswhoconqueredtheregion,butcorporatetroops!Overthenexthundredyears,thecompanytookadvantageoftheweakeningMughalsandset up administrative regions throughout the empire. In 1798, the large island of Ceylon(present-daySriLanka)felltotheBritish.Intheearly1800s,thePunjabregioninnorthernIndiacameunderBritishcontrol,andfromtheretheBritslaunchedexcursionsintoPakistanandAfghanistan.

TheSepoyMutiny:TooLittle,TooLateTohelpitadministertheregionsunderitscontrol,theEastIndiaCompanyreliedonSepoys,Indians who worked for the Brits, mostly as soldiers. By the mid-1800s, the Sepoys werebecoming increasingly alarmedwith the company’s insatiable appetite for eating up largerand larger chunks of the subcontinent.What’smore, the companywasn’t very good aboutrespectingthelocalcustomsoftheSepoys,andrespectedneitherMuslimnorHindureligiouscustoms.When, in 1857, the Sepoys learned that their bullet cartridges (which had to bebittenoffinordertoloadintotherifle)weregreasedwithporkandbeeffat,thusviolatingbothMuslimandHindudietarylaws,theSepoysrebelled.Thefightingcontinuedfornearlytwoyears,buttherebellionfailedmiserably.Theconsequenceswerehuge. In1858, theBritishparliament stepped in, tookcontrolofIndiaawayfromtheEastIndiaCompany,andmadeallofIndiaacrowncolony.ThelastoftheMughalrulers,BahadurShahII,wassentintoexile,therebyendingtheMughalEmpireforgood.Nearly300millionIndiansweresuddenlyBritishsubjects(that’sasmanypeopleascurrentlylivingintheUnitedStates).By1877,QueenVictoriawasrecognizedasEmpressofIndia.

Full-BlownBritishColonialism:EnglandontheIndusInthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,IndiabecamethemodelofBritishimperialism.Rawmaterials flowed to Britain; finished products flowed back to India. The upper casteswere taught English and were expected to adopt English attitudes. Christianity spread.Railroadsandcanalswerebuilt.Urbanization,asinEurope,increaseddramatically.Butallofthis came at the expense of the Indian culture and Indian institutions. Still, as the uppercastes were Anglicized, they gained the education and worldly sophistication to begin toinfluenceevents.Increasingly,theydreamedoffreeingIndiafromBritishrule.In1885,agroupofwell-educatedIndiansformedtheIndianNationalCongresstobeginthepathtowardindependence.Itwouldtaketheimpactoftwoworldwarsbeforetheywouldgetit.Inthemeantime,Indians,especiallythosethatlivedinthecities,continuedtoadapttoBritishcustomswhiletryingtoholdontotheirtraditions.

C.EUROPEANIMPERIALISMINCHINA

Asyouknow,formuchofitshistory,Chinawasrelativelyisolationist. Ittradedfrequently,

butitdidn’tmakeexplorationahighpriority.Italsoexpandedbyconqueringitsneighbors,butnevertookthisexpansionbeyonditsownregionoftheglobe.Upuntilthe1830s,ChinaallowedtheEuropeanpowerstotradeonlyintheportcityofCanton,anditestablishedstrictlimitationsonwhatcouldbeboughtandsold.ButastheEuropeanpowers,particularlytheBritish,gainedindustrialmuscle,theycamebargingin,thistimewithweaponsandwarships.

TheOpiumWars:EuropeanDrugPushersForceTheirRighttoDealIn1773,BritishtradersintroducedopiumtotheChinese.By1838,thedrughabitamongtheChinese had grown so widespread and destructive that the Manchu Emperor released animperial edict forbidding the further sale or use of opium. Consistent with this edict, theChineseseizedBritishopiuminCantonin1839.TheBritishwouldhavenoneofit.From1839to1842,thetwocountriesfoughtawarovertheopiumtrade.ThiswasknownasthefirstOpiumWar.OverwhelmedbyBritishmilitarymight,ChinawasforcedtosigntheTreatyofNanjing,thefirstofwhatcametobeknownasthe“unequaltreaties,”bywhichBritainwasgivenconsiderablerightstoexpandtradewithChina.And,ofcourse,therighttocreatemoreopiumaddicts.In1843,BritaindeclaredHongKongitsowncrownpossession,asignificantdevelopmentbecause that went beyond trading rights and actually established a British colony in theregion. In1844,theManchuDynastywasforcedtopermitChristianmissionariesbackintothecountry.When China resisted British attempts to expand the opium trade even further, the twocountriesfoughtasecondOpiumWarforfouryearsbeginningin1856.TheChinesedefeatwashumiliating.ItresultedintheopeningofallofChinatoEuropeantrade.Still,otherthaninHongKong,EuropeanimperialisminChinawasquitedifferentfromwhatitwasinIndiaandwhatitwouldbeinAfrica.InChina,Britainfoughtmorefortradingconcessionsthanfortheestablishmentofcolonies.

TheWordIsOut:ChinaIsCrumblingTheOpiumWars had a huge impact on the global perception of China. For centuries, theworldknewthatChinawasoneofthemoreadvancedcivilizations.Withtheclear-cutBritishdefeatofChinawithrelativelyfewtroops,theworldrealizedthatChinawasaneasytarget.What’smore,theChinesethemselvesknewthattheirgovernmentwasweak,andsothey,too,startedtorebelagainstit.Internalrebellionstartedatthebeginningofthenineteenthcenturywith theWhite Lotus Rebellions led by Buddhists who were frustrated over taxes andgovernment corruption. It continued through the middle of the century with the TaipingRebellion. The Taipings, led by a religious zealot claiming to be the brother of Jesus,recruitedanarmynearlyamillionstrongandnearlysucceededinbringingdowntheManchugovernment.Therebelsfailed,butthemessagewasclear.Chinawascrumblingfromwithin,andunabletostopforeignaggressionfromoutside.Inthe1860s, theManchuDynastytriedtoget itsact together inwhatbecameknownastheSelf-StrengtheningMovement,but itdidnogood. In1876,KorearealizedChinawasweakanddeclareditsindependence.Later,intheSino-FrenchWar(1883),theChineselostcontrolofVietnamtotheFrench,whoestablishedacolonytherecalledFrenchIndochina.Ifthatwasn’t enough, a decade later the Chinesewere defeated in the Sino-JapaneseWar,when the rising imperial power of Japan wanted in on the action. In the Treaty of

Shimonoseki (1895), China was forced to hand over control of Taiwan and grant theJapanesetradingrightssimilartothoseithadgrantedtheEuropeans.JapanalsodefeatedtheKoreansandtookcontroloftheentirepeninsula.Meanwhile,theEuropeanpowerswererushingtoestablishagreaterpresenceinChina.Byestablishingspheresofinfluence,France,Germany,Russia,andofcourseBritaincarveduphugeslicesofChinaforthemselves.Thesesphereswerenotquitecolonies.Instead,theywereareas in which the European powers invested heavily, built military bases, and set upbusiness, transportation, and communicationoperations.TheManchuDynastywas still thegovernmentalauthoritywithinthespheres.By1900,theUnitedStates,whichhaditsowntradingdesignsonAsia,wasworriedthatChinawouldbecomeanotherIndiaorAfrica,andthattheUnitedStateswouldbeshutoutoftradeiftheManchugovernmentfellandtheEuropeanstookoverthegovernment.ThroughitsOpenDoorPolicy,theUnitedStatespledgeditssupportofthesovereigntyoftheChinesegovernment and announced equal trading privileges among all imperial powers (basicallyEuropeandtheUnitedStates).

TheBoxerRebellion:KnockedOutintheFirstRoundBythetwentiethcentury,nationalismamongtheChinesepeasantsandlocalleadershipwasfestering. Anti-Manchu, anti-European, and anti-Christian, the Society of Righteous andHarmoniousFists,orBoxersastheycametobeknown,organizedinresponsetotheManchugovernment’s defeats and concessions to the Western powers and Japan. Infuriated, theBoxers’goalwastodrivetheEuropeansandJapaneseoutofChina.Adoptingguerillawarfaretactics,theBoxersslaughteredChristianmissionariesandseizedcontrolofforeignembassies.Ultimately,however,theywerenotsuccessfulinachievingtheiraims.Instead,theiruprisingresultedinthedispatchof foreignreinforcementswhoquicklyanddecisivelyputdowntherebellion.TheManchugovernment,alreadyhavingmadegreatconcessionstotheEuropeansand Japanese, was then even further humiliated. As a result of the rebellion, China wasforcedtosigntheBoxerProtocol,whichdemandedthatChinanotonlypaytheEuropeansandtheJapanesethecostsassociatedwiththerebellionbutalsotoformallyapologizeforitaswell.

ContrastThem:EuropeanImperialisminChinaandinIndiaMultiple European countries originally tradedwith India, but the Britishwon out andestablishedexclusivecontrol.InChina,theBritishdominatedtradeearlyon,andastheysucceeded,moreandmorecountriespiledon. InIndia,theBritishestablishedatruecolony,runningthegovernmentanddirectinghuge internal projects. In China, Europeans and the Japanese established spheres ofinfluence, focusing on the economic benefits of trade with no overall governmentalresponsibilities. Therefore, when independence movements began in India, the effortsweredirectedagainstBritain,theforeignoccupier.Incontrast,whenthepeoplewantedtochangethegovernmentinChina,theytargetedtheManchuDynasty.

Onitslastlegs,theManchuDynastycouldn’tpreventtheforcesofreformfromovertaking

it from both within and without, and as a consequence, Chinese culture itself started tocrumble. In 1901, foot binding was abolished. In 1905, the 2,000-year-old ChineseExaminationSystemwaseliminated.By1911,thegovernmentwastoppledandimperialrulecame to an end. For the first time, under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen, a republic wasestablishedinChina.Butmoreonthisinthenextchapter.

D.JAPANESEIMPERIALISMDuring the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Japan succeeded in keeping Europeaninfluences away from its shores. It consequently built a highly ethnocentric, self-involvedsocietythatdidn’tevenallowitsowncitizenstotravelabroad.ButbythenineteenthcenturyandtheIndustrialRevolution,theEuropeansandtheUnitedStatesbecamesopowerfulandso crazed for markets that Japan found it hard to keep the westerners at bay. In 1853,CommodoreMatthewPerry from theUnited States (not the one fromFriends) arrived inJapan on a steamboat, something the Japanese had never seen before, and essentiallyshockedtheJapanese,whoquicklyrealizedthattheirisolationhadresultedintheirinabilitytocompeteeconomicallyandmilitarilywiththeindustrializedworld.For a time, theWest won concessions from Japan through various treaties such as theTreaty of Kanagawa (1854). These treaties grossly favored the United States and othercountries.AsinChina,thenationalistsgrewresentful,butunliketheChinese,theJapanesewereorganized.Throughtheleadershipofthesamurai,theyrevoltedagainsttheshogunwhohadratifiedthesetreaties,andrestoredEmperorMeijitopower.

TheMeijiRestoration:ShogunOut,EmperorIn,WesternersOutTheMeiji Restoration ushered in an era of Japanese westernization, after which Japanemergedasaworldpower.By the1870s, Japanwasbuilding railwaysand steamships.By1876,thesamuraiwarriorclassasaninstitutionhadbeenabolished,anduniversalmilitaryserviceamongallmaleswasestablished.The relative isolation of Japan during the Tokugawa and the deliberate attempt towesternizewhilestrengtheningJapaneseimperialtraditionsduringtheMeijiledtoaperiodof increased cultural creativitywith rituals aimedat developingnational identity.MuchofthisnewidentitywascenteredonmilitarypageantrythatcelebratedJapanesevictoriesoverChinaandRussiaintheearlytwentiethcentury.In the 1890s, Japanese industrial and military power really started to roll. It was nowpowerful enough to substantially reduce European andU.S. influence. Itmaintained trade,butonequalfootingwithwesternpowers.JapanwentthroughanincrediblyquickIndustrialRevolution.In1895,JapandefeatedChinainawarforcontrolofKoreaandTaiwan.Japanwas now an imperial power itself. Later, after the Russo-Japanese War of 1904, thevictorious Japanese kicked Russia out of Manchuria and established its own sphere ofinfluencethere.Japanwasnownotjustanimperialpowerbutaworldpower.

CompareThem:TheIndustrialRevolutioninEuropeandinJapanTheindustrializationofEuropeandJapanfollowedverysimilarpaths,butJapan’swasonfastforward.ItmanagedtoaccomplishinafewdecadeswhathadtakenEuropemorethan a century, in large part because it didn’t have to invent everything itself—it justneeded to implement the advances ofWestern industrialization. Still, the pattern wasremarkablysimilar.Privatecorporationsroseup,industrialistsliketheMitsubishifamilybecamewealthy, factorieswere built, urbanization increased dramatically, and reformwas instituted. Japan learned from the Europeans quite well. If you can’t beat anindustrializedpower,becomeoneyourself.

E.EUROPEANIMPERIALISMINAFRICA

Unlike India and China, and to a certain degree Japan, Africa held little interest formostEuropeansprior totheIndustrialRevolution.Tobesure,northof theSahara, inEgyptandalongtheMediterranean,Europeanshadhistoricalinterestandimpact.Butthevastinteriorof the continent remained unknown to the outside world. During the Age of Exploration,coastal regions of Africa became important to Europeans for limited trade, and also forstrategic positioning, as stopping-off points formerchant ships en route to India or China.Mostsignificantly,ofcourse,Africabecamethecenteroftheslavetrade.

TheSlaveTradeFinallyEndsAsEnlightenmentprinciplestookroot inEurope, largerandlargernumbersofpeoplegrewoutragedat the ideaof slavery.Between1807and1820,mostEuropeannationsabolishedtheslavetrade,althoughslaveryitselfwasnotabolisheduntilafewdecadeslater.Inotherwords,nonewslaveswerelegallyimportedfromAfrica,butthosealreadyinEuropeortheNewWorld continued to be enslaveduntil emancipation in themid-nineteenth century. Insomecases,formerslavesreturnedtoAfrica.GroupsofformerAmericanslaves,forexample,emigratedtoLiberia,wheretheyestablishedanindependentnation.It’s a terrible irony that as the slave trade ended in the nineteenth century, EuropeansturnedtheirgreedyeyestothecontinentofAfricaitself.Within50years,theAfricansweresubjugatedagain,butthistimeintheirownhomeland.

SouthAfrica:GoldRings,aDiamondNecklace,andaBritishCrownPriortothediscoveryofgoldanddiamondsinSouthAfricainthe1860sand1880s,SouthAfrica was valuable to the Europeans only for shipping and military reasons. The DutcharrivedfirstandsettledCapeTownasastoppingpointforshipsonthewayfromEuropetoIndia. In1795, theBritish seizedCapeTown,and theSouthAfricanDutch (nowknownasBoersorAfrikaners) trekkednortheast into the interiorofSouthAfrica, settling inaregionknown as the Transvaal. When the Boers later discovered diamonds and gold in theTransvaal, the British quickly followed, fighting a series of wars for the rights to theresources. After years of bloody battles, known as theBoerWar (1899–1902), the Britishreignedsupreme,andallofSouthAfricawasannexedaspartoftheever-expandingBritishEmpire.Of course, throughout this entireprocess,Africanswerenot allowed claims to the

goldanddiamonds,andweremadetoworkintheminesastheirnaturalresourcesweresentabroad.South Africa became a significant British colony, completewith extensive investment in

infrastructureand institutions. In1910, thecolonyhad itsownconstitution,and itbecamethe Union of South Africa, still part of the British Commonwealth, but exercising aconsiderableamountofself-rule.Undertheconstitution,onlywhitemencouldvote,sothenative Africans had few rights. In 1912, educated South Africans organized the AfricanNationalCongress in aneffort toopposeEuropeancolonialismand specific SouthAfricanpolicies.Thisorganization,ofcourse,wassimilartotheIndianNationalCongress,whichwasestablishedforsimilarends.

Egypt:ANewWaterwayMakesaSplashIn theory, the Ottomans ruled Egypt from 1517 until 1882, although throughout thenineteenthcentury,Ottomanrulewasextremelyweak.Localrulers,calledbeys,hadfarmoreinfluence over developments in Egypt than the rulers in Istanbul.WhenNapoleon tried toconquerEgyptduringhistirelessattempttoexpandFranceintoamega-empireattheturnofthenineteenthcentury,MuhammadAlidefeatedtheFrenchandtheOttomans,andgainedcontrol of Egypt in 1805. Egypt technically remained part of the Ottoman Empire, but asviceroy, Ali wielded almost exclusive control. During the next 30 years, he began theindustrializationofEgyptanddirectedtheexpansionofagriculturetowardcottonproduction,whichwasthenexportedtothetextilefactoriesofBritainforsubstantialprofit.Ali’swesternizationattemptsweretemporarilyhaltedbyhisgrandson,AbbasI,butwere

reinvigoratedundersubsequentrulers,whoworkedwiththeFrenchtobeginconstructionoftheSuezCanal.Thecanal,whencompletedin1869,connectedtheMediterraneanSeatotheIndianOcean,eliminatingtheneedtogoaroundtheCapeofGoodHope.BecauseBritainhadahugecolonyinIndia,thecanalbecamemoreimportanttotheBritishthantoanyoneelse.As Egypt’s finances went into a tailspin because of excessive government spending, Egyptstarted selling stock in its canal to raisemoney, stock that the British government eagerlygobbledup.By1882,BritainnotonlycontrolledtheSuezCanal,buthadmaneuvereditswayintoEgypttosuchadegreethatitdeclareditaBritishprotectorate,whichwasessentiallyacolonyexceptthatEgyptiansremainedinpoliticalpower.PushedoutofEgypt,France focusedonotherpartsofNorthAfrica,particularlyNigeria.

TheItalians,oncetheyhadunifiedasacountry,alsobecameinterestedinNorthAfrica.TheraceforcontrolofAfricawason.

TheBerlinConference:CarvingUptheContinentIn 1884, Otto von Bismarck hosted the major European powers at a conference in Berlinintended to resolve some differences over various European claims to lands in theAfricanCongo. By the end of the conference, the delegates had set up rules for how futurecolonization rights and boundaries would be determined on that continent. With rules inhand, the Europeans left the conference in haste. Each country wanted to be the first toestablish possession in the various parts of Africa.Within three decades, almost the entirecontinent of Africawas colonized by Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, andBelgium.OnlyEthiopiaandLiberiaremainedindependentofEuropeanruleby1914.WhiletheEuropeansaddedsubstantialinfrastructuretothecontinentbybuildingrailroads,

dams, and roads, they stripped Africa of its resources for profit and treated the nativesharshly.EverycolonialpowerexceptBritainexerciseddirectruleoveritscolonies,meaningEuropeans were put in positions of authority and the colonies were remade according toEuropean customs. The British, having their hands fullwith the huge colony in India andmassivespheresofinfluenceinChinaandelsewhere,permittedthenativepopulationstorulethemselvesmoredirectlyandtomorefreelypracticetheirtraditionalcustoms(similartohowtheRomanEmpirehandleditsfar-flungterritories).BecausetheBerlinConferenceof1884encouragedcolonialismsolelybasedonbargaining

forpoliticalandeconomicadvantage, theboundary linesthateventuallyseparatedcolonialterritorieswerebasedonEuropeanconcerns,notonAfricanhistoryorculture.Therefore,insomesituations,triballandswerecutinhalfbetweentwocoloniescontrolledbytwodifferentEuropeannations,whileinothersituationstworivaltribeswereunwillinglybroughttogetherunderthesamecolonialrule.Fora time, thedisruptionof traditional tribalboundary linesworked to the Europeans’ advantage because it was difficult for the native Africans toorganizeanoppositionwithineachcolony.Butitdidmuchmorethanthwartopposition;itdisruptedtheculture.AddinEuropeanschools,Christianmissionaries,andwesternbusinesspractices, and traditionalAfrican culture, as elsewhere in the global colonial swirl, startedbreakingapart.

CompareThem:EuropeanColonialisminAfricaandinLatinAmericaColonialism inAfricawas similar to that in theAmericas in that boundary linesweredetermined by European agreements from abroad. In other words, there was totaldisregardforthesocietiesthatexistedbeforehand.ColonialisminAfricawassimilartocolonialisminAmericabecausemultiplecountriesheldclaimstotheland.Exceptforthecolonies controlled by the British, the African colonies were governed by direct rule,similar to European rule of colonies in the Americas. This meant they sent Europeanofficials to occupy all positions of authority. Native traditions were overcome, nottolerated, and certainly not developed. This, of course, was in contrast to spheres ofinfluence inChina, forexample, inwhichEuropeansweregenerallymore interested inmakingmoneyratherthanchangingtheentireculture.

VI.POLITICALDEVELOPMENTSINTHEAMERICASANDEUROPE

A.TWOREVOLUTIONS:AMERICANANDFRENCH

1.TheAmericanRevolutionForthemostpart,youwon’tneedtoknowmuchaboutAmericanhistoryfortheAPWorldHistory Exam. However, you will need to know about events in the United States thatimpacted developments in the rest of theworld. TheAmericanRevolution is one of thoseevents.As you know, Britain began colonizing the east coast of North America during theseventeenth century. By the mid-eighteenth century, British colonists in America feltthreatenedbyFrance’scolonialsettlementsonthecontinent.FranceandBritainwere long-timerivals(archenemiesintheHundredYears’Warandsince)andtheycarriedthisrivalrywith theminto fights inAmerica.TheFrenchenlisted theAlgonquinand Iroquois tribes tofight alongside them against the encroaching English colonists, but in 1763, EnglandprevailedovertheFrenchinawarthatwasknowninthecoloniesastheFrenchandIndianWar, but known in Europe as the Seven Years’ War. The British victory changed theboundariesofthetwoempires’worldwidepossessions,pushingFrenchterritorytothenorthwhileEnglishterritoriesexpandedwestwardintotheOhioRivervalley.Whilethecolonistswerethrilledwiththeresultsofthewar,theBritishwereupsetaboutthe costs, and felt that theAmerican colonists did not adequately share in the burden.Ofcourse, the colonists resented this, claiming that it was their efforts that made colonialexpansionpossibleinthefirstplace.Atthesametime,Britain’sGeorgeGrenvilleandlaterCharlesTownshendpassedveryunpopularlawsonbehalfoftheBritishcrown.Theselaws,including theRevenueAct (1764), theStampAct (1765), and theTeaAct (1773), wereintended to raise additional funds for the British crown. In addition to generating funds,however,theselawsgeneratedunrest,notonlybecauseAmericancoloniststhoughttheywereeconomicallyunfairbutalsobecauseAmericancolonistswerenot represented inEngland’sParliament when these laws were passed. Thus arose the revolutionary cry, “No taxationwithoutrepresentation.”

AfterthecolonistsdumpedteainBostonHarbortoprotesttheTeaAct,relationsbetweencrown and colonies deteriorated rapidly. On April 19, 1775, British troops battled withrebelliouscolonistsinLexingtonandConcord,andbytheendofthatbloodyday,nearly400BritonsandAmericansweredead.TheWarofIndependencehadbegun.

IndependenceCan’t HappenWithout aLit t lePaine

TheoverwhelmingmajorityofAmericancolonistshadeitherbeenborninEnglandorwerechildrenofthoseborninEngland,andthereforemanycolonistsfeltambivalentabout—ifnotcompletely opposed to—the movement for independence. Even those who soughtindependence were worried that Britain was too powerful to defeat. But a student of theEnlightenment, Thomas Paine, urged colonists to support the movement. In his widelydistributed pamphlet, Common Sense, he assailed the monarchy as an encroachment onAmericans’naturalrightsandappealedtothecoloniststoformabettergovernment.Ameresixmonthslater,AmericanssignedtheDeclarationofIndependence.Theprintingpress,thepowerfultooloftheProtestantReformation,quicklybecameapowerfultoolfortheAmericanRevolution.

France:MorethanHappytoOblige

By1776,as thewarmoved to themiddlecoloniesand finally to theSouth, theAmericansendureddefeatafterdefeat.Butin1777,theFrenchcommittedships,soldiers,weapons,andmoneytothecause.FranceandEngland,ofcourse,hadbeenbickeringforcenturies,andsotheFrenchleaptattheopportunitytopunishEngland.In1781,FrenchandAmericantroopsandshipscorneredthecoreof theBritisharmy,whichwasunderthecommandofGeneralGeorge Cornwallis. Finding himself outnumbered, he surrendered, and the war was over.Withinadecade,theConstitutionandBillofRightswerewritten,ratified,andputintoeffect.Afledglingdemocracywasondisplay.

FocusOn:CausesandConsequencesoftheAmericanRevolutionDon’t worry too much about knowing the details of the American Revolution. Youcertainlydon’tneedtoknowbattlesoreventhepersonalities. Instead,understandthattheEnlightenmenthadahugeimpactbecauseitnotonlyhelpedtoinspiretherevolutionitself, but also the type of government that was created after it succeeded. AlsorememberthatmercantilistpoliciesdrovetheAmericancolonistsnuts,aswasthecaseinEuropean colonies everywhere. These same forces—the Enlightenment and frustrationover economic exploitation—are common themes in the world’s revolutionary criesagainstcolonialismthroughoutthe1800s.

2.TheFrenchRevolutionAfter thereignofLouisXIV, theBourbonkingscontinued to reside in the lavishVersaillespalace,alifestylethatwasquiteexpensive.Morecostly,however,wereFrance’swardebts.TheWarofSpanishSuccession, theSevenYears’War, theAmericanRevolution,younameit… France seemed to be involved in everymajorwar both in Europe and abroad.Withdroughts damaging the French harvests and the nobility scoffing at spending restrictions,

LouisXVIneededtoraise taxes,but todo thatheneededtogeteveryoneonboard.So, in1789, he called ameeting of theEstatesGeneral, a “governing body” that hadn’tmet insome175years.Bourbonmonarchs,you’llrecall,ruledunderdivineright,sonootherinputwasgenerallyseenasnecessary.Buttheking’spoorfinancialsituationmadeitnecessarytocallonthisall-but-forgottengroup.

TheEstatesGeneral:GenerallyaMess

Frenchsocietywasdividedintothreeestates(somethinglikesocialclasses).TheFirstEstatecomprised theclergy.Somewerehighrankingandwealthy;otherswereparishpriestsandquitepoor.TheSecondEstatewasmadeupof thenoble families.Finally, theThirdEstatecomprised everyone else—peasant farmers and the small but influential middle class, orbourgeoisie,includingmerchants.Theoverwhelmingmajority(morethan95percent)ofthepopulationweremembersoftheThirdEstate,buttheyhadverylittlepoliticalpower.When Louis XVI summoned the Estates General, he was in essence summoning

representatives from each of these three estates. The representative nobles of the SecondEstatecametothemeetingoftheEstatesGeneralhopingtogainfavorsfromthekingintheform of political power and greater freedoms in the form of a new constitution. Therepresentatives of the Third Estate (representing by far the greatest proportion of France’spopulation),alwayssuspiciousofthenobility,wantedevengreaterfreedomssimilartowhattheysawthe formerBritishcolonieshad inAmerica.Theywentas farassuggestingto thekingthat theEstatesGeneralmeetasaunifiedbody—allEstatesunderoneroof.However,thetopcourtinParis,theparlement,ruledinfavorofthenobilityandorderedthattheestatesmeetseparately.Frustratedatthestrongpossibilityofbeingshutoutofthenewconstitutionbytheother

two estates, the Third Estate did something drastic on June 17, 1789—they declaredthemselvestheNationalAssembly.Thekinggotnervous,andforcedtheothertwoestatestojoin them in an effort towrite a new constitution. But itwas too little, too late. By then,peasantsthroughoutthelandweregrowingrestlessandwereconcernedthatthekingwasn’tgoingtofollowthroughonthemajorreformstheywanted.TheystormedtheBastille,ahugeprison, on July 14, 1789. From there, anarchy swept through the countryside and soonpeasantsattackednobilityandfeudalinstitutions.By August, the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man, a

document recognizing natural rights and based on the ideas of the Enlightenment, theAmerican Declaration of Independence, and particularly the writings of Jean-JacquesRousseau.ThisdeclarationwaswidelycopiedanddistributedacrossEurope, furthering theideasof freedom,equality,andruleof law.TheAssemblyalsoabolished the feudal systemand altered the monopoly of the Catholic Church by declaring freedom of worship.Meanwhile, the king and his family were taken to Paris, where the Third Estaterevolutionaries could ensure that they wouldn’t interfere with the work of the NationalAssembly.Butperhapsmostimportantly,theFrenchRevolutionestablishedthenation-state,not the king or the people (as in the United States), as the source of all sovereignty orpoliticalauthority.Inthissense,Francebecamethefirst“modern”nation-statein1789.

ANewConst itut ionCausesConsternat ion

In1791,theNationalAssemblyratifiedanewconstitution,whichwassomewhatsimilarto

theU.S.Constitutionratifiedjusttwoyearsbefore,exceptthatinsteadofapresident,thekingheldontotheexecutivepower.Inotherwords,itwasaconstitutionalmonarchy,ratherthanaconstitutionaldemocracy.Thosewhowanted toabolish themonarchy feltcheated; thosewhowantedtoretainthefeudalstructurefeltbetrayed.RememberhowmostoftheroyaltyinEuropeintermarried?Well,itjustsohappenedthat

MarieAntoinette,whowasthewifeoftheincreasinglynervousLouisXVI,wasalsothesisterof the Emperor of Austria. The Austrians and the Prussians invaded France to restore themonarchy,buttheFrenchrevolutionarieswereabletoholdthemback.ContinuingunrestledFrench leaders to call for a meeting to draw up a new constitution. Under the newconstitution, the Convention became the new ruling body, and it quickly abolished themonarchy and proclaimed France a republic. Led by radicals known as the Jacobins, theConventionimprisonedtheroyalfamilyand,in1793,beheadedthekingfortreason.

ContrastThem:AmericanandFrenchRevolutionsThe American Revolution involved a colonial uprising against an imperial power. Inotherwords,itwasanindependencemovement.TheFrenchRevolutioninvolvedcitizensrising up against their own country’s leadership and against their own political andeconomicsystem,andinthatsensewasmoreofarevolution.Inotherwords,attheendoftheAmericanRevolution,theimperialpowerofEnglandwasstill intact,andindeedthe new United States was inmanyways designed in the image of England itself. Incontrast,attheendoftheFrenchRevolution,Franceitselfwasaverydifferentplace.Itdidn’t simply lose someof itsholdings. Instead, thekingwasbeheadedand the socio-politicalstructurechanged. Thatsaid,thewordrevolutionaptlydescribes theAmerican independencemovementbecause the United Stateswas the firstmajor colony to break away from a EuropeancolonialpowersincethedawnoftheAgeofExploration.What’smore,theideasadoptedintheDeclarationofIndependence,theU.S.Constitution,andintheFrenchRevolutioninspiredcolonists,citizens,andslavesacrosstheglobe.Quiterevolutionaryindeed!

TheReignofTerror:TheHard-Fought Const itut ionGetsTossedAside

WhilePrussiaandAustriaregroupedandenlistedthesupportofGreatBritainandSpain,theConventionstartedtoworrythatforeignthreatsandinternalchaoswouldquicklyleadtoitsdemise,soitthrewouttheconstitutionandcreatedtheCommitteeofPublicSafety,anall-powerfulenforceroftherevolutionandmurdererofanyonesuspectedofanti-revolutionarytendencies. Led byMaximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins, the Committee of PublicSafety certainly wasn’t a committee of personal safety, since it was responsible for thebeheadingoftensofthousandsofFrenchcitizens.EventhoughtheCommitteewassuccessfulatcontrollingtheanarchyandatbuildingastrongnationalmilitarytodefendFranceagainstan increasing number of invading countries, after two years the French had enough ofRobespierre’switchhuntandputhisheadontheguillotine.Francequicklyreorganizeditselfagain,wroteanewconstitutionin1795,andestablishedanewfive-mangovernmentcalledtheDirectory.

Napoleon:BigThingsComeinSmallPackages

WhiletheDirectorywasnotsogreatatimplementingastrongdomesticpolicy,thefive-mancombowasgoodatbuildingupthemilitary.OneofitsstarmilitaryleaderswasateenagernamedNapoleon Bonaparte, who was a general by age 24. After military successes onbehalfof theDirectory,Napoleonreturned toFranceandusedhis reputationand immensepopularity to overthrow theDirectory in 1799.He legitimizedhis actions byputting thembeforeapopularvote,andonceaffirmed,hedeclaredhimselftheFirstConsulunderthenewconstitution(ifyou’recounting,thatmakesfourconstitutionssincetheRevolutionbegan).Domestically,Napoleon initiated many reforms in agriculture, infrastructure, and publiceducation.Healsonormalizedrelationswith thechurchandrestoredadegreeof toleranceand stability. Most importantly, hisNapoleonic Codes (1804) recognized the equality ofFrench citizens (meaningmen) and institutionalized some of the Enlightenment ideas thathadservedastheoriginalinspirationformanyoftherevolutionaries.Atthesametime,thecodewas also extremely paternalistic, based in part on ancient Roman law. The rights ofwomenand childrenwere severely limitedunder the code. Still, the codewasahuge stepforwardintherecognitionofsomebasicrightsandintheestablishmentofrulesoflaw.Thecodehassincebeensignificantlymodifiedtoreflectmoremodernsensibilities,butitisstillineffecttoday,andhasservedasthemodelformanyothernationalcodes,especiallyinEurope.But Napoleon’s biggest impactwas external, not internal. In a stunning effort to spreadFrance’s glory throughout Europe and theAmericas, Napoleon not only fended off foreignaggressors, but alsomade France an aggressor itself. Napoleon’s troops conqueredAustria,Prussia, Spain, Portugal, and the kingdoms within Italy. He dissolved the Holy RomanEmpire,whichwasonitslastlegsanyway,andreorganizeditintoaconfederacyofGermanstates. In1804,hecrownedhimselfemperorofthishugenewempire, fancyinghimselfthe

newCharlemagne. By 1810, the empire was at its peak, but it didn’t stay there for long.France lacked the resources to control a far-flung empire, and conflicts including anattempted blockade of the powerful Britain cost it dearly. Nationalistic uprisings, such asunrest in Italy and fierce guerilla warfare in Spain and Portugal, undermined Napoleon’spower.In1812,Napoleon’sgreedgotthebetterofhim.HeattackedthevastlandsofRussia,butwasbaitedintogoingallthewaytoMoscow,whichtheRussiansthensetaflame,preventingNapoleonfromadequatelyhousinghistroopsthere.Aswintersetinandwithnoplacetogo,the troops had to trudge back to France, and were attacked all along the way. Short onsupplies, the retreat turned into a disaster. The army was decimated and the once greatemperorwasforcedintoexile.TheleadersofthecountriesthathadoverthrownNapoleonmetinViennatodecidehowtorestore order (and their own power) in Europe. The principal members of the coalitionagainstNapoleonwerePrincevonMetternich ofAustria,Alexander I of Russia, and theDukeofWellingtonofBritain.Atfirst,disagreementsamongthempreventedmuchprogress.Hearingthis,Napoleonreturnedfromexileandattemptedtoregainpower.Hisenemies,ofcourse,rallied.AtWaterlooin1813,thealliesunitedagainsttheircommonthreat.DefeatingNapoleondecisively,theysenthimtopermanentexileontheislandofSt.Helena,wherehelaterdied.Theallieseventuallycametoanagreement,inameetingknownastheCongressofVienna,overwhattodowithFranceanditsinflatedterritories.

TheCongressofVienna:PencilsandErasersat Work

In 1815, the Congress decreed that a balance of power should be maintained among theexistingpowersofEurope inorder toavoidtheriseofanotherNapoleon.Francewasdealtwith fairly: Its borders were cut back to their pre-Napoleonic dimensions, but it was notpunished militarily or economically. And although it rearranged some of the Europeanboundaries and created new kingdoms in Poland and the Netherlands, the Congress alsoreaffirmed absolute rule, reseating themonarchs of France, Spain, Holland, and themanyItalian states.While remarkably fair-minded, the Congress of Vienna ignoredmany of theideals put forth by French revolutionaries and the rights established under France’s short-livedrepublic.Inotherwords,itessentiallytriedtoerasethewholeFrenchRevolutionandNapoleonfromtheEuropeanconsciousnessandrestoretheroyalorder.

B.LOTSOFINDEPENDENCEMOVEMENTS:LATINAMERICA

The European colonies in Latin America were inspired by the success of the AmericanRevolutionandtheideasoftheFrenchRevolution.Tobesure,therehadbeenunsuccessfulrevoltsanduprisingsintheLatinAmericancoloniesfortwoorthreecenturiespriortothoserevolutions.Intheearlynineteenthcentury,however,theworldorderwasdifferent.Europewas in chaos because of the rise and fall of Napoleon, and this distracted the Europeanpowers from their American holdings, a development that gave rebellious leaders anopportunitytoassertthemselvesmorethantheypreviouslycouldhave.

Haiti:SlaveRevoltSendsFranceaJoltThefirstsuccessfulLatinAmericanrevolttookplaceinHaiti,aFrenchislandcolonyintheCaribbean.TheFrench,truetotheirmercantilistpolicies,exportedcoffee,sugar,cocoa,and

indigo from Haiti to Europe. French colonists owned large plantations and hundreds ofthousandsofslaves,whogrewandharvestedthesecropsunderhorribleconditions.By1800,90percentofthepopulationwasslaves,someofwhomhadbeenfreed,butthevastmajorityofwhomworkedontheplantations.In1801,asNapoleonwasgainingmomentuminEurope,PierreToussaintL’Ouverture,a

formerslave,ledaviolent,lengthy,butultimatelysuccessfulslaverevolt.Enraged,Napoleonsent20,000troopstoputdowntherevolt,buttheHaitianswerecapablefighters.Theyalsohad another weapon on their side—yellow fever—that claimed many French lives. TheFrenchdidsucceed,however,incapturingL’OuvertureandimprisoninghiminFrance,butbythen they couldn’t turn back the revolutionary tide. L’Ouverture’s lieutenant JacquesDessalines,alsoaformerslave,proclaimedHaitiafreerepublicin1804andnamedhimselfgovernor-generalforlife.Thus,HaitibecamethefirstindependentnationinLatinAmerica.

SouthAmerica:VisionsofGrandeurIn1808,whenNapoleoninvadedSpain,heappointedhisbrother,JosephBonaparte,totheSpanishthrone.ThissenttheSpanishauthoritiesinthecoloniesintoatizzy.Whoshouldtheybeloyalto?ThecolonistsdecidedtoremainloyaltotheirSpanishkingandnotrecognizetheFrench regime under Bonaparte. In Venezuela, they ejected Bonaparte’s governor and,instead, appointed their own leader, Simon Bolivar. Tutored on the republican ideals ofRousseau during his travels to Europe and theUnited States, Bolivar found himself in themidst of a great opportunity to use what he learned. In 1811, Bolivar helped establish anational congress, which declared independence from Spain. Royalists, supporters of theSpanish crown, declared civil war. But Bolivar proved to be a wily and effectivemilitaryleader,andduringthenextdecade,hewonfreedomfortheareacalledGranColombia(whichincludedmodern-dayColombia,Ecuador, andVenezuela).Bolivar envisionedahugeSouthAmerican country spanning across the continent, similar to the growing United States inNorthAmerica, but itwasn’tmeant to be. In the followingdecades, the individual nation-statesofnorthwesternSouthAmericaformedtheirowngovernments.Meanwhile,farthersouthinArgentina,theconflictbetweentheFrenchgovernorandthose

who stillwanted to support the Spanish crown created another opportunity for liberation.JosedeSanMartinwasanAmerican-bornSpaniard(orCreole)whoservedasanofficerintheSpanisharmy.In1814hebegantoputhisextensivemilitaryexperiencetouse—butfortherebels—takingcommandoftheArgentinianarmies.SanMartinjoinedupwithBernardoO’Higgins of Chile and took the revolutionarymovement not only through Argentina andChile, but also to Peru, where he joined forces with Bolivar. The Spanish forces witheredaway. By the 1820s, a huge chunk of South America had successfully declared itsindependencefromSpain.

Brazil:PowertothePedrosBrazil,ofcourse,wasaPortuguesecolony,andsowhenPortugalwasinvadedbyNapoleon’sarmies in1807,JohnVI, the Portuguese king, fled toBrazil and set uphis royal court inexile.By1821,NapoleonhadbeendefeatedanditwassafeforJohnVItoreturntoPortugal,butheleftbehindhisson,Pedro,whowas23yearsoldatthetime,andchargedhimwithrunningthehugecolony.Pedro,whohadspentmostofhischildhoodandteenageyearsinBrazilandconsideredithome,declaredBrazilianindependenceandcrownedhimselfemperor

thenextyear.Withinafewmoreyears,Brazilhadaconstitution.In1831,Pedroabdicatedpowertohisson,PedroII,whoruledthecountrythroughmuch

of thenineteenthcentury.WhilehereformedBraziliansociety inmanywaysand turned itinto a major exporter of coffee, his greatest single accomplishment was the abolition ofslaveryin1888(whichactuallyoccurredunderthedirectionofhisdaughter,Isabel,whowasrunningthecountrywhilePedroIIwasaway).Thisactionsoincensedtheland-owningclassthattheyrevoltedagainstthemonarchyandestablishedarepublicin1889.

Mexico:ATaleofTwoPriestsAs in other parts of LatinAmerica, a revolutionary fervor rose inMexico after the FrenchRevolution,especiallyafterNapoleoninvadedSpainandPortugal.In1810,MiguelHidalgo,aCreolepriestwhosympathizedwiththosewhohadbeenabusedunderSpanishcolonialism,led a revolt against Spanish rule. Unlike in South America, however, the Spanish armiesresisted effectively, and they put down the revolt at Calderon Bridge, where Hidalgo wasexecuted.Hidalgo’s effortswere not in vain, however, because they put the revolution inmotion.

Jose Morelos picked up where Hidalgo left off and led the revolutionaries to furthersuccessesagainsttheloyalists.ButsimilartowhatlaterhappenedinBrazil,theland-owningclassturnedagainsthimwhenhemadeclearhisintentionstoredistributelandtothepoor.In1815,hewasexecuted.Itwasn’t until 1821, after the landowning class bought into the idea of separation from

Spain,thatindependencewasfinallyachieved.IntheTreatyofCordoba,Spainwasforcedtorecognizethatits300-year-olddominationofLatinAmericawascomingtoanend.MexicowasgranteditsindependenceandCentralAmericasoonfollowed.

TheEffectsoftheIndependenceMovements:MoreIndependencethanFreedomWhileEuropewaseffectivelybootedoutofmanypartsoftheAmericancontinentsduringa50-year time span beginning in about 1780, in some Latin American countries theindependence from colonial powerwasn’t accompanied bywidespread freedomamong thevastmajorityof citizens.As in theUnitedStates, slavery still existed fordecades.Peasantsstillworkedonhugeplantationsownedbyafewlandowners.ButunlikeintheUnitedStates,a significantmiddle class ofmerchants and small farmers didn’t emerge, andmany of theEnlightenmentideasdidn’tspreadtopopulationsotherthantheland-owningmaleclass.Therewereseveralreasonsforthis.TheCatholicChurchremainedverypowerfulinLatin

America,andwhilemanyofthepriestsadvocatedonbehalfofthepeasantsandoftheslaves(somemartyred themselves for that cause), the church hierarchy as awhole protected thestatusquo.Thechurch,afterall,wasoneofthelargestlandownersinLatinAmerica.What’s more, the economies of Latin America, while free of Europe, were still largely

dependentonEurope.LatinAmericancountriesstillparticipated inEuropeanmercantilism,often to their own detriment. They specialized in a few cash crops, exported almostexclusively toEurope, and thenboughtback finishedproducts. In otherwords,most LatinAmericaneconomiesdidn’tdiversify,nordidtheybroadenopportunitiestoalargerclassofpeople,soinnovationandcreativityrarelytookroot.Therearenotableexceptions.Chilediversified itseconomy fairly successfully,andBrazil

andArgentinainstitutedsocialreformandbroadenedtheireconomiestoincludeagrowing

middleclass.Butultimately,thehugelysuccessfulindependencemovementsinLatinAmericadidn’tresultinnoticeablechangesforamajorityofthepopulationformorethanacentury.

C.TWOUNIFICATIONS:ITALYANDGERMANY

OneoftheconsequencesoftheNapoleonicerawasthatitintensifiednationalism,orfeelingsof connection to one’s own home, region, language, and culture. France, Spain, Portugal,Britain, and Russia, of course, had already unified and, in some cases, built enormousempires.ButtheItalianandGermancity-stateswerestillveryfeudal,andwereconstantlyatthe center of warfare among the European powers. In the second half of the nineteenthcentury,however,allofthatchanged.ItalyandGermanyunified,andwithunification,theyeventuallyalteredthebalanceofEuropeanpower.

TheUnificationofItaly:ItaliansGiveForeignOccupierstheBoot

In the mid-nineteenth century, Italy was a tangle of foreign-controlled small kingdoms.AustriacontrolledVenetia,Lombardy,andTuscanyinthenorth.FrancecontrolledRomeandthePapalStatesinthemid-section.AndSpaincontrolledtheKingdomsofTwoSicilies(whichincluded Sicily and the “foot” of Italy including Naples) in the south. Only the dividedkingdomofSardinia (partofwhichwasan island in theMediterranean)wascontrolledbyItalians.In 1849, the king of Sardinia,Victor Emmanuel II, namedCount Camillo Cavour hisprime minister, and nationalism in Italy took off. Both Emmanuel and Cavour believedstronglyinItalianunification.ThroughaseriesofwarsinwhichCavoursidedwithEuropeanpowers that could help him boot out Austria from Italy, he managed to remove AustrianinfluencefromallpartsofItaly(exceptVenetia)by1859.Meanwhile,GiuseppeGaribaldi,another Italian nationalist, raised a volunteer army and in 1860 drove Spain from theKingdomofTwoSicilies.So,by1861,alargechunkofpresent-dayItalywasunified,anditdeclareditselfaunifiedkingdomunderVictorEmmanuel.Inthefollowingdecade,theItaliansmanagedtogaincontrolofVenetiaaftersidingwithPrussia in its war against Austria (which previously controlled Venetia) and finally woncontrolofRomein1870whentheFrenchwithdrew.Still,eventhoughItalywasessentially

unified,theboundariesofEuropewerestillveryshaky.SomeItaliansthoughtthatsouthernprovincesofAustriaandFrancewerefarmoreItalianthannotandthatthoseprovinceswererightly part of Italy. What’s more, Italy had a hard time unifying culturally because forcenturiesithaddevelopedmoreregionally.Still,nowunified,Italywasmoreabletoassertitselfontheworldstage,adevelopmentthatwouldimpactEuropeinthenextcentury.

TheUnificationofGermany:AllAboutOttoTheprovincesthatcomprisedGermanyandtheAustrianEmpire(theHapsburgs)hadn’tbeentrulyunitedsincethedeclineofCharlemagne’sHolyRomanEmpireintheMiddleAges.SincethePeaceofWestphalia (1648),whichasserted theauthorityof regionalgovernments, twoareas in the regionof the formerHolyRomanEmpirehadpoliticallydominated it:PrussiaandAustria.Prussia,undertheenlightenedmonarchFredericktheGreatandhissuccessors,achievedeconomicpreeminencebyembracingtheIndustrialRevolution.Theyalsostronglysupportededucation,whichcreatedatalentedworkforce.Many inPrussiawanted to consolidate theGerman territories into a powerful empire torivalthegreatpowersofEurope,particularlyBritain,France,andincreasinglyRussia.So,in1861,thenewkingofPrussia,WilliamI,appointedOttovonBismarckprimeministerwiththeaimofbuildingthemilitaryandconsolidatingtheregionunderitsauthority.Inordertoachievethisconsolidation,BismarckhadtodefeatAustria,whichhedidinonlysevenweeks,afterhewonassurancesfromtheotherEuropeanpowersthattheywouldnotstep inonAustria’sbehalf.Through furtherwarandannexation,Bismarcksecuredmostofthe other German principalities, except for heavily Catholic regions in the south. So, thecraftyBismarckformedanalliancewiththeCatholicGermanstatesagainstaggressionfromFrance,andthen,in1870,provokedFrancetodeclarewaronPrussia,startingtheFranco-PrussianWar—a war which, once won, consolidated the German Catholic regions underPrussiancontrol.In1871,thevictoriousBismarckcrownedKingWilliamIasemperorofthenewGermanEmpire,whichwasalsoknownastheSecondReich(“secondempire,”aftertheHolyRomanEmpire,whichwasknownastheFirstReich).After unification, Germany quickly industrialized and became a strong economic andpolitical power. But Otto was not popular with everyone, especially socialists. In 1888,Germanycrownedanewemperor,WilliamII,whowanted to run the country himself. In1890, he forced Bismarck to resign as prime minister and re-established authority as theemperor.With the Industrial Revolution in Germany now running full throttle, he built ahugenavy,pursuedcolonialambitionsinAfricaandAsia,andoversawtheriseofGermanyintooneofthemostpowerfulnationsintheworld.By1914,Germanyfeltcapableoftakingonanyotherpower.

D.OTHERPOLITICALDEVELOPMENTS

Russia:LifewithCzarsInthenineteenthcentury,RussiaconsolidatedpoweroveritsvastterritorybygivingabsolutepowertoitsRomanovczars.Thevastmajorityofthecitizenswereserfswithnorights,livinganalmostslavelikeexistence.AlexanderIandNicholasIfrequentlyusedthesecretpolicetoquash rebellionsorhintsof reform,despite the fact that an increasingnumberofRussians

demandedchange.Bythe1860s,longaftertheEnlightenmenthadhadaneffectonmostdevelopmentsintheWest, Alexander II began some reforms. He issued the Emancipation Edict, whichessentiallyabolishedserfdom.Itdidlittlegood.Theserfsweregivenverysmallplotsoflandforwhichtheyhadtogivehugepaymentstothegovernmenttokeep,soitwasdifficultforthemtoimprovetheirlot.SomepeasantsheadedtothecitiestoworkinRussia’sburgeoningindustries,butthere,too,thereformsthatsoftenedsomeoftheharsherworkingconditionsinthe West hadn’t made their way eastward. Whether in the fields or in the factories, theRussianpeasantscontinuedtoliveameagerexistence,especiallywhencomparedtomanyoftheirwesternEuropeancounterparts.Still, during the second half of the nineteenth century, a small but visible middle classstartedtogrow,andtheartsbegantoflourish.Inaspanofjustafewdecades,Russianartistsproducedsomeofthegreatestworksofalltime:TolstoywroteAnnaKareninaandWarandPeace,DostoyevskyauthoredTheBrothersKaramazov,andTchaikovskycomposedSwanLakeand The Nutcracker. Meanwhile, an intellectual class well-acquainted with political andeconomicthoughtintherestofEuropebegantoassertitselfagainstthemonarchy.In1881,AlexanderIIwasassassinatedbyapoliticalgroupknownasThePeople’sWill.AlexanderIIIreactedfiercelybyattemptingtosuppressanythingthatheperceivedasanti-Russian.ThroughapolicyknownasRussification,allRussians,includingpeopleinthefar-flungreachesof theEmpire thatdidnotshareaculturalhistorywithmostofRussia,wereexpectedtolearntheRussianlanguageandconverttoRussianOrthodoxy.Anyonewhodidn’tcomply was persecuted, especially Jews. Meanwhile, terrible conditions in the factoriescontinued, evenasproduction capacitywas increased andgreaterdemandswereputupontheworkers.BythetimeNicholasII reigned (1894–1917), revolutionwas in thewind.TheSocialistsbegan to organize. Nicholas tried to rally Russians around the flag by going to war withJapanoverManchuriain1904,buttheRussianssufferedahumiliatingdefeat.OnaSundayin 1905, moderates marched on the czar’s palace in a peaceful protest, an attempt toencourage him to enact Enlightened reforms, but Nicholas felt threatened and ordered histroopstofireontheprotestors.ThedayhassincebeenknownasBloodySunday.For the next decade, resentment among the working classes festered. In 1906, the czarattemptedtoenact legislativereformsbyappointingaPrimeMinister,PeterStolypin, andbycreatingtheDuma,abodyintendedtorepresenttheRussianpeople,buteverytimetheDumawascriticaloftheczar,heimmediatelydisbandedit.Intheend,theattemptsatreformweretoolittle,toolate.TheRomanovDynastywouldsooncometoanend.

TheOttomanEmpire:AreTheyStillCallingItanEmpire?TheOttomanEmpirebeganitsdeclineinthesixteenthcenturyandneverwasabletogainasecondwind.Throughouttheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,theOttomanscontinuallyfoughttheRussiansforcontroloftheBalkans,theBlackSea,andsurroundingareas.Mostofthe time, the Russians were victorious. So by the nineteenth century, not only was theOttoman Empire considerably smaller and less powerful, but it was in danger of collapse.Greece, Egypt, and Arabia launched successful independence movements. This worriedBritainandFrance,whofearedthatiftheOttomanEmpirefellentirely,theRussianEmpirewould seize the chance to take over the eastern Mediterranean. So, for the next century,

Britain and France tried to keep the Ottoman Empire going if only to prevent Russianexpansion,astheydidintheCrimeanWarin1853.Atthesametime,ofcourse,BritainandFranceincreasedtheirinfluenceintheregion.In1883,forexample,BritaingainedcontrolofEgypt.

U.S.ForeignPolicy:ThisHemisphereIsOurHemisphereAfter the wave of independence movements swept Latin America in the early nineteenthcentury, Europe found itself nearly shut out of developments in the entire westernhemisphere—evenasEuropeancountrieswereswiftlycolonizingAfricaandAsia.ToensurethatEuropewouldn’trecolonizetheAmericas,U.S.PresidentMonroedeclaredin

his1823StateoftheUnionAddressthatthewesternhemispherewasoff-limitstoEuropeanaggression.TheUnitedStates,ofcourse,wasn’tthesuperpowerthenthatitistoday,soitwashardlyinapositiontoenforceitsdeclaration,whichbecameknownastheMonroeDoctrine.But Britain,whose navywas enormous and positioned all over the globe,was fearful thatSpainwantedtorekindleitsAmericanempire,soitagreedtobackuptheUnitedStates.Asaresult, the European powers continued to invest huge sums of money in Latin Americanbusinessenterprisesbutdidn’tmaketerritorialclaims. In1904,afterEuropeanpowerssentwarships toVenezuela todemandrepaymentof loans,PresidentTheodoreRoosevelt addedwhatcametobeknownastheRooseveltCorollary,whichprovidedthattheUnitedStateswould intervene in financial disputes between European powers and countries in theAmericas,ifdoingsowouldhelptomaintainthepeace.WhileLatinAmericannationshaveattimes benefited from the protection and oversight of their North American neighbor, theMonroe Doctrine also gave rise to anger and resentment in many Latin Americans, whosometimes saw theUnited States as exercising its ownbrandof imperialism in the region.ThisbecameclearwhentheUnitedStatesincitedPanamanianstodeclaretheirindependencefrom Colombia, so that the United States could negotiate the right to build the PanamaCanalintheCentralAmericannation.Constructionbeganin1904andfinishedin1914.In1898,aEuropeanpowerwasdealtanotherblowinitseffortstomaintainitsfootingin

theWestern Hemisphere. Spain, which at that time still controlled both Cuba and PuertoRico,was embroiled in conflictwithCuban revolutionarieswhen theUnited States,whichsympathizedwiththeCubans,intervenedandlaunchedtheSpanish-AmericanWarof1898.In a matter of a few months, it was all over. The United States quickly and decisivelydestroyed the Spanish fleets inCuba and in thePhilippines, and thereby gained control ofGuam,PuertoRico,and thePhilippines.Cubawasgiven its independence, inexchange forconcessionstotheUnitedStates,includingallowingthecreationoftwoU.S.navalbasesontheisland.TheUnitedStates,henceforth,wasconsideredtobeamongtheworldpowers.

V.TECHNOLOGYANDINTELLECTUALDEVELOPMENTS1750–1914Economic, political and social changes occurred so rapidly in this 150 year period that isdifficult to keep trackof themall.The flowchart in sectionVII of this chapterprovides agoodoutlineofthecausesandeffectsofthesechanges.Advancesinpowerandtransportationdrove the Industrial Revolution. Steam provided consistent power for new factories. Intransportationnews,andmillionsofmilesofrail lineswerelaidthroughoutEurope,India,Africa, and throughout eastern Asia. This facilitated the movement of resources and

manufactured goods. The new industrial world required large numbers of laborers. In thelatterhalfofthenineteenthcentury,thisneed,alongwiththeabolitionofslavery,resultedinlarge-scale migrations around the world. Europeans and east Asians immigrated to theAmericas,andsouthIndiansmovedintootherBritish-controlledterritories.Thisrapidlytransformingworldalsoresultedinthecreationofnewformsofentertainment

fortheurbanworking-class,newliteratureandrevolutionarynewideas,exhibitions,fairsandamusement parks, professional sports, as well as the first department stores with widelyavailable consumer goods. Both English and Japanese women published novels, some ofwhich were indictments of working class life. The rapid industrialization also created theneedfornewformsofjobprotectionincludingunionsandnewideasabouttherelationshipsbetweenthesocialclasses.With industrialization came new imperialism and interactions. The arts and culture of

Europe were influenced by contact with Asia and Africa, and new more modern formsdeveloped.Meanwhile, the Japanese started to integrateWestern styles into traditional artforms. The seemingly radical Impressionist period in nineteenth-century European paintingwas based on depictions of real life,while themodernist artmovements included cubism,surrealism,andartnouveau.Newindustrializationandimperialismalsoresultedinnewreasonsandnewwaystomake

war.Thisperiodsawthedevelopmentofautomaticweapons,includingtheMaximgunofthe1880s.Theassemblylineallowedformassproductionofgasolinepoweredautomobilesandeventuallythefirsttanks,whichledtothemassivedestructionwroughtonthebattlefieldsofWorldWarI.

VI.CHANGESANDCONTINUITIESINTHEROLEOFWOMENWith all the dramatic transformations that took place in the nineteenth century, this wasactually a low point in terms of women’s rights. Education, real wages, and professionalopportunities continued to be mostly inaccessible; however, the new intellectual andeconomicopportunitiesavailabletomendidopendoorsforwomen,andmovementsbeganthroughouttheworldtorallyforwomen’spoliticalandlegalrights.Althoughwomencontinuedtobeheavilyrestrictedwithfewfreedoms,politicalandlegal

barriersformenbasedonclassorracialcategoriesweremostlyeliminated.Yetwomenwerenot unaffected by the new Enlightenment ideals of freedom, equality and liberty and theearliest feminist writers emerged in western Europe during this period. Both middle- andworking-class women joined reform movements, labor unions, and socialist parties. MostimportanttothesewomenwasaccesstoeducationwhichwasstilldeniedtothemajorityofthemduetoideasofmentalinferioritybasedonsocialDarwinism.AlthoughmostWesterncountriesopeneduniversityeducationtowomen,literacyratesin

China and India—countries with long histories of secluding women—remained shockinglylowwell into the twentiethcentury.However,male literacy in these regionswasalso low,anddespiteChristianmissionaryschools,itwasnotintheinterestoftheimperialpowerstohaveawell-educatedcolonialpopulace.

VII.PULLINGITALLTOGETHER

From1750to1914,somuchhappenedinsomanydifferentplacesthatit’seasytogetlostunlessyoufocusonmajordevelopmentsandtrends.Wesuggestthatyoutrytolinkupmanyoftheeventsandmovementsinaflowchart.Onceyoustart,you’llbeamazedathowmuchisinterconnected.We’ve put together a sample here. You may choose to connect developments quite

differently from the way we have—there’s certainly more than one way to link eventstogether.Thatsaid, takea lookat thethispageanduse it tohelpyoubegintomakeyourown.

Ofcourse,thechartabovedoesn’tbegintoaddressmanyofthedevelopmentscoveredinthis chapter. To include everything would require an enormous chart. In addition,developmentswerecomplicatedandnotentirelysequential.Forexample,thereweretwobigrounds of independence movements and revolutions because there were two rounds ofcolonialism.ThefirstroundoccurredaftertheAgeofExplorationwhentheUnitedStatesandLatinAmericadeclared their independence.The second roundoccurredafter the IndustrialRevolution and led to a race for new colonies in Asia and Africa. Those independencemovementsdidn’toccuruntilafter1914,sotheyarenotincludedthischapter.Notice also that there are arrows going in both directions between the Agricultural

RevolutionandtheIndustrialRevolution—theyeachledtomoreoftheother.Thegreaterthefoodsurplus,themoreacountrycouldindustrialize.Themoreitindustrialized,themoreitdevelopedefficientmachinesandtoolsthatcouldbeusedtoincreaseagriculturalproduction.

THEGROWTHOFNATIONALISM:ME,MYSELF,ANDMYCOUNTRY

Nationalismwasanenormousforceonallcontinentsduringthetimeperiodcoveredinthischapter.Nationalism,broadlydefined,isthedesireofapeopleofacommonculturalheritageto form an independent nation-state and/or empire that both represents and protects theirshared cultural identity. It drove movements in Germany and Italy to unify. It drovemovements in theAmericas to declare independence. It drove resistance against EuropeancolonialisminIndia,China,andAfrica,whileitdroveEuropeanstocompetewitheachother

topromotenationalprideandwealthbyestablishingcoloniesinthefirstplace.InChina,itevendrovepeasantmovementsagainsttheManchugovernment,whichwastargetedfornotrepresenting theHanmajority. Itdrove theFrench tounitebehindNapoleon toattempt totakeoverEurope,anditdrovetheBritishtounitetotrytotakeovertheworld.Nationalismdrove the Japanese to quickly industrialize and the Egyptians to limit the power of theOttomans.In short, by 1914, the world had become one of strong identification with one’s own

nation,orwiththedreamofthecreationofone’sownnation.EvenintheEuropeancolonies,and perhaps especially there, nationalism was growing. The oppressors used nationalistfeelings to justify their superiority.Theoppressedusednationalistic feelings to justify theirrebellion.

THECOMPLEXDYNAMICSOFCHANGE:ENOUGHTOMAKEYOURHEADSPIN

During the time period covered in this chapter, there were many forces of change.Exploration. Industrialization. Education. The continuing impact of theEnlightenment. Theendofslavery.Militarysuperiority.Nationalism.Imperialism.Racism.Capitalism.Marxism.It’smind-boggling.What’smore,thesechangeswerecommunicatedmorequicklythaneverbefore.Trainsand

shipsracedacrosscontinentsandseas.Telegraphcableswerelaid.By1914,planeswereinthe air and telephones were ringing. Think about how much more quickly JapanindustrializedthanEngland.ThinkabouthowmuchmorequicklyAfricawascolonizedthanLatin America. Increases in transportation and communication had far-reachingconsequences.Urbanization,too,fueledchange.Aspeoplecameinclosercontactwitheachother,ideas

spreadmorequickly.Like-mindedpeoplewereabletoassociatewitheachother.Individualshadcontactwithagreatervarietyofpeople,andthereforewereexposedtoagreatervarietyof ideas. Increasingly,developments in thecities racedalongata fasterpace than those invillagesandonfarms.InIndia,forexample,Britishimperialismgreatlyimpactedlifeinthecities. Indians learned to speak English and adopted European habits. In the countryside,however,HinduandMuslimculturecontinuedalonglargelyuninterrupted.Ofcourse,mostchange—even“revolutionary”change—didn’tentirelysupplanteverything

thatcamebeforeit.Forexample,theScientificRevolutionchallengedsomeassertionsmadebyRomanCatholicism,butbothsurvived,andmanypeoplelearnedtobebothscientificandChristian. Slaverywas successfully outlawed, but that didn’tmean that former slavesweresuddenlywelcomedasequals.Racism,bothsocialandinstitutional,continued.It’s also important to keep in mind that individuals, even those who were the primary

agents of change, acted and reacted based onmultiplemotives, whichwere sometimes atodds with each other. The United States declared its independence eloquently andconvincingly, and then many of the signers went home to their slaves. Factory workersarguedtirelessly forhumaneworkingconditions,butonceachieved,happilyprocessedrawmaterials stolen from distant lands where the interests of the natives were often entirelydisregarded.Change is indeed very complex, but it’s also impossible to ignore. Life for virtually

everyoneon theglobewasdifferent in1914 than in1750. Ifyoucandescribehow,you’re

wellonyourwaytounderstandingthebasics.Ifyoucandescribewhy,you’reonyourwaytodoingwellontheexam.

IMPORTANTTERMS

Abolish IndustrialRevolution

AbsoluteMonarch Laissez-Faire

AssemblyLine LaborUnion

Capital Leisure

Capitalism Marxism

Cartel Monopoly

Commercial Nationalism

Communism Nation-State

Constitution NaturalResources

Corporation Revolution

Doctrine Rural

Domestic SocialClass

Emancipation SocialDarwinism

Enclosure Socialism

Enlightenment Suffrage

Estates-General TradeUnion

Factory UniversalSuffrage

FreeMarket Urbanization

FreeTrade Utopia/Utopian

Immigration WageLabor

Imperialism

Indemnity


AmericanRevolution MuslimLeague

AssemblyLine NapoleonBonaparte

BerlinConference1884 OpenDoorPolicy

BloodySunday OpiumWars

BoerWars(Africa1899–1902) PanamaCanal

BoxerRebellions TheRaj

BritishEastIndiaCompany ReignofTerror

Capitulations CecilRhodes

CharlesDarwin RudyardKipling

CommunistManifesto Russification

CongressofVienna Russo-JapaneseWar

DeclarationofIndependence ScrambleforAfrica

DeclarationoftheRightsofMan SepoyMutiny(1857)

TheDietofJapan SevenYearsWar(FrenchandIndian)

EmancipationofSerfs Sino-JapaneseWar

EmpressCixi(China) SocialDarwinism

FrederichEngels SpanishAmericanWar

ExecutionofLouisXVI(France) SpheresofInfluence

MiguelHidalgo(Mexico) SuezCanal

IndianNationalCongress TheStateDumaofRussia

IntolerableActs SteamEngine(JamesWatts)

TheJewelintheCrown TaipingRebellion

MahmutII(Ottoman) UnequalTreaties

KarlMarx OttovonBismarck

MaximGuns WealthofNations(AdamSmith)

MeijiRestoration “WhiteMan’sBurden”

MonroeDoctrine WitteIndustrializationProgram

MuhammadAli(Egypt) YoungTurksParty

10

RecentStuff:Around1914to

thePresent

I.CHAPTEROVERVIEWFrom1914onward,everythingseemedtohaveglobalsignificance.Warswerecalled“worldwars.”Issueswerethoughtofintermsoftheirworldwideimpact,suchas“globalhunger”or“international terrorism.” Organizations formed to coordinate international efforts, such astheUnitedNations.Andeconomies and cultures continued tomerge to suchadegree thateventuallymillionsofpeoplecommunicatedinstantaneouslyontheWorldWideWeb,feedingamassiveculturalshiftknownsimplyas“globalization.”It’s a complex 100 years.We’ll help you sort through it. Here’s howwe organized thischapter. I. ChapterOverviewYou’rereadingitnow.

II. StayFocusedontheBigPictureThissectionwillhelpyouthinkaboutandorganizethehugenumberofglobaleventsthathaveoccurredoverthepastcentury.

III. TheTwentiethCenturyinChunksThisisthelargestsectionofthechapter.Init,weplowthroughhistoricaldevelopmentsinfourmassivechunks.Ifyou’retotallycluelessonanypartofthissection,youmightconsideralsoreviewingthecorrespondingtopicinyourtextbook.Asyoucanseefromthesectiontitles,andasyouhopefullyrememberfromyourhistoryclass,therewereabunchofverysignificantwarsinthetwentiethcentury.Asyoustudy,worrymoreaboutthecausesandconsequencesthanaboutparticularbattles,althoughwithregardtoWorldWarII,it’simportanttounderstandthegeneralsequenceofmilitaryandpoliticalevents,sowe’veincludedquiteabit.Here’showwe’veorganizedtheinformation. A. TheWorldWarIEra B. TheWorldWarIIEra C. CommunismandtheColdWar D. IndependenceMovementsandDevelopmentsinAsiaandAfrica E. GlobalizationandtheWorldSince1980

IV. ChangesandContinuitiesintheRoleofWomenFinally,equalrights(insomeplaces).

V. PullingItAllTogetherRefocusonbig-pictureconceptsafteryoureviewthespecificdevelopmentsintheprevioustwosections.

VI. TimelineofMajorDevelopmentsSince1914

II.STAYFOCUSEDONTHEBIGPICTUREAsalways,connections,causation,andbig-pictureconceptsareimportant.Asyoureviewthedetailsofthetwentieth-centurydevelopmentsinthischapter,stayfocusedonthebigpicture,andaskyourselfsomequestions,includingthefollowing:

1. Howdonationalismandself-determinationimpactglobalevents?Asyoureview,noticehownationalismimpactsalmosteverycountrythatisdiscussedinthischapter.Itservesasbothapositiveforceinunitingpeople,andanegativeforceinpittingpeopleagainstoneanother.Self-determinationiscloselylinkedwithnationalismbecauseitisthegoalofmostnationalists.

2. Areworldculturesconverging?Ifso,how?There’splentyofevidencethatworldculturesare, in fact, converging, especiallywith regard to technology,popular culture,and theInternet. But on the other hand, there seems to be no shortage of nationalism orindependencemovements,whichsuggests thatmajordifferencesexist.Asyoureadthechapter,thinkabouttheforcesthataremakingtheculturesoftheworldconvergeandthosethatarekeepingculturesseparated.

3. How do increasing globalization, population growth, and resource use change theenvironment?Which resources are renewable andwhich are not?As theworld growsever more interconnected in trade and consumption of resources, think about whatpolitical, economic, and environmental decisions are made to maintain those traderelations.

III.THETWENTIETHCENTURYINCHUNKS

A.THEWORLDWARIERA

By1914,mostoftheworldwaseithercolonizedbyEurope,orwasoncecolonizedbyEurope,so everyone around theworldwas connected to the instability on that small but powerfulcontinent.Tragically, thatmeant thatwhenEuropeanpowerswereatwarwitheachother,the colonieswere dragged into the fight. To be sure, European rivalries had had a globalimpact for centuries, particularly during the colonial period. The Seven Years’War in theeighteenth century between the French and British, for example, impacted their colonialholdings everywhere. France, too, jumped in to help theU.S. in its revolution against theBritish.But in 1914, a major fight among European powers had a far more substantial and

destructiveeffect.TheIndustrialRevolutionhadgivenEuropesomepowerfulnewweaponsplus the shipsandairplanes that couldbeused todeliver them.Large industrial citieshadmillionsofpeople,creatingthepossibilityofmassivecasualtiesinasinglebombingraid.Ariseinnationalismfedamilitarybuild-upandthedesiretouseit.Andaftertheunificationsof Germany and Italy, Europe simply had too many power-grabbing rivals. Not a goodcombinationoffactorsifyoulike,well,peace.

ShiftingAlliances:APrewarTallyofEuropeanCountriesInthedecadesleadinguptoWorldWarI,theEuropeanpowerstriedtokeepthebalanceofpower incheckby formingalliances.ThenewlyunifiedGermanyquicklygained industrialmight,butitwasworriedthatFrance,itsarchenemysincetheFranco-PrussianWarin1870,would seek revenge for its defeat. So, before he resigned from office, Otto von Bismarckcreatedandnegotiated theTripleAlliance amongGermany,Austria-Hungary, and Italy inthe1880s.Ontheside,BismarckalsohadapactwithRussia.Ottoplayedtowin.Overthenextfewdecades,themajorplayersofEuropebecamesoobsessedwithapossible

warthattheirgeneralswerealreadyputtingplansintomotionintheeventofanoutbreak.After William II ousted Bismarck from power in 1890, he ignored Russia and allowedpreviousagreementsbetweenthetwocountriestowither.WithRussianowonthemarketforfriends,Francejumpedatthechancetomakeanalliance.BecauseFranceistothewestandRussia is to the east of Germany, a Franco-Russo alliance helped keep Germany in check.Meanwhile, Germany’s 1905 Schlieffen Plan called for a swift attack on France throughBelgium,anofficiallyneutralcountrythathadagrowingrelationshipwithBritain.By1907,Britainhadalso signed friendly agreementswithFrance andRussia, creatingwhatbecameknownastheTripleEntente.Clearly,everyonewasanticipatingthepossibilityofwar,whichwasaprettysafebetconsideringthecontentiousclimate.

TroubleintheBalkans:EuropeinaTizzyRemembertheOttomanEmpire?Inthefirsttwodecadesofthetwentiethcentury,itwasstillaround,butitwasinsuchbadshapethatEuropeanswerecallingitthe“sickmanofEurope.”Itkeptlosingterritorytoitsneighbors.AfterGreecewonitsindependencein1829,theSlavicareastothenorthofGreece,includingRomania,Bulgaria,Serbia,andMontenegro,begantowintheirindependenceaswell.BosniaandHerzegovina,however,wereunderthecontrolofAustria-Hungary,asdecidedbytheBerlinConferenceof1878,thesameconferencethatledtotheEuropeanscrambletocolonizeAfrica.SerbiawantedBosniaandHerzegovinaforitself.Tocomplicatematters,RussiawasalliedwithSerbia,afellowSlaviccountry.ItwasinthispoliticalclimatethatArchdukeFranzFerdinandofAustria-Hungaryvisited

Sarajevo,thecapitalofBosnia,in1914.Whilethere,GavriloPrincip,aSerbiannationalist,shotandkilledtheArchdukeandhiswife.InanagewhenEuropewassotightlywoundinalliances,suspicion,andrivalrythatasneezecouldhavesetoffawar,thedominosquicklystarted to fall. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia, allied with Serbia, thendeclared war on Austria-Hungary. Because Russia and Austria-Hungary were on oppositesides of the Triple Entente–Triple Alliance divide, the pressure mounted on France, Italy,Germany,andBritaintojoinin.Britainwasreluctanttohonoritscommitmentsatfirst,butwhen Germany implemented the Schlieffen Plan and stormed through Belgium towardFrance,BritainjoinedthefrayinordertoprotectFrance.Italy,ontheotherhand,managedtowiggleoutofitsobligationsanddeclareditselfneutral,buttheOttomanEmpiretookitsplace,formingwithGermanyandAustria-HungaryanalliancecalledtheCentralPowers.

WorldWarI:TheWartoEndAllWars?

SincetheEuropeanpowershadcoloniesorstrongeconomictieswithmostoftherestoftheworld,theoriginalgunshotbyaSerbiannationalistresultedinwidespreadcasualtiesacrosstheglobe.Morethan40countriesfoundthemselvestakinguparms,includingJapan,whichfought on the sideofBritain, France, andRussia, nowknownas theAllies. In1915, Italymanagedtocompleteitsabout-faceandjoinedtheAlliesaswell.TheUnited States declared its neutrality at first, preferring to focus on its own internalaffairs, a policy known as isolationism. Butwhen aGerman submarine (wow, technologycamealongwayquickly)sanktheBritishpassengerlinerTheLusitaniain1915,killingmorethan100Americanswhohappenedtobeonboard,publicopinionintheUnitedStatesshiftedawayfromisolationism.Thenextyear,asGermanytriedtocutoffallshipmentstoBritain,thereby starving the island country, it attacked U.S. merchant ships en route to Britain,furtherfuelingAmericansentimenttowardwar.ThentheZimmermanntelegram—asecretmessage sentbetweenGermandiplomats suggesting thatMexicomightwant to join forceswithGermanyandtherebyregaintheterritoryithadlosttotheUnitedStatesintheMexican-American War of 1846—was intercepted by the United States. The public and PresidentWilsonflippedout.OnApril2,1917,AmericaenteredthewaronthesideoftheAllies.OnNovember11,1918,afterbrutalbattles,trenchwarfare,andenormouslossoflife,GermanyandtheCentralPowersfinallygaveup.Theconsequencesofthewarwerestaggering.Eight-and-a-halfmillionsoldierswerekilled.Around20millionciviliansperished.Thesocialimpactonthehomefrontwassubstantialaswell. Most governments took over industrial production during the war, while institutingprice controls and rationing of products that were needed on the front lines. With hugenumbersofmentakinguparms,womenmovedintothefactoriestofillemptypositions.Thisexperiencerevvedupthewomen’ssuffragemovement,andbecamethebasisforasuccessfulpushbywomeninBritainandtheUnitedStatestogainthevoteafterthewar.Ofcourse,WorldWarIIhadn’thappenedyet,sonoonereferredtothewarasWorldWarI.Instead, most people called it the GreatWar, mistakenly thinking that there would never

againbeoneasbigorbloody.Indeed,thewarwassohorrendousthatcommentatorscalledit“thewartoendallwars.”

TheTreatyofVersailles:MaketheGermansCrySignedin1919,theTreatyofVersaillesbroughtanofficialendtoWorldWarI.FranceandBritainwantedtocrippleGermanyeconomically,sothat itcouldneveragainrisetopowerandthreatentoinvadeothersovereignstatesofEurope.TheresultingtreatywasextremelypunitiveagainstGermany,whichwasrequiredtopaywarreparations,releaseterritory,anddownsizeitsmilitary.ItalsodividedAustria-Hungaryintoseparatenations,andcreatedothernationssuchasCzechoslovakia.ThetreatywasadeparturefromPresidentWilson’sFourteenPoints, which was more focused on establishing future peace and a workable balance ofpower.However,BritainandFrance,forexample,neededtojustifythehumanandfinancialcost of thewar and the duration of thewar to their own demoralized populations and sofoundWilson’sproposalunacceptable.SothevictorsblamedthewaronGermanyandthenforcedGermanytosignanextremelypunitivetreatyovertheobjectionsoftheUnitedStates.The victors hoped that as a result, Germany would never threaten the security of Europeagain.Instead,thetreatygreatlyweakenedGermany’seconomyandbredresentmentamongtheGermanpopulation,layingthegroundworkforthelaterriseofnationalisticAdolfHitler.

TheLeagueofNations:Can’tWeAllJustGetAlong?PresidentWilsonwasthevoiceofmoderationatVersailles.Hehadhopedthatthepostwartreatieswould be an opportunity to establish international laws and accepted standards offairness in international conduct. His Fourteen Points speech addressed these issues andcalledforthecreationofajointcouncilofnationscalledtheLeagueofNations.TheleadersatVersaillesagreedwiththeideainprinciple,andtheysetouttocreatetheorganizationtopreserve peace and establish humanitarian goals, but when they got around to actuallyjoining the league, many nations refused to do so. England and France were tepid, whileGermany and Russia initially scoffed at the idea (though later joined).Worse, the UnitedStatesopenlyrejectedit,amajorembarrassmentforPresidentWilson,whocouldn’tpersuadetheisolationistU.S.Congressthattheleaguewasasteptowardlastingpeace.

TheRussianRevolution:CzarOut,LeninInTheRussianRevolution occurredevenbefore thewarhadended.Russia entered thewarwiththeworld’slargestarmy,thoughnottheworld’smostpowerfulone,becausethenationwasnotnearlyas industrializedas itsWesternneighbors.Veryquickly, thearmybegan tosuffer large-scale losses and found itself short on food,munitions, and good leadership. InFebruary1917,inthefaceofrisingcasualtiesandfoodshortages,CzarNicholaswasforcedtoabdicatehisthrone.TheRomanovDynastycametoanend.UnderAlexanderKerensky,aprovisionalgovernmentwasestablished. Itwas ineffectual, inpartbecause it sharedpowerwiththelocalcouncils,calledsoviets,whichrepresentedtheinterestsofworkers,peasants,and soldiers. Although the provisional government affirmed natural rights (such as theequalityofcitizensandtheprincipleofreligioustoleration—changesthatwereinconceivableunder the czar), itwanted to continuewaragainstGermany in thehope thatRussia couldthensecureitsbordersandbecomealiberaldemocracy.Buttheworkingclasses,representedby the soviets, were desperate to end the suffering from the war. The idealism of the

provisional officials caused them to badlymiscalculate the depths of hostility the Russianpeoplefeltfortheczar’swar.By1918, the soviets ralliedbehind the socialist party,nowcalled theBolsheviks. Amidthisturmoil,VladimirLenin, theMarxist leaderof theparty,mobilized the supportof theworkersandsoldiers.HeissuedhisAprilTheses,whichdemandedpeace,landforpeasants,and power to the soviets. Within six months, the Bolsheviks took command of thegovernment.Underhisvisionofmasssocialization,LeninrigidlysetaboutnationalizingtheassetsandindustriesofRussia.InMarch1918,thesovietssignedanarmisticewithGermany,theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ceded a huge piece ofwestern Russia to Germany, soRussiadroppedout ofWorldWar I. It thereforewasn’t part of thenegotiationsduring theTreatyofVersailles.IntheBalticrepublicsofwhatwouldsoonbecalledtheSovietUnion,andintheUkraine,Siberia,andotherpartsoftheformerRussianEmpire,counterrevolutionaryrevoltsbrokeout.The Bolsheviks faced nonstop skirmishes between 1918 and 1921. To put down thesestruggles,theBolshevikscreatedtheRedArmy,amilitaryforceunderthecommandofLeonTrotsky.By1918,theRedArmywasasizeableforce,andwiththesupportofthepeasants,itdefeatedthecounterrevolutionaries.Butthecounterrevolutionhadtwolastingimplications.First, the prolonged civilwar deepened the distrust between thenewMarxist state and itsWestern neighbors, who had supported the counterrevolutionaries. And second, theBolsheviksnowhadaverypowerfularmy,theRedArmy,atitsdisposal.

HereCometheTurks:TheSickManofEuropeIsPutOutofHisMiseryTheOttoman Empire, already on its last legs, made a fatal mistake by joining the losingCentralPowersofWorldWarI.Inthepeacenegotiations,itlostmostofitsremainingland,andwas therefore ripe for attack from theGreeks,who picked up arms in 1919.MustafaKemal, who later became known as Ataturk, “the Father of the Turks,” led successfulmilitary campaigns against the Greeks, and then overthrew the Ottoman sultan. In 1923,Ataturk became the first president of modern Turkey. He successfully secularized theoverwhelminglyMuslimnation, introducedWestern-styledressandcustoms(abolishing thefez), changed the alphabet fromArabic to Latin, set up a parliamentary system (which hedominated),changedthelegalcodefromIslamictoWestern,andsetTurkeyonapathtowardEurope as opposed to the Middle East. However, he instituted these reforms againstopposition,andsometimeswasruthlessinhisdeterminationtoinstitutechange.

B.THEWORLDWARIIERA

Even though World War II didn’t get started until 1939, its causes were already wellunderwayinthe1920s.Insomeways,WorldWarIIisn’taseparatewarfromWorldWarI,butinsteadtheGreatWarPartII.

Stalin:TheSovietUnionGoesTotalitarianOnce the Soviets removed themselves fromWorldWar I, they concentrated on their owndomesticproblems.LeninfirstinstitutedtheNewEconomicPolicy(NEP)intheearly1920s,whichhadsomecapitalisticaspects,suchasallowingfarmerstosellportionsof theirgrainfortheirownprofit.Theplanwassuccessfulinagriculture,butLenindidn’tlivelongenough

to chaperone its expansion into other parts of the Soviet economy.When Lenin died, theleadershipoftheCommunistPartyshiftedtoJosephStalin.StalinbelievedtheNEPwasridiculouslyslow,sohediscardedit.Instead,heimposedhisFiveYearPlans,whichcalledforexpedientagriculturalproductionbyruthlesslytakingoverprivate farms and combining them into state-owned enterprises, a process known ascollectivization. The plans also advocated for the construction of large, nationalizedfactories. This process was achieved in the name of communism, but it was reallytotalitarianism. The people didn’t share in the power or the profits, and had no choicesregardingparticipation.Untoldnumbersdiedfightingtoprotecttheirfarms.Evenmorediedin famines that resulted when Stalin usurped crops to feed government workers at theexpenseofthefarmersthemselves.Stalin’splanssuccessfullyindustrializedtheUSSR(UnionofSovietSocialistRepublics),theformalname for theSovietUnion, and improvedeconomic conditions for the countryasawhole, but Stalin relied on terror tactics, such as a secret police force, bogus trials, andassassinations. These murders peaked between 1936 and 1938. Collectively, they aresometimesreferredtoasthe“GreatPurge”becausethegovernmentsystematicallykilledsomanyofitsenemies.Stalinalsoestablishedlaborcampstopunishanyonewhoopposedhim.It’s hard to know for sure howmany Soviet citizenswere imprisoned or killed during the1930s, especially because somany died of famines during the collectivization process, buthistoriansagreethatmillionsofSovietswereslaughteredunderStalin’sdirection.

TheGreatDepression:CapitalismCrashes,GermanyBurnsWorld War I was shockingly expensive. Countries spent more than $180 billion onarmaments, boats, and trenchwarfare. Europe spent an additional $150 billion rebuilding.The massive scale of the war meant massive spending, at a level that nations had neverexperiencedpreviously,andintheyearsfollowingWorldWarI,capitalismfinancedmostoftherecovery.Asaconsequence,thefinancialheadquartersoftheworldshiftedfromLondontoNewYork,whichhadbecomeamajorcenterofcredittoEuropeduringandafterthewar.Inotherwords,AmericanslentEuropeansmoney,andlotsofit.In particular, the economies of two countries relied on American credit: France andGermany.FrancehadloanedhugesumsofmoneytoRussia,itsprewarally,buttheBolshevikgovernmentrefusedtohonortheczar’sdebts,leavingFrancealmostoutofluck,exceptthatGermanyoweditabunchofcashaswell.Germanyexperiencedextremefinancialhardshipbecause of the wartime reparations they were required to make under the Treaty ofVersailles. Germany’s answerwas to use American credit to pay its reparations by issuingI.O.U.stocountrieslikeFrance.Francetookthese“payments,”backedupbyAmericancredit,andspentthemonrebuildingitseconomy.From1924to1929,thisarrangementlookedgreaton paper due to growth in both the United States and European economies. But inmanyways,thegrowthwasartificial,basedonloansthatwerenevergoingtoberepaid.When the U.S. stock market crashed in October 1929, a spiral of monetary and fiscalproblems called theGreatDepression quickly escalated into an international catastrophe,andshatteredtheillusionoffinancialhealthinEurope.Americanbanksimmediatelystoppedextendingcredit.TheeffectwasthatEuroperanoutofmoney,whichitneverreallyhadinthefirstplace.Germanycouldn’tpayitsreparationswithoutAmericancredit,soFrancehadnomoneyeither.

Thedepthsofthedepressionweretrulystaggering.TheUnitedStatesandGermanywerehithardest.Inbothcountries,almostone-thirdoftheavailableworkforcewasunemployed.IntheUnitedStates,out-of-workAmericansrejectedthedominantpoliticalpartyandin1932elected Franklin Roosevelt as president in a landslide election. But other countries hadmuchmorefragilepoliticalstructures.Inplaceswheredemocracyhadshallowroots,suchasGermanyandItaly,whoseshakyelectiveassemblieshadbeencreatedonlyadecadeearlierafterWorldWarI,thecrisisresultedinthetriumphofapoliticalideologythatwasanathema(lookitup!)totheveryspiritofdemocracy—fascism.

FascismGainsMomentumBetween theFirstandSecondWorldWars, fascistpartiesemergedacrossEurope.Theydidnotpossessidenticalsetsofbeliefs,buttheyheldafewimportantideasincommon.Themainideaof fascismwas todestroy thewill of the individual in favor of “thepeople.” Fascistswanted a unified society (as did the communists), but they weren’t concerned witheliminatingprivatepropertyorclassdistinctions(theprincipalaimofcommunists).Instead,fascistspushedforanotheridentity,onerootedinextremenationalism,whichoftenreliedonracialidentity.

ContrastThem:FascismandTotalitarianismFascismisasubsetoftotalitarianism.Atotalitariandictatorrulesabsolutely,attemptingto control every aspect of life. Fascist rulers are a particular kindof totalitarian ruler,oftenregardedasextremelyright-wingbecausetheyrelyontraditionalinstitutionsandsocialdistinctionstoenforcetheirrule,andareextremelynationalistic.Theirparticularbrandofnationalismisoftenbasedonracism.CommunisttotalitarianleaderslikeStalinare often referred to as extreme left-wing because they seek to destroy traditionalinstitutions and class distinctions, even as they retain absolute power themselves.Therefore, they’re not referred to as fascist, but they’re just as militaristic andcontrolling.Putanotherway, in their extreme forms, right-wing (fascist) and left-wing(communist)governmentsusethesametactics:totalitarianism.Inbothcases,allpowerrestsinthehandsofasinglemilitaristicleader.

FascisminItaly:AnotherSteptowardAnotherWarItalywas the first state to have a fascist government. The founder and leaderwasBenitoMussolini,whocreatedtheNationalFascistPartyin1919.ThePartypaidsquads,knownasBlackshirts, to fight socialist and communist organizations, an action that won over theloyaltyofbothfactoryownersandlandowners.By1921,thepartyseateditsfirstmembersintheItalianparliament.Althoughthefascistsheldonlyafewseatsinthelegislature,MussolinidemandedthatKingVictorEmmanuel IIInamehimandseveralother fascists tocabinetposts.Torallysupport,MussoliniorganizedhisparliamentarythugstomarchtoRomeandpossiblyattempttoseizepower.Ifthekinghaddeclaredmartiallawandbroughtinthearmy,mostbelievethatthefascists would have scattered. However, the king was a timid man—facing economicallytroublingtimes—whowasnotunsympathetictothefascistprogram.So,henamedMussolini

primeminister,andthefascistmarchonRometurnedintoacelebration.As the postwar economy failed to improve, Italywas demoralized.Mussolini faced verylittleoppositiontohisconsolidationofpoliticalpower.HedabbledasaparliamentaryleaderforseveralmonthsbeforecompletelytakingoverParliamentin1922.Hethenimplementedanumberofconstitutionalchangestoensurethatdemocracynolongerlimitedhisactions,and,by 1926, Italywas transformed into a totalitarian fascist regime. To rally the people in anationalisticcause,Italystartedtofocusonexpansion,specificallyinNorthAfrica.

TheRiseofHitlerImmediately following the end of World War I, a revolt occurred in Germany when theemperor abdicated.Germanymightwell have become socialist at this point.Workers’ andsoldiers’ councils (not unlikeRussian soviets) formed in cities likeBerlin. Yet, because themiddle class inGermanywasquite conservativeanda largenumberofGermanshadbeenrelativelyprosperousbeforethewar,asocialistorcommunistsystemwasrejectedinfavorofafairlyconservativedemocraticrepublic,calledtheWeimarRepublic.At the same time, Germany was in economic crisis, and Mussolini’s success influencedGermanyinmanyways.TheNationalSocialistParty(Nazis) rose topower in the1920s,ushered inby theworldwidedepression.AsGermany’seconomycollapsedunder theharshreparations dictated by the Treaty of Versailles and the falteringworld economy, Germanpeople increasingly rejected the solutions of the Weimar Republic’s elected body, theReichstag.DuringthisperiodAdolfHitlerrosetopowerasheadoftheNaziParty.LikeMussolini’sfascism,Hitler’sNazisminspiredextremenationalismand thedreamsof renewedgreatnessfor a depressed and divided country. ButHitler’s philosophies differed fromMussolini’s intheiremphasison thesuperiorityofoneraceoverothers.Wellversed insocialDarwinism,HitlerwasconvincedthattheAryanracewasthemosthighlyevolvedrace,andthatinferiorraces,suchasSlavsandJews,had“corrupted”theGermanrace.HearguedthatJewsshouldbedeported(laterthatchangedto“eliminated”)andthatGermansshouldtakeoverEurope.TheNaziPartygainedpoliticalpower in the1920swithHitleras itsguide,or fuhrer.Atfirst,theNazisreceivedvotesdemocraticallyandparticipatedintheReichstag.Intheearly1930s,as theGreatDepressiondevastated theGermaneconomy,Hitler received increasingsupport.Intheelectionof1930,theNaziPartyincreaseditsseatsinParliamenttenfold.By1932, the Nazis dominated German government andmanywho disagreedwithHitler stillbackedhim,thinkinghewasthecountry’sonlyhope.In1933,Hitlerbecamechancellor,orleaderof theReichstag.He thenseizedcontrolof thegovernment,knownunderhis fascistruleastheThirdReich,andsethiseyesonconqueringEurope.

ContrastThem:NationalisminEuropeandNationalisminItsColoniesNationalism was a driving force throughout much of the nineteenth and twentiethcenturies,butithadaverydifferentflavorinEuropeandJapanthaninmostEuropeanandJapanesecolonies.InEuropeandJapan,nationalismfueledextremeracism,fascism,anddomination.Nationalpridebecamealmostsynonymouswithnationalexpansionandconquest of other peoples. In the colonies, nationalism meant self-determination, theabilitytofreethenationfromrulebyanotheranddetermineone’sowndestiny.Nationalpridemeantnationalsovereignty,notcolonialorterritorialexpansion.

Appeasement:“PeaceforOurTime,”orJustWishfulThinking?

In1933,HitlerbegantorebuildtheGermanmilitary.ThiswasaclearviolationoftheTreatyof Versailles—which was specifically intended to limit future German aggression—but theothernationsofEurope,especiallyBritainandFrance, chosenot toobject, fearinganotherwar.Laterthatyear,GermanyagainsnubbedworldopinionbywithdrawingfromtheLeagueofNations.Meanwhile,Spain,whichhadestablishedaparliamentarydemocracyin1931,wasfallingapart following the fallof theSpanishmonarchy. In thesummerof1936,agroupofarmy

officers under the leadership of General Francisco Franco took control of large parts ofSpain.Democraticloyalistsorganizedtodefendthestate,andabrutalanddivisivecivilwarensued.GermanyandItalysupportedFranco’stroops,called“nationalists.”AlthoughFrancowasnota fascist, theGermansand Italiansbelieved that thedefeatofdemocracy inSpainwasastepintherightdirection.FranceandGreatBritain, still scarred from the lossof lifeandmoney in theGreatWar,adoptedanoninterventionpolicyandrefusedtoaidthesupportersoftheSpanishdemocracy.By1939,Franco’stroopscapturedMadridandinstalledadictatorshipinSpainthatmanagedto stay neutral throughout the war that soon erupted in Europe. The message was clear:Germany and Italy were more than willing to exercise their influence and supportantidemocraticuprisings.MeanwhilebackinGermanyin1935,HitlercontinuedhispolicyofrestoringGermanytoitsformerworld-powerstatusbytakingbacktheRhineland,aregionwestoftheRhineRiverthathadbeentakenawayfromGermanyafterWorldWarI.Still, therestofEuropestayedquiet.In1937,heformedanalliancewiththeincreasinglymilitantJapan.Then,in1938,heannexedAustriaandmovedtoreclaimtheSudetenlandfromCzechoslovakia.AttheMunichConference of 1938, which included Hitler, Mussolini, and Prime Minister NevilleChamberlain of England, Hitler was given the Sudetenland, without the consent ofCzechoslovakia,inreturnforthepromisetoceasehisexpansionistactivities.Thisincrediblyoptimistic(somewouldsaystupid)policyisknownasappeasement.Chamberlainagreedtogive Hitler what he wanted as a means of avoiding war, believing German claims that itwould be satisfied with Austria and the northern half of Czechoslovakia and would notexpand further. And Hitler, in fact, did stop his expansion—for one whole year. In 1939,HitlerinvadedtheremainingterritoriesinCzechoslovakia.The rest of Europe was shocked, but they didn’t do anything to kick the Nazis out ofCzechoslovakia.Instead,inMarch1939,whileItalywasinvadingAlbania,BritainandFrancesignedanon-aggressionpactwithGreece,Turkey,Romania,andPolandthatprovidedthatifanyoneofthemwereattacked,they’dallgotowar.Meanwhile,theGermanssignedtheNazi-SovietPactinAugustof1939.StalinandHitleragreed that Germany would not invade the Soviet Union if the Soviets stayed out ofGermany’smilitaryaffairs.Furthermore,thecountriesdeterminedhowEasternEuropewouldbedividedamongthem,givingLithuaniaandeasternPolandtoGermanyandtheremainderofPolandandFinlandandtheBalticStatestoRussia.SoStalingotameasureofsecurity,andHitler got a clear path bywhich to take Poland.With a secure agreementwith the SovietUnion, German forces marched into Poland. Two days later, Britain realized that alldiplomacy had failed and declaredwar onGermany, and France reluctantly followed suit.WorldWarIIhadbegun.

NeedtoReadAboutSomeMoreAggression?HowAboutJapan?Youshouldrememberthatafter theMeijiRestoration inJapan, thecountrykickedout theEuropeansandstartedindustrializingquickly.Youshouldalsorememberthatby1905,theyhadalreadydefeatedtheChineseandtheRussiansinwarsforterritoryinandaroundKorea.

AfterWorldWarI,inwhichJapanfoughtonthesideoftheAlliesandwasthereforeoneofthevictors,Japan’seconomyandmilitaryreallystartedtothrive.In1915,duringWorldWarI,Japansentalistoftwenty-onedemandstoChina,requiringChinatogiveittradingrightsandoutrightcontroloveraspectsofthegovernmentandeconomy,anactthatwasevenmoreaggressivethansomeofthespheresofinfluencethathadbeenestablished(andwerestillineffect)by theEuropeans. In the1920s, the countrybacktrackeda littlebit and focusedoninternaldevelopments,softeningitspositiontowardChina.Butby1930,theGreatDepressionbegantoseverelyaffectJapanandtheJapanesemilitaristsgainedmomentum,claimingthatan empire would pull them out of the economic doldrums. In 1931, Japan invadedManchuria,renamingitManchukuoandestablishingacolonythere.Afterwithdrawingfromthe League of Nations, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact (against communism,specificallyinRussia)withGermanyin1936,therebyformingthebeginningsofanalliancethatwould eventually lead to amore formal one duringWorldWar II. In 1937, Japanesetroops invadedChina,pillaging townsand cities as theymade theirwaydown the easternshore.Oneoftheworstoffenseswastheaptlynamed,“RapeofNanjing,”whereinthecityofNanjingnearly250,000Chinesewereslaughteredinamatterofa fewweeksbyoccupyingJapaneseforces.Japan’swarwithChinaeventuallymergedintotheglobalconflagrationofWorldWarIIthatlaterstartedtoburninEurope.

AQuickReviewofWorldWarII:TensofMillionsDeadHitler’s forceswere devastating. Theirwar tactic, known asblitzkrieg (literally “lightning

war”),destroyedeverything in itspathwithhistoricallyunprecedented speed.Poland’s flatopen plains were tragically well-suited for the German run. The swiftly moving Germanforces acquired somuch territory in thewest of Poland that Stalinwas forced tomobilizequicklylesthelosetheentirecountrytotheGermanReich.Withintendays,GermanyandRussiahaddividedPolandbetweenthem.Hitlerthenfocusedonthewesternfront.Inearly1940, Germany assaulted Holland and Belgium. Two days later, German forces enteredFrance.Withinayear,theAxispowercontrolledmostofcontinentalEurope.HitlerassumedthatGreatBritainwouldcrumblequicklyafter the fallof itsally,France.But a new leader, Winston Churchill, replaced Britain’s more diplomatically mindedChamberlain.Churchillprovedtobearesoluteandfierceprimeminister.HerefusedtocutadealwithGermany, soHitler launchedamassiveairbombingcampaign in1940knownastheBattleofBritain,whichpittedthesuperiornumbersoftheGermanairforceagainstthesmallernumbersoftheRoyalAirForce.TheBritishsucceededinkeepingtheGermanarmyout, andwith their newly devised handy tool known as radar, theymanaged a successful,thoughcostly,defenseoftheisland.In themeantime, Italy attackedGreece butwas unable to defeat the country until April1941, when German armies rushed in to help out. The Nazi-Soviet Pact tacitly gave theBalkan state to Russia, so the takeover of Greece had serious consequences. Now thatGermany had taken control of the Balkans, their previous agreement was moot, so theyinvadedtheSovietUniontooforgoodmeasure,advancingquickly.TheresultingmovementofmenandsuppliesintotheSovietUnionrelievedpressureonthedesperateBritish,theonlyAlliednationstillfighting(otherthantheSovietUnion,ofcourse).Meanwhile in thePacific,Japancontinued itsexpansion inChinaand invadedIndochina(Vietnam).Fortradereasons,theUnitedStatesviewedthisactionashostile,buttheUnitedStatesstilldidn’twant toget involved in thewar, so it frozeJapaneseassets in theUnitedStates and imposed sanctions instead.At the same time, Japan entered into theTripartitePactwithRomeandBerlin,ensuringworldwideimplicationsforawarthathad,upuntilthattime, been two regionalwars. Japan alsomadewar plans against theUnited States if theUnited States refused to lift sanctions against Japan. The United States didn’t, and onDecember7,1941,theJapanesebombedaU.S.navalstationinHawaiiatPearlHarbor.TheUnited States was stunned, and promptly declared war against Japan, and in response,GermanydeclaredwaragainsttheUnitedStates.IttookawhilefortheUnitedStatesandGreatBritaintocoordinatealandattackagainstGermanybecausetheyneededafootholdinEuropefromwhichtobegintheirassault.Inthemeantime, theAllies fought theJapanese in thePacificandGermansand Italians inAfricawhiletheUnitedStatesalsosecretlyworkedonitsManhattanProject—thedevelopmentofan atomic bomb. By 1943, the United States and Britain were ready for their Europeanoffensive,andtheystarteditbytakingcontrolofItaly.Thenextyear,English,American,andCanadianforceslaunchedtheirbiggestoffensive,landingontheFrenchbeachesofNormandyonJune6,1944,whichisnowknownasD-day.WiththehelpofFrenchresistanceforces,AlliedForcesbattledtheirwayacrossnorthernFranceinthesummerof1944andliberatedFrance.OntheoppositesideofEurope,theRedArmywonastunningvictoryagainsttheGermansatStalingrad in1942andadvanced steadilywest for threeyears.ByMay1945, theAllied

forcesclosedinonHitler’stroopsfromtheeasternandthewesternfrontsuntiltheyreachedBerlin,endingtheEuropeantheaterofWorldWarII.Hitlercommittedsuicide.ThewarinthePacificcontinuedtodragonforafewmonths.Atgreatcost,theAmericanforcesdefeatedJapanfromislandtoislandintheSouthPacific.ButtheJapaneserefusedtosurrender, even though their fatewas sealed. Believing that dropping an atomic bomb onJapanwouldendWorldWarIIquicklyandresultinfewercasualtiesthanaprolongedwar,PresidentTrumanoftheUnitedStatesorderedthedroppingofanatomicbombonthecityofHiroshimaonAugust6,1945.Theeventmarkedthefirsttimesuchabombhadbeenusedinwarfare.Theresultwashorrendous.Morethan100,000peoplewerekilledorinjuredandthecitywascompletely leveled formiles.When theJapanesevowed to fighton,PresidentTrumanauthorized thedroppingof a secondbombonNagasaki onAugust 9with similarconsequences.JapanfinallysurrenderedandWorldWarIIwasbroughttoaclose.

TheConsequences:SoMuchChanged!The close of World War II brought with it enormous global changes. Since they are sonumerous,it’sbesttothinkabouttheminbroadcategories.

TheHolocaust Revealed

OutsideofGermany,fewknewjusthowhorribletheNaziregimewasuntilafterthewarwasover.InanongoingslaughterknownnowastheHolocaust,butknowninNaziGermanyas“The Final Solution,” millions of Jews who lived in Germany and German-occupied landswereroundedup,blamedforeveryconceivableprobleminsociety,andmethodicallykilledingaschambersandfiringlines,theirbodiesdisposedofinovensandmassgraves.Asmanyas6millionJewswerekilled,making theHolocaustoneof the largest actsofgenocide inhistory(inaddition,asmanyas6millionPoles,Slavs,Gypsies,homosexuals,disabledpeople,andpoliticaldissidentswerekilledintheHolocaust).Whenthenewsoftheatrocityspreadafterthewar,publicsympathyforthecreationofIsraelasahomelandforJewsrosesharply.Moreonthatlater.

ThePeaceSet t lement

TheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionbecamesuperpowers.GermanywasoccupiedbytheAllies—more on that later too. War crimes tribunals were established to prosecute andsentenceNaziofficials.Japanwasforcedtodemilitarizeandestablishademocracy.Itdid.Italso embraced capitalism and became an economic powerhouse within a decade, but thistimewasfriendlytotheWest.

EuropeTorntoShreds

In addition to a staggering loss of life (the Soviet Union alone lost more than 20millionsoldiers and civilians), the infrastructure and communities of Europe were devastated. Tohelp in the rebuilding effort, the United States instituted theMarshall Plan (named forGeorgeC.Marshall,thesecretaryofstatewhoconceivedofit)in1947.Theplan,inwhichbillionsofdollarsofAmericanmoneywasmadeavailableforreconstruction,wasofferedtoallEuropeancountriesbutonlyacceptedbyWesternEuropeannations.Theplanworked:TheeconomiesofWesternEuroperecoveredinlessthanadecade.

TheDeclineofColonialism

European imperialismwas already on thewane beforeWorldWar II, but thewar affectedattitudes about empire, and inspirednativepopulations to riseupagainst their oppressors.Muchmoreonthedeclineofcolonialismlaterinthischapter.

BigChangesforWomen

JustasinWorldWarI,inmanycountries,womenworkedoutsidethehomeduringthewar,raisingmoney to support themselvesor their families,whilealsohelping thewareffort. InBritainalone,morethanthree-fourthsofadultwomenunderage40wereemployedduringthewar.Afterthewar,manywomenkepttheirjobs,orsoughthighereducation,orotherwisebegantobroadentheirhorizons.

TheCreat ionofInternat ionalOrganizat ions

AfterWorldWar II, theAlliesbelieved that anetworkof international organizations couldreduce the probability that such a great war would break out again. The first of theseinternationalorganizationswastheUnitedNations,establishedin1945toreplacethefailedLeagueofNations.Givenmoremuscle than theLeagueofNations, theprimarygoalof theUNwassimple:tomediate,andifnecessarytointervenein,internationaldisputesbetweennations. As time passed, the UN expanded beyond the realm of political conflicts andincreasinglyinvolveditselfinthemonitoringofhumanrightsandothersocialproblems.Butin addition to the UN, the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and the GeneralAgreementonTradeandTariffs(nowknownastheWorldTradeOrganization),wereformedtocreateandmanageamoreintegratedglobaleconomy.TheAlliesbelievedthatcountriesthatweremoreconnectedeconomicallywouldbelesslikelytoinvadeoneanother.

TheStart oftheColdWar

Althoughtheywerealliesduringthewar, theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionhadverydifferent worldviews. One was democratic and capitalist, the other totalitarian andcommunist. Neither wanted the other to spread its influence beyond its borders, so evenbeforethewarended,theywerestrategizingonhowtocontaineachother.Thisstrategizinglasted for nearly 50 years, and the following section in this chapter explains theconsequences.

C.COMMUNISMANDTHECOLDWAR

TheColdWar lastedfrom1945throughtheearly1990s.Veryfewareasoftheglobewereunaffected.ThetwosuperpowersthatemergedafterWorldWarII,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion,notonlyviedforglobaldomination,butalsotriedtopulltherestoftheworldintotheirstandoff.Everytimeagovernmentinanycountryacrosstheglobechangedhands,theAmericansandSoviets evaluated itbasedon its leanings towardone sideor theother,andinmanycasesactuallytriedtomilitarilyinfluencethepositionitwouldtake.Allofthistook place in the context of an arms race between the two superpowers inwhich nucleararsenalsbecamesomassivethatglobalholocaustbecamepossibleatthetouchofabutton.In1945,noonewouldhavepredictedhowpolarizedtheworldwouldbecomeduringthe

ColdWar,oreventhatacoldwarwoulddevelopinthefirstplace.

PowerGrab:SovietsandAmericansWantEveryonetoTakeSidesAfter Germanywas defeated, the U.S.-Soviet struggle immediately influenced the chain ofevents.Thebiggestconflictwasoverfuturesecurity.Bothsuperpowerswantedarrangementsin Europe that made it more likely for their worldview to dominate. The U.S. promotedcapitalismandvariationsondemocracy.TheSovietUnionpromotedcommunism,which,aspracticed by the Soviets at the time, alsomeant totalitarianism.A good chunk ofWesternEuropewassolidlyintheAmericancamp,butthebiggerquestionwasGermanyandpartsofEasternEurope.According toplansdrawnupby theAlliesduringconferencesatYalta andPotsdam, in

February and July 1945 respectively, Germany and other parts of Eastern Europe weredividedintotemporary“spheresofinfluence,”eachtobeoccupiedandrebuiltbyrespectivemembers of the Allied forces. Germany was divided into four regions, each under theinfluence of one of four Allies: France, Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union.Determined to protect its borders and ideology, the Soviet Union demanded that its

neighboringstates,places likePoland,Czechoslovakia,Hungary,Romania,andBulgaria,beunderitsinfluenceaswell.TheUnitedStateswantedthosenationstohavefreeelections.TheSovietUnion refusedand simply setuppuppet states in those countries.Thiswas the firsthintofthebeginningoftheColdWar.Meanwhile, inGermany in 1948, the French, British, andAmerican regionsmerged into

one, forming a democratic West Germany, while the Soviet Union’s region became EastGermany.Thecapital,Berlin,wason theeasternside,andwithin thatcity,aneasternandwesternzonewerecreated.TheSovietswantedallofBerlintobewithinitscontrol,sotheycut off land access toBerlin from thewest, an actionknownas theBerlinBlockade. TheWestretaliatedbyflyinginfoodandfueltothe“trapped”westernhalfofthecity,anactionknownastheBerlinAirlift.Eventually,theSovietsrelentedandBerlinwasdividedinhalf.In1961,theSovietsbuiltawallbetweenthetwohalves,preventingEastBerlinersaccesstotheWestuntilthewallfellin1989(moreonthatlater).

EastversusWest:Let’sPointOurWeaponsatEachOtherBythelate1940s,EuropewasclearlydividedintoEastandWest,eachundertheinfluenceoftheirrespectivesuperpowers.EastGermany,Poland,Czechoslovakia,Romania,andHungarybecamepartoftheEastern

bloc,alsocalledtheSovietblocorSovietsatellites.Yugoslaviawascommunistaswell,butestablished its own path, having testy relations with Moscow. Western Europe, includingBritain, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway, West Germany, and eventuallyGreeceandTurkey,becamepartoftheWesternbloc.UndertheTrumanDoctrineof1947,theUnitedStatesexplicitlystatedthatitwouldaid

countries threatenedby communist takeovers. This policy is knownascontainment, as in“containing”yourenemy.Tothisend,theWesternblocformedamilitaryallianceofmutualdefensecalledNATO(theNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization).Inresponse,theEasternblocformed amilitary alliance known as theWarsawPact. For more than 40 years, the twoalliancesloadedtheirborderswithweapons,firstconventional,thennuclear,anddaredtheothertostrikefirst.ChurchillcalledthelinebetweenEastandWesttheIronCurtainbecauseWestern influence couldn’t penetrate it and Easterners were rarely allowed to go to theWesternbloc.Asfortherestoftheworld,thetwosuperpowersquicklytriedtoinfluencedevelopments

totipthebalanceofworldpowerintheirfavor.Somecountriesalliedwithonesideortheother (more on this later), but other countries, such as India, refused to take sides andsometimesacceptedinvestmentfromboth,apolicyknownasnonalignment.

Focuson:NuclearProliferationEver improving weapons technology was the force behind political strength in thetwentiethcentury.ThiswastruefromthedevastatedbattlefieldsofWorldWarItothehotspotsandstandoffsoftheColdWar.BeginningwiththeatomicbombsdroppedonJapanin1945,theEasternandWesternsuperpowersracedtodevelopsuperiorweaponsand defensive technologies. Despite attempts to limit nuclear technology to just fivepowers (China, Russia, U.S.A., Great Britain, and France) through the NuclearNonproliferation Treaty (1968) and the watchdog International Atomic EnergyAgencyorIAEA(1957),weaponsdevelopmentcontinuedevenafterthecollapseoftheSovietUnion.Israel, India,andPakistanchosenottoparticipateinthetreatyandnoweachhassomenuclearweaponscapacity.NorthKoreahascontinuedtodevelopnuclearmaterial in violation of treaty terms and both Iraq and Iran have attempted to builduraniumenrichmentprograms.OnlySouthAfricahasvoluntarilydismantleditsnuclearweaponsprogram.

The ColdWar affected different countries in different ways. On the next several pages,you’llreviewhowitimpactedChina,Korea,Vietnam,Cuba,andEurope.

China:CommunistsMakeHugeGainsChinachangeda lotafter the fallof theManchuDynasty in1911.Under the leadershipofSunYat-sen,wholedtheChineseRevolutionof1911,ChinabecamemoreWesternizedinan effort to gain power and boot out the Europeans and Japanese, who had establishedspheres of influence in the country. Sun Yat-sen promoted his Three Principles of thePeople—nationalism,socialism,anddemocracy. ItwashopedthatnationalismwouldunitethepeopleagainstforeigninterestsandgivethemaChineseidentity;socialismwouldleadtogreatereconomicequality, especially land redistribution;anddemocracywould lead to theability of the Chinese people to chart their own future. Although he advocated for ademocratic system, Sun Yat-sen established a political party, theKuomindang (or KMT),whichwasdedicatedtohisowngoals.SunYat-sendidn’tlivelongenoughtoseehisplansimplemented.Hissuccessor,however,ChiangKai-shek, established the KMT as the ruling party of China, but only for awhile.Throughoutthe1920sand1930s,twoforceswreakedhavoconChiang’splans.TheJapaneseEmpire invadedManchuriaandmadeaneffort to takeoverallofChina in the late1930s.Meanwhile,thecommunists,alliedwiththeSovietUnion,werebuildingstrengthinnorthernChina.ThecommunistsjoinedtheKMTinitsfightagainsttheJapanese,butatthesametimewerebitterrivalsoftheKuomindanginthestruggletocontrolthefutureofChina.During World War II, the United States pumped money into the KMT’s efforts againstJapan,whiletheSovietsweren’tasactiveintheirsupportforthecommunists’effortsagainstJapan,partlybecausetheywerefocusedonGermany.Asyouknow,Japanwasdefeated.AsinEurope,afterthewar,thepowersofdemocracyandcommunismclashed,andtheKMTandcommunistscontinuedtofighttheChineseCivilWarforthenextfouryears.By1949,thecommunistsunderMaoZedonghadralliedmillionsofpeasantsinnorthernChina and swept southward toward the Kuomindang strongholds, driving the Kuomindang

farther and farther south until they finally fled to the island of Taiwan, where theyestablishedtheRepublicofChina.TheimpactformainlandChinawasenormous.Itbecamethe People’s Republic of China, the largest communist nation in the world under theleadershipofMaoZedong.ThetwoChinashavebeenseparateeversince,andbothclaimtobethe“real”China.Taiwaneventuallydevelopedintoaneconomicpowerhouse,but it lostits credibility as the trueChinawhen theUnitedNations and eventually theUnited Statesrecognized the People’s Republic of China as China in 1973. Taiwan has rejected China’sefforts toward reunification, but nevertheless the two nations have grown close together,especiallyastheeconomiesofbothnationshavegrownstrongerandstronger.

MaoZedong:HisOwnWay

After the success of the Communist Revolution in China in 1949, its leader,Mao Zedong,collectivized agriculture and industry, and instituted sweeping social reform using policiesthatwerenotunlikeStalin’s five-yearplans.Mostof theseplanswere relatively successful,and China greatly increased its productivity, especially in the steel industry. By the late1950s,MaoimplementedhisGreatLeapForward,inwhichhugecommuneswerecreatedasawayofcatapultingtherevolutiontowarditsgoalofatrueMarxiststate.Inrealityhowever,the local governments that ran the communes couldn’t produce the ridiculously highagriculturalquotasdemandedbythecentralgovernment.Sotheydidwhatanyfearfullocalgovernment would—they lied about their production, leading to the starvation deaths ofnearly 30 million Chinese people. By all accounts, it was more like a Great StumbleBackward.ThesuccessesofMao’sinitiativesintheearly1950swereerased,andagricultureandindustryfailedtoproduceresults.PartoftheproblemwasthattheSovietUnion,upuntilthat time the only foreign supporter of China, pulled away and eventually withdrew itssupport.TheSovietUnionnotonlywantedtheworld tobecomecommunist,but itwantedtheworldtobecommunistunderitscontrol.Chinawasn’tfollowingorders,soSovietsupportforChina cooled. The Sino-Soviet split left China on its ownwith its communal system indisarray.Mao steppedback to focus onbuilding themilitary—something thatwas essential if thecountry couldn’t rely on Soviet support—whilemoremoderate reformers tried to turn thecountry around. The progress was quick and substantial; elements of capitalism wereintroducedintotheeconomyand,in1964,Chinatesteditsfirstatomicbomb,addingtotheglobal arms race that was quickly building around the world. Mao was unimpressed,however.Apurist,Maowasupsetthatthecountrywasstrayingfromitscommunistpath,andso, in 1966, he jumped back to the forefront of his government and promoted his mostsignificantdomesticpolicy,theCulturalRevolution.Mao’sgoal intheCulturalRevolutionwastodiscourageanythingapproachingaprivilegedrulingclass,asitexistedintheWestaswellasamongtheSovietcommunistelite.Toaccomplishthis,Maoinstitutedreformsmeanttoeraseall tracesofaWestern-influenced intelligentsia.Manyuniversitieswereshutdownforfouryears.Thestudentsandfaculty,alongwithother“elites”includingdoctors,lawyers,and classically trained musicians, were sent to work on collective farms for “culturalretraining.”Inaddition,manypoliticaldissidentswereeitherimprisonedorkilled.Whentheuniversities were reopened, the curriculum was reorganized to include only communiststudies and vocational training.During this time,Mao’sLittle Red Book, a collection of histeachings on communism, became a popular symbol of the forced egalitarianism of the

CulturalRevolution.ThewholeplanfailedmiserablyinadvancingChinaeconomicallyorsocially.Bytheearly

1970s, China realized it needed to open itself up to Western ideas. In 1976, the newleadershipunderDengXiaopingquicklychangedtheeducationpolicyandbegantofocusonrestructuringtheeconomicpolicies.

NotetheChange:DynasticChinatoCommunistChinaFormore than2,000years,Confucianismandaclass structuredominatedChina.Withthe Communist Revolution, however, all traces of a class-based system were nearlyerased. Traditional Chinese society valued large families, both because children wereabletohelponthefarmandbecauseConfucianphilosophygaveidentitytopeoplebasedon their relationships—the parent/child relationship was one of the most important.Whenthecommuniststookover,however,theirprogramofcollectivizationmadefamilyfarmsobsolete.Inaddition,communistswerenotsympathetictotraditionalvaluesbasedonreligiousorphilosophicalbeliefsthatcompetedwiththeauthorityofthestate.AsthepopulationofChinacontinuedtogrowdramaticallythroughthelatetwentiethcentury,the communists took apractical approach to theoverpopulationproblemandbeganapropagandacampaignaimedattheuseofcontraceptionandabortion.Bythelate1980s,facedwithever-increasingpopulationfigures,theChinesegovernmentinstitutedaone-child-per-familypolicy.Reactions to thepolicywere severe.Many refused to abidebythe policy in the first place. Others followed the law, but some of them killed theirfirstborn female infants in the hope of getting a male child the second time around.Oppositionbecamemorewidespreadandthegovernmentrelaxeditspolicy. The equality demanded in a classless society resulted in considerable advances forwomen. Husbands and wives were treated equally, at least as far as the law wasconcerned.Womengained the right todivorce theirhusbands.Theyobtainedpropertyrights. They received equal pay for equal work and were encouraged to pursueprofessionalandvocationalcareers.

ChinaLooksWest :LikestheMoney,Not SoSureAbout theFreedom

More recently, China’s economy has been transformed from a strict communist commandeconomy to one that includes elements of free-market capitalism. Deng Xiaoping’sgovernment entered into joint ventures with foreign companies in which the profits andbusinessdecisionswereshared.Inaddition,Dengallowedforlimitedbusinessandpropertyownershiptostimulatehardworkandinnovation.Thereformshavebeenwildlysuccessful.China’s economy is expanding faster thanmostof theeconomiesof theworldand reformscontinue to be introduced slowly,which gives the economy time to adjust to the changes.However, despite the economic reforms, the government continues to remain strictlycommunistinthepoliticalsense,andhasfrequentlyresistedgovernmentandsocialreforms.In1989,onemilliondemonstratorsconvergedonTiananmenSquare,callingfordemocraticreform.InaneventknownastheTiananmenSquaremassacre,thegovernmentsenttroopsandopenedfire.Hundredswerekilled.Today,whileChinacontinuestoreformitseconomy

andisrapidlybecomingamajoreconomicpowerhouse,thepossibilityfordemocraticreformsisstillunknown.

DivisionofKorea:TheColdWarTurnsHotandNowPossiblyNuclearPrior toWorldWar II,Koreawas invadedbyJapanandannexedaspartof the expandingJapaneseEmpire.AfterJapanwasdefeated inWorldWar II,Koreawas supposed tobe re-establishedasanindependentnation,butuntilstabilitycouldbeachievedandelectionsheld,itwasoccupiedbytheSovietUnionandtheUnitedStatesintwoseparatepieces—theSovietUnionnorthofthe38thparallelandtheUnitedStatessouthofit.Thiswasverymuchliketheway that Germanywas split, and, just like in Germany, the two superpowers couldn’tagreeonthetermsofaunitedKorea.In1948, twoseparategovernmentswereestablished—aSoviet-backedcommunist regime

inNorth Korea and aU.S.-backed democracy in South Korea. Both superpowerswithdrewtheirtroopsin1949,butin1950,NorthKoreaattackedSouthKoreainanattempttounitethe twonationsunderasinglecommunistgovernment.TheUnitedNationscondemnedtheactionandsoonamultinational force, largelyconsistingofU.S.andBritishtroops,went tothe aid of the South Koreans. The UN forces made tremendous headway under GeneralMacArthur,nearlyreachingtheChineseborder,butwhenitlookedasiftheNorthKoreanswouldbedefeated,ChinaenteredthewaronbehalfofthecommunistNorth.Thetwosidesbattleditoutalongthe38thparallel,eventuallyleadingtoanarmisticein1953.Today,thetwonationsremainseparateandtruetothepoliticalphilosophiesunderwhich

they were formed 50 years ago. The United States maintains a large military presence inSouth Korea, which has become an economic powerhouse. North Korea, meanwhile, hassufferedthroughisolationistandjustplainnuttyrulersandmassivefoodshortages,buthasbuilt up a huge military and acquired the technology to develop a nuclear bomb. It hasalreadydevelopedmissilescapableofdeliveringthosebombstoSouthKorea,Japan,China,orpossiblyevenasfarasthewestcoastoftheUnitedStates.InOctober2006,NorthKoreadeclared its firstnuclearweapons test a success.Western scientistsdoubted their claimsofsuccess, but did confirm that some type of test had taken place. In response, the UnitedNationsimposedadditional,butlargelysymbolic,sanctionsonNorthKoreanimports(thoughChinaandRussiadisagreedwiththepolicy).SixPartyTalks(includingtheU.S.,NorthKorea,SouthKorea,China,Russia,andJapan)resumed,forthefifthtime,andconcludedwiththeagreementthatNorthKoreawastoshutdownitsreactorinJuly2007inreturnforextensivefuel aid. As of 2009, North Korea pulled out of the Six Party Talks for good, and hascontinued its nuclear enrichment program. The failure of the international community toreacharesolutionontheKoreanpeninsulaintheearly1950shascreatedamodern-daycrisisofnuclearproportions.ThesecretivenatureoftheNorthKoreanregimehasmadeitharderforinternationalobserverstogaugethecommunistnation’sintentions,andafterthedeathofKimJong-ilandascensionofhisson,KimJong-un,inDecember2011,itremainstobeseenwhatdirectionNorthKoreawilltakeunderitsnewleadership.

Vietnam:TheColdWarTurnsUglyAfterWorldWarII,theFrenchtriedtoholdontotheircolonyofIndochina,butnationalistsknown as the Vietminh fought them back. By 1954, the Vietminh’s guerilla warfaretechniquessucceededinfrustratingtheFrench,andanaccordwassignedinGenevadividing

thenation—youguessedit—intotwopieces.Thecommunists,undertheleadershipofHoChiMinh,gainedcontrolofthelandnorthofthe17thparallelwhileNgoDihnDiembecamethepresident of the democratic south. Under its new constitution, North Vietnam supportedreunificationofVietnamasacommuniststate.HoChiMinhsupportedcommunistguerrillasinthesouth,andsoonwarbrokeout.FranceandtheUnitedStatescametotheaidofSouthVietnam.HoChiMinhprevented themfromtakingover thenorth,butnotbeforeyearsoffightingledtohundredsofthousandsofdeaths.AsUnitedStatesforcesfinallywithdrewin1975,NorthVietnameseArmyand communistVietCong fighters took control throughoutSouth Vietnam. A peace agreement eventually led to the reunification of Vietnam as acommuniststateundertheleadershipofHoChiMinh.Thelong-rangeimpactwassignificantfor the region, the world, and the United States. The world witnessed the defeat of asuperpowerbyasmallbutdeterminednation.Communismtookamajorstepforwardintheregion. And for the United States, the defeat affected foreign policy for decades, as theAmericanpublicremainedfearfulofinvolvingitselfin“anotherVietnam.”

ContrastThem:High-TechWarfareandGuerillaWarfareHigh-techwarfare,suchasfighterjets,missiles,andtanks,arenotonlysophisticatedandeffective, but also costly and logistically complicated. Generally, nations that havemastered high-tech warfare, like the United States, take months to position theirweaponry and put together a war plan. Once implemented, high-tech warfare can bedevastatingly efficient. Guerilla warfare, on the other hand, is behind the scenes,stealthy,andmuch lower tech. Individualsor smallgroups fight site-to-site,disruptingtheirenemies’supplychains,ortargetingseeminglyrandomsiteswithsmallbombsandmunitions. Each individual attack is generally less deadly, but since the attacks areflexible,random,andhardtopredict,theycanbeveryeffectiveagainstacumbersome,lessflexible,high-techopponent.

TheCubanRevolution:CommunismontheAmericanDoorstepAfterCubawonitsindependencefromSpainduringtheSpanish-AmericanWarof1898,theUnitedStatesremainedinvolvedinCubanaffairsunderthetermsofthePlattAmendment,whichalsoprovidedforthepresenceofU.S.militarybases.Duringthefollowingdecades,theAmericans invested heavily in Cuban businesses and plantations, but those investmentsgenerallyonlymadethewealthyveryrichwithlittleornobenefitforthemassesofpeasants.From1939 to 1959, theUnited States supported theBatistaDictatorship in Cuba,whichcontinuedthepoliciesthatbenefitedthewealthylandowners.In1956,thepeasantsbeganarevoltundertheleadershipofFidelCastro.EventheUnitedStateseventuallywithdrewitssupport of Fulgencio Batista. Using guerilla warfare techniques, the revolutionaries madetremendous advances, and by 1959, Batista fled. TheCubanRevolution was hailed as agreatsuccessagainstadictator.But then, Castro, the great promoter of democracy, took control of the government,suspendedplansforanelection,andestablishedacommunistdictatorship.By1961,hehadseized the industries and nationalized them, and executed his rivals. The United States,concernedaboutthecommunistdictatorshiponitsborders,freaked,especiallywhenCastro

established strong tieswith the SovietUnion after theUnited States imposed an economicembargoonCuba.InanattempttooverthrowCastro,theUnitedStatestrainedandsupportedagroupofanti-CastroCubanexileslivingintheUnitedStates.TheU.S.wasconvincedthataninvasionbytheseexileswouldleadtoapopularrevoltagainstCastro.Butitdidn’tworkoutthatway.In1961,PresidentKennedyauthorizedtheBayofPigsInvasion,notwiththefull force of themightyU.S.military, butwith the small force of Cuban exiles,whowerequicklycapturedaftertheylanded,theirrevoltoverbeforeitbegan.AftertheBayofPigsdebacle,CubaandtheSovietUnionrealizedtheUnitedStatesmighttrysomethingbiggernexttimearound,sotheymobilized.In1962,U.S.spyplanesdetectedthe installation of Soviet missiles in Cuba, and Kennedy immediately established a navalblockade around the island, refusing to allow anymore shipments from the Soviet Union.Kennedymade it clear to theworld that ifmissileswere launched fromCuba, theUnitedStates would retaliate against the Soviet Union itself. The standoff became known as theCubanMissileCrisis.Forthreemonthstheworldwaitedtoseewhowouldbackdown,andon October 28, the Soviets said that they would remove the missiles in exchange for apromisefromtheAmericansthattheywouldnotinvadeCuba.TheAmericansagreedtothesettlement.Thiswastheclosestbrushtheworldhashadwithfull-outnuclearwar.WhentheSovietUnioncollapsedintheearly1990s,theCubanslosttheirmainfinancialbacker.Thiswasahuge lossbecause it amounted tobillionsofdollarsof aid. Still,Castromanagedtohangontohispower,buteconomicconditionsinCubadeterioratedsharplyafterthefallofcommunisminEurope.From2006to2011,FidelCastrotransferredhispowersandresponsibilitiestohisyoungerbrother,Raúl,instages,handingoverfirstthepresidencyandthenhispositionasFirstSecretaryoftheCommunistPartyofCuba,whichhehadheldsince1965.TheelderCastrosteppeddownduetoillnessbuthasperiodicallyresurfacedinvideosdemonstratinghiscontinuedpresenceasapoliticalforceinhisbrother’sregime.

Conflictswith“GoodNeighbors:”ColdWarTensionsandDemocratizationinLatinAmericaDespite independence movements, democratic elections, and developing economies, theUnitedStatesmaintainedaheavyhand inLatinAmericawheneverpossible (remember theRooseveltCorollarytotheMonroeDoctrine?).ButsomeofthiswasalsotheproductofColdWartensions.Marxism’santi-capitalistmessagehadgreatappealinless-developedcountriesandincreasedasU.S.investmentincopper-miningandoil-drillingintheregionintensifiedinthe1920s.RadicalpoliticalpartiesdevelopedinMexico,Peru,Venezuela,Brazil,andmuchof Central America as complaints about imperial policies of the “Good Neighbor” to thenorthincreased.AstheU.S.confrontedtwoworldwarsandtheGreatDepression,however,and Latin America became less of a priority, the region’s nations took the opportunity toexplorealternativepathstoeconomicdevelopment.Thesetookvariousforms:thestabilityofsingle-partyrule(Mexico’sPRI),thebrutalityofmilitaristicleaders(Argentina’sJuanPeron)orthedevelopmentofsocialistdemocracies(NicaraguaandGuatemala).ItwasthelatterthatgarneredthemostattentionfromtheUnitedStates—still inthemidstofanideologicalwarwith the Soviet Union—resulting in U.S.-backed coups, the use of Nicaragua as a stagingground for the Bays of Pigs invasion, and the targeting of the Sandinista guerillas inNicaraguaandElSalvadorduringthe1980s.Perhaps the biggest issues Latin America continues to face are their export economies.

Reliance on products such as coffee, fruit, sugar, and oil has resulted in weak domesticeconomiesand tremendousdebt.Sowhile there isa longhistoryofdemocracy throughoutthe region, the lag in economic development, increasing debt payments from loans datingback to1970sand1980s,andout-migrationcontinue tochallenge theregion.However, inthefirstyearsofthetwenty-firstcentury,therehasbeentremendousgrowththroughoutLatinAmerica. Some is based on rising oil prices, but much can also be attributed to thedevelopmentofnewindustriesandtradeagreements,bothwithinLatinAmericaandwiththeU.S. and Canada. Both Chile and Brazil are among the fastest-growing economies in theworld.DemocracyhasalsotakeninterestingturnsinMexicoandVenezuelainthelastdecade.The

year 2000 was the first time a true multi-party election was held in Mexico since theformationofthestateunderthe1917Constitution.Theopposition,PANorNationalActionPartycandidatewonthepresidency.Mexicohassincehadasecondnationalelectionwithanopposition slate and again, the PAN candidate won! Venezuela, on the other hand, hasamended its constitution to allow its Socialist presidentHugoChavez a third term as thecountryhasnationalizedanumberofindustriesincludingtelephoneandsteel.

Europe:TheColdWarFinallyEnds

During the Cold War, the standard of living in Western Europe improved dramatically,despite economic swings. InEasternEurope,behind the ironcurtain, themassive state-runindustriescouldn’tkeepupwiththeinnovationsintheWest.Agrowingdividebetweenthe“rich”West and the “poor” East was becoming obvious, and as it became obvious to thepeoplewholivedwithintheEasternbloc,theybegantorevolt.The revolt was as much about democracy and self-determination as it was about the

economy.TheSovietUnionwasahugepatchworkofmanydifferentnationalities,manyofwhichwantedtocontroltheirowndestinies.What’smore,anincreasingnumberofpeopleintheEasternbloccountriesthatwerecontrolledbytheSovietUnion,suchasPoland,werealsoitching for democratic and economic reform. By the 1980s, groups of reform-mindedindividualsbeganscratchingthatitch.

Poland:SolidarityGrowsinPopularity

Thedeclineof communismbrought sweeping reform toPolandand its government,whichhadbeentryingforyearstopreventthespreadofanticommunistsentiment.In1980,morethanadecadebeforethefallofcommunismintheSovietUnion,agroupofworkersbegantheSolidaritymovementundertheleadershipofLechWalesa.Thousandsofworkersjoinedastrikeforreformofthecommunisteconomicsystem.Thegovernmentreactedbyimposingmartial lawandarresting LechWalesa, aswell as other Solidarity leaders. Throughout theearly-andmid-1980s,thegovernmenttriedtosuppressSolidarity.Butin1988,thereform-minded Rakowski became the Premier of Poland. Solidarity was legalized and in 1989, amember of Solidarity, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, became Prime Minister in the first openelectionssincetheendofWorldWarII.In1990,theCommunistPartyfellapartinPoland,justasitwasfallingapartthroughoutEasternEurope,andLechWalesawaselectedpresident.Duringthe1990s,theeconomyimprovedswiftlyasPolandintroducedmarket-basedreformsandanewdemocraticconstitution.Polandformallycompletedits integrationintotheWestbyjoiningNATOin1999andtheEuropeanUnionin2004.Quiteachange.

GermanReunificat ion:AllThis,Just toBeBackWhereIt Started

ThedeclineofcommunismintheSovietblocdirectlyledtothereunificationofGermanyasafreemarketdemocracy.EastGermanycuttieswiththeSovietUnionandbegannegotiationswithWestGermany.ManyWesternnations feared thataunitedGermanywould leadonceagaintoanationalisticregime,buttheprospectforpeace,economicandpoliticalreform,andan improved standard of living for the people of East Germany outweighed the concerns.When the BerlinWallwas torn down in 1989, signaling the fall of East Germany, amassexodusofEastGermansfledtotheWest.Businesses inEastGermanycontinuedtostrugglebecause their outdated corporate structures, equipment, andmachinery could not competewiththemoreefficientbusinessesinthewesternhalfofthenation.Unemploymentwashighinbothhalvesofthenewlyunitednation.Yet,thegovernmentdidnotabandonitsambitiousreconstruction program aimed at the modernization of the former East Germany and theestablishmentofnationwidecommunicationandtransportationlines.GermanyhasthereforecontinuedtopressforwardandhassinceemergedasaleadingeconomyinEurope.Justincaseyouhaven’tbeenkeepingtrack,inthelast90yearsGermanywentfrombeing

crushedinWorldWarI,tobeingbuiltupunderfascistNazis,tobeingcrushedinWorldWarII, to being occupied by four former enemies, to being divided in two, to being at theepicenter of the Cold War, to being reunified as a modern, capitalist-leaning, democraticnation.That’ssomeprettyextremehistoricalwhiplash!

TheSoviet UnionCollapses:Glasnost,Perestroika,Kaput

WhenMikhailGorbachevcametopowerintheSovietUnionin1985,heinstitutedpoliciesofglasnost(openness)andurgedaperestroika(restructuring)oftheSovieteconomy.Hemaynothaverealizeditatthetime,buthesetinmotionatidalwaveofchangethathewouldn’t

be able to reverse. Legislation was passed to add elements of private enterprise to theeconomy.NucleararmstreatiesweresignedwiththeUnitedStates.Gorbachevpubliclyandofficiallydenounced theGreatPurge,ahugedealbecause it showed that theSovietUnionwasre-evaluatingitself.Thelistofreformsandchangesgoesonandon,butthebottomlineis thatwithin six years,Polandandother formerSoviet satellitesdeclared their separationfromtheUSSR.TheSovietUnionitselfdisintegratedin1991.Russiabecameitsowncountryagain, while the other parts of the old Soviet Empire, such as the Ukraine, Belarus, andGeorgia,becameindependentnations.SomeobserverswereshockedbythedegreetowhichsomanydifferentnationalitieswithintheformerSovietUnionwantedtoformtheirowncountries,andfurthershockedthatmostoftheshiftsinpowerhappenedrelativelypeacefully.Buttherewereexceptions.Inthesameregion that sparked World War I 80 years prior—the Balkans—nationalistic movementswithin the former Yugoslavia led to “ethnic cleansing” in which Bosnian and AlbanianMuslims were raped and slaughtered by Christian Serbians in what was simply the latesthorrificchapterinacenturies-longregionalandethnicconflict.TheviolenceeventuallyledtotheinvolvementofUNtroopsduringmuchofthe1990s.EveninRussiaitself,nationalistsin different regions, especially in Muslim-dominated Chechnya, want to break away, andhaveusedguerillawarfareandterroristmethodstoadvancetheircause.Duringthe1990s,mostofthenewcountriesintheformerSovietbloc,especiallythoseinEastern Europe, created constitutional democracies with economic systems based onvariationsofcapitalism.Whilethereformmovementshavebeenfasterinsomecountriesthaninothers,andwhilebelieversincommunismmakethemselvesheardandthetransitionfromstate-owned industries to privately owned industries has caused high unemployment andcorruptioninmanycountries,democracyseemstobetakingafootholdintheregion.Thoughmuch isuncertainabout the futureof the formerSovietbloc, a few things canbe said forsure:bytheendof1991,theColdWarwasover,theWarsawPacthaddisbanded,andtheUnitedStatesfounditselfastheworld’sonlysuperpower.

DemocracyandAuthoritarianRuleinRussia(yes,it’sRussiaagain!)Thenew(old)countryofRussiawas(re)formedundera1993Constitution.Although,ithadlostitsSovietsatellitecountries,thisnewRussianFederationwasformidableinsize,plentifulinnaturalresources,andfullofcorruptSovietbureaucratslookingtogetrichunderthenewrules. On paper, the new Russia looks very much like a perfect Federal state with threebranches, checks and balances and an independent court. But in reality, Russia’s abruptintroduction tobothdemocracy and capitalism resulted in a ten-yearperiodof corruption,high-unemployment,deeppoverty,wide-spreadcrimeandanostalgiaforSoviet-stylecontroland discipline. The challenge for Russia’s first president,BorisYeltsin, was to reform thestructures of both state and society. This is an enormous task, requiring completely newsystemsofgovernmentandtrade.Yeltsin actually resigned in 1999 and for the next eight years, former K.G.B. agentVladimirPutin,headedtheRussianstate.Hewaselectedpresidenttwice,in2000and2004,andwasappointedPrimeMinisterin2008bythenewlyelectedpresidentDmitryMedvedev.This new style ofRussian democracy has beenmarked by corruption and an authoritarianstrengtheningoftheexecutivebranch,limitsonoppositioncandidates,andacrackdownonafreepress.Inamovethatalarmedinternationalobservers,Putinannouncedin2011thathe

would run fora thirdpresidential term in2012, stretchinghis leadership to16years (andperhaps beyond?). Despite some protests in Russia, Putin defeated several challengers inMarch2012 to return to thepresidency.Russia’s twenty-first-centuryeconomicgrowthhasbeenconsiderable,helpedbytherisingpriceofoil(soldatgreatprofittowesternEurope),but old habits die hard and conflicts with the U.S. continue over plans for expansion ofNATO,theplacementofmissilesineasternEurope,andthesaleoftechnologytoIran.

ContrastThem:“West”and“East”DuringtheColdWar,thetwotermswerefrequentlyusedtodescribemuchoftheworld,especiallythenorthernhemisphere.The“West,”ledbytheUnitedStates,wasgenerallydemocratic,generallycapitalist,andgenerallyprosperous.The“East,”ledbytheSovietUnion,wascommunist,generallytotalitarian,andgenerallysubstantiallylessprosperousin terms of per capita standard of living. Japan, incidentally,was part of the “West,”because after World War II it developed along pro-Western, capitalist, generally pro-democracy lines.After the fallofcommunisminmostof theworld in theearly1990s,thetermsbegantolosetheirrelevance.Abipolardescriptionnolongerseemedtofitthecomplexities.TheWestgrewdramatically,but shouldRussiabeconsideredpartof the“West”?Clearly,most of its former satelliteswanted to be considered as such.What’smore, China, still communist, is transforming its economy and possibly irrevocablyopening up its doors to the world, a movement called “Westernizing” but so far notleadingtodemocraticreforms.Asforthe“East,”nobody’ssurewhatthatrefers toanymore.Today,anew,perhapsoverlygeneraldivisionbetweenthe“WesternWorld”andthe“IslamicWorld”isbeingusedtodescribeworldrelations.

D.INDEPENDENCEMOVEMENTSANDDEVELOPMENTSINASIAANDAFRICA

AfterWorldWarII,awaveofindependencemovementsmarkedthebeginningoftheendofEuropeanimperialism.InanerawhentheUnitedStatesandWesternEuropewerefightingaColdWar in part to defend people’s right to choose their own futures (self-determination)underdemocraticsystems,itbecamedifficultforWesterncolonialpowerstoreconciletheirpost-World War II principles with their imperialist policies. More importantly, it wasincreasinglydifficult for the subjugatedpeoples to tolerate their treatment, so they roseupanddemandedindependence.

TheIndianSubcontinentAftertheIndianNationalCongress,amostlyHindupoliticalparty,wasestablishedin1885toincreasetherightsofIndiansundercolonialrule,andthentheMuslimLeaguein1906toadvancethecausesofIslamicIndians,ittookyearsformomentumtobuildintoanorganizedresistancetocolonialpower.In1919,theAmritsarmassacrecatapultedthemovement.In Amritsar, 319 Indians, some Hindu and some Muslim, were slaughtered by BritishGeneralDyerduringapeacefulprotestinacitypark.Theywereprotestingthearrestoftwoof their leaders who also were doing nothing other than protesting, were unarmed, andentirely surprisedby theattack.Because theparkwaswalled, therewasnoway toescape

fromtheattackers.Byallaccounts,theslaughterwasunprovokedandentirelyunwarranted.Whennewsofthemassacrespread,Indiansjoinedtheself-rulecausebythemillions.Itwasnowafull-fledgedmovement.Duringthe1920s,MohandasGandhibecame themovement’smost importantvoiceandorganizedhugeprotestsagainstcolonialrule.Gandhi’sphilosophyofpassiveresistance,orcivildisobedience,gainedpopularsupportinthestruggleagainstBritishcolonialrule.Insteadoffightingwithweapons,Gandhi’sfollowersstageddemonstrationsandrefusedtoassistthecolonial governments. This includedmassive boycotts of British imperial goods as well asstrikes,suchaswhenhundredsofthousandsofworkersrefusedtoactaslaborfortheBritishcolonialgovernment’ssalt factories.Gandhi’snonviolentteachings,andhissuccess,becameenormouslyinfluential.TheyalsopartlyinspiredthecivildisobedienceoftheU.S.civilrightsmovementsledbyDr.MartinLutherKingJr.At thesametime, therewasan increase inviolencebetweenHindusandMuslims.Whilebothgroupsworked togetherpeacefullyagainst theBritish, radicalmembersofeachgroupfoundithardtotoleratetheother.ThisdisturbedGandhi,whowasraisedHindubutyearnedformutualrespectamongpeopleofbothreligions.Inthelate1920s,GandhibegantocallforIndianunityabovereligiousconsiderations. Instead, theMuslimLeagueactivelypushedforthecreationofaMuslimnation,andevenbouncedaroundanamefortheirfuturecountry:Pakistan.

IndependenceWon:Nat ionsTwo

AfterWorldWarII,BritainfinallygrantedindependencetotheIndiansubcontinent.Thelongand relativelynonviolent struggle for independencehad finallypaidoff. The terrible ironywas that once independence was granted, the real bloodshed began. Radical Hindus andMuslimsstartedkillingeachother.There were two schools of thought regarding the newly independent subcontinent. Thefirst,promotedbyMohandasGandhiand,atfirst,theBritish,calledfortheestablishmentofaunitedIndiawherebothHindusandMuslimscouldpracticetheirreligions.Thesecondwasamovement byMuhammad Ali Jinnah, whose aim was to partition the subcontinent andformaseparateMuslimnationinthenorthernregion,whereIslamhadbecomethedominantreligion. The British eventually were convinced that a partition would save lives byseparatingpeoplewhoseemedintentonkillingeachother,sowhentheBritishturnedoverthereignstonewleadersofindependentIndiain1947,itseparatedthecountryintothirds:IndiainthesouthandPakistanintwoparts,onetothenorthwestofIndia(Pakistan)andtheothertotheeast(EastPakistan,currentlyBangladesh).Both parts of Pakistan were Muslim, while India was predominately Hindu, althoughofficiallysecular.Theresultwaschaotic.Millionsofpeoplemovedorwereforcedtofleedueto religiously motivated violence. Essentially, India and Pakistan exchanged millions ofcitizens,with practitioners of each religionmoving to the nationwhere their religionwasdominant.Gandhi’sworstnightmareswererealized.Nearlyhalfamillionpeoplewerekilledastheymigratedtotheirrespective“sides.”Themoveofsomanypeoplealongreligiouslinesonly served to create an international conflict between Pakistan and India.Within a year,Gandhi himself was assassinated by a Hindu who was upset with Gandhi’s secularmotivations. Today, the two nations are still fighting, especially in Kashmir along theirborders, where religious self-determination still remains the big issue. What’s more, both

countrieshavesincebecomenuclearpowers,and2008sawasignificantincreaseinterrorismbetweenthetwonationsasPakistanbecamelessstable.

AfricaAfterWorldWarII,Africannationsalsobegantoasserttheirindependence.TheywerepartlyinspiredbyeventsinIndiaandtherestoftheworld,buttheywerealsomotivatedbythewaritself. Hundreds of thousands of Africans fought for their colonial powers during thewar.Manyofthemfeltthatiftheywerewillingtodiefortheirgoverningcountries,thentheyhadearnedtherighttolivefree.Other than South Africa,which had been independent beforeWorldWar II, the nationsnorthof the Saharawere the first colonies towin independence.Thesenationshad strongIslamicties,andthemostlyMuslimMiddleEasthadalreadywonitsfreedominthedecadesprior(moreonthatlater).Egypt,too,hadwonitsindependenceearly,in1922,althoughitkeptextremelyclose ties toBritain. In the1950s,as the independencemovementgatheredsteam in Africa,Gamal Nasser, a general in the Egyptian army, overthrew the king andestablishedarepublic.Henationalizedindustries,includingtheSuezCanal,andthenbecameembroiledinMiddleEasternconflicts.Nasser’sactionsemboldenedotherIslamicnationaliststoseekindependence,andsoontheAfricannationsalongtheMediterraneanwerefree.SouthoftheSahara,independencewasatrickierissue.Theproblemwasthatwhilenearlyeveryonewantedindependence,mostofthecolonieshadbeenrapedoftheirresources.Therehadbeenlittleinvestmentinhumanbeings.ThevastmajorityofAfricanswereuneducated,or only educated through grammar school.Unlike in India,where a substantial number ofupper-caste Indians were highly educated and even attended universities in Britain, manyAfricannationshad fewnativeswhowere skilledprofessionals:doctors, scientists, lawyers,diplomats,businesspeople.Thismeantthatoncethecolonialpowersleft,therewouldbefewpeople leftwith the education and skills to immediately take charge and begin to build aproductive,self-sufficientsociety.Asmentionedinthepreviouschapter,nationalunityamongthenativeswasalsohardtofoster because the boundaries of so many African colonies had been drawn according toEuropeanneeds,andtooknoaccountofAfricanhistoryorneeds.Africanswithinthesamecolony spoke different native languages and had differing, sometimes opposing, customs,histories, and loyalties. For all of these reasons, even after attaining their hard-wonindependence,manyAfricannationsstruggledtobuildstrong,stable,independentcountries.Decolonization and nation building occurred in a variety of ways across Africa. TheAlgeriansfoughtabitterwarforindependencefromFrance(1954–1962)whileintheearly1960s Nigeria and Ghana negotiated their freedom into a Parliamentary governing styleborrowed from England, but after a series of military coups, have adopted presidentialsystems.Kenya, under the leadership of JomoKenyatta, negotiated their constitutionwithGreatBritainafterabrutalcrack-downengineeredbycoffeeplantersunwillingtolosesuchprofitable property. Others, such as Angola and Belgian Congo, overthrew colonialgovernments, only to become involved embroiled in civil wars or in Cold War tensions.Zimbabwe was among the last to establish African majority rule in 1980 (see followingsectiononSouthAfrica).Fifty-three ofAfrica’s 54nations belong to theAfricanUnion, a political and economicconfederation formed in 2001 to replace theOrganizationofAfricanUnity orOAU. But

success and stability is not guaranteed for any of these nations. Chad, Sudan, Uganda,Somalia, andRwanda (see on the next page) aswell as the newly renamedDemocraticRepublicofCongo(formerZaire)havebeenwrackedbyon-goinganddevastatingcivilwarssince the turn of the twenty-first century. Attempts to form stable democracies have beenthwartedbyareversionto“bigman”politics,corruption,militarycoups,andescalatingdebtpayments (to IMF and World Bank—see Alphabet Soup later in chapter). Even relativelystablegovernmentssuchasKenya’shaveseenpoliticalviolenceescalateinrecentyears.Economically,mostofAfricaisstillrichinnaturalresources,albeitdifferentonesthanthe

colonial powerswere interested in. Palmoil and rubberhave givenway topetroleumandmetals including nickel, cadmium and lithium—prized for batteries to power cell phone,laptopcomputers,andhybridcars.Sotheformercolonialpowersplussomenewindustrialplayers(China!)remaininterestedandinvestedinthenationsofAfrica.

NotetheChange:GlobalizationandtheRiseofNGOsNGOs, ornongovernmental organizations, have become an ever-increasingpresence inour modern world. NGOs are typically private, often nonprofit, agencies that providereliefservicesand/oradvocacyforgroupsthataregenerallynotservicedorrepresentedby their governments. Some familiar examples of NGOs include the InternationalCommittee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Doctors Without Borders, Amnesty International,and even the American Civil Liberties Union. It is often NGOs that lead relief effortsfollowing natural disasters and duringwars, particularly to countries and peoplewhocannot afford to pay for such efforts. Organizations such as theWorld Wildlife Fundprovide advocacy for the world’s animals, which of course do not have anyrepresentation in the world’s governments. But why havemost of these organizationsformedonlyintheyearssinceWorldWarII?Well,themajorinternationalgovernmentalorganizations that formed afterWorldWar II, such as the UN andWorld Bank, werecriticizedforonlyrepresentingtheinterestsoftheworld’swealthierandmorepowerfulnations(astheyhadbeencreatedbythevictorsofthewar),andsomanywell-meaningindividualsformedprivatecompaniestofillneedsthatwerenotbeingmetbytheworld’sgovernments.Globalization,whichhas increasinglymadeiteasier tocommunicateandtravelaroundtheworld,hasnotonlymadeiteasierforNGOstoprovidetheirservicesonaglobalscale,buthasalsomadeitmucheasierforthemtoraisethemoneyneededtofundtheiroperations.

Rwanda:EthnicGenocide

The difficulties of establishing stable nations in Africa are exemplified by the situation inRwanda.Ethnicstrife,genocide,andhumanrightsviolationsinRwandastemfromconflictsbetweentwogroups:theTutsi(15percentofthepopulationinRwanda)whogovernedtheHutu(85percentofRwanda)duringGermanandBelgiancolonialoccupation.Belgianruleinparticularexacerbatedinterethnictensions,settingthestageforbloodshedassoonascolonialauthoritieswithdrew.UponRwanda’s independence in1962, theHutu revoltedagainst theTutsileadership,leavingthousandsdeadandthetwogroupslockedinbitter,bloodyconflict.In1973,amilitarycoupbyJuvenalHabyarimanaunseatedthegovernmentandeventually

establishedaone-partyrepublicin1981.Themilitarygovernmentworkedtokeeppeacebutencountered only modest success. That, too, was destroyed when Habyarimana’s personalairplanewasshotdownoverhispresidentialpalacein1994,assassinatingtheHutugeneral.Almostimmediately,conflictescalated,withtheHutuneedinglittleencouragementtoexactrevenge on the Tutsi population whose leadership they blamed for the assassination. Onehundreddaysofgenocideleftasmanyas800,000Tutsidead,andbythefollowingyearmorethan2millionmostlyHuturefugeesweresentorfledtoneighboringZaire,wheremanydiedfrom disease. Because the entire country has only 7 million people, the genocide anddisplacementinRwandaranksamongthemostdevastatinginrecenthistory.

CompareThem:IndependenceinAfricaandIndiaBothIndiaandAfricasuccessfullygainedindependenceintheyearsfollowingWorldWarII, and both areas were tragically torn apart by ethnic and religious strife shortlyfollowing independence. In India, the tensions between Hindus and Muslims, whichexisted before the British colonized the subcontinent, re-emerged as they departed. InmanyAfricannations, independence servedonlyasanopportunity for long-held tribalhatredstoresurfaceinpowerstruggles.Thecolonialpowers,ofcourse,werenobetter.Theyhadbeenkillingeachotherforthousandsofyears.Itisamistaketothinkthatthecolonialpowersassimilatedthenativepeoplesentirelyorcompletelyeradicatedtheunderlyingcultures.Whilethere’snodoubttheyrapedthecolonies of their resources and in many cases ruthlessly subjugated the natives, theycouldn’t erase the native people’s memories. Even after generations of colonial rule,Africansrememberedoldrivalriesandhatredsand,inmanycases,actedonthem.

DevelopmentsinSouthAfrica:TheRiseandFallofApartheid

The year after the South Africa Act of 1909, theUnion of South Africa was formed bycombiningtwoBritishcolonieswithtwoDutchBoerrepublics,andalthoughtheBritishandDutchcolonistsweregivenconsiderablerightstoself-government,blackpeoplewereentirelyexcluded from the political process. In 1923, residential segregation was established andenforced.In1926,blackswerebannedfromworkincertainskilledoccupationsthatwhiteswantedforthemselves.WhenSouthAfricawonindependencefromBritainin1931,theracialpolicies didn’t improve. In fact, a system of apartheid (“separation of the races”) wasestablishedinSouthAfricain1948asanall-encompassingwayofdividingblack(80percentof thepopulation)andwhite.By the late1950s,apartheidwasextended to thecreationofhomelands,areasofthecountrythatwere“setaside”forblacks.Thehomelandswereintheworstpartofthecountry,andcomprisedlessthan15percentofthenation’sland.Thewhiteswere given the cities, the resource-richmines, and the best farmland.While many blackswere compelled to move to the homelands, others stayed in the cities, where they weresegregatedintoblackslums.IfthisstartstosoundlikeDistrict9(2009),there’sareasonasci-fimovieaboutsegregatingalienswassetinSouthAfrica.Inresponse,theblackcommunityorganized.Inthe1950s,NelsonMandelabecameleader

oftheAfricanNationalCongress,anorganizationdeterminedtoabolishapartheid.Atfirst,

he advocated peaceful protest, following the example of Gandhi. But in 1960, after theSharpeville massacre in which 67 protesters were killed, the African National Congresssupportedguerrillawarfare.AtSharpeville,blackswereprotestingapolicythatforcedthemtocarrypassestobeinthecitiesinordertogototheirjobs.Thepasseswereissuedatplacesofemployment.Thismeantthatifyouworkedandyourwifedidn’t,youcouldn’tgointothecity with her because she wouldn’t have a pass. The massacre rallied the anti-apartheidmovement. Mandela was arrested in 1964 for his role in anti-apartheid violence andsentencedtolifeimprisonment.After decades of increasing pressure from the black majority and the international

community, SouthAfrica finally releasedMandela in 1990 and agreed to negotiate on thepolicy of apartheid. The government more than negotiated, it crumbled. In 1994, afterapartheidwasabolished,Mandelawaselectedpresidentinthefirstfreeandopenelectioninthenation’shistory.

TheMiddleEastAfterthefalloftheOttomanEmpireandthecreationofthemodernnationofTurkeyatthecloseofWorldWar I, theMiddleEast,whichwas largelycomprisedofoldOttoman lands,was temporarily put under the control of the League of Nations. As if the two Europeanpowerhousesdidn’talreadycontrolenoughof theworld,Francewasput inchargeofSyriaandLebanon,whileBritaingotPalestine,Jordan,andIraq.Persia(Iran)wasalreadycarvedupintospheresofinfluencebetweenBritainandRussiaduringthenineteenthcentury.AsforArabia,itunitedasaSaudikingdomimmediatelyfollowingthefalloftheOttomanEmpire.TheMiddleEastduringthetwentiethcenturyiscomplicatedstuff,butagoodchunkofthe

essential information involves the creation of themodern nation of Israel, so that’swherewe’llstart.

Israel:BalfourDeclaresaMess

Ifyourememberwaybackfourchaptersago,theHebrews(Jews)occupiedlandsinPalestineat the time of the ancient Roman Empire. As is the case everywhere else on the globe,betweenthatchapterandthischapteraseriesofconquestsshiftedpowerovertheregionamind-numbingnumberoftimes.WhileafewJewsmanagedtostayintheregion,mostboltedforEuropeorotherareasasPalestinebecameincreasinglyentrenchedinIslam.Allthewhile,however,manyJewshadwantedtoreturntowhattheybelievedwasthe“promisedland.”Butinthemeantime,generationaftergenerationofMuslimPalestinianshadmadethatlandhome.During World War I, Zionists (Jewish nationalists) living in Britain convinced Arthur

Balfour,Britain’sforeignsecretary,thataJewishhomelandinPalestinewasbothdesirableand just. He issued what became known as the Balfour Declaration of 1917, whichexplicitly stated the right forahome inPalestine for theJewishpeople,buthealso statedthatitshouldinnowaydisplacethePalestinianswhocurrentlylivedthere.Ashistorywouldhaveit,BritaingainedcontrolofPalestinein1920asamandatefromtheLeagueofNations—whichmeantthatitwastogovernonbehalfoftheLeagueofNations—andwasthereforeinapositiontomakegoodonitsdeclaration.But the declaration was messy because it essentially provided that the Palestinians and

Jewsweretodividelandthattheybothclaimed.Notlongafter,manyJews,mainlyRussianJewsfleeingviolent,anti-Semiticmobs(pogroms),beganstreamingintoPalestine.Astheirnumbers grew, thePalestinians started to getuneasy. In the1930s,hugenumbersof Jewsflooded theregion toescapeGermanyasHitlercame topower.By thebeginningofWorldWarII,nearly500,000JewshademigratedtoPalestine.WhilePalestiniansstilloutnumberedJews, theJewishpopulationwasnow largeenough topull some seriousweight, especiallybecausemoneywaspouringintotheregionfromJewishcommunitiesworldwide.

TheJewishWait foraStateEndsin1948

In1948,theUnitedNations(whichhadreplacedtheineffectualLeagueofNations)officiallycreatedtwoPalestines,oneforJewsandtheotherforMuslims(Palestinians).Soundfamiliar?It should. The same arrangement was made with India and Pakistan. The Indians andPakistanishavebeenfightingeversince.Thisshouldgiveyouaclueforwhat’scominginthenextparagraph.As soon asDavidBen-Gurion, the first primeminister of Israel, announced the official

creationoftheJewishhomelandonMay14,1948,MuslimsfromsixArabcountriesattackedIsrael inwhat became known as the1948Arab-IsraeliWar. But the Israelis shocked andawedthemwiththeirquickorganizationandmilitarycapability.Withinmonths,theIsraeliscontrolledmostofPalestine,includingthePalestinianparts,whileJordanheldtheremainingportions(theWestBank).Suddenly,Palestinianswerewithoutahome.Theyhadnolandtocalltheirown.AsJews flocked to Israel fromallover theworld, IsraelandArabcountriescontinued to

haveskirmishes.In1967,theamazinglyshortSixDays’WarresultedintotalvictoryfortheIsraeliswhotookcontroloftheWestBankfromJordan,theSinaiPeninsulaandGazaStripfromEgypt,andtheGolanHeightsfromSyria.WiththeWestBankcamecontrolofthecityof Jerusalem, Judaism’s historical homeland. However, Muslims throughout the regionresentedIsraelicontroloftheDomeoftheRock,areveredIslamicshrinedatingbacktotheAbbasidcaliphatewhichisalsothesiteoftheTempleMount,animportantJewishhistoricalsite.TheterritorialgainsresultedinnewwavesofPalestinianrefugeestoJerusalem.In1977,Israeli Prime Minister Begin and Egyptian President Sadat signed the Camp DavidAccords,anagreementthatdidnotmentionGolanHeights,Syria,orLebanon,butwhichledtoIsraelpullingoutoftheSinaiandEgyptbecomingtheonlyArabcountryyettorecognizeIsrael’srighttoexist.ThiswasahugeblowtothePalestiniansandotherArabnations.Sadatwas assassinated and the lands gained in the Six Days’ War remain some of the mostcontestedintheregion.In the years since, the Israelis and the Palestinians have been fighting over the Israeli

occupation of the West Bank, Golan Heights, and Gaza Strip. The Palestine LiberationOrganization(PLO),agroupdedicatedtoreclaimingthelandandestablishingaPalestinianstate,hassofarbeenunsuccessfulinnegotiatingahomeland.Theeffortsarecomplicatedbythe intifada (uprising), an on-again off-again movement that sometimes uses terrorismagainstIsraelicitizensinanattempttoeitherdestroyIsraelorforceitintowithdrawalfromtheoccupiedterritories.In2000,anew intifada reignitedviolencebetweenPalestiniansandtheoccupying Israeli

forces.Assuicidebombingsbecamemorefrequent,newlyelectedIsraeliprimeministerArielSharon approved theconstructionofawall tobebuiltbetween thePalestinianWestBank

and Israel inorder toprotect Israelis against suicideattacks.Often compared to theBerlinWall, Israel has been criticized by the international community for employing such adraconianmeasuretofightterroristattacks.Not limitingitself tocriticism,however, in2003theinternationalcommunity, ledbythe

United States, the European Union, the UN and Russia, proposed a “Roadmap to Peace,”which outlined a set of goals to achieve peace in the region. Progress on the Roadmapremained stalled until the death of Palestinian president (and former PLO leader) YassirArafat in November 2004. Arafat had been consistently blamed by Israel and the UnitedStatesforblockingsuchprogress.FollowinghisJanuary2005election,PalestinianpresidentMahmoudAbbas quickly signed a cease-firewith Israel that effectively ended the intifadathatbeganin2000.Undera“disengagementplan”adoptedbytheIsraeligovernment,allIsraelisettlerswere

supposedtohavevacatedtheGazaStripbyAugust2005.Residentsof thesettlementswhodid not leave were forcibly removed by the Israeli army, a military action which greatlydividedtheIsraelipublic.AdditionalsettlementsweredisbandedintheWestBankaspartofthesameplan. It is likely,however, that lastingpeacewill remainelusiveuntil the IsraelisandPalestinians can reach agreement on issues such asmovement into and outside of thePalestinian Authority-controlled territories, the disarmament of militant groups, and thepotentialindependenceofaPalestinianstate.The situation ismade evenmore complicated by limited financial stability and political

divisions among Palestinians. The governing Palestinian Authority is divided into twofactions:Fatah,abranchoftheformerPalestinianLiberationOrganization,andHamas.Translating to “IslamicResistanceMovement,”Hamaswas foundedas anoffshootof the

MuslimBrotherhood in1987.Becauseof theiropenwillingness to support terrorist tactics,Hamas is frequently the target of Israeli military attacks. Despite similar goals for aPalestinian state, Hamas and Fatah are deeply divided, and violent clashes occur withincreasingfrequency.Afterthecreationofaunitygovernmentin2006,Hamasledacoupin2007whichconcludedwithaHamas-imposedgovernmentintheGazaStripandaFatah-runWest Bank. Further complicating governance, in retaliation, President Mahmoud Abbas(Fatah)namedSalamFayyadPrimeMinister.HamascontendsthatFayyad’sappointmentisillegitimate, as he was not voted into office. Israel’s current government, led by PrimeMinisterBenjaminNetanyahu, and theUnitedStates showwillingness toworkwithFatah;theUnitedStatesandanumberofEuropeancountrieslistHamasasaterroristorganizationandsodonotnegotiatewiththatparty.Israel’sborderwithLebanonandSyriaisanotherhotspot.Hezbollah,amilitantShiagroup

backedbySyriaandIran,operatesintheregion.In2006,Israellaunchedamajoroffensiveagainst Hezbollah after two Israeli soldiers were captured in Israeli territory. These newhostilitiesthreatenedthestabilityofacountrywhichhadbeenthesceneofintensefightingbetweenSyrian,Israeli,andPLOforcesthroughoutthe1980sand1990s.Syriaiswidelyseentohaveacontrollinghand inLebanesepolitics. In2005,whenPrimeMinisterRafiqHaririwas assassinated, fingers quickly pointed to Hezbollah and Syrian sources. A UN SpecialTribunal was formed to investigate the assassination and the newest announcements statethat findings canbe expected in2015.TheTribunalhas already issuedarrestwarrants forfourHezbollahoperatives.

TheIranianRevolut ion:TheShahGetsShooed

RezaShahPahlavirosetopowerin1925byoustingthethen-rulingshah,whohadallowedPersia to fallunderEuropean spheresof influence.Takinga stance similar to theJapaneseduringtheMeijiRestoration,RezaShahdecidedthatthebestwaytobeattheWesternizerswastojointhem.Iran(formerlyPersia)modernizedslowlyatfirst,butoncetheEuropeansleftafterWorldWarII,theWesternizationeffortsgainedmomentum,andinthe1960s,theshah instituted land reform and education reform, and increased the rights of women,includingtherighttovote.Womenalsopursuedhighereducationandcareers,andbegantoadoptWesterndress.AllofthisinfuriatedmanyIslamicfundamentalistswhowantedtomaketheteachingsoftheQu’ranthelawoftheland.BelievingthattheinfluenceoftheWestwastoostrong,theysoughttoreversetheeconomicandsocialchanges.Othersbelievedthattheshahwasnotreformingenough,especiallywithregardtothepoliticalsystem,whichlackedsignificantdemocraticchanges.Theshahreactedviolentlyagainstdissentfrombothsides,pressingforwardwithhisownmix of social and economic reform even in the face of strong public opposition. WhenPresident Carter of the United States visited Iran to congratulate it on its programs ofmodernizationandWesternization,theIslamicfundamentalistshadhadenough.In1979,theshah was ousted from power during the Iranian Revolution, which sent Iran back to atheocracy led byAyatollah (“Mirror of God”) Khomeini. Iran is primarily Shia, and theayatollahistheShiitecaliph(thiswasimportantduringtheIran-Iraqwar,asIraqwasruledbySunniMuslims).Immediately,modernizationandWesternizationprogramswerereversed,womenwererequired towear traditional Islamicclothingandtoreturn to their traditionalroles,andtheQu’ranbecamethebasisofthelegalsystem.In1980,soonaftertherevolution,IraqinvadedIranfollowingaseriesofborderdisputesbetween the twocountries. Iran’spositionwas further complicatedby Iraqi leaderSaddamHussein’squietsupportfromtheUnitedStates,whichwasstillquitefuriousoverIran’stakingof U.S. hostages during the revolution. Even with some U.S. support, the Iran-Iraq warturned into an eight-year war of attrition with neither side gaining much ground until acease-firewassignedin1988.Since the Ayatollah Khomeini’s death in 1989 (watch out—he was succeeded by thedifferently-spelledAyatollahKhamenei!), Iranhasbeencharacterizedbyapower strugglebetween powerful Islamic fundamentalist clerics and an increasingly vocal reform-mindedand somewhatpro-Westernminority.Most recentlyhowever, Iranhas caused internationalconcern (particularly in the United States) by pushing aheadwith efforts to developwhattheydeemed“peaceful”nucleartechnologies,claimingtheyhavearightasanindependentnationtodevelopsuchtechnologyastheyseefit.AlongwiththeInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency and the European Union, the United States is currently calling on Iran to sign aninternationalagreementlimitingoreveneliminatingitsnuclearprograms.In 2005, Tehran’s ultra-conservative mayor, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, was electedpresident. The American-led war in Iraq that began in 2003, the relationship of Iran andIraq’s Shiapopulations, and Iran’sdevelopmentofweaponsprogramsandnuclear researchhaveonlycomplicatedmattersfurther.

CompareThem:RoleofWomenAfterChineseRevolutionandBeforeIranianRevolutionIntheWest,womenhavebenefitedfromsubstantialsocietalandlegalchanges,butthechangehasbeengradual,overmanygenerations. InChinaand Iran, thechangeswerequick. Within a single woman’s lifetime, she went from an extremely traditional,oppressive society to one in which she could vote (in the case of Iran), dress lesstraditionally, divorce her husband, become educated, and pursue a career. Of course,after the Iranian Revolution, those reforms were reversed immediately. At that point,womeninChinaandIranwereincompletelydifferentsituations.

Oil:EnormousAmountsofGoo

TheIndustrialRevolutionwasahugebonanzafortheMiddleEast.That’sbecausethey’dbeensittingonovertwo-thirdsoftheworld’sknownoilreservessincethebeginningofcivilization.PriortotheIndustrialRevolution,itwasgoo.AftertheIndustrialRevolution,itwasfuel.Asmultinational corporations rushed to theMiddle East throughout the twentieth century toobtaindrillingandproductionrights,MiddleEasterngovernmentslikeSaudiArabia,Kuwait,Iran,andIraqstartedtoearnbillionsofdollarsannually.Butthegooalsomeantthattherestof theworldhadbecomevery, very interested in theMiddleEast, becauseoil allowed theWesttodooneofitsfavoritethings:drive.Thisworldinterestsometimesledtointerventionandwar.Oncetheoil-producingnationsoftheMiddleEastrealizedhowmuchpowertheywielded,

they organized. In 1960, the region united with a few other oil-exporting nations, likeVenezuela,toformapetroleumcartelknownasOPEC(OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries).Withthree-quartersoftheworld’spetroleumreserves,OPECmemberscollectivelycut supplydramatically in the1970s, sending theprice of oil through the roof. Billions ofextradollarsflowedintoOPECmembernations’coffers.NationslikeSaudiArabiausedtheextramoney tomodernize their infrastructures, and spent billions on attempts to improvetheiragriculturalsectors.Sincethe1970s,OPEChasn’tbeenabletokeepitsmembersinline,andisthereforeamuchlesspowerfulorganization,buttheindividualmemberswhomakeuptheorganizationcontinuetowieldhugepowerovertheworldeconomy.

E.GLOBALIZATIONANDTHEWORLDSINCE1980

InternationalTerrorismandWarSinceWorldWarIIandtheformationoftheUnitedNations,therehasbeenincreasedinterestinmaintaining international security. Someof theorganizations that are chargedwith thistaskarefromColdWarera:NATO,theUnitedNations,andtheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency.Others,suchastheInternationalCriminalCourtinTheHague(formedin2002)wereformed to prosecute war crimes and crimes against humanity, no matter who committedthem.Stillothers,includingAmnestyInternationalandNGOs,suchasHumanRightsWatchandDoctorsWithoutBorders,servetopublicizeissuesthatthreatenhumanhealthandsafetyandprovideaidtothoseinneed.

WarintheGulf:OilandSaddamHussein

IraqinvadedKuwaitinAugust1990undertheleadershipofSaddamHusseinbecauseIraqwanted to gain control of a greater percentage of theworld’s oil reserves. Iraqi control ofKuwaitwouldhavenearlydoubledIraq’soilreservesto20percentoftheworld’stotal,andwouldhaveputit ingoodpositiontomakeadvancesonSaudiArabiaandtheUnitedArabEmirates, actions that would have given Iraq control of more than half of the world’s oilreserves. The world, especially the industrialized West, reacted immediately. In January1991, theUnitedNations,andparticularly theUnitedStates, sent forces todrive the Iraqisout ofKuwait inwhatwenow call thePersianGulfWar. The immediate impact of theirsuccesswastheliberationofKuwaitandthehumiliationofIraq,whichwassubjectedtoUNmonitoring,severelimitationsonitsmilitaryactivities,andeconomicsanctions.Nevertheless,Husseinremainedinpower,andtheUNforceslefttheregionwithoutmovingforwardtoousthim.Husseinheldontohisbrutaldictatorshipforanothertenyearswhilealso,manyargue,ignoring key elements of the peace treaty that allowed him to keep his power after hisinvasionofKuwait.InApril2003,acoalitionofcountriesconsistingprimarilyoftheUnitedStatesandGreat

Britain invaded Iraq to oust Saddam from power. Saddam’s government quickly fell tocoalition forces but Hussein himself was not captured until December of that year.Sovereignty was returned to a transitional government in June of 2004, and a newdemocratically elected government was formed in May 2005. However, since the initialinvasion, Iraq has been increasingly plaguedwith sectional conflicts among Sunni, Shiites,andKurds, theconflictsdefinedbysuicidebombingsagainstcoalition forcesandmoreandmore against Iraqi forces and civilians of rival sects. Even amidst the violence, the Iraqigovernment ratified a new constitution inOctober 2005, followedby a general election inDecember2005,withlegislativeseatsdistributedaccordingto“proportionalrepresentation.”Thissystemallottedpercentagesofseatstowomen,SunniMuslims,KurdishIraqis,aswellastotheShiamajority.DespitedelaysincertifyingtheresultsoftheDecember2005election,thenewlyelectedgovernmenttookofficeinMay2006,withJalalTalabani,whoisKurdish,aspresident,andNourial-Maliki,whoisShia,asPrimeMinister.Thegovernmenthasfacedanumberofchallenges,anditremainstobeseenwhetheritcansuccessfullybringaviolentinsurgencytopeacefulengagementinthepoliticalprocess.EvenwiththeendofU.S.combatoperationsand thewithdrawalofmostcoalition troopsby theendof2011, Iraqmustalsostillcontendwithanumberofopposingdomesticandinternationalinterestsasittriestofindstabilityinitsnewincarnation.

Taliban,AlQaeda,OsamabinLaden

During the early 1980s, the Soviet Union sent thousands of troops to Afghanistan at therequestofMarxistmilitary leaderNurMuhammadTaraki,whohadengineeredamilitarycoup against the previous government. Many Afghans opposed communism and Sovietintervention, however, and soon a massive civil war raged. Some of the resistors calledthemselves “holy warriors” and, with the aid of weapons from the Western powers whosuppliedtheColdWaroneveryfront,launchedguerillaattacksagainstthesuperiormilitarymight of the SovietUnion. As internal problems escalated in the SovietUnion,Gorbachevagreed to withdraw Soviet troops from the region and a peace accord was signed. WhilecommunismfellapartintheSovietUnionandEasternEurope,theproblemsinAfghanistan

continued.ThedeclineofcommunismremovedtheSovietthreat,butwarringfactionsviedtofillthepowervoid.Thepowerthatfinallytriumphedafter14yearsoffightingandmorethan2milliondeaths

wascalledtheTaliban,anIslamicfundamentalistregimethatcapturedthecapitalofKabulin1996.ThenewgovernmentimposedstrictIslamiclawandsevererestrictionsonwomen.ItalsoprovidedsafehavenforOsamabinLaden,theSaudileaderofaninternationalterroristnetwork,knownasAlQaeda,whichhasaseriousdistasteforSaudiArabiaandtheUnitedStates.It’sbelievedthatAlQaeda’smainissuewithSaudiArabiaisthattherulingfamilyistoo cozy with the United States and that they have allowed U.S. troops to remain in thecountrysincethePersianGulfWar,whichamountstothepresenceofinfidelsinakingdomthat ishometoIslam’smostholysites.AlQaedadespises theUnitedStates forwhatmanybelieve are at least three reasons. First, the United States supports Israel, which theorganizationwould like to see removed from theplanet. Second, ithas troops stationed inSaudi Arabia, and third, theUnited States is the primary agent of globalization, which AlQaedabelievesisinfectingIslamicculture.OnSeptember11,2001,AlQaedaoperativesmanagedtotakecontrolof fourAmerican

passengerjetsandflytwoofthemintotheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCity,oneintothe Pentagon in Washington, D.C., and one (presumably unintentionally) into a field inPennsylvania. The towers of theWorld Trade Center fell to the ground, killingmore than2,500civilians.ThedeathsofthepeopleonallfourplanesandthosekilledatthePentagonbringthetotalnumberofcasualtiestoalmost3,000.TheUnitedStatesimmediatelylauncheda war on terrorism, targeting Al Qaeda and the Taliban.Withinmonths, the Taliban wasremovedfrompowerandU.S.andUNforcesoccupiedthecountryofAfghanistan.AlQaeda,ontheotherhand,stillsurvives.Althoughsmallerinscale,suicidebombingandterroristattacks(manylinkedtoAlQaeda

andsimilargroups),continueregularly.TheyareaproblemthroughouttheIsraeliterritories,betweenSunniandShiafactionsinIraq,targetingtouristsinthecitiesofSaudiArabia,Egypt,and Turkey, and among Muslim separatists in Russia. Coordinated attacks occurredthroughoutLebanonin2004and2005,killingtheformerPrimeMinisterRafiqHariri(amongothers),while larger-scale attacks occurred inMarch 2004 on commuter trains inMadrid,Spain, in July 2005 on the London subway system, and the following July on trains inMumbai(Bombay),India.WhiletheMadridattackswereattributedtoBasqueseparatists,theremainderoftheattackswerecreditedtoIslamicfundamentalists.

WorldTradeandCulturalExchangeThe end of the ColdWar removed the last obstacles to true global interaction and trade.Currencieswerenolongertiedtooldalliances,andnewbusinessopportunitiesemerged.Thisderegulation,alongwiththedevelopmentofsystemsofinstantaneouscommunicationsuchastheInternet,resultedingloballyintegratedfinancialnetworks.Commercialinterdependenceintensifiedinthe1980saseasternAsiabegantoflexitsindustrialandcommercialmuscles.Competitionfurtherdroveglobaldevelopments,andregionaltradingblockswerecreated

suchasNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA)intheearly1990s.TheEuropeanEconomic Community (EEC), originally formed in 1957, transformed into the modernEuropeanUnion(EU)tiedtoasinglecurrency,theeuro.Theeaseinwhichgoodsandideasare transported across the world has resulted in cultures being more homogenous and

integrated.Thisdoesnotmeanthatlocalcultureislost,butitdoesmeanthatonecansatisfya craving for a Starbucksmocha latte inside Beijing’s ForbiddenCity. It alsomeans almostinstantaneousaccesstoawiderrangeofmusic,art,literature,andinformation.MuchofthisisfacilitatedbythespreadofEnglishasthelanguageofbusinessandcommunicationacrossthe globe. This began in the eighteenth century with the far-flung colonies of the BritishEmpireandcontinuedwiththeemergenceoftheUnitedStatesasaglobalpowerafterWorldWarII.The European Union or EU was formed to give the United States some economic

competitionbybandingEuropetogetherinasinglemarket.Therealimpetustoexpandthepowers of the EU came in the early 1990s when the collapse of the Soviet UnionsimultaneouslyopenedEurope’sandlefttheU.S.unchallengedastheworld’ssuperpower.In1989,theEUhad12members;by2011,ithad27,ofwhich10wereformerSovietsatellitenations. The EU has three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. Elections are heldthroughoutEuropeevery fiveyears.The formationof amonetaryunion, theEurozone, in1999, ledtoallbut threenations(UK,Sweden,andDenmark)toadoptaunifiedcurrency,theeuro,in2002.While economic integration initially seemed relatively easy and produced a few boom

years,inthecrisisofthelate2000s(whichbeganslightlyearlierinEuropethanintheU.S.),itbecameclearthatstrongereconomiessuchasGermany’shadbornethefreightofweaker,over-extendedeconomiessuchasGreece’s,andby2010,economiccollapseinstatessuchasGreece, Ireland, and Portugal threatened to destabilize the entire Eurozone. This hasprovoked sharp debates about economic integration that have now piled onto existingconcernsaboutpoliticaland judicial integration,puttingnational interestsandquestionsofsovereigntyatstake.

NotetheChange:TheThreatof“McDonaldization”ConsiderforamomentsincethefirstMcDonaldsrestaurantopenedinCaliforniainthelate1930sjusthowfarandtohowmanypeoplethecompanyandthefast-foodculturehascome.Takeaquick jumpover toMcDonalds’websiteandyoucanviewthe listofover100countries inwhichMcDonaldshas restaurants today, includingSaudiArabia,Pakistan, and Egypt. But why point out these Muslim countries? The so-called“McDonaldization”oftheworldcanbeusedasbothanexampleandametaphorforthespreadofwhatispredominantlyaWesternpopularculturetotherestoftheworld.Manycountries, such as India and even China, have embraced the fruits ofWesternization,integrating and assimilating aspects of Western culture into their own. Other groupshowever, including fundamentalistmovements in someMuslimcountrieshave rejectedthis“invasion”ofmodernWesternculture,whichtheyseeasathreattotheirtraditionalIslamicways.Responsestotheperceivedthreatofglobalizationhaveincludedmanyactsof international terrorism in an effort to fight the encroachment of the West assymbolizedbytheinternationalspreadofsuchWesternculturaliconsasStarbucks,Wal-Mart,andDisney.

ToBeRichIsGlorious:TheRiseofChinaandIndia

“SocialismwithChineseCharacteristics”or“ToBeRichIsGlorious”sumupDengXiaoping’splansforChinaafterthedeathofChairmanMao.SincenormalizedtraderelationswiththeUnitedStatesinthe1990sandacceptanceintotheWorldTradeOrganizationin2001,Chinahasbecomeanindustrialandeconomicjuggernaut.Whatbeganwiththecreationofspecialeconomiczonesexemptfromthestrictcontrolsofcommunisminthelate1980shasbecomethe world’s warehouse and discount store! In the last ten years, China’s imports haveincreasedfrom$82billion(1999)to$338billion(2008)builtonawidearrayofeverydayconsumergoods,toysandapparel.ThisnewandprofitableindustrialrevolutionhasfundedabuildingboomthroughoutChina,broughtthe2008OlympicgamestoBeijing,contributedtoa rising and educated middle class, who now shop and eat at 300 Starbucks and 800McDonalds stores.Buteconomic successhasalso led toa crack-downon Internet freedom.Politically,itisprettymuchthesameoldChina.TheCCPallowssomelocalelectionsandtheNewYorkTimesisavailableon-line,butone-partyisclearlyinchargeandwatchingwhatyouGoogle.India,theworld’slargestdemocracyandoneofitsfastestgrowingeconomies,hasspentthe

pasttwodecadesmakingitselfindispensibletothegloballyconnectedworld.In1991,Indiawasbroke,theleadingcontenderforPrimeMinisterhadbeenassassinatedandthecountrydesperatelyneededawaytoreinventitseconomyandindustries.SinceloansfromtheIMFrequired economic reforms and austerity measures, major industries were privatized andothers were publicly traded. India’s greatest advantage is its highly educated and skilledpopulation,yetthefocusontraditionalindustryadvocatedbyGandhihadleftIndiaisolatedand unable to compete globally. The desperation of 1991, at a timewhen technology andcomputerchipindustriesweredevelopinginUnitedStateswasamomentofopportunityforIndian investors and workers, many of whom had migrated to Silicon Valley. Indianentrepreneursbrought thesenew ideasback to Indiancompanies suchas InfosysandTata,developedtechnologytorouteglobalcalls,andbuildontheglobaldemandforsoftware,newtechnology,andsupport.BothIndiaandChinaarenuclearpowerswithtwooftheworld’slargestarmies.Bothare

currently dealing with belligerent neighbors (Pakistan and North Korea), both havecomplicated relationships and history with Western powers, both have yet to deal withtremendous economic inequality and povertywithin their borders, and asmembers of theG20 (seeAlphabetSoup)bothhave figuredout away tokeepgrowingwhilemuchof theindustrializedworldisinaneconomicslowdown.

GlobalAlphabetSoupWithglobalizationof tradecomemanyagenciesandorganizationsdesigned toprotectandfacilitate trade. The earliest of thesewere the InternationalMonetary Fund or IMF (1945)with 185members and theWorld Bank (also founded in 1945). Both organizations wereformed to stabilize world economic relationships and to loan financial assistance whenneeded.Atthesametime,TheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade,orGATT,wasagreedupontoreducebarrierstointernationaltrade.GATTbecametheWorldTradeOrganization,orWTO, in 1994. TheWTOboasts 153member states,most of theworld’s active tradingnations,whoadheretotheWTO’srulesandregulationsregardingtraderelationships.An organization of note is theGroup of Six, orG6, created in 1975 as forum for the

world’smajor industrializeddemocracies. Itsoriginalmembers includedU.S.,GreatBritain,

WestGermany, Italy, Japan, andPoland.Theyhave sincebeen joinedbyCanada in1977,andbyRussia in1997,andarenowknowas theG8.This informal summitof theworld’smostpowerful leadersmeetsannuallytodiscuss issuesofmutualorglobalconcernsuchasclimatechange,terrorismandtrade.InadditiontotheG8,agroupof19nationsplusEUrepresentativesmakeuptheG20or

theGroupof20FinanceMinistersandCentralBankGovernors.Beginningwiththefinancialcrises of the late 1990s, this group represents key industrialized as well as developingeconomies.

EnvironmentalChangeUntil the1980s,environmental issues focusedonlocalizedpollutionorwastemanagement,butalongwithglobalintegrationineverysectorcameglobalenvironmentalconcerns.Mostrecently, theseconcernshave focusedon food,as suppliersbecomeevermoredistant fromtheirconsumersandtradeagreementsopenupsupplyroutes,butsafetyregulationsmaynotfollow.The“green revolution”of the1950sand1960s led to increasedagriculturalproductivity

throughindustrialmeans—chemicalfertilizersandpesticides,biologicallyengineeredfoods,moreefficientmeansofharvesting,andmoremarginallandsavailableforagriculture.Whilethis resulted in inexpensive and plentiful food supplies, it destroyed traditional landscapesincludingrainforestsinIndonesiaandSouthAmerica,reducedspeciesdiversity,andfosteredsocialconflicts thatmightnothaveotherwiseexisted.Ashasbeentruethroughouthistory,marginal lands can not sustain the population increases they initially produce with newindustrial technologies.This is especiallynotable in eastern and sub-SaharanAfrica,wherepoliticalandfinancialmismanagementcontributedtowidespreadfamines inthe1970sand1980s.Bottled water has become ubiquitous and widespread, but water is a crucial natural

resourcethatisoftencarelesslymanagedbycitiesattheexpenseoftheirhinterlands.Thisisnotarapidlyrenewableresourceandneedstoberegulatedfordrinkingandforagriculture.Asimilarpatternisseenwithindustrializedcountriesconsumptionofoil—theywantmoreandtheywantitcheap!Oilfuelsindustry,transportation,andheatingofhomesandbusinesses.Theinsatiableappetiteforoilreservesonthepartofindustrializeddemocraciescanleadtostrange political and economic alliances (see the previous section on the Middle East).Althoughsomeprogresshasbeenmadeindevelopingalternativefueloptions, likeethanol,therearebigdrawbackstothemaswell.Clearly,muchmoreresearchintoviablealternativestofossilfuelisneeded.Finally, a quick note on global warming. It’s getting warmer and human activities,

includingfuelconsumption,heating,andcooling,arecontributingtothis.Whattheresultsofthesewarmingtrendswillbeisuncertain.Onthepositiveside,therewillbelongergrowingseasonsintemperatepartsoftheworld,butthenegativewillbemoreextremeconditionsinmarginalareas—longerperiodsofdroughtinsome,floodinganddisappearanceofcoastlinesin others. The first Earth Summit on global climate change was held in 1992 in Rio deJaneiro.Fiveyearslater,theKyotoProtocolwasanattempttomakeaglobalagreementonways toreduceenvironmentaldamages,butbecause theUnitedStateshasrefused toratifythe Protocol (and Canada denounced it in 2011), it remains controversial and unable tofunction to its full potential. Industrialized nations continue to struggle with balancing

potentialdamagetotheenvironmentwiththegrowthpotentialoftheirbusinesssector,anditis the business of production and consumption that has been of primary importance topolicymakers.

GlobalHealthCrisesWithin globalization efforts, the relief of health crises is a primary focus. Non-profitorganizations like theWHO(WorldHealthOrganization)work to lower infantmortalityaswell as to combat various diseases, such as influenza, which kill millions in third worldcountriesduetoalackofappropriatemedicalcareandmedicine.Thisproblemhasexistedasfarbackas1918,whenafluepidemickilledmillionsacrosstheglobe,butisstillimportanttoday. Recent outbreaks of bird flu and swine flu, two strains of influenza passed fromanimalstohumans,showthatsuchepidemics,especiallyincountrieswithouttheU.S.’shighlevelofsanitation,arestillanissue.AIDSisanothernotableglobalhealthcrisis,especiallyinsub-SaharanAfrica,wherealmost

25percentofadultsinsomecountrieslivewithHIV(thevirusthatcausesAIDS).WhileAIDStreatmentscanhelpthosewiththediseasetoliverelativelynormallives,thereisnocureasyetforthisfatalillness,andonlythoseinwealthiercountriestendtohaveaccesstothemostadvanced treatments. Currently, global efforts to combat this health crisis are focused onprevention,andtheWHOandotherorganizationsareworkingonchangingthesocialnormsand behaviors of at-risk populations, particularly in Africa where the AIDS crisis is at itsworst.Othernotableglobalhealthissuestodayincludediseaseswhich,indevelopedcountries,are

notathreat,suchascholera.Newtreatmentsforcholera,suchasoralrehydrationtherapy,havedrasticallyloweredmortalityratesassociatedwiththediseaseinBangladesh,India,andneighboringcountries.Globalhealthissueshighlightthedisparitiesthat,despitetheongoingprocessofglobalization,stillexistbetweenfirst-world,industrializedcountriesandthosethatarenot.

TheAgeoftheComputerThe single most important technological advance since the 1980s has been the rise ofcomputersand, inturn, the internet.Beginninginthe1970s,newhardwarewasdevelopedby American companies such as Compaq and IBM, which allowed computers to radicallyshrinkinsize(byusingasiliconchiptostoredata).ThePC,orpersonalcomputer,becameareality,sincethisadvancemeantthatcomputersnolongertookupentirerooms.Bythelate1980s, an early version of theWorldWideWeb existed, thoughonly thosewith advancedtechnicalknowledgehadaccess.Inthe1990s,morehomesgotcomputersandcommercialsoftware,suchaswebbrowsers

and the services and programs offered by America Online, introduced the internet to theAmericanpopulationatlarge,transformingboththehomeandtheworkplace.TheY2Kscare,which involved a possible glitch in computers caused by the switch of dates to the newmillennium, pointed out how dependent industry and society were on computers and theinternet.Y2Kdidnotcauseanactualcrisis,andpersonalcomputersandsimilartechnologies,includingcellphones,areallthemorecrucialtodaytothepersonalandglobalbusinesslivesofmany.More recently, socialmedia and the spread of the internet have had huge ramifications

worldwide. Socialmedia, such as Twitter, has changed theway news is reported and hasplayedahugerole inpoliticaldevelopments inMiddleEasterncountrieswhere,duringthe“ArabSpring”of2011,oppressiveregimesinseveralnationsweretoppleddueinparttotheexposure—viasocialmedia—oftheproblemsinthosecountries.Internetcensorshipexistsinmanynations,notablyIndiaandChina,butthistechnologyhasoverallservedtobringpeopletogetherbothinbusinessandinotheraspectsoflife,changingthewaywereceiveournews,take classes, and even shop. One current concern, however, is the growing gap in accessbetweenthose indevelopedandthose inundevelopedcountries,andthe importanceof theinternetandcomputertechnologymayserveasabarriertoglobalizationincountrieswithouttheinfrastructuretojointhis“digitalrevolution.”

IV.CHANGESANDCONTINUITIESINTHEROLEOFWOMENFinally, the upheavals and changes of the twentieth century resulted in really dramaticchanges in women’s social, political, and economic roles. The integration and globalconnectedness of the world made access to education and political freedoms far morewidespread,especiallyamongthemiddleandupperclasses.Changecamemoreslowlytothelowerandworkingclasses,butstillitcame.Politically,womengainedtherighttovoteinmanypartsoftheworldbythefirstquarterof the twentiethcentury.By1930, that righthadbeengainedbywomen inmuchofLatinAmerica,Indian,China,andJapanandmostofEurope.AfterWorldWarII,mostofthenewlyindependentAfricancountriesincludedwomen’ssuffrageintheirconstitutions,anditisonlyinthemostfundamentalistoftheMiddleEasterncountriesthatwomenstilldonothavetheright to vote. However, having the right to vote differs significantly from having theeducation and opportunity to vote. In most Asian and African countries, female access toformalpoliticalpowercontinuestobelimited.Contradictions also exist between theory and practice in communist and formerlycommunistcountries.Undercommunism,everyonewasequal,womenplayedkeyrolesintheCommunist Revolutions in Russia, China and Cuba, and educational opportunities wereopenedespecially inprofessions suchasmedicine.Womenwerealsogenerallygivenequallegal rights including those of inheritance, divorce, and child-rearing.However, in reality,discrimination and gender issues continue. Almost all key positionswithin the Communistpartieswereandareheldbymen.InChina,theone-childpolicyandmandatorysterilizationdisproportionatelyimpactwomenandfemalechildren.State-sponsoredsterilizationwasalsocommoninPuertoRicoandIndia.Additionally,theendofcommunismandthelooseningofeconomicrestrictions,seemstopresentmoreopportunitiesformenthanforwomen.Family structure changed dramatically in the twentieth century, especially in theindustrializedworld.Birth ratesdropped, birth controlwaswidely available, andmarriageratesdeclinedasdivorceandsecondmarriagesbecamemorecommon.Thetwentiethcenturyalso saw dramatic changes in the role of women at work. Beginning with wage labor infactoriesduringtheWorldWars,women’spresenceintheworkforcehasbecomemorewidelyaccepted.Ashift toprofitableindustries inchemicals, textilesandelectronics,hasprovidedfurther economic opportunities for women. By the mid-1980s, education and access inWesternized and industrialized countries allowed women to participate fully in the workforce.Butwomeninagriculturaleconomiescontinuedtohavetheirlaborunder-enumerated

andthroughouttheworld,women’spayhasyettofullyequalthatofhermalecounterparts,nor are women compensated for the time they spend on a “second shift” as primarycaregiversofyoungchildren.

V.PULLINGITALLTOGETHERYou’ve read about a lot of stuff in this chapter. Two world wars. A cold war and all itsconsequences. The end of European imperialism. The rise of the United States as asuperpower. Islamic fundamentalism in theMiddleEast.Theseareallhuge issues.And it’shardtodiscernimmediatelyhowyoucanconnectthemall together,otherthantosaythatthere were a lot of wars and a lot of hatred. Yet, beyond the morbidity and feelings ofhelplessnessthatacarefulstudyofhistorycanengender,therearealsoalotofwaystothinkabouthistorythatcanhelpyouevaluatehowpeopleandtheworldfunction.In the last chapter,we talkeda lot aboutnationalism,and it certainlydidn’t stop in the

twentieth century. Nationalism not only led to fascism in Nazi Germany, but also toindependencemovementsafterWorldWarIIinIndiaandAfrica,andinEuropeandAsiaafterthe fall of the Soviet Union. Sometimes it was based on broad cultural characteristics—Gandhi,forexample,unsuccessfullywantingeveryonetolookatthemselvesasIndians,notasHindus orMuslims—andother times itwas very narrowly defined—Serbs, for example, orNazis.Regardlessofitsforms,nationalismaffectedallofthemajorglobaleventsinthetwentieth

century. In both World War I and II, the aggressors were highly nationalistic. Theindependence movements following World War II were nationalistic. And the Cold War,becauseitpittedtwoopposingworldviewsthatweresostronglyidentifiedwiththenationsoftheSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates,wasarguablyanationaliststruggleaswell.Nationalpridewasontheline.Andintheend,superpowerstatuswasontheline,too.By the late twentiethcentury,whetherbecauseofnationalismornot, therewereahuge

numberofindependentnation-states.EachformercolonyinAfricawasindependent.Lotsofnewcountries formed from theoldSovietUnion.What’smore,mostof the countriesweredevelopingalongdemocraticlines,thoughsomealongmilitaristicorIslamictheocraticlines,andcapitalismseemedtobemakinghugegainsafterthefalloftheSovietUnion,whichleadsustothenextquestion.

ISTHERECURRENTLYACONVERGENCEOFCULTURES?Thisisatoughquestiontoanswer.Itcouldgoeitherway,andifyoustudyhistoryenough,youcanargueforbothsides.Ontheonehand,globalizationisclearlyoccurring,andit’sbeenoccurringforalongtime.

It’sjustthatnowit’sgettingalotfasterandit’spenetratingmoreandmorehiddenpartsofthe globe. Centuries ago, trade, conquest, and exploration were forms of globalizationbecause they brought people together, essentially “making the world smaller.” Bigmovements like theScientificRevolution, theEnlightenment,and the IndustrialRevolutioncan certainly be categorized as movements toward globalization because they weren’tculturally specific, but rather could be applied nearly anywhere around the globe. Theybrought people closer together because they led to certain ways of thinking that were

attractive and accepted by different kinds of people. If people start to agree on how theuniverse is organized or how governments should be organized, that is most certainly aconvergenceofcultures.In the twentieth century, globalization really got going. Aided by transportation,

communication, and imperialism, anything produced in one country could be received inanother. Popular examples of globalization are the appearance of the same multinationalcompanieseverywhere(seeingaMcDonaldsinIstanbul)andcertainlytheuseoftheInternet,but globalization is much broader than even these examples. Globalization led to andcontinuestoleadtoaninterconnectednessofentireeconomies.TheGreatDepressioninthe1930s proved that the economies ofmost industrialized nations were heavily intertwined.Today, the economies are so intertwined that a fall in stock prices in Tokyowill have aninstantaneousimpactonthestockmarketintheUnitedStates.As more and more countries start to look the same (independent, democratic,

constitutional),theireconomiesfunctioninsimilarways(stockmarket,lowbarrierstotrade,strongbankingsystem),andtheircultureslookthesame(educatedpeoplewhoknowEnglish,Hollywoodmoviesplayingattheaters,cellphoneintheirhands), itcanbestronglyarguedthatthereisaconvergenceofcultures.Ontheotherhand,globalizationdoesn’tnecessarilymeanconvergence.Globalizationjust

meansthateverythingisspreadallaroundtheglobeallthetime.Itdoesn’tmeanthatpeopleaccept,like,orwantwhat’sbeinghurledatthem.Itjustmeansthatit’savailable.Somearguethatglobalizationwill leadtoan increase in thenumberofpeoplewho lashoutagainst it,sometimes aggressively or violently. Globalization isn’t well received in Islamicfundamentalistcountries,orincountriesthataretryinghardtomaintainahistoricalculturalidentity,likeFrance.But more significantly, it can’t be denied that the biggest movements of the twentieth

century were rooted in self-determination and nationalism. The whole point of self-determinationisfornationstocharttheirowncourse.Ifself-determinationandnationalismmeanthatacountry isgoingtouse its independencetodowhateveryothercountrydoes,thenwhybeindependentinthefirstplace?Clearly,peoplewanttocharttheirowncourse.They foughtwars for the right todo so.Theymusthavebeendoing so fora reason.So itmakes sense that globalization will have its limits. And isn’t the world a whole lot lessconsolidatedtodaythanitwasunderEuropeanimperialism,whenthatsmallcontinentruledtheworld?Doesn’tthatsuggesttheoppositeofglobalconvergence?In the end, there’s no right answer to this question. The challenge is not to accurately

predictthefuture,buttohaveanunderstandingofhistorytomakeareasonable,defendableargumentaboutthedirectionthathistoryseemstobetaking.Ifyoucandiscussglobalization,nationalism,andself-determinationinthesameessayorconversationwithouttotallylosingyour mind, you have command enough of the issues and complexities to be confident inyourself.Keepreading,keepstudying,andkeepthinking.

IMPORTANTTERMS

Abdicate Intervention

Allies Isolationism

Armaments Jihad

Armistice Legislature

AtomicEnergy Liberal

Capitalism Militarism

ColdWar Nationalism

Collective/Collectivization Nationalize

Communism Nation-State

Conservative NaturalResources

Containment NationalSocialistParty(Nazi)

Decolonization Nuclear

Deposed Radical

Democratization Recession

Doctrine Reform

Egalitarian Reparations

EthnicCleansing Revolution

Exodus Rivalry

Fascism Secular

FirstWorld Sectarian

FrontLine Terrorism

Globalization ThirdWorld

GlobalWarming Totalitarian

Guerilla Westernization


Apartheid KoreanWar

AsianTigers LeagueofNations

AswanDam Lenin,Vladimir(Russia)

Ataturk,KemelMustafa(Turkey) MaoZedong(China)

AyatollahKhomeini(Iran) MarshallPlan

BalfourDeclaration NAFTA(NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement)

BerlinAirlift NATO(NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization)

BerlinWarOPEC(OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries)

BolshevikParty Pahlavi,ShahReza(Iran)

Castro,Fidel(Cuba) Palestine

ChiangKaiShek(China) RapeofNanjing

Churchill,Winston(England) SixDaysWar

CubanMissileCrisis Stalin,Josef(SovietUnion)

CulturalRevolution SunYatSen(China)

DengXioaping(China) ThirdReich

EasternBloc TreatyofVersailles(1919)

EuropeanEconomicCommunity TrenchWarfare

EuropeanUnion Trotsky,Leon(Russia)

FourteenPoints TrumanDoctrine

Gandhi,Mahatmas(India) UnionoftheSovietSocialistRepublic(USSR)

Garvey,Marcus UnitedNations

GreatLeapForward VietnamWar

Hitler,Adolph(Germany) WaronTerror

HoChiMinh(Vietnam) WarsawPact

Holocaust Wilson,Woodrow(USA)

Hussein,Saddam(Iraq) WTO(WorldTradeOrganization)

IAEA(InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency)

WorldWarI

IMF(InternationalMonetaryFund) WorldWarII

Intifada YoungTurksParty

Iran-IraqWar

IronCurtain

Israel

PARTIII

ThePrincetonReviewAPWorldHistoryPracticeTestsandExplanations

YOUKNOWTHESAYING…Practice,practice,practice!NowthatyouhavereviewedthehighpointsofworldhistoryandlearnedsomestrategiesforcrackingeachtypeofquestionontheAPWorldHistoryExam,it’stimetoputyourknowledgeintoaction.ThefinalsteptobeingtotallypreparedforyourAPexamistodosometrialruns.PartIIIof thisbookcomprises two full-lengthpractice testsandexplanations foreachofthemultiple-choicesections.Duringtheweeksleadinguptoyourexam,setasidetimetotakeeachof thesepractice tests (noton the samenight,of course).Try to simulate real testingconditions.Onceyouhavecompletedapracticetest,gobackoveritandusetheexplanationsfor further review. Also, ask a classmate to score your essays using the scoring rubricscontainedinChapters4and5.While you cannot convert your raw score to a score on the 1 to 5 scale, remember ourroughguidelinesformakingsureyouareontrack.

APWORLDHISTORYRAWSCOREGOALSTOGETA3ORABOVE

Goodluck!

11

PracticeTest1

(ClickheretodownloadaPDFofPracticeTest1)

http://rhlink.com/capwh002

AP®WorldHistoryExam

DONOTOPENTHISBOOKLETUNTILYOUARETOLDTODOSO.

Instructions

SectionIofthisexaminationcontains70multiple-choicequestions.Fillinonlytheovalsfornumbers1through70onyouranswersheet.

Indicateallofyouranswerstothemultiple-choicequestionsontheanswersheet.Nocreditwillbegivenforanythingwritteninthisexambooklet,butyoumayusethebookletfornotesorscratchwork.Afteryouhavedecidedwhichofthesuggestedanswersisbest,completelyfillinthecorrespondingovalontheanswersheet.Giveonlyoneanswertoeachquestion.Ifyouchangeananswer,besurethatthepreviousmarkiserasedcompletely.Hereisasamplequestionandanswer.

SampleQuestion

Chicagoisa

(A) state

(B) city

(C) country

(D) continent

(E) village

SampleAnswer

Use your time effectively, working as quickly as you canwithout losing accuracy. Do notspend toomuch timeonanyonequestion.Goon tootherquestionsandcomeback to theonesyouhavenotansweredifyouhavetime.Itisnotexpectedthateveryonewillknowtheanswerstoallthemultiple-choicequestions.

AboutGuessing

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WORLDHISTORY

SECTIONI

Time—55minutes

70Questions

Directions: Each of the questions or incomplete statements below is followed by fivesuggestedanswersorcompletions.Selecttheonethatisbestineachcaseandthenfillinthecorrespondingovalontheanswersheet.

Note: This examination uses the chronological designations B.C.E. (before the common era)andC.E.(commonera).TheselabelscorrespondtoB.C.(beforeChrist)andA.D.(annoDomini),whichareusedinsomeworldhistorytextbooks.

1.WhichofthefollowingisNOTacharacteristicofallearlycivilizations?

(A) Writtencommunication

(B) Agriculturalsurplus

(C) Someeconomicspecialization

(D) Waterresources

(E) Useoftools

2.“Thebooksofthoseheresiarchs…areabsolutelyforbidden.Thebooksofotherheretics,however,whichdealprofessedlywithreligionareabsolutelycondemned.Thoseontheotherhand,whichdonotdealwithreligion…arepermitted.Likewise,Catholicbookswrittenbythosewhoafterwardfellintoheresy…maybepermitted…”

Source:InternetModernHistorySourcebook,CouncilofTrent,“RulesonProhibitedBooks.”

WhywastheaboverulingissuedbytheCouncilofTrentin1545 ?

(A) ItwaspartofestablishingthekingofEnglandasheadoftheAnglicanChurch.

(B) ItwasaresponsetothescientificadvancesmadebyCopernicusandGalileo.

(C) ItwaspartofthereformstoRomanCatholicismcalledforbyLutherandCalvin.

(D) ItwaspartofthestrictbehavioralcodeendorsedbyCalvinists.

(E) ItwasanattemptduringtheCatholicReformationtorespondtoProtestantism.

3.WhichofthesewereconsideredtheGunpowderEmpiresintheIslamicworld?

(A) MingChina,MughalIndia,SeljukTurks

(B) TokugawaShogunate,MingChina,YuanChina

(C) OttomanTurkey,DelhiSultanate,KhmerCambodia

(D) SafavidPersia,OttomanTurkey,MughalIndia

(E) AryanIndia,MughalIndia,DelhiSultanate

4.AllofthefollowingwerefeaturesofthecivilizationsinMesopotamia,Mesoamerica,theIndusRiverValley,andtheYellowRiverValleyEXCEPT

(A) adegreeofcraftspecialization

(B) developmentofirrigationsystems

(C) constructionofarchitecturalmonuments

(D) religioussystemsthatincludedsacrificerituals

(E) gendereddivisionoflabor

5.WhichofthefollowingstatementsabouttheruleofPetertheGreatisaccurate?

(A) UnderPetertheGreat,Russiabecameastrongmilitarynationbutfailedtomodernizeorindustrialize.

(B) PetertheGreatwasabletobuildastrong,centralizedgovernmentbasedonmilitaristicprinciples.

(C) ThelivesofordinaryRussiancitizensweregreatlyimprovedasaresultoftheWesterninfluencesimportedbyPetertheGreat.

(D) PetertheGreatwasconsideredthefirstenlighteneddespotinthehistoryofRussia.

(E) PetertheGreatfacedasocialistrevoltthatledultimatelytohisexecution.

6.ThefactorsdestabilizingthebalanceofpowerinEuropeinthelate1800sandearly1900sincludedallofthefollowingEXCEPT

(A) thestrongsenseofnationalismheldbymanyEuropeannations

(B) EuropeancolonialrivalriesinAfricaandAsia

(C) GermanaggressiononthecontinentunderBismarck

(D) theriseofsocialistandcommunistmovementsinEuropeannations

(E) imperialnations’refusaltoallowself-determinationforsubjectpeoples

7.WhichofthefollowingtermsisNOTassociatedwiththeColdWar?

(A) Brinkmanship

(B) Peacefulcoexistence

(C) Mutualassureddestruction

(D) Appeasement

(E) Containment

8.AmajordifferencebetweenSpanishandFrenchcolonizationeffortswas

(A) onlytheSpanishwereinterestedinresourceextractionintheircolonies

(B) whileSpainsentexpeditionsaroundtheworld,FrenchexplorationwaslimitedtoNorthAmerica

(C) theFrenchdidnotformasmanypermanentsettlementsintheircoloniesastheSpanish

(D) theFrenchwerelesssuccessfulthantheSpanishatreligiousconversionofpeopleintheircolonies

(E) theFrenchweremoreinterestedthantheSpanishinland-basedexpansion

9.OnemajordifferencebetweenEuropeanandJapanesefeudalismduringtheMiddleAgeswasthat

(A) therewasnoJapaneseequivalenttothepositionoftheEuropeanlord

(B) EuropeanfeudalismwasfarmoremilitaristicthanJapanesefeudalism

(C) whileJapaneseemperorsmaintainedpowerduringfeudalism,Europeankingsweresymbolicleadersonly

(D) therewerefarfeweragriculturalworkersintheJapanesefeudalsystemthanintheEuropeansystem

(E) therewasmorepotentialforupwardmobilityforpeasantsintheJapanesefeudalsystem

10.TheGloriousRevolutionwasuniquebecauseit

(A) wasamovementthatbeganinthepeasantandfarmerclasses

(B) wasthefirsttimeEnglandhadseenaleaderdeposed

(C) wasthefirstinstanceoftheremovalofasittingmonarch

(D) resultedinEurope’sfirstcompletelyseculargovernment

(E) didnotinvolveasignificantamountofviolence

11.TheglobalizationofAmericanculturehasresultedin

(A) anti-Westernbacklashinsomedevelopingnations

(B) increasedaccesstohealthcareandeducation

(C) additionaltariffsonAmerican-madegoods

(D) moreculturaltolerancearoundtheworld

(E) anincreaseinqualityoflifeinallnations

12.ThemajorimpactoftheDelhiSultanateonIndiawasthe

(A) introductionofanewreligionintoIndianculture

(B) declineinimportanceofsub-Saharantraderoutes

(C) eliminationofthecastesystem

(D) declineinimportanceofoverlandtraderoutes

(E) militaryallianceofIndiawithChina

13.AsaresultofBismarck’sBerlinCongress’plantopartitionAfrica

(A) GermanycontrolledasubstantialportionofAfrica

(B) theUnitedStatesenteredthescrambleforAfrica

(C) theslavetradewithEurope,NorthAmerica,andSouthAmericawashalted

(D) onlytwoAfricannationsremainedfreeatthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury

(E) Africannationswerebroadlygrantedindependence

14.TheabilityofnationstoindustrializerequiredallofthefollowingconditionsEXCEPT

(A) areliablesourceoffuel

(B) surpluspopulation

(C) improvedfarmingtechniques

(D) anetworkofcolonies

(E) arelativelystablepowerstructure

15.InwhichofthefollowingwayswastheHinduUpanishadmovementsimilartotheProtestantReformation?

(A) Bothweremovementsstartedbyreligiousleadersthatquicklyspreadtotheupperclasses.

(B) Neitherwasconsideredasignificantthreattotheestablishedreligionanditsauthorities.

(C) Overtime,bothbecamemoreconcernedwithritualsanddogmathanwithindividualisticexpression.

(D) Neitherinvolvedepisodesofviolence.

(E) Afactorbehindbothmovementswastheperceivedexploitationofpowerbyreligiousleaders.

16.TheFourNobleTruthsareassociatedwith

(A) Buddhism

(B) Legalism

(C) Judaism

(D) Islam

(E) Zoroastrianism

17.WhichofthefollowingisanaccuratecharacterizationofboththeIncanandYuandynasties?

(A) Bothcivilizationsdevelopedstrictsocialclasshierarchies,inwhichupwardmobilitywasdifficult.

(B) Peasantuprisingswereresponsiblefortheestablishmentofbothcivilizations.

(C) BoththeYuanandtheIncadependedontradeastheirprimaryeconomicactivity.

(D) Bothcivilizationsflourishedunderthecontrolofoutsideinvaders.

(E) BothcivilizationswereconqueredbytheSpanish.

18.ThemovementtoindustrializeRussiawasmostdependenton

(A) emancipatingserfstoprovideasubstantiallaborpoolforindustry

(B) becomingmoreactiveincolonizingotherlandstoobtainrawmaterialsanddevelopnewmarkets

(C) importingcoalandotherfuelsourcesplustheequipmentnecessarytobuildmanufacturingfactories

(D) developingacapitalisticsystemwithlaissez-faireandfreemarketeconomicpolicies

(E) constantmilitaryandterritorialexpansiontoprovidenewopportunitiestoemployworkers

19.WhichofthefollowingwasNOTaresultoftheBlackDeath?

(A) LaborshortagesinagricultureandindustryinEngland

(B) PopulationdeclineinChina

(C) ScarcityofgoodsthroughoutEurope

(D) RiseoffeudalisminwesternEurope

(E) Riseofhumanisminphilosophicalthought

20.WhichofthefollowingwasNOTaColdWarstrategy?

(A) TheSovietUnionprovidedMiddleEasternnationswithmilitarysuppliesandadvisors.

(B) TheUnitedStatessupportedtotalitariandictatorshipsinsomeLatinAmericanandMiddleEasterncountries.

(C) TheSovietUnionenforcedstrictimmigrationcontrols,keepingitspopulationsbehindan“ironcurtain.”

(D) TheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionbuiltuphugearsenalsoftraditional,biological,andnuclearweaponsinordertopreventwar.

(E) BoththeSovietUnionandtheUnitedStatesrenewedcolonizationoflandsinLatinAmericaandtheMiddleEast.

21.Inthechartabove,thereasonforthepredictedpopulationdeclinebetween2000and2050couldbeattributedtoanyofthefollowingreasonsEXCEPT

(A) increaseduseofbirthcontrolandreproductiveplanning

(B) increasedeconomicdevelopmentactivities

(C) morewomenenteringtheworkforce

(D) theimpactsofcommunicablediseases

(E) betteraccesstomedicalcare

22.TheMongolEmpirewasdividedintofourKhanates,whichgovernedallofthefollowinglandsEXCEPT

(A) China

(B) Russia

(C) Persia

(D) Japan

(E) Ukraine

23.WhichofthefollowingisanaccuratestatementabouttheHeianperiodinJapanintheninthcentury?

(A) TheHeianperiodwasatimeofexplorationandconquestforJapan.

(B) ThefocusofHeiancivilizationwasonculturalindependence.

(C) Mongolinvaders,undertheruleofGhengisKhan,ruledJapanduringtheHeianperiod.

(D) ShintoismwasreplacedbyConfucianisminJapanduringtheHeianperiod.

(E) TheinventionofmechanizedprintingspawnedaliteraryrenaissanceduringtheHeianperiod.

24.ThechangesbroughtaboutbytheCouncilofTrentdidNOTinclude

(A) outlawingthesaleofindulgences

(B) thecommissioningofartandarchitecture

(C) therejectionofpredestination

(D) lessemphasisonsaintsinreligiousceremonies

(E) definedChurchtraditiononscripture

25.“Thecapacitiesofwomenaresupposedtobegreater,andtheirsensesquickerthanthoseofthemen;andwhattheymightbecapableofbeingbredto,isplainfromsomeinstancesoffemalewit,whichthisageisnotwithout.”

Source:DanielDafoe,OntheEducationofWomen,1719

Theauthorofthispassagewouldagreemostwithwhichofthesestatements?

(A) Becauseoftheirability,womenarestrongerthanmen.

(B) Itisacceptableforwomentodisplayhumorinpublic.

(C) Theintelligenceofwomenishypotheticalonlyandnotsupportedbyevidence.

(D) Withthepropereducation,womenhavetheabilitytobeassmartasmen.

(E) Itisacceptableformentobelittlewomenfortheirtalents.

26.Theconceptof“totalwar”inWorldWarIreferstothe

(A) useoftroopsfromAfricancoloniesbyEngland,France,andGermany

(B) entryofPacificRimnationsintotheTripleAlliance

(C) involvementoftheUnitedStatesandCanadainaconflictthatdidnottakeplacewithintheirborders

(D) mobilizationofeconomic,natural,andhumanresourcesforthewareffort

(E) theuseof“takenoprisoners”tactics

27.Inordertoholdontotheirterritory,theOttomansinstitutedtheTanzimatReforms,whichincluded

(A) accesstowesterneducation

(B) universalsuffrage

(C) nationalizationofprivateindustries

(D) emancipationofslaves

(E) equalrightsforwomenandethnicminorities

28.WhichofthefollowingstatementsisNOTtrueaboutAkbartheGreat?

(A) Despitegainingpowerthroughmilitarymight,hewasknownforbeingabenevolentruler.

(B) Hetriedtoimprovethepositionofwomenbyworkingtoeliminateadeadlyculturalpractice.

(C) HeexpandedMughalcontroloverallofnorthIndia.

(D) Hetriedtoestablishanewreligion,DivineFaith,touniteMuslim,Hindu,andChristiantenets.

(E) HeconstructedtheTajMahalasaMuslimholyplace.

29.TheMagnaCarta

(A) createdasystemofcommonlawinAnglo-SaxonEngland

(B) establishedaModelParliamentwithadvisorypowers

(C) eliminatedheredityasarequirementtoholdthethrone

(D) didlittletostopthegrowthofcentralizedgovernmentinEngland

(E) establishedthekingastheheadoftheChurchofEngland

30.BothGandhiandMaoZedong

(A) agreedonthedesirabilityofeffectingchangenonviolently

(B) workedtoreformthesocialorderintheirrespectivenations

(C) believedthatchangemustbeginattheleveloftheindividualandwouldinvolveaspiritualcomponent

(D) believedinunityamongdifferentreligiousgroups

(E) advocatedselectiveuseofviolencetoachievetheirgoals

31.OnesimilaritybetweentheVikingsandtheMamlukswas

(A) bothgroupshadbeenslavesinthelandstheyeventuallyconquered

(B) neithergroupwasabletomoveintowesternEurope

(C) bothgroupsweremoreinterestedinexpansionanddestructionthanintradeandsettlement

(D) bothgroupswereknownfortheirseafaringprowess

(E) bothgroupsconvertedtothedominantreligionofthelandthattheyconquered

32.AsimilaritybetweenSongChinaandtheItalianstateswasthat

(A) bothwereabletosupportnumerouslargecities

(B) neitherhadastrong,centralizedgovernment

(C) bothhadstrongsecularandreligiousleaders

(D) bothweredependentontheSilkRoutefortrade

(E) neitherwashometoamajorreligiousmovement

33.WhichofthefollowingisanaccurateexampleofHellenism?

(A) TheadoptionofgothicarchitectureinIndia

(B) ConstructingbuildingsandmonumentsinstoneinsouthwestAsia

(C) ThespreadofmonotheismthroughcentralEurasiaandtheFarEast

(D) TheexpansionofinternationaltradeintonorthernAfricaandwesternMediterraneanlands

(E) TheexpansionofthePersianEmpireintheMiddleEast

34.Monasticismisacharacteristicofwhichofthefollowingreligions?

(A) Judaism

(B) Hinduism

(C) Confucianism

(D) Catholicism

(E) Baha’i

35.Whichofthefollowingstatementsisanaccurateinterpretationofthispoliticalcartoon?

(A) Laborunionscouldnothaveariseninthenineteenthcenturywithoutspecificeconomicandsocialpoliciesandproblems.

(B) Theworkplaceproblemsthatgaverisetolaborunionsinthe1800shadmostlybeenremediedbytheendofthecentury.

(C) Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,laborunionmembershipwasdeclining.

(D) Laborunionleaderswereanxiousforthestartofthetwentiethcentury.

(E) Conditionsunderslaveryinthenineteenthcenturyhadbeengoodforsomeworkers.

36.Whichofthefollowingstatementsaboutneo-ConfucianismisNOTcorrect?

(A) Additionalrestrictionswereplacedonthepowerofthemerchantclass.

(B) ItgainedprominencenotonlyinChinabutalsoinKoreaandJapan.

(C) Itincorporatedideasaboutthesoulandtheindividual.

(D) ItsynthesizedelementsofConfucianism,Daoism,andBuddhism.

(E) Loyaltytogovernmentbecamemoreimportantthanfamilialties.

37.RachelCarson’sbookSilentSpringincreasedinternationalawarenessof

(A) ethniccleansinginBosnia

(B) environmentaldegradation

(C) genderrightsinAfrica

(D) droughtandfamineinBiafra

(E) penalservitudeinAustralia

38.WhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutSpanishcoloniesintheNewWorldisaccurate?

(A) TheSpanishdidnotengageinmercantilismwiththeircolonies.

(B) SpanishimmigrationtocoloniesinCentralandSouthAmericawaslow.

(C) ThemaineconomiccontributionofSpain’scoloniescamefromgoldandsalt.

(D) SugarcaneproductionwastheprimaryeconomicactivityinSpanishcolonies.

(E) TheSpanishrespectednativeleaders’self-determinationiftheyconvertedtoCatholicism.

39.WhichofthefollowingisaccurateabouttheT’angDynastyandtheByzantineEmpire?

(A) WhiletheByzantineEmpirehadalargeurbancenter,theT’angDynastywasmoredecentralizedwithsmalltownsalongtradingroutes.

(B) Bothoftheirgovernmentsconsistedofbureaucratswhoreceivedastandardizededucation.

(C) Therewasconsiderableoverlapbetweenchurchandstatebothingovernmentalaffairsandeverydaylifeinbothsocieties.

(D) SilkweavingwasthemajorindustryonlyintheT’angDynasty.

(E) Bothcivilizationsfinallycollapsedduetocorruptionandbankruptcy.

40.WhichofthefollowingisNOTanaccuratestatementabouttheMiddleEastinthelatetwentiethcentury?

(A) ThediscoveryofnewsourcesofpetroleumdilutedthepoliticalpowerandmilitaryimportanceofOPECmembernations.

(B) Aresurgenceofreligiousfundamentalismwasresponsibleforthepoliticalrevolutionsinanumberofnations,suchasIran.

(C) TherewasincreasedtensionbetweeneffortstomodernizeandbasictenetsofIslamiclawandpractice.

(D) Nationalisticextremismwasresponsibleforgenocideandcivilwarinnumerousnations.

(E) TheareahasbeendividedinitsresponsestotheWestandtheprevalenceofWesterninfluence.

41.MarxismfoundfewsupportersinthelatenineteenthcenturyinEuropebecause

(A) workingconditionsinfactoriesimprovedduetouniondemands

(B) themiddleclassgainedadditionalpoliticalrepresentation

(C) improvementsinfarmingtechnologyincreasedcropyields

(D) unionorganizingwasoutlawedinamajorityofindustries

(E) monarchiesdidnotpermitsuchsubversiveliteratureintheirnations

42.WhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutSunYat-senisaccurate?

(A) SunYat-sen’sbrutalleadershipstyleinspiredamilitarycoupthatendedhisreignofterroroverChina.

(B) ThePeople’sRepublicofChinafoundedbySunYat-senwasbasedonaFiveYearPlanforeconomicgrowth.

(C) TheChineseRepublicwassuccessfulinexpellingtheBritishfromChinaandcreatinganeconomicallyandpoliticallystrongnation.

(D) OneofSunYat-sen’sfirsttasksasrulerwastopurgecommunistsfromhigh-rankinggovernmentpositions.

(E) SunYat-senwasthefirstleaderofChinawhowasneitheraforeigninvadernorpartofanimperialdynasty.

43.WhichofthefollowingstatementsabouttheCodeofHammurabiandtheJustinianCodeareaccurate?

(A) BothsetsoflawsderivedtheircorephilosophiesfromtheBible.

(B) Theimportanceofeachwasthattheyattemptedtoorganizelawsinwaysthatpeoplecouldunderstand.

(C) WhiletheJustinianCodecontainedharshprovisionsforthoseconvictedofcrimes,theCodeofHammurabiwaslesspunitive.

(D) NeitherCodeappliedtowomen,foreigners,peasants,orslaves.

(E) Bothsetsoflawsexplicitlyallowedslavestobringsuitagainsttheirmastersforharshtreatment.

44.WhichofthesefactorsplayedthegreatestroleinEuropeaninterestinSouthAfricainthelate1800s?

(A) TheneedforadditionalsourcesofAfricanslaves

(B) ThedesirefornewmarketsforEuropeangoods

(C) Thediscoveryofpreciousmetalresources

(D) PoliticalturmoilalongnorthernEuropeantraderoutes

(E) ContainingthespreadofIslam

45.“Itisthehighestimpertinenceandpresumption,therefore,inkingsandministers,topretendtowatchovertheeconomyofprivatepeople,andtorestraintheirexpense,eitherbysumptuarylaws,orbyprohibitingtheimportationofforeignluxuries.”

Source:AdamSmith,AnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations,1775.

Theauthorofthisquotationwouldmostlikelyagreewithwhichofthefollowinggovernmentalprograms?

(A) Increasedtariffsonimporteditems

(B) Laissez-faireeconomicpolicies

(C) Institutionofsocialwelfaresystems

(D) Minimumwagelawsforunionizedworkers

(E) Governmentstimulusinarecession

46.Fromthetwomapsabove,whatconclusioncanyoudrawaboutthechangeincolonizationactivitiesbetween1890and1910 ?

(A) By1910,BelgiumhadbecomethedominantcolonizerontheAfricancontinent.

(B) By1910,morecolonizedlandsweregainingtheirindependencefromEuropeancolonizers.

(C) WhileBritainandFranceexpandedtheirimperialholdingbetween1890and1910,Portugallostterritoryduringthattimeperiod.

(D) Advancesintechnologyandmedicineallowedcolonizationeffortstoshiftgeographically.

(E) WhentheresourcesofAfrica’scoastswereusedup,imperialpowerssoughttoexploitthecontinent’sfertilecenter.

47.TheEuropeaneventthathadthemostdirectimpactonthegrowthofcivilizationssuchasMaliandGhanawasthe

(A) splitbetweentheRomanCatholicandEasternOrthodoxchurches

(B) revivaloftheSilkRouteduringtheruleofKublaiKhan

(C) SlavmigrationintotheBalkansandGreece

(D) establishmentofamoney-basedeconomywithmintedcoins

(E) theProtestantReformation

48.BeforeWorldWarII,bothJapanandGermany

(A) withdrewfromtheLeagueofNationsoverlanddisputes

(B) experiencedtremendousgrowthintheurbanmiddleclass

(C) embracedsocialreformmovementssuchasuniversalsuffrage

(D) rebuilttheireconomiesfromtheimpactsoftheGreatDepressionandsignificantwardebts

(E) hadbeenpenalizedfortheirrolesinWorldWarI

49.TheencomiendasysteminSpanishcolonieswasmostsimilarto

(A) mercantilism

(B) feudalism

(C) acorporatecolony

(D) assemblylineproduction

(E) chattelslavery

50.WhichofthefollowingwasNOTadirectoutcomeoftheReconquista?

(A) SpanishinvasionofnorthernAfricaandsouthernItaly

(B) Sometimes-violentpersecutionofotherreligions

(C) Creationofsmall,independentstateswithinSpain

(D) Acivilwaroversuccessiontothethrone

(E) ExodusofMoorsandSephardicJewsfromSpanishterritory

51.Inwhichofthesesocietiesweremerchantsandtradersplacedinalowersocialclassthanfarmersandartisans?

(A) Byzantium

(B) TudorEngland

(C) Japan

(D) Rome

(E) HanChina

52.WhichofthefollowingisamajordifferencebetweentheclassicperiodsinRomeandtheIslamiccivilizations?

(A) WhileRomansocietyhadstrictsocialclassdelineationsandlittlemobility,Islamwasegalitarianwithfewbarrierstosocialmobility.

(B) TheIslamiccivilizationwasmoredependentonagricultureandthereforemoresusceptibletofluctuationsinfoodsupply.

(C) WhiletheRomanEmpirefellasaresultofinternalwarfareoversuccessiontothethrone,Islamicdynastiesfacedfewinternaldivisions.

(D) IslamicscientificthoughtandartformsborrowedheavilyfromHellenisticsources,whileRome’sscientific,philosophical,andartisticadvancementswereuniquetoitsculture.

(E) TheRomanEmpirewasdrivenentirelybyagriculture,whereasIslamiccivilizationwasmorehighlydiversified.

53.AfterthePeloponnesianWar,theMacedonianstookcontrolofGreeceandspreadGreekculturethroughoutmuchoftheknownworldundertheleadershipof

(A) AlexandertheGreat

(B) JuliusCaesar

(C) Pericles

(D) Socrates

(E) Hannibal

54.WhichofthefollowingisNOTacorrectgeneralizationaboutIslamicsocietiesbetween1500and1700?

(A) TherewasnointellectualmovementcorrespondingtotheRenaissanceandIslamicpoliticalandscientific

progresslaggedbehindtheEuropeans.

(B) EconomicdepressionandgovernmentcorruptionledtotheweakeningofmanyIslamicstatesduringthesixteenthcentury.

(C) TheOttomanEmpire,SafavidTurks,andMughalIndiawerelinkedbytheircommonfaithinIslam,aswellasbyhistorictraderoutes.

(D) ThediscoveryofnewtraderouteshadadebilitatingimpactontheabilityofIslamicnationstomaintaineconomicandpoliticalcontrol.

(E) Bythelate1700s,IslamicinfluencehadendedeverywhereexceptinNorthAfrica.

55.WhichofthefollowingisatruestatementabouttheFrenchRevolutionof1789 ?

(A) ItfailedtoinstillasenseofnationalisminFrance.

(B) Womengainedsuffrageaspartoftherevolution.

(C) TheRevolutionturnedradicalwiththeinvolvementofthepeasants.

(D) ItofficiallyendedwiththeConstitutionof1791.

(E) TheFrenchmonarchwasexiledaspartoftheregimechange.

56.Whichofthefollowingisanaccuratestatementaboutmodernsub-Saharanindependencemovements?

(A) Inmostnations,culturalandethnicharmonywasachievedwhenimperialismended.

(B) Inamajorityofnewnations,Europeanwhitesdominatedthegovernmentalsystem.

(C) TheprocessofgainingindependencewaseasierinnationsthatdidnothavealargeEuropeanminority.

(D) Substantialforeigninvestmenthelpedthetransitionfromcolonytoindependentnation.

(E) Mostofthesemovementshaveledtobloodlesspoliticaltransitions.

57.WhichofthefollowingwasanimpactofthetheoryofSocialDarwinism?

(A) Industrializationledtoworkerrevolts.

(B) Rulerswereobligatedtoprotecttheircitizens.

(C) Europeansjustifiedtheirdominationofcolonizedpeople.

(D) Sciencewasviewedasmoreimportantthanreligiousbelief.

(E) Labormovementsweretreatedwithmorerespect.

58.WhichofthefollowingdidNOThappeninChinaduringtheMingDynasty?

(A) ChinawasnolongerunderthecontrolofMongolleaders.

(B) ContactwithothernationsincreasedwiththecreationofaChinesenavy.

(C) BuddhismbecametheofficialstatereligionofChina.

(D) Chineseforeignpolicywasbasedoncollectingtributeinsteadofwagingwar.

(E) Chinesecivilservicebecamestandardized,includingtheuseofaqualifyingexambasedonConfucianprinciples.

59.WhichofthefollowingwasanimpactofmodernizationeffortsinEgyptduringthetwentiethcentury?

(A) EgyptiansocietybecamealmostentirelysecularizedastheimportanceofIslamdwindledsharply.

(B) AWestern-styledemocraticgovernmentwasinstalled,althoughvotingrightswerenotextendedtowomen.

(C) AliberalizationmovementamongtheworkingandmiddleclassbegantoremoveMuhammadAlifrompower.

(D) State-builtinfrastructureandpublicinvestmentinindustrializationenabledEgypttowithstandEuropeanimperialism.

(E) EgyptaccumulatedtremendousdebttoEuropeannationssuchasEnglandandFrance.

60.TheChineseCommunistPartyadaptedMarxistcommunismto

(A) accommodatealargepeasantpopulation

(B) allowforcapitalisticeconomicprograms

(C) preventRussian-styleeducationprograms

(D) justifyimperialisticpoliciesinJapan,Taiwan,andMongolia

(E) becomeanindustrializednation

61.IntheZhoudynasty,theMandateofHeavenmeantthatrulers

(A) hadanabsoluterighttoruleoverthegovernedastheywished

(B) wereappointedbyBuddhistleaders

(C) rulerswererequiredtomakehumansacrificesinordertokeeptheirpower

(D) wereencouragedtospreadBuddhismthroughthebuildingofmonasteries

(E) wereallowedtokeeptheirpoweriftheyruledjustlyandwisely

62.Whichofthefollowingisthebestexplanationofthispoliticalcartoon?

(A) WhiletheMarshallPlanwasaimedatmilitaryassistance,theCouncilforMutualEconomicAssistance(COMECON)wasdirectedatagriculturalproduction.

(B) MarshallPlanparticipantswere“imprisoned”bytheirassociationwithWesternpoliticalinterests.

(C) StalincouldnotofferfarmersinRussiaanditssatellitestatestheleveloftechnologyofferedbytheMarshallPlan.

(D) CriticswereunhappywithboththecostandthedisappointingresultsoftheMarshallPlan.

(E) OnlythefarmersofStalinistRussiahadmasteredproperagriculturaltechniques.

63.WhichofthefollowingisanaccuratestatementaboutIslamicartandarchitecture?

(A) IslamicartfocusedonabstractgeometricpatternsandornatecalligraphyinArabic.

(B) ElaborateminiaturesofhistoricalfiguresandhistoricalbattleswerecreatedduringtheAbbasidandUmayyadDynasties.

(C) Themostimportantarchitecturalcontributionswereelaboratepyramidsandsculptures.

(D) MostIslamicartformswerederivedfromclassicGreekandRomanexamples.

(E) Fewexamplesremainforarthistoriansandcriticstostudy.

64.InChina,Confucianismemphasizedtheideathat

(A) equalityshouldexistamongallmembersofsociety

(B) salvationcouldbeattainedbyprayer,meditation,andgooddeeds

(C) individualgoalsshouldbeplacedaheadoftheneedsofthegroup

(D) harmonycouldbeachievedbytheproperbehaviorofeachmemberofthefamilyorsociety

(E) prayingatregularintervalsthroughoutthedaywasanessentialpartofreligiousdevotion

65.AllofthefollowingwereimpactsoftheIndustrialRevolutionEXCEPT

(A) theriseofsocialandpoliticalreformmovements

(B) amanufacturingsystembasedondivisionoflabor

(C) anincreaseddemandforAfricanslavesinNorthAmerica

(D) anincreaseinthenumberofindependentnations

(E) bettermethodsoftransportation,bothonlandandwater

66.ThemostdirectresultoftheProtestantReformationwas

(A) ChristianityspreadintotheOttomanEmpireandSoutheastAsia

(B) theprintingpresswasinvented

(C) interestintheartsandscientificinquiryincreased

(D) literacyratesacrossEuroperose

(E) theFrenchRevolution

67.TheSecondAgeofIslamicconquest,whichbeganinthe1200’s,wasaresultof

(A) thetranslationoftheQu’ranintothevernacularthatallowedIslamtomovefartherintoAfricaandEurope

(B) aperiodofpeaceandprosperitythatenabledIslamictraderoutestospreadfarthernorthandwest

(C) theCrusadesandotherinvasionsthatledtotheformationofnewmilitaristicdynasties

(D) disorganizationamongwesternEuropeannationsthatallowedforfurtherIslamicempire-building

(E) Islamicleaders’desiretocontrolterritoryintheNewWorld

68.Inwhichofthesecoloniesdidaprivatecompanyhavepoliticalauthority?

(A) India

(B) Brazil

(C) Cuba

(D) Benin

(E) ThePhilippines

69.Basedontheinformationintheabovechart,whichofthefollowingconclusionsisaccurate?

(A) EasternEuropelaggedbehindwesternEuropeinthedevelopmentofnationalrailroadsystems.

(B) TherewereapproximatelythesamenumberofpeoplelivinginGermanyin1900asinRussia.

(C) Europeannationswiththefewestrailmileswerelocatedincolderclimates.

(D) ThegreatestproportionategrowthinmilesofrailoccurredinGermanybetween1880and1900.

(E) Russia’sIndustrialRevolutionoccurredlaterthanGreatBritain’s.

70.WhichofthefollowingisanaccuratestatementabouttrendsinartandliteratureafterWorldWarI ?

(A) Modernismandexperimentalmethodsandmaterialsdominatedtheartworld.

(B) Thedevelopmentofnewmaterialsandtechnologyrevolutionizedarchitecture.

(C) Theanxietyanduncertaintyofthepostwarperiodinfluencedliteratureandart.

(D) Governmentalcensorshipofliteratureduringthewarresultedinaculturalbacklashofanti-governmentwriting.

(E) Artandliteraturealikefocusedonpatrioticscenes,showingnotraceoftheconfusionandlossofwar.

WORLDHISTORY

SECTIONII

Youwillhave10minutestoreadthecontentsofthisgreeninsert.Youareadvisedtospendmostofthe10minutesanalyzingthedocumentsandplanningyouranswerforthedocument-basedquestionessayinPartA.Youmaymakenotesinthisgreeninsert.Attheendofthe10-minuteperiod, youwill be told tobreak the sealon thepink free-responsebooklet and tobeginwritingyouranswersonthe linedpagesof thebooklet.Donotbreakthesealonthepink booklet until you are told to do so. Suggested writing time is 40 minutes for thedocument-basedessayquestioninPartAand40minutesforeachoftheessayquestionsinPartBandPartC.

BESURETOMANAGEYOURTIMECAREFULLY.

Write your answers in the pink booklet with a pen. The green insert may be used forreferenceand/orscratchworkasyouanswerthefree-responsequestions,butnocreditwillbegivenfortheworkshowninthegreeninsert.


WORLDHISTORY

SECTIONII

PartA

(Suggestedwritingtime—40minutes)

PercentofSectionIIscore—331/3

Directions: The following question is based on the accompanying Documents 1-7. (Thedocumentshavebeeneditedforthepurposeofthisexercise.)WriteyouransweronthelinedpagesoftheSectionIIfree-responsebooklet.

This question is designed to test your ability to work with and understand historicaldocuments.Writeanessaythat:

Hasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithevidencefromthedocuments.Usesallofthedocuments.Analyzesthedocumentsbygroupingtheminasmanyappropriatewaysaspossible.Doesnotsimplysummarizethedocumentsindividually.Takesintoaccountboththesourcesofthedocumentsandtheauthors’pointsofview.Explainstheneedforonetypeofadditionaldocument.


1. Usingthefollowingdocuments,discussthebarrierswomenhaveworkedformoreequaltreatmentinsociety.Considerthegoalsandmethodsofsuchcampaigns.Whatadditionalkindsofdocumentswouldbeusefulinattemptingtoanswerthesequestions?

Document1

Source:AnnaManningComfort,ThePublic2,1899.

HomeBurdensofUncleSam

“Takeupthewhiteman’sburden”–

TheNegro,onceourslave!

Boastlightlyofhisfreedom,

Thisproblemstillisgrave.

Wescoffandshootandlynchhim,

Andyet,becausehe’sblack,

Weshovehimoutofoffice

Andcrowdhimoffthetrack.

“Takeupthewhiteman’sburden”–

Yes,oneofthemissex.

Enslavedareyourbravewomen,

Noballot,whileyoutax!

Yourlaborsandyourconflicts,

Columbia’sdaughtersshare,

Yetstilldeniedthefranchise,

Quickgive!bejust!dealfair!

Document2

Source:FromtheWomen’sCharter,adoptedattheFoundingConferenceoftheFederationofSouthAfricanWomen,Johannesburg,1954.

Thisorganisationisformedforthepurposeofunitingwomenincommonactionfortheremovalofallpolitical,legal,economicandsocialdisabilities.Weshallstriveforwomentoobtain:

1. TherighttovoteandtobeelectedtoallStatebodies,withoutrestrictionordiscrimination.2. The right to full opportunities for employmentwith equal pay and possibilities of promotion in all spheres ofwork.

3. Equalrightswithmeninrelationtoproperty,marriageandchildren,andfortheremovalofalllawsandcustomsthatdenywomensuchequalrights.

4. Forthedevelopmentofeverychildthroughfreecompulsoryeducationforall; fortheprotectionofmotherandchildthroughmaternityhomes,welfareclinics,crèchesandnurseryschools, incountrysideandtowns; throughproper homes for all, and through the provision of water, light, transport, sanitation, and other amenities ofmoderncivilisation.

5. Fortheremovalofall lawsthatrestrictfreemovement,thatpreventorhindertherightoffreeassociationandactivityindemocraticorganizations,andtherighttoparticipateintheworkoftheseorganisations.

6. Tobuildandstrengthenwomen’ssections intheNationalLiberatorymovements, theorganisationofwomenintradeunions,andthroughthepeoples’variedorganisation.

7. TocooperatewithallotherorganisationsthathavesimilaraimsinSouthAfricaaswellasthroughouttheworld.8. Tostriveforpermanentpeacethroughouttheworld.

Document3

Source:Livy,aRomanHistorian,wrotethefollowingdescriptionofthewomen’sdemonstrationsupportingtherepealoftheOppianLaw,195B.C.E.,whichlimitedwomen’suseofexpensivegoods.

Thematrons,whomneithercounselnorshamenortheirhusbands’orderscouldkeepathome,blockadedeverystreetinthecityandeveryentrancetotheForum.AsthemencamedowntotheForum,thematronsbesoughtthemtoletthem,too,havebacktheluxuriestheyhadenjoyedbefore,givingastheirreasonthattherepublicwasthrivingandthateveryone’sprivatewealthwasincreasingwitheveryday.Thiscrowdofwomenwasgrowingdaily,fornowtheywereevengatheringfromthetownsandvillages.Beforelongtheydaredgoupandsolicitconsuls,praetorsandothermagistrates.

Whenthespeechesforandagainstthelawhadbeenmade,aconsiderablylargercrowdofwomenpouredforthinpublicthenextday;asasinglebodytheybesiegedthedoorsofthetribunes,whowerevetoingtheircolleagues’motion,andtheydidnotstopuntilthetribunestookbacktheirveto.Afterthattherewasnodoubtthatallthetribeswouldrepealthelaw.

Document4

Source:BanZhao,leadingfemaleConfucianandimperialhistorianunderEmperorHanHedi,fromLessonsforaWoman,aninstructionalmanualinfemininebehavior,c.100C.E.

Wheneverthemother-in-lawsays,“Donotdothat,”andifwhatshesaysisright,unquestionablythedaughter-in-lawobeys.Wheneverthemother-in-lawsays,“Dothat,”evenifwhatshesaysiswrong,stillthedaughter-in-lawsubmitsunfailinglytothecommand.Letawomanactnotcontrarytothewishesandtheopinionsoftheparents-in-lawaboutrightandwrong;lethernotdisputewiththemwhatisstraightandwhatiscrooked.Suchdocilitymaybecalledobediencewhichsacrificespersonalopinion.“APatternforWomen”says:“Ifadaughter-in-lawwhofollowsthewishesofherparents-in-lawislikeanechoandshadow,howcouldshenotbepraised?”

Document5

Source:ThePlightofWomen’sWorkintheEarlyIndustrialRevolutioninEnglandandWales,evidencetakenbyChildren’sEmploymentCommission,1841.

Miss—hasbeenforseveralyearsinthedress-makingbusiness.Thecommonhoursofbusinessarefrom8A.M.’til11.P.M.inthewinters;inthesummerfrom6orhalfpast6A.M.’til12atnight.Duringthefashionableseason,thatisfromApril’tilthelaterendofJuly,itfrequentlyhappensthattheordinaryhoursaregreatlyexceeded;ifthereisadrawingroomorgrandfete,ormourningtobemade,itoftenhappensthattheworkgoesonfor20hoursoutofthe24,occasionallyallnight.…Thegeneralresultofthelonghoursandsedentaryoccupationistoimpairseriouslyandveryfrequentlytodestroythehealthoftheyoungwomen.Thedigestionespeciallysuffers,andalsothelungs:paintothesideisverycommon,andthehandsandfeetdieawayfromwantofcirculationandexercise.

Miss–issurethattherearesomethousandsofyoungwomenemployedinthebusinessinLondonandinthecountry.Ifonevacancyweretooccurnowtherewouldbe20applicantsforit.Thinksthatnomencouldenduretheworkenforcedfromthedress-makers.

Document6

Source:AungSanSuuKyi,NobelPrizeLaureate,excerptsfromkeynoteaddressatAPCConference,1995.

Formillenniawomenhavededicatedthemselvesalmostexclusivelytothetaskofnurturing,protectingandcaringfortheyoungandold,strivingfortheconditionsofpeacethatfavourlifeasawhole.Tothiscanbeaddedthefactthat,tothebestofmyknowledge,nowarwaseverstartedbywomen.Butitiswomenandchildrenwhohavealwayssufferedmostinsituationsofconflict.Nowthatwearegainingcontroloftheprimaryhistoricalroleimposedonusofsustaininglifeinthecontextofthehomeandfamily,itistimetoapplyinthearenaoftheworldthewisdomandexperiencethusgainedinactivitiesofpeaceoversomanythousandsofyears.Theeducationandempowermentofwomenthroughouttheworldcannotfailtoresultinamorecaring,tolerant,justandpeacefullifeforall.

Document7

Source:RajaRammohanRoy,ASecondConferenceBetweenanAdvocatefor,andanOpponentofthePracticeofBurningWidowsAlive,1820.

Advocate:

Ialluded…totherealreasonforouranxietytopersuadewidowstofollowtheirhusbands,andforourendeavorstoburnthempresseddownwithropes:viz.,thatwomenarebynatureofinferiorunderstanding,withoutresolution,unworthyoftrust,subjecttopassions,Andvoidofvirtuousknowledge;they,accordingtothepreceptsoftheSastra,arenotallowedtomarryagainafterthedemiseoftheirhusbands,andconsequentlydespairatonceofallworldlypleasure;henceitisevident,thatdeathtotheseunfortunatewidowsispreferabletoexistence;forthegreatdifficultywhichawidowmayexperiencebylivingapurelyasceticlife,asprescribedbytheSastras,isobvious;maybringdisgraceuponherpaternalandmaternalrelations,andthosethatmaybeconnectedwithherhusband.Underthesecircumstances,weinstructthemfromtheirearlylifeintheideaofthebeatitudeoftheirrelations,bothbybirthandmarriage,andtheirreputationinthisworld.Fromthismanyofthem,onthedeathoftheirhusbands,becomedesirousofaccompanyingthem;buttoremoveeverychanceoftheirtryingtoescapefromtheblazingfire,intheburningthemwefirsttiethemdowntothepile.

ENDOFPARTA

WORLDHISTORY

SECTIONII

PartB

(Suggestedplanningandwritingtime—40minutes)


Directions: You are to answer the following question. You should spend 5 minutesorganizingoroutliningyouressay.Writeanessaythat:

Hasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithappropriatehistoricalevidence.Addressesallpartsofthequestion.Useshistoricalcontexttoshowchangeovertimeand/orcontinuities.Analyzestheprocessofchangeand/orcontinuityovertime.

2.Discusshowtechnologicalchangessince1750havehadanimpactonfamilystructureinoneofthefollowingnations.Besuretoincludecontinuitiesaswellaschanges.

China

Japan

India

GreatBritain

ENDOFPARTB

PartC




Hasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithappropriatehistoricalevidence.Addressesallpartsofthequestion.Makesdirect,relevantcomparisons.Analyzesreasonsforsimilaritiesanddifferences.

3.KarlMarxasserted,“Religionistheopiateofthemasses.”UsingONEofthereligionsbelow,compareandcontrasttherolethereligionhasplayedinpromotingorimpedingsocietalchange.Considerspecificrevolutions,texts,andreligiousleadersinansweringthequestion.

Christianity

Buddhism

Hinduism

Islam

Judaism

STOPENDOFEXAM

12

PracticeTest1:AnswersandExplanations

1.AThis question is a broadgeneralization about early societies.Remember to read thequestion carefully because you need to eliminate the four answer choices that arecharacteristics of early societies. And, be careful when you see the word all—thatmeans you should be critically searching for the exception to the rule. The correctansweris(A).Notallearlysocietiesdevelopedwrittencommunications.Forexample,while Sumer andMesopotamia had a system ofwriting, pre-Columbian civilizationssuchastheIncadidnot.YoushouldusePOEtogetridof(B)and(D).TheNeolithicRevolutionbroughtabout sweepingchanges in technology that allowed for irrigatedagricultural activities in river valleys. (C) is not the correct answer because aspermanentsettlementsarose, somepeopleworkedprimarilyas farmers,whileothersworkedonmonumentbuildingorasartisans.(E)isn’ttheanswereither,becausetoolswereessentialtocivilizations’development.

2.ETheCouncilofTrent(1545)wasanattemptbytheRomanCatholicChurchtoinstituteitsown“reformation.”TheCouncilupheldmanyofthechurch’spracticesandbeliefs(inoppositiontoProtestantfaiths).However,itdidoutlawsomeofthemoreheinouspractices,suchassellingindulgences.

Using POE, you can eliminate (A), (C), and (D) because Luther, Calvin, and theAnglicanChurchwere all Protestant. (B) is a smart guess, yetwhileCopernicus andGalileodidcomeupagainststrongchurchopposition,theCouncilofTrent’sedictwaswrittenbeforeeitherofthosescientistspublishedtheirworks.

3.DEven if youarenot surewhataGunpowderEmpire is, thequestionasksyouaboutsomething that pertains to the Islamic world. Using this information, eliminate anyanswer choices that include non-Muslim empires.Ming Chinawas notMuslim, andneitherwasAryanIndia,sogetridof(A),(B),and(E).

The Gunpowder Empires are associated with nations who had been able to takeadvantageofnewmilitarytechnologies.Thosewhohadgunsincludedthefollowing:

TheCzarsofMuskovyRussiaTheOttomanTurksTheTokugawaShogunateSafavidPersiaMughalIndiaTheMingDynastyTheSpanishandthePortuguese

4.DWhileMesoamericanreligiousriteswereknowntoincludesacrifice,theceremonialuseof sacrifice in theothercivilizations iseitherunknownoruntrue.TousePOEonanEXCEPTquestion,firstrememberthatyouneedtoeliminatethefourfeaturesthataretrueofallofthesocietiesmentioned.Youcangetridof(B)becausealloftheseearlysocieties developed ways to provide a constant source of water for agriculture.

Likewise, theyalldevelopedspecialization incraftwork,builtmonuments (pyramids,temples,ziggurats),anddivided labordutiesbygender, so (A), (C),and(E)arealsonottherightanswer.

5. B Peter the Great modernized eighteenth-century Russia by adopting Western-styleculture and ideas, establishing a central bureaucratic government, building a strongmilitary, and increasingagricultural and industrialproductivity.Hewasalsoa strictdictatorialruler,willingtouseforcetoachievehisends.

UsingPOE,youcaneliminate (A)becausePeter’seconomic reformswere successful,and (D) because Peter the Great could not be considered categorically enlightenedduringhisrule. (C) isalso incorrectbecauseordinarycitizens’ liveswerenotgreatlyimproved.Therewerefewcivilrights,increasedrestrictionswereplacedonorganizedreligion,andpeople in the lowerclasses stillhad fewopportunities to improve theirstatus.Ifthestoryin(E)soundsfamiliar,thatwasNicholasII,thelastczarofRussia—notPeter.

6.DAlthoughsocialismandcommunismwereontheriseinthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenth centuries, they were not factors that destabilized the balance of power.Theywerecertainlyfactorsthatledtothedestabilizationofinternaldevelopmentsincountries like Russia near the end of World War I, but during the time period inquestion,Europeanbalanceofpowerwasmoregreatlyimpactedbythedevelopmentslistedintheotherfouranswerchoices.

Using POE, you can eliminate any answer choice that describes a reason that onecountrybecamemoreorlesspowerfulthananothercountryinEuropeduringthelate1800s. You should definitely know that nationalism was impacting the balance ofpower, so eliminate (A). Nationalism led to unification in Italy and Germany, forexample.ThenewlyunifiedcountryofGermanyquicklybecameanindustrialpowerandeyeditsneighborsenviously,soeliminate(C).TheEuropeanpowersalsoeagerlygobbledupAfricaandAsia,extendingtheircollectiveinfluenceacrosstheglobeevenas they individually competedwitheachotherand felt threatenedby the increasingsize of each others’ empires, so get rid of (B). The subject peoples of the OttomanEmpire and Austro-Hungarian Empires, in particular, channeled their sense ofnationalismintosometimesviolentattacksagainsttheimperialauthorities.

7.D Using POE, remember that (A), brinksmanship, refers to the period when each sidebrandished itsmassive powers in a game ofmilitary chicken, such as in Cuba. (B),peacefulcoexistence, isalsoaColdWarterm.Basedontherecognitionthattheworldwasnevergoingtobe100percentdemocraticorcommunist,eitherway,thegoalwastopeacefullycoexist(fullyarmed,ofcourse),becausethealternativewas(C),mutualassured destruction, which justified the massive investment in weapons and warmachinesonbothsidesof theconflict.TheU.S.wenttowar inKorea,Vietnam,andotherplacestopreventthespreadofcommunism,apolicyknownas(E),containment.(D),appeasement,wasthetermusedtodescribeEuropeanleaders’willingnesstoallow

AdolfHitlertoseizeterritoryinEuropewithoutrepercussionspriortoWorldWarII.

8.C Ingeneral,allEuropeansplayedthecolonizationgameforthesamereasons:wealth,power, and racial and religious superiority. However, while the Spanish establishedlarge, permanent settlements in their colonies and encouragedSpaniards tomove totheAmericasthroughlandgrants,theFrencheitherhadlesssuccessorlessinterestintheseactivities.

Using POE, you can eliminate (A) because everyone was interested in resourceextraction.Youcanalsoeliminate(B)onceyourecallthatFrancealsoheldcoloniesinAfrica(Guinea,UpperVolta,andCongo)andSoutheastAsia(Indochina),plus“sharedcustody”of Indiaforatime.TheFrenchencounteredfewernativesthantheSpanishbecause their mode of colonization usually did not involve expansive land-baseddevelopment,meaningtheFrenchmayevenhaveconvertedalargerpercentageofthe(smallernumberof)nativestheyencountered—socrossout(D)and(E).

9.DFeudalismwastheprimarypoliticalsysteminwesternEuropeandJapanduringthemedieval period. Its main characteristics was a decentralized power structure thatstressed alliances between nobles and monarchs. The main difference betweenJapaneseandEuropeanfeudalismwasthatthesizeofthepeasantpopulationinJapanwasconsiderablysmallerthanthatinEuropeannations.

UsePOEandcommonsensetoeliminate(B).(Thinkofoneword:samurai.)(A)isnotthecorrectanswerbecausetherewasahierarchyofpowerinJapansimilartothatinEurope.TheJapanesedaimyowassimilartotheEuropeanlord.(C)isalsoincorrect.InbothEuropeandJapan,feudalismrepresentedadecentralizedsystemofgovernance,and,inboth,thepoweroftherulerwasinextricablytiedtothebondsheforgedwithlords. In Japan, the emperor probably had even less power with the rise of theshogunate (amilitary government). Upwardmobility did not characterize the lot ofpeasantsundereitherJapaneseorEuropeanfeudalism,soeliminate(E).

10.ETheGloriousRevolution(1688)representedachangeinpoliticalpowerthatoccurredasa resultofapeacefulcoup.James II, theCatholicbrotherofCharles II,dissolvedParliament over religious differences. Parliamentary leaders led an uprising againstJames, and, in his place, installed a dual monarchy held by James’ Protestantdaughter,Mary,andherhusband,William.

UsingPOE, you can immediately eliminate (C) becausewars of successionwere thenorminmanyEuropeannations.Itcertainlywasn’tthefirsttimeamonarchhadeverbeen deposed, so it isn’t (B). (A) is incorrect because the movement started withParliament. (D) is also incorrect because the new government was not secular—itreplacedaCatholicmonarchywithaProtestantone.

11.A Make sure you read the question carefully. While certain Western knowledge andtechnologyhaveprobablycontributedtobetterhealthcareandeducation,(B),thisis

notaby-productofthespreadofAmericanculture.AmericancultureisresponsiblefortheproliferationoffastfoodrestaurantsinKenyaandweeklybroadcastsofBaywatchin Russia. The influence ofmultinational corporations also spreadsWestern culture.And, in a significant number of nations, Western culture has replaced, or conflictswith,religionandlocalculture.ProtestsatWorldBankmeetingsandactsofterrorismagainstWestern interestsaresomeof theways inwhichthisanti-Americanbacklashhasbeenexpressed.Butwouldn’titbeniceif(D)and(E)weretrue?

12.ATheDelhiSultanatedidnotleavealong-lastingpoliticaloreconomiclegacyafterthefourteenth century. Its one contribution was the introduction of Islam into Indiansociety. There was a tremendous migration of Muslims into India as a result ofinstability inother Islamic lands,andmany Indiansembraced Islam. (Forone thing,womenhadmorerightsunderMuslimruleasopposedtoHindurule.)

Use POE and common sense to eliminate (B) and (D). African and central Eurasiantrade routes grewunderMuslimoccupationof India, and theMamluks consolidatedIndiaintoastrong,centralizedstate.ThecastesystemremainedanimportantpartofIndian life into the twentieth century, so (C) is also incorrect. China and Islamhistoricallydon’tgotogether,soyoucancrossoff(E),too.

13.DTheoutcomeofBismarck’splanwasthateverynationinsub-SaharanAfricafell intoforeign hands, except Ethiopia and Liberia. It was Bismarck’s goal tomaintain thatelusive “balance of power” among European nations, and the orderly division ofAfricanlandwasseenasonewayofavertingwar.TheBerlinConferenceof1884and1885laiddowntherulesforfuturecolonization.

Using POE, you can eliminate (B) because, while the United States attended themeetings where decisions about Africa were made, America did not participate inimperialism in that part of the world. You can also eliminate (A) because whileGermany did gain some lands in Africa (Togoland, Cameroon, German SouthwestAfrica),theFrenchandBritishheldmuchmoreterritoryinAfrica.(C)isoutbecauseeconomicandsocialpressuresledtoanendtoslavery,nottheplantopartitionAfrica.BroadindependenceforAfricannationswasadreamnotrealizeduntilthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,sotheregoes(E).

14.DWhilemany European nations relied on their colonies to be a steady source of rawmaterials and cheap labor and a readymarket formanufactured goods, imperialismwasnotanecessarycomponentof industrialization, so(D) is theanswer.Rememberon EXCEPT questions, four of the choices are true while the one that is not is theanswer.

15.E The Upanishadmovement was prompted by the focus of religious leaders on ritualinstead of substance. The Protestant Reformation was sparked by the sale ofindulgencesandotherperceivedabusesamongreligiousleaders.

IfyouknownothingoftheUpanishadmovementbutknowalittleabouttheProtestantReformation, you can use POE to eliminate both (B), (C), and (D) because none ofthesewasentirelytrueoftheProtestantReformation.(A)isoutbecausetheappealofboth reformmovementswas really to the lowerclasseswhocouldnotafford tobuysalvation(Protestantism)orwhowantedamore individualisticapproachtoreligions(Upanishad).

16. A The Four Noble Truths are associated with Buddhism. (C), Judaism, has the TenCommandments. (D), Islam, has Five Pillars. (B), Legalism, is not a religion.Zoroastrianism,(E),isanotherworldreligionfromIran,butitsbasisisnotfournobletruths.

17.AFirst,lookateachchoiceandmakesurethatthestatementistrueforboththeIncaandtheYuan.Ifit’sonlytrueforoneortheother,itcannotbethecorrectanswer.Inthe1200s,Mongol invasionofChina ledto theYuanDynasty. (RememberKublaiKhan?HewasaYuanruler.)Duringthisperiod,theterritoryofChinaexpandedgreatly,asdiditseconomyastraderoutesexpanded.WhileChinaflourishedunderYuanrule,theMongolsestablishedwhatamountedtoacastesystemwithnativeChinesehavinglittleability for advancement. In the late thirteenth century, Yuan rule ended with asuccessfulChineseuprising.

TheIncabeganasasmallcity-state,which,undermilitaristicnativerulers,eventuallyconqueredmuchofwesternSouthAmerica.TheIncandynastywasmostknownforitsextensive systemof roads, sophisticated farming techniques, and lackof a systemofwriting.AnotherfeaturewasthestrictclasssystemestablishedbytheIncanruler.TheIncanempireremainedstronguntilthemid-1500swhentheSpanisharrivedinSouthAmerica.

UsingPOE,eliminate(B)becauseit isnottrueofeithersocietyand(E)becauseit isnottrueoftheYuan.TheIncabeganasasmallsettlementinPeruandtheYuanwasformedthroughMongol invasion(althoughtheYuandid fallasaresultofapeasantuprising).WhiletheYuanDynastyreliedheavilyontrade,thereislittleevidencethattradeplayedalargeroleinIncansociety,so(C)isincorrect.While(D)istrueoftheYuan (China did flourish underMongol rule in terms of size of territory, economicgrowth, and peace), you knowwhat happened to native cultures once the explorersfoundtheirwaytotheAmericas.

18. A The Emancipation Act of 1861 “freed” the serfs and allowed them to work innonagricultural jobs. Itwas thispoolof labor thatmade industrializationpossible inRussia.UsePOEand common sense to eliminate (D).Youknow thatRussiadidnotembracecapitalism,evenduring thenineteenthcentury,andyoualsoknowthat theimprovementinthestandardoflivingrealizedinWesternnationswasneverachievedinRussia.WhileRussiadidbecomemoreinterestedinexpansionism,itwasprimarilytogainaccesstowaterroutes,notdevelopnewmarketsorprovideemploymentfortheworkingclass,soeliminate(B)and(E).Ifyoudidn’trememberthatRussiahadlarge

depositsof coalwithin itsownbordersandalsoa significant steel industry, (C) is asmartguess.

19.DTheBlackDeathwasanimportanthistoricaleventbecauseofthenumberofEuropeandeathsandbecauseofitsimpactonotherpartsoftheworld.Itservesasanillustrationof how theworld becamemore interdependent during the latemedieval period andhowtraderouteswereresponsiblenotonlyformovinggoodsandideas,butalsoforspreading disease. However, the Black Death occurred as feudalism was ending inwestern Europe. During this period there was more urbanization, more proto-industrialization,andmorecontactwithotherlandsthroughtradeandconquest.

Theotherfourchoicesaretrueandthereforenottheanswer.Startingwiththeplague’simpactonEurope,(A)and(C)aretiedtogether.ThestaggeringnumberofdeathsinEuropedidhave anegative (albeit temporary) impact onproductivity,whichwouldthenobviouslyhavean impacton supply.Thebubonicplagueactuallyoriginated inChinaandthenspreadthroughcentralEurasiabeforefinallylandinginSicilyin1347.(B) was a result of the Black Death’s arrival in China, and therefore cannot be thecorrectanswer.(E)mighthavebeenhardtoeliminateifyoudon’tknowmuchabouthumanism,butbecausereligiousfaithdidnotseemtohavediminishedthehorrorsoftheBlackDeath,WesternEuropeanthinkerswereconfrontedwiththeirownmortalityandbegan to study and extol the virtues of human existence. Thus, this is true andthereforenottheanswereither.

20.EDirectcolonizationofless-developedcountriesdidnotoccurduringtheColdWar.Theotherfouranswersaretrueandthereforenotcorrect.Commonsensetellsyou(D)istrue, as is (B)—support for dictatorial regimes in Nicaragua (Somoza) and Panama(Noriega)andthesupportforrebelgroupsinCubaandpost-SomozaNicaraguashowthe United States’ determination to prevent the spread of communism to LatinAmerica.TheSovietUnionprovidedarmsandmilitaryadvisorstoLebanon,Iraq,andAfghanistan,so(A)istrue.In1946,WinstonChurchillusedthephrase“ironcurtain”todescribetheSovietlockdownofitspeopleswithinEasternEurope,so(C)isalsotrueandthereforewrong.

21.EBetteraccess tomedical carewouldmean thatmorepeoplewould live longer, therewouldbefewerinfantdeaths,andsoon.IfyouusePOE,youdon’tneedthecharttoanswerthisquestion.Justcrossofftheanswerchoicesthatcouldberesponsibleforadeclining population in a developing, sub-Saharan nation. Eliminate (A), asreproductive planning generally means fewer births, then eliminate (B) and (C)becausemoreprosperousnationswherewomenareinvolvedintheworkforcetendtohave lower birth rates anyway.The impact ofHIV,AIDS,malaria, cholera, typhoid,and tuberculosis are exacerbated in poorer nations, (D). More people die of thesediseasesinless-developednationsthaninindustrializednations.

22.D Japan was one of the few nations able to withstand foreign dominance during thethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies.UsePOEtogetridofthenationsthatyouknow

were part of the Empire. The Mongol Empire included China (Yuan), Ukraine andRussia(Muscovy),India(DelhiandMughal),andPersia(Safavid).

23.BDuringthisperiod,theJapanesecuttieswithChinaandfocusedonthestudyofartandliterature.Asa result, Japandeveloped itsowncultural identity.UsecommonsenseandPOEtoeliminate(C)becauseJapanwasneveroccupiedbytheMongols,and(D)becauseJapanneveradoptedConfucianismasa state religion/philosophybut ratherembracedShintoismandBuddhism,bothofwhichremainmajor influences inJapantoday.While(E)maybedifficulttogetridofbecauseitsoundslogical,rememberthatmechanized printingwas aWestern invention (Gutenberg!), so cross that off.As for(A),Japandidn’tstarttoexploreandconqueruntilaftertheMeijiRestoration,butifyou’reunsurewhen theMeijiRestorationwas in relation to theHeianperiod,guessandgo.

24. D The Council of Trent was formed as part of the Catholic Counter-Reformation tocombattheriseofProtestantismbyinstitutingreformsintheCatholicChurch.Whileitfailed to end the spread of Protestant beliefs, certain fundamental changes wereadopted.Because(D)wasnotaresultoftheCouncil,itisthecorrectanswer,buttheotherfourchoicesaretrue.TheCouncildiddefineChurchtraditiononscriptures,(E).TheCounciloutlawedthesaleofindulgences,(A), inresponsetoLuther’sattacks.Inordertoreinforcetheperceptionof itspowerandmajesty,thechurchcommissionedreligious art andarchitecture, (B),muchof it in thebaroque style.Oneof themostsignificantactionsoftheCouncilofTrentcameinitsaffirmationofallofthechurchdoctrines,includingtherejectionoftheCalvinistbeliefinpredestination,(C).

25.D This quote dealswith the potential ofwomen,whichwas clearly not being realizedunder the contemporary social and governmental restrictions. Using POE, don’t bemisledbybits andpiecesof thequote.While “sensesquicker”might imply strengthand“femalewit”couldinsinuatehumor,neither(A)nor(B)arecorrect.Furthermore,he’snottellingmenit’sOKtomakefunofwomen—hegiveswomenmorecreditthanthat,socrossout(E).

WhileDafoeissayingthatwomen’strueabilitiesarenotwelldocumented,hedoesnotmeantosaythatnoevidencehasbeenofferedtoshowsuchintelligence.Instead,heisrallyingagainstthepoliciesthathavepreventedwomenfromrealizingtheirpotential,and he deems the best way to allow women to demonstrate their abilities will bethrougheducation.(C)isasmartguessbutincorrect.

26.DWhilemorenationsandsoldierswere involved inWorldWar I than inanypreviousmilitaryaction,theterm“totalwar”doesnotapplytoanswerchoices(A),(B),or(C).Additionally, the history ofWorldWar I is rifewith the taking of prisoners, so theanswer isn’t (E) either. Instead, it refers to the massive mobilization of resourcesnecessarytocarryoutamilitaryactionofthissize.Someofthetoolsnationsusedtoachieve this level of mobilization were: nationalization of key industries, centraleconomicplanning,andwartimerationing.

27.A The Tanzimat Reforms were a vast set of changes instated in the Ottoman Empirebetween1839and1876.Overall,thesereformsweremeanttomodernizetheempire,andtheirgoalwastosavetheempire.However,theywerenotultimatelysuccessful.Amongthechangesweremodernizing industry,grantingmorepoliticalandreligiousfreedom, expansion of the nation’s physical infrastructure, and the introduction ofWestern-styleeducation.Womenhadaccesstoeducation,therewasmoretoleranceofnon-Muslimcitizens,andthegovernmentwassecularized.However,thosereformsdidnotgosofaras isstatedin(E),and(B),(C),and(D)werenotpartof theTanzimatReforms.

28.EYouneedtoselecttheanswerchoicethatisnotatruestatementaboutAkbartheGreat.TheTajMahalwasbuiltbyShahJahanasatributetohiswife,notbyAkbartheGreat.JahanruledafterAkbar,from1628to1658.

Evenifyoudon’tknowwhobuilttheTajMahal,youcanusePOEtoeliminatethingsthatyouknoware trueaboutAkbar. Ifyou remember thathewasamilitary leaderwhobuiltpowerfulcivilizationsbasedonprosperityandtolerance,youshouldbeabletoeliminate (A)and (C), ifyou rememberwhere theMughalempirewas located. Ifyouaren’tsureabouttheremaininganswerchoices,youshouldtakeyourbestguessandmoveon.IfyourecallthatAkbaracceptedthepracticeofallreligionsduringhisreign and even attempted to create a new faith, Divine Faith, in which he tried tocombine elements of Zoroastrianism, Jainism, Hinduism, and Christianity, you caneliminate (D). Youmight also recall that Akbar tried to end the practice of sati, inwhichhigh-casteHinduwomen threw themselves to their deathson theirhusbands’funeralpyres,whichwouldeliminate(B).

29.DHereistheimportantpointtoremember:In1215,KingJohnneededmoneytowagehis war with France. The only way to “persuade” the nobles to fund his militarycampaignwastosigntheMagnaCarta,whichguaranteedbasicrightstonobilityandrestricted the ability of the king to increase taxes.While theMagnaCartadidplaceadditionalrestrictiononthepowersoftheking,itdidlittletoreversethetrendtowardamorecentralizedandstrongernationalgovernment.

UsingPOE,youcaneliminate(A)becauseEnglishcommonlaw(andtheinstitutionofgrandandpetitjuries)wascodifiedunderHenryIIin1166.WhiletheideaofgreaterrightsandrepresentationwascontainedintheMagnaCarta,itwasn’tuntillaterinthethirteenthcentury,underEdwardI, that the firstParliamentwasconvened,so(B) isnottheanswer.YouknowthattherewereplentyofEnglishkingsafterJohnandthatconflictoversuccessionisacommonthemeinEnglishhistory,soeliminate(C).Itwasone of those subsequent English kings, Henry VIII, who established the AnglicanChurchwithhimselfastheheadwiththeActofSupremacyin1534,longafterJohnmadehisdealwiththenobles,soitisn’t(E).

30.BBothGandhiandMaoworked to reform the socialorderof their respective societiesalbeit in different ways. Gandhi spoke often of both the suffering and the great

potentialofthepeasantclassesandevenpromotedtheabolitionofthe“untouchable”caste.AndMaowasclearlydriventotapthegreatpotentialofChina’speasantsandtocreateanegalitariansocietyduring theCulturalRevolution.UsePOEandbesure toselect the answer choice that is true of both Gandhi andMao. Both (A) and (E) areincorrectbecauseMaowasn’tshyaboutpromotingchangefrom“thebarrelofagun,”but Gandhi actively practiced nonviolence. Both (C) and (D) are incorrect as MaoactivelyworkedtoeliminatereligionfromChinesesocietywhereasGandhipromotedreligiousunitybetweenMuslimsandHindus.

31.EInKiev,PrinceVladimirIconvertedtoChristianity,therebyfosteringthespreadofthatreligion through eastern Europe. TheMamluks becameMuslims and helped protectIslamicsocietyandculturefromattacksfromMongolsandCrusaders.

TousePOE,rememberthatthecorrectanswerwillbethestatementthatistrueaboutboth the Vikings and the Mamluks. The Vikings, descendents of Germanic warriortribes,wereknownfortheirplunderingraidsofwesternEurope(England,Normandy)andforestablishingKievandNovogrodinRussia.VikinginvasionsineasternEuropelinkedSlavs to therestof theworldthroughexpandedtraderoutes.Remember, too,thattheVikingswereexcellentopen-seasnavigators(theywerebelievedtobethefirstEuropeanstocrosstheAtlantic).Armedwiththisinformation,youcaneliminate(A),(B),and(C).TheMamlukswereformerTurkishmilitaryslavesintheIslamicEmpire—notknownfortheirseafaringskills,socrossout(D)—whooverthrewtheAyyubaddynastyinthethirteenthcenturyandruledpartsofEgypt,Syria,andArabiafortwocenturies.

32.A On the surface, it would not appear that these two societies would have much incommon,butthinkaboutmoregeneralcomparisonsandyou’llfindthattheydosharesomeimportantfeatures.Theonlyanswerthatworksforbothis(A).Mercantilestates(Genoa,Pisa,Venice)grewin Italyasaresultof industryandtrade,andowingtoastrong economyandnewagricultural techniques, the Songwere themosturbanizedsocietyoftheirtime.

Eliminate (E) immediately because of Italy’s long history with Catholicism and itsvariousmovementsandtraditions,evenifyoudon’trecallthattheSongwereallaboutneo-Confucianism,whichisnotareligion.Conversely,(B)istruefortheSong,butnotfor Italy. China continued to be ruled by a strong emperor, supported by neo-Confucianismandastrongcentralbureaucracy.Ontheotherhand,eachItaliancity-statewasruledbythedominantfamilyandnotsubjecttoanynationalauthority.

POEwillhelpyoueliminate(C)becauseChina,havingastatephilosophyinsteadofastate religion, did not have a spiritual leader. (Italy, on the other hand, did have aspiritualleaderinthepope,but,asnotedabove,nosinglesecularruler.)Chinamighthave depended on the Silk Route, but the Italians had theMediterranean Sea withwhich to conduct their trade activities. In addition, other overland routes toEuropeandNorthAfricahadbeenopenedduringtheCrusades.(D)isnottherightanswer.

33.BHellenismreferstotheadoptionofvariouselementsofGreekcivilizationbyotherpartsoftheworld.Greekarchitecturereliedheavilyonusingmarbleandotherhardstonesinbuildingconstruction,andthespreadofthisstyletosouthwestAsiaisanexampleofHellenism. (A) is incorrect because gothic architecture was a feature of medievalwestern Europe, not ancient Greece. While monotheism did spread beyond theMediterraneanandtradeexpandedsouthandwest,neitherareuniquelyGreek,so(C)and (D) are incorrect. Finally, because we’re talking about the Greeks, not theirhistoricenemies,thePersians,(E)isinnowayacorrectanswertothequestion.

34.DEvenifyouarenotsurewhatmonasticismisyoucanstillusePOEtoeliminateatleastanswer choice (C) because Confucianism is not a religion, but rather a philosophy.Monasticism refers to the establishment of communities, called monasteries, wheremonkscouldwithdrawfromthesecularworldtoleadlivesdevotedtotheirreligion.Thecorrectansweris(D).ChristianmonasticismbeganinthethirdcenturyinEgypt.Interestingly,monasticismisexpresslyforbiddenintheBaha’ifaith,(E).

35.AMore than other questions on the test, political cartoons allow you to use commonsense to eliminate incorrect answers.Youknow that theproblems facingworkers attheendof thenineteenthcenturydidnotmagicallydisappearwith thebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.American laborunions(suchas theAFLandtheCIO)didnotarise until the 1900s, and labor unionmembership continued to growuntil the late1900s.Therefore,(B)and(C)canbeeliminated.While(D)istrue,it’snotanaccurateinterpretation of the cartoon. Finally, (E) should strike you as intuitively wrong onseverallevels—slaveryinthenineteenthcenturywasnotparticularlygoodtoanyone,andifitwere,whysaygoodbye?

36. E Neo-Confucianism was a movement that synthesized Confucianism, Buddhism, andDaoism. Developed during the Song Dynasty, it became the dominant philosophyduring theMingDynasty.While loyalty to governmentwas an important feature ofneo-Confucianism, family structurewas the foundation for all other relationships inone’slife.

The other four choices are true and therefore not the answer.With an emphasis onmoralbehavior,filialpiety,andsocialorder,neo-Confucianismisnotallthatdifferentfrom Confucianism. Therefore, (D) is a correct statement about neo-Confucianism.Because neo-Confucianism blended Dao and Buddhist elements, it wasmore widelyacceptedoutsideofChina. Indeed, itbecamean influentialphilosophy inJapanandKorea,especiallywiththeadoptionofmeritocracy,so(B)isnottheanswer.TheMingresurrected the examination system, and, as Confucianist scholars rose to higherpositionsofpowerinthebureaucracy,theyworkedtolimitthepowerofgroupswhomthey perceived as threats—the military and the merchant classes. (A) and (C) arecorrectstatements,soneitheristheanswer.

37.BSilentSpringwaspublishedin1962andoutlinedtheenvironmentaldangersassociatedwith the use of DDT. It ushered in an era of increased environmental concern and

greater awareness of the interconnectedness of biological systems and worldeconomies.

38.DSpanishplantationswereestablishedtogrowsugarcane(andothercashcrops).UsingPOE and common sense you can eliminate both (A) and (B). All mother countriesengagedinmercantilism;itwasoneoftheprimaryreasonsforcolonization.Also,youknow that many Spaniards came to the NewWorld, many under the auspices of apapalmandateforconversionofthenativestoCatholicism.ButSpain’struegoalsweremoreaboutlandandprofits,whichmeantcompletecontrolofthelandanditspeople,regardlessofwhatreligiontheyfollowed.

To decide between (C) and (D), you need to rememberwhat the primary source ofeconomic gain was in Spain’s colonies. Half of answer (C) is correct—the Spanishexploitedthenaturaldepositsofgold in theAmericas.However, saltwasnotoneofthe resources that made Spain rich off the New World. (C) is a smart guess eventhoughtheansweris(D).

39. B Both civilizations developed strong central governments run by bureaucrats. InByzantium,bureaucratsweretrainedattheUniversityofConstantinople.IntheT’angDynasty, the bureaucrats (mandarins) had to pass civil service exams to entergovernmentservice.

TousePOEonthisquestion,rememberyouneedtoselecttheanswerthatistrueforbothof thesecivilizations. (A) is true for theByzantineEmpire (Constantinople),butnotfortheT’ang.Thecapitalcity,Changan,grewintothelargestcityintheworldatthe time. (C) is true of Byzantium only, in which the emperor was considered arepresentative of God and Greek Orthodoxy was the foundation of the civilization.While Buddhism was still popular during the T’ang Dynasty, Confucianism was farmore influential ingovernmentandprivate life. (D) isa trickyanswerchoice.WhileyouknowthatsilkweavingwasimportanttotheChineseeconomy,italsobecametheprimaryindustryinByzantiumaftertwomonkssmuggledsilkwormeggsoutofChinaon amissionary visit. (E), too, can be kind of rough, as bankruptcy and corruptionhave certainly destroyed plenty of governments, but while there were some regimeproblemswiththeByzantinegovernmentanditsmanagementoftheempire,theT’angwere taken down by an armed rebellion they could not contain, even with outsidehelp.

40.ARememberyouarelookingfortheanswerthatisnottrue—commonsensecantellyouthat (A)doesn’tmake sense, so it is theanswer.Even if youdon’t knowverymuchaboutthehistoryoftheMiddleEast,wouldn’tthediscoveryofsomethingasimportantaspetroleumleadtoanincreaseinpoliticalpower?Ofcourseitwould.AslongasyouknowthatmostOPECcountriesareintheMiddleEast,youcangetthisquestionright.As for the wrong answers, the Iranian Revolution was all about religiousfundamentalism,so(B)istrue;modernizationandthebasictenetsofanyreligiontendto come into conflictwith eachother, so (C) is true; nationalism led to civilwar in

AfghanistanandtogenocideagainsttheKurdsinIraq,so(D)istrue;andwhilethereare supportersofWestern idealsandmilitary interventions in theMiddleEast, therearealsomanywhodecrytheWesternwayoflife,so(E)isalsotrue.

41.AWithbetterconditions,therewaslessreasonforthelevelofrevoltcalledforbyKarlMarx.Moreover,manyofthesereformscamebecauseofthedemandsmadebylaborunions.Manyworkerschosetojoinunionsratherthanstagecommunistrevolts.

42. E Sun Yat-sen was considered the father of modern China. As the founder of theRevolutionaryAlliance,heoustedtherulingQingDynastyandformedtheNationalistParty in1911and1912.The goal of theNationalistswas to create a representativedemocracybasedonthePeople’sPrinciples:nationalism,democracy,andlivelihood.

UsingPOE,youcaneliminate(B)and(D).TheFiveYearPlanisassociatedwithMaoZedong,notSunYat-sen.Plus, the communistpartyhadnotyetbeen formedat thetimeofSunYat-sen’sadministration.(Thecommunists tookover in1949.)SunYat-senoverthrewtheQing,nottheBritish,whichmakes(C)incorrect.TaiwanbecameaterritoryofJapanattheendoftheSino-JapaneseWarin1895.Asfor(A),thatdidn’thappen.

43.BThe importanceofbothcodeswasthat theyattemptedtoorganizeexisting laws intoformats thatcouldbeunderstoodandapplied fairly toeveryone.UsecommonsenseandPOEtoeliminate(A)and(D).(A)isincorrectbecausetheCodeofHammurabiwascreatedbefore theBible. (D) is incorrectbecausebothsetsof lawsapplied(howeverunevenly)toallmembersoftheirrespectivesocieties.(C)isalsoincorrect.Rememberthattheconceptof“aneyeforaneye”isderivedfromtheCodeofHammurabi,whichalsocontainedotherstrictpunishments.Furthermore,inneitherofthesesocietiesdidslaveshaveanysignificantrights,letalonetherighttobringtheirmasterstocourt,as(E)suggests.

44.CThediscoveryofhugediamondandgolddeposits inSouthAfricamadeitoneof themost sought-after territories.Use POE to eliminate (A). By the late 1800s, the slavetradehadbeen abolished.While industrializednationswere always looking for newmarketsfortheirgoods,(B)isincorrectbecausethisdidnotplaythegreatestroleinEuropean interest in South Africa. Nor did (D). By the late 1800s, the trade routesaroundsouthernAfricahadbeenwellestablished,andtheopeningoftheSuezCanalin 1869made the water route around the Cape of Good Hope less relevant. SouthAfricawasnotacriticalarea inthespreadof Islam,especiallynot in thenineteenthcentury,andIslamhadlittleimpact,ifanyatall,onEuropeanambitionsinthearea.

45.BIfyou’llremember,AdamSmithisarguablythefatherofmodern-dayeconomics.InTheWealth of Nations, he notes that economies work best with the least possibleinterference.Thisquotestatesthatgovernmentalleadersshouldnotinterferewiththeeconomy and further notes that there should be no restrictions on imports. (A) isclearlyincorrect.Ideasaboutsocialwelfaresystems,(C),minimumhourlywages,(D),

andgovernment stimulus in recessions (E), arenotmentioned in thisquote,plusallthreeideasruncountertoSmith’slaissez-faireeconomics.

46.D The invention of malaria-resistant drugs, better methods and tools to cut throughforests,andlargerandfastershipsallowedcolonizationofonce-remoteareas.TousePOE,letthemapdomostofthework.Accordingtothemap,thedominantimperialpowerinAfricawasGreatBritain,notBelgium,so(A)cannotbethecorrectanswer.As for (B), there were only two nations in sub-Saharan Africa who remainedindependentby1910:EthiopiaandLiberia.Usingthemapwillhelpyoueliminatethatchoice.(C)beginswithatruestatement;BritainandFrancedidgainmorelandduringthis time period. However, so did Portugal, although not to the same extent. (C) isincorrect.Also,itwasnotexhaustionofcoastalresourcesthatdroveEuropeansinland—theyhadbeen exploiting the coastal areas for centuries, but shortageswerenot aseriousconcern,muchlesswhatpromptedmorecolonizationoftheinterior.

47.DBothMaliandGhanahadsubstantialdepositsofgold,andwiththemintingofcoins(ingold and silver), these two societies grew in importance. If youknow thatMali andGhanaarebothinsub-SaharanAfrica,youcanusePOEtoeliminate(A)and(C).Thesplitbetweenthechurches,invasionsincentralEurope,andmilitaryconquestsintheMiddleEastdidnothaveadirect impactonMaliandGhana. (B)wouldbeabetterchoice if itwere about the decline of the Silk Route; however, it’s unlikely that therevivalof this trade routewouldhavehadapositive impacton thegrowthof thesetwo lands. The Protestant Reformation, though, was a European event that had nodirectbearingonMaliandGhanaatthetime.

48.A Japan’s invasion ofManchuria was condemned by the League of Nations, so Japanwithdrewitsmembershipin1931.GermanylefttheLeaguein1933.UsePOEandbesuretopicktheanswerthatistrueofbothJapanandGermany.OneofthereasonsforHitler’sascendancywastheWeimarRepublic’sfailuretobringeconomicprosperitytoGermany after the heavy penalties imposed at the end of World War I—penaltiesimposedonGermanybutnotonJapan(whichwasactuallyontheothersideinthatconflict), so cross out (E). While Japan did have a strong economy, control of thewealthrestedinthehandsoftheelite.Neither(B)nor(D)iscorrect.Giventhehumanrights violations perpetrated by Hitler’s administration, you can eliminate (C) as acorrectanswerchoice.

49.ETheencomienda system,apartofSpanish imperialism in theAmericas,gavecolonialland-ownerstherighttousenativelabor.Theresultswereasystemnotverydifferentthan (D), chattel slavery.TheenslavementofNativeAmericansdeclined in themid-sixteenthcenturyasaresultofChurchandgovernmentaledictsandthegrowthoftheAfricanslavetrade.

YoucanusePOEtoeliminate(B)and(D):feudalismwasneverusedinthecolonies(itendedabouttwocenturiesbeforetheAgeofDiscovery!),andassemblylineproductionwas a twentieth century innovation. While you might think that Spain might have

governed its coloniesunderanenlightenedmonarch (not true), ithasnothing todowith the encomienda system. Also, while mercantilism was an essential part of therelationshipbetweencoloniesandcolonizers, it involvedeconomicconstraints.(A)isnot the rightanswer.Corporatecolonieswere thoseestablishedbynongovernmentalbodies, such as theDutch East India Company and the British East India Company.Spanish colonies, on the otherhand,were firmlyunder royal control. (C) is not therightanswer.

50.D Beginning in the late 700s, Muslim invaders (Moors) inhabited parts of Spain andPortugal. In the thirteenthcentury, theReconquistabegan,whichwasanattempt toremoveIslamicinfluencefromtheIberianPeninsula.TheReconquistawascompletedin1492.RemembertochoosetheanswerthatisnottrueabouttheReconquista.(A)istrue and is, therefore, not the correct answer. A strong military, an expansionistgovernment,andafearoffutureMuslimincursionsledSpaintoinvadenorthernAfricaandsouthernItaly.

TheSpanishInquisitionarosefromtheReconquista.ProbablyasabacklashtoIslamicdomination,theCatholicChurchinSpainwasextremelyintolerant.MuslimsandJewswererequiredtorenouncetheirfaithandconverttoChristianityorleavethecountry.(B)and(E)werebothoutcomesoftheReconquista,soneitheristhecorrectanswer.(C) also occurred. Because freedom came to different areas at different times, Spaindevelopedasagroupof independent states; someof them, likeCastilleandAragon,were quite strong. It took the marriage of Ferdinand (of Aragon) and Isabella (ofCastille) to finallyunite thenation.The formationof thispowerfulmonarchymeansthat (D) is the correct answer. Civil war did not occur as a direct result of theReconquista.

51. E In Han China, merchants had less status than farmers and artisans because theyproduced no substantial products. Use POE to eliminate the societies that heldmerchants inhighesteemandwherethemerchantclassparticipated inpoliticalandsocialactivities:(A),Byzantium,(B),TudorEngland,and(D),Rome.InJapan,theriseof international trade led to organized guilds of merchants, which formed aninfluentialclassinJapan,so(C)isalsoincorrect.

52.A Islamic societywas relativelyegalitarian,and therewereno formalclassbarriers. Incontrast,Romansocietywasverystructuredwithnumerousclassdifferentiationsandbarrierstoupwardmobility.Youcaneliminate(B)usingPOE.Commonsensetellsyouthat the survival of both of these civilizations was dependent on agriculturalproduction.WhileRomedidfallforpoliticalreasons(aswellasahostofothercauses),theIslamiccivilizationalsocollapsedduetointernaldivisions.PersiaandEgyptbrokeaway from the empire in the 900s, and by the 1200s the Islamic Empire wasoverthrownby theTurksand then theMamluksandwasneveragainasunitedas itwasduringtheAbbasidDynasty.(C) is incorrect. (D) isalso incorrect.WhileIslamicscientificachievementsmighthavebuiltonearlierGreekfindings,thecontributionsinmathematics, astronomy, chemistry, and medicine were not derived from other

cultures. Nor was Islamic art, which focused on elaborate geometric shapes andpatternsandornatecalligraphy(Greekartfocusedonthehumanform,whichwasnotallowed to be depicted according to the Qu’ran). As a matter of fact, Rome’s art,literature, and scientific thought were also based on Hellenistic forms. (E) is alsoincorrect,astheRomanEmpirewasnotentirelyagricultural.

53.AAlexandertheGreatspreadHellenism(Greekculture)throughoutmuchoftheknownworld.He conquered the Persian Empire and expanded his empire all theway intoIndia.

Thereareacouplewaysyoucanapproachthisquestionevenifyouaren’t100percentsureof theanswer.First,even ifyouaren’t surewho the leaderof theMacedonianswas,youcaneliminatepeoplewhoyourememberledotherempires.Second,youcanfocusonthenamesofpeoplewhoyourememberweremajorworldconquerors,evenifyoucan’trememberwhatculturetheywerefrom.Youcaneliminateboth(B)and(E)becauseJuliusCaesarwasfromRomeandHannibalwasfromCarthage—neitherwasfromGreecenorMacedonia.Asfor(C)and(D),PericlesandSocrateswerebothGreek,butneitherweremajorworld conquerors.Pericles ledGreece throughagoldenage,andSocrateswasaphilosopher,notafighter.

54.E Even though the Islamic world lost power during this period, it continued to exertinfluence in the Balkans, Turkey, India, Malaysia, and areas in sub-Saharan Africa.Eliminatethoseanswerchoicesyouknoware trueaboutMuslimsocietiesduringthistimeperiod.TheintellectualgrowthrepresentedbytheRenaissancedidnotspreadtothe Islamicworld.While certainMuslimnation-states (Mughal India, SafavidPersia)becameknownfor theirartisticcontributions, therewasnocorrespondinggrowth inscientific, political, or technological intellectualism in the Islamicworld. (A) is true,and is therefore not the answer. (B) is also a true statement. By themid-1700s, theMughal state failedaswarlords competed forpowerand IslamicandHindu factionsengagedincivilwar. Inthe late1700s, theSafavidEmpirewasweakenedthroughasuccession of incompetent rulers. Even the Ottomans, turned away at Vienna, wereweakened(althoughtheirempiredidpersistuntiltheendofWorldWarI).Thisfailureofpoliticalunitsalsoledtoeconomicdisunityanddepression.

A combinationof the factors outlined in (A) and (B) resulted in theMuslimworld’sinabilitytocompetewithEuropeannationsinworldtradeortheracetocolonizeotherlands.Both(C)and(D)arealsoaccurategeneralizationsandthereforenottheanswer.

55. C When the Jacobins took power in 1792, King Louis and Marie Antoinette wereexecuted.Butbeforethat—asadirectresultofthe1789Revolution—thegoalwastocreate a constitutional monarchy modeled on that of Great Britain. Using POE,eliminate (A); the FrenchRevolutiondid indeed engender strongnationalist feelingsamongtheentirecitizenry.WhiletheFrenchRevolutionresultedinthedeclarationofequalrightsforallcitizens(intheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandoftheCitizen),equalrightswerenotgrantedtowomen,soeliminate(B).(D)canalsobeeliminated.

Also,youshouldknowthatLouisXVIandhisqueenMarieAntoinettewereexecutedaspartoftherevolution,notexiled,socrossout(E).

Thatleaves(C):TheradicalstageoftheFrenchRevolutionbeganastheurbanworkingclassorsans-culottes,unhappywiththelimitedpowertheyhad,becamemoreinvolvedinpublicprotests.Thiswasinresponsetocounter-revolutionaryactionsonthepartofthekingandtheclergy,butoutsideofthecontrolofthelegislativebody,theNationalAssembly.BySeptember1792,Pariswasinturmoil,theKingandQueenforcedtoflee,andthemonarchywasabolished.Therevolutionwasnowinthehandsofthepeople.

56. C While maintaining independence and building strong nations was difficult almosteverywhere, the process of gaining freedom was more difficult in South Africa,Rhodesia,andtheBelgianCongo.Eliminateanswersthataretoobroadbecausetheycannotapplytoalloftheindependencemovementsinsub-SaharanAfrica.(A)isnotatruestatement,andneitheris(E).ImperialrulehadsuppressedconflictsbetweenrivaltribesinNigeria,Zaire,andtheCongo,butethnicclashesaroseoncethetribeswereindependent. In other nations, dictatorial governments carried out terror campaignsagainst opposition and minority groups (Uganda, Central African Republic). WhileSouth Africa and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) retained white rule until well into thetwentieth century, most other nations of sub-Saharan Africa were not governed bywhitesaftergainingindependence.(B)isnotcorrect.

Foreigninvestmentmighthavemadethetransitioneasier;however, it ishardtotellbecausetherewassolittleofit.Oneofthebiggestproblemseverynewnationfacedwas how to build economies that had been weakened through monoculture andmercantilism for generations. Unfortunately, much of this aid was tied to militarystrategy, as in Angola where the West backed the National Union and the SovietssupportedtheNationalFront.Thisbrandof“foreigninvestment”resultedinyearsofcivilwarandeconomicinstability.(D)isnotthecorrectanswer.

57.CThecorrectansweris(C)becauseyouarelookingforanimpact.SinceSocialDarwinismapplies Darwin’s theories of natural selection to the social realm, (B) can beeliminated. (A) and (D) can be eliminated since neither is relevant to the question.Remember thatDarwin’s theories of evolutionwereused tomake racial distinctionsbasedonnaturalselectionandcompetition.Bythelatenineteenthcentury,thistheorywasusedtoexplainthesuperiorityoftheEuropeansoverthosetheyhadconqueredinAfricaandAsia.(E)isalsonottheanswer,becauserespectforlabormovementswouldhave run counter to the sort of laissez-faire economics that Social Darwinismsupported.

58. C The Ming Dynasty (beginning in 1368) represented a time when China prosperedeconomically, socially, and culturally. While neo-Confucianism meshed Confucian,Buddhist, and Daoist thought, China did not embrace any official state religion.(Confucianismandneo-Confucianismareconsideredphilosophies,notreligions.)

Theother fourchoicesare trueand thereforenot theanswer.AfteryearsofMongolrule, the Chinese expelled all Mongols, (A), and restored an examination-based,Confucianist government system. During the Ming era, China embraced anexpansionistic foreign policy and sought to increase its influence through increasedconquestandtrade,(B).TheMingdynastyrealizedthatattemptingtodirectlygovernsuch a large (and somewhat diverse) geographic area would be impossible; theyinsteadchosetoimposeasystemofpayingtributeontheselands,(D).Thenavalshipssailedtothesefarawaylandstocollectthetribute.Athome,theMingrulersadoptedacivilserviceexambasedonConfucianprinciples,so(E)isalsotrueandthereforenottheanswer.

59.EMuhammadAlibecametherulerofEgyptin1805aftertheFrenchwereexpelledfromthecountry in1801andpowerwas taken from theOttomans.He isbestknown forushering Egypt into the modern age through industrialization, imperialism, and byadopting Western political and educational systems (and for boxing! Just kidding).Underhisrule,Egyptbecamemoreprosperousandindependent,andheruledEgyptuntilhisdeath.(C)isnotthecorrectanswer.(B)isincorrectforanumberofreasons.First,theEgyptiansdidnotadoptademocraticformofgovernment.Second,theydidnotextendsuffragetowomen.OnepurposeofmodernizationeffortswastostrengthenEgypttowithstandforeigninfluenceduringatimewhentherestofthecontinentwasbeingpartitionedamongEuropeannations.Isma’ildecidedtobuildacanaltolinktheMediterranean and Red Seas, and the Suez Canal was amarvel of engineering andbecame an important economic andmilitary link betweenAsia, Africa, and Europe.However, enormous debts forced Egypt to sell its shares in the canal to England in1875,andwithcontroloftheSuezCanal,theBritishalsoassumedpoweroverEgypt.Therefore(D)isincorrect.Tothisday,IslamisanimportantforceinEgypt,whichhasnotbecomeentirelysecularized,sotheanswerisnot(A).

60.AKarlMarxbelievedthattheproletariatrevolutionwouldoccurwhenindustrialworkersrecognized the oppressive ways of the bourgeoisie industrialists and bankers. Hisargument was based on a class conflict that would arise as a natural outcome ofindustrialization.NeitherRussia(in1917)norChina(in1921)wereindustrialized.So,in both nations, Marxism was adapted to accommodate a nonurban population. InChinatheCommunistPartyorganizedpeasants,andunderMaoZedongthelandwasgiventoagriculturalworkers.

(E) is not correct because industrialization is an important factor in setting up theproletariatrevolution,notaconsequence,but(B)and(C)aren’ttrueeither.Capitalistpolicieswerecautiouslyadoptedinthe1980sand1990s.TheChinesedidnothavetoadaptMarxismtoaccommodateimperialism,(D).Marxnotedthatimperialists(aswellas capitalists)were the enemy, so itwas the job of all good communists to removeimperialistsfromtheirholding(andreplacethemwithcommunists,ofcourse).

61.EUnder theconceptofMandateofHeaven,Chinese rulerswereperceived tohave theblessing of heaven so long as they ruled justly andwisely. If society crumbled and

rulersweredefeatedoroverthrown,itwasbelievedtobesobecausetherulershadlosttheirmandatebyrulingunjustlyorunwisely.ThisconceptledtostabilitywithinmanyChinesedynastiesbecauseitencouragedpeopletoobeytherulerassomeonewhowasrightfullyinthepositionofauthority.

ItshouldimmediatelyoccurtoyouthattheChinesedidnotpracticehumansacrifice,socrossout(C).IfyouremembertheapproximatetimeperiodoftheZhou(orChou)Dynasty, you can eliminate evenmore answer choices. The ZhouDynasty lasted forabout 900 years starting around 1100 B.C.E. If you recall that Buddhism didn’t evenbegininIndiauntilaround500B.C.E.anddidn’tspreadtoChinauntilafewcenturieslater, you can immediately eliminate (B) and (D). During the latter Zhou dynasty,Daoism and Confucianism impacted China, but not Buddhism. Answer choice (A)describesDivineRightinEuropemorethanMandateofHeaveninChina.

62.CThecartoonismeanttoshowthatStalinwasgivinghissatellitenationsaprogramthatcould not provide the same level of support as the Marshall Plan. COMECON, theCouncil for Mutual Economic Assistance, was a Soviet plan that offered economicassistancetocommunistblocnations.ItwasestablishedtocompetewiththeMarshallPlan.

UsingPOEandthecartoonitself,eliminate(B)and(D)becauseneitherofthesecanbeinterpreted from this graphic. COMECONwas not limited to agricultural production(althoughyoumight think this from the cartoon). (A) isnot the correct answer. (E)alsodoesn’tmakesense(andcanbeeliminated)ifyoulookatthepicture:TheworkersonStalin’ssideofthefenceareunhappilyplowingrocks,whilethoseontheothersidearehappilytakingtotheirfieldswithtractors.

63. A Artistic expression took the form of geometric shapes and patterns and elaboratecalligraphy, also known as arabesque. Most art from the Islamic Empire—of whichplentyofexamplesstillexist,soeliminate(E)!—isreligiousinnature,andsinceIslamprohibitedtherepresentationofpeopleandanimalsinartwork,youcaneliminate(B)because it involves these forms of expression. (C) can also be eliminated becausepyramidsareassociatedwithancientEgyptiansociety,notIslam.(D)isalsoincorrectfor a number of reasons. First, Greek and Roman art depicted human and animalforms, which would not have been adopted by Islam. Second, Islamic artisticexpressionwasuniquetotheregionandcultureandnotderivedfromothercultures.

64.DConfucianismisabeliefsystemthatholdstheneedsofthegroupabovetheneedsoftheindividualanddeclaresthatifeachpersonlivesuptotheresponsibilitiesinherentto their role in life (parent, to child, to ruler, subject), society will function in anorderlyway.

You can use POE to get the right answer even if you only remember the basics ofConfucianism.(C)hastogobecauseitisalmosttheoppositeofConfucianism,whichstresses societal obligations. (A) can be eliminated because Confucianism seeks to

maintainaclasssystemandhierarchy,notequality,byencouragingcorrespondingsetsofobligationsbetweenlevels(suchasrulerandsubject,orolderbrotherandyoungerbrother).Eliminate(B)becauseConfucianismisasocialbeliefsystemconcernedwithsocialorder,notareligionconcernedwithsalvation.Finally,(E)isnotadescriptionofConfucianism(praying?—notareligion!)butratherofIslam.

65.D Industrializationledtoincreaseddemandandcompetitionforresourcesandmarkets,aswellastoaneedtotransportthoseresources(andtheproductstheybecame)toandfromthosemarkets.Europeannations(andJapan) foundimperialismtobethemosteffectivewayofsecuringtheseneeds.Theotherchoicesaretrueandthereforenottheanswer. Working conditions in early factories were abhorrent, as were the livingconditions in urban areas. Reform movements to limit child labor, protect workersrights,andprovidesanitaryconditionsdidarise,(A).Eliminate(B)becausedivisionoflabor is intrinsically associated with the Industrial Revolution, and (C) since theinventionofequipmentliketheginmillandthegrowthofplantationsinthewesternhemisphere, therewere increased demands for slaves. Finally, cross out (E) becausetheneedtomovepeople,resources,andgoodsbetweenproductionsitesandmarketsdidleadtoinnovationsintransportationtechnology.

66.DThetranslationofreligioustextsintonativelanguagesmadepeoplemoreeagertolearnhowtoread.UsingPOE,eliminate(B)becausetheprintingpresswasavaluabletoolusedduringtheReformationbutwasnotinventedasaresultofthemovement.(C)istrickybecausetheReformationdidspurquestioninginotherfields,butwecannotsaythat these inquiries were a direct result of the movement. Although ProtestantismspreadthroughoutmanyEuropeannations(Switzerland,France,theNetherlands),theOttomanEmpireandSoutheastAsiawerenotprimeareasforconversion.(Althoughinlateryears,missionariesdidtrytospreadreligionthroughouttherestofEuropeandAsia.) (A) is incorrect. Furthermore, (E) is not the answer because the ProtestantReformationhadnothingtodowiththeFrenchRevolution,whichoccurredmorethan250yearslater.

67.CBeforetheCrusades,theIslamicEmpirewasinastateoffragmentationanddecline.Asuccessionofweakand/orcorruptrulersandpoliticalfeudingbetweenrivalstatesledtothebreakupofthelargerempire(however,regionalIslamickingdomsformedandflourishedinsomeplaces).TheIslamicEmpirewasvulnerabletooutsideattacksfromMongols, Byzantines, Turks, and Crusaders. One result was the formation of strongmilitaristic dynasties (such as the Ayyubids and their leader, Saladin, who tookJerusalembackfromWesterners),whichgaverisetonewconquestsandconversionsineasternEuropeandAfrica.

UsePOEtoeliminate(A)becauseyouknowthatthelanguageoftheQu’ranisArabic.Although(B)and(D)seemlikereasonableanswers,rememberwhatwashappeningintheeasternhemisphereafter1100orso.Thiswasatimeoftremendouseconomicandpolitical growth throughout Europe, which was in sharp contrast to the decliningfortunesoftheIslamicEmpire.So(B)isincorrectbecauseoftheturmoilintheMuslim

world and the discovery by Europeans of new, non-Islamic trade routes. (D) isincorrect because western European nations were becoming more politicallycentralizedandmoreinterestedinconquestandconversion.(E)isalsoincorrect,butthis shouldbeat leastpartly common sense—canyounameanyMuslimcolonies inNorthorSouthAmerica?

68.AUntilthemid-nineteenthcentury,theBritishEastIndiaCompanygovernedIndia.Youcan eliminate (B) and (C) using POE. While the English and the Dutch establishedprivate corporations for the purpose of carrying out exploration, the Portuguese(Brazil) and the Spanish (Cuba, the Philippines) directly governed their colonies. Ifyou’renotsureaboutBenin,then(D)isasmartguess.BeninwasakingdominWestAfricathatreacheditdominanceinthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies.ItengagedintradewithEuropeannations,butnonecolonizeditduringtheAgeofDiscovery.

69.ERussiawas still primarily anagricultural nationwhenBritainwas industrializing.TousePOE,studythegraphtohelpeliminatewronganswers.EasternEuropeexceededwestern Europe in miles of railway by 1880, so (A) is incorrect. (C) is also a sillyanswer.While it’scold intheNetherlandsandSweden, it’snotverybalmyinRussiaeither. There was considerable growth in rail miles in Germany between 1880 and1900,butexaminationofthechartwillshowthatthegrowthinRussiawaslargerinbothabsoluteandrelativeterms…butwhilewe’reinthechart,notewhatitdoesn’tindicateaboutGermanyandRussia—anythingaboutpopulation.(D)isincorrect,andsois(B).

70.CTheimportantthingtorememberhereisthetremendousimpactthewarhadonpeoplearoundtheworld.Thehumanandeconomiccostswerehuge,andtherewasasenseoflost innocenceandwaningoptimism.Thebroadtrendsinartandliteraturereflectedthisgloom.Thedisillusionmentcanbeseen in theworksofT.S.Eliot,Hemingway,Steinbeck,andKafka.

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13

PracticeTest2

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AP®WorldHistoryExam


Instructions

SectionIofthisexaminationcontains70multiple-choicequestions.Fillinonlytheovalsfornumbers1through70onyouranswersheet.

Indicateallofyouranswerstothemultiple-choicequestionsontheanswersheet.Nocreditwillbegivenforanythingwritteninthisexambooklet,butyoumayusethebookletfornotesorscratchwork.Afteryouhavedecidedwhichofthesuggestedanswersisbest,completelyfillinthecorrespondingovalontheanswersheet.Giveonlyoneanswertoeachquestion.Ifyouchangeananswer,besurethatthepreviousmarkiserasedcompletely.Hereisasamplequestionandanswer.

SampleQuestion

Chicagoisa

(A) state

(B) city

(C) country

(D) continent

(E) village

SampleAnswer

Use your time effectively, working as quickly as you canwithout losing accuracy. Do notspend toomuch timeonanyonequestion.Goon tootherquestionsandcomeback to theonesyouhavenotansweredifyouhavetime.Itisnotexpectedthateveryonewillknowtheanswerstoallthemultiple-choicequestions.

AboutGuessing

Manycandidateswonderwhetherornottoguesstheanswerstoquestionsaboutwhichtheyare not certain. Multiple choice scores are based on the number of questions answeredcorrectly. Points are not deducted for incorrect answers, and no points are awarded forunanswered questions. Because points are not deducted for incorrect answers, you areencouragedtoanswerallmultiple-choicequestions.Onanyquestionsyoudonotknowtheanswerto,youshouldeliminateasmanychoicesasyoucan,andthenselectthebestansweramongtheremainingchoices.

WORLDHISTORY

SECTIONI

Time—55minutes

70Questions

Directions: Each of the questions or incomplete statements below is followed by fivesuggestedanswersorcompletions.Selecttheonethatisbestineachcaseandthenfillinthecorrespondingovalontheanswersheet.

Note: This examination uses the chronological designations B.C.E. (before the common era)andC.E.(commonera).TheselabelscorrespondtoB.C.(beforeChrist)andA.D.(annoDomini),whichareusedinsomeworldhistorytextbooks.

1.Before800B.C.E.Indo-EuropeansteppetribesweredifferentfromChinese,Indian,andMiddleEasternsocietiesinwhichoftheseways?

(A) Steppesocietiesweremorelikelytohavebuiltarchitecturalmonumentswithreligioussymbolism.

(B) Indo-Europeansocietieswereruledbyoligarchies,whiletheothersocietiesweregovernedbymonarchies.

(C) Indo-Europeantribesdidnotdevelopacommonreligiononwhichtobasesocialbonds.

(D) Chinese,Indian,andMiddleEasternsocietiesformedpermanentsettlementswithwealthbasedonland.

(E) Chinese,Indian,andMiddleEasternsocietieswerematrilineal,whereassteppetribestracedlineagethroughbothparents.

2.AmajorfactorinthespreadofEasternOrthodoxywas

(A) theMongolinvasionsoftheBalkansandKievRussia

(B) theincreasingilliteracyofthepopulation

(C) theuseoficonsandsymbolsinreligiousceremonies

(D) integrationoffolkcustomsandpracticesintoreligiousdoctrine

(E) thedevelopmentoftheCyrillicalphabet

3.DuringtheMedievalperiod,thedominantethnicgroupinEasternEuropewasthe

(A) Vikings

(B) Slavs

(C) Normans

(D) Russians

(E) Saxons

4.WhichofthefollowingnationswasNOTimpactedbygenocideinthetwentiethcentury?

(A) Bosnia

(B) Cambodia

(C) Rwanda

(D) Mexico

(E) Burundi

5.FeudalstatesaroseinbothEuropeandChinadirectlyasaresultof

(A) thedeclineoftheRomanandByzantineEmpires

(B) thefragmentationofcentralgovernmentunits

(C) poorlivingandunsanitaryconditionsinlargertownsandcities

(D) economicchangesbroughtaboutbynewtechnologies

(E) theshiftfromnomadictosettledlifestyles

6.WhichofthefollowingwasNOTaresultoftheOpiumWars?

(A) ChineseportcitieswereopentoforeigntradeandBritaintookpossessionofHongKong.

(B) LowertariffsweresetongoodsmanufacturedinWesternnations.

(C) ChurcheswerepermittedinportcitiesandChristianmissionariescouldtravelfreelywithinChina.

(D) Chinawasabletosuccessfullyendtheimportationandsaleofopium.

(E) WesternnationsbenefitedfromanOpenDoorPolicy.

7.Feudalismandmanorialismweredifferentinwhichofthefollowingways?

(A) Tradeandcommerceweremoreimportantinthefeudalsystem.

(B) Feudalismwasapoliticalsystemwhilemanorialismwasaneconomicsystem.

(C) Advancesinagriculturaltechnologyhadamorepositiveimpactonfeudalismthanonmanorialism.

(D) Whilefeudalisminvolvedtheexchangeofmilitaryservices,onlymanorialisminvolvedasocialhierarchy.

(E) Feudalisminvolvedservicevialabor,whilemanorialisminvolvedpaymentsoftribute.

8.“Peoplesendtooneanothertoknowifanyoftheirfamilyhasamindtohavethesmall-pox;theymakepartiesforthispurpose,and…theoldwomancomeswithanut-shellfullofthematterofthebestsortofsmall-pox,andaskswhatveinyoupleasetohaveopened.”

Source:LadyMaryWortleyMontagu,SmallpoxVaccineinTurkey,writtenwhileonatripwithherhusband,theBritishAmbassadortotheOttomanEmpire,1717.

ThemedicalprocedureLadyMontaguwitnessedintheOttomanEmpireledtowhichofthefollowingmedicaladvances?

(A) Theuseofleechestoremovetoxinsfrompatients’bloodstreams

(B) Therequirementthatmedicalpractitionersbeabletoadministervaccines

(C) TheadventoftheHippocraticOath

(D) Theabilityofnurses,notjustdoctors,toadministervaccinesandinjections

(E) Theuseoflivevirusesinpreventingcontagiousdiseases

9.ThesplitbetweenSunniandShi’aMuslimsoccurredasaresultof

(A) divergentinterpretationsofreligioustexts

(B) conflictoverthetranslationofliturgyintonativelanguages

(C) disagreementoverleadershipsuccessionissues

(D) ariftbetweenmorefundamentalistandmoreliberalbranchesofIslam

(E) differingopinionsontheroleofwomen

10.WhichofthefollowingnationsisNOTadeclarednuclearstate?

(A) People’sRepublicofChina

(B) GreatBritain

(C) France

(D) Argentina

(E) India

11.TheEasternQuestionconcerned

(A) howEuropeannationswouldfairlypartitionthecontinentofAfrica

(B) themannerinwhichPrussia,Austria,andtheOttomanEmpirewouldmaintainthebalanceofpowerinEurope

(C) theopeningofportcitiesinChina,Japan,andKoreatoforeigntrade

(D) howtofillthevoidleftbythedeclineoftheOttomanEmpire

(E) howtodealwithincreasinglyrestivecolonies

12.ThereasonsforintenseimperialismamongEuropeannationsincludedallofthefollowingEXCEPT

(A) industrializationgeneratedthedemandfornewsourcesofrawmaterials

(B) themilitaryneedtoestablishstrategicbasesaroundtheworld

(C) therewasabeliefintheracialsuperiorityofEuropeans

(D) populationdeclineinEuropeannationsrequirednewsourcesoflabor

(E) asenseofcompetitionamongnationsforthebestterritoryandresources

13.Whichofthefollowingstatementsaboutslaveryinthepre-modernworldisNOTaccurate?

(A) InGreece,slavesweremostoftenforeignersorprisonersofwar.

(B) IntheIslamicworld,slavesofkingscouldrisetohigh-levelpositions.

(C) IslamiclawprohibitedMuslimsfrombeingenslaved.

(D) Slaverywasnotalwaysalifetimecommitment,andmanyslavesweretakenasprisonersofwar.

(E) Allpre-modernsocietiesexceptthoseinIndiaandChinatradedslavelabor.

14.OnemajordifferencebetweentheIncaandtheAzteccivilizationswas

(A) whiletheIncawereagrarian,theAztecswerenomadic

(B) theAztecsbuiltreligiousmonumentswhiletheIncadidnot

(C) IncansweremonotheisticwhiletheAztecsworshippedmanygods

(D) theAztecdevelopedasystemofwritingwhiletheIncadidnot

(E) theIncapracticedhumansacrifice,whiletheAztecsdidnot

15.WhichofthefollowingresultedfromtorevolutionarymovementsinLatinAmericancolonies?

(A) Socialinequalitycontinuedtoexist.

(B) Keyindustrieswerenationalized.

(C) Widespreadeconomicreformswereinstituted.

(D) Representativedemocracieswereformed.

(E) Religiousdifferencesbecamelessimportant.

16.ThechangesthattookplaceinRussiainthe1990sdemonstrated

(A) thatmodernizationisarequirementforlong-termsocialandpoliticalstability

(B) thatculturalandethnicdifferencesbetweensegmentsofthepopulationwillundermineattemptsatnationalism

(C) thatthereareinherentproblemsinaneconomygovernedthroughcentralplanning

(D) thatthedevelopmentofasubstantialmiddleclasscanbringaboutpoliticalchange

(E) thatmodernindustryissuperiortofarmingastheprimaryeconomicbasisforanation

17.TheColumbianExchangeinvolvedwhichofthefollowing?

(A) SugarcanefromEurope;olivetreesfromtheCaribbean

(B) PeanutsfromSouthAmerica;ricefromAfrica

(C) PigsfromSouthAmerica;coffeefromEurope

(D) SheepfromEurope;slavesfromNorthAmerica

(E) RumfromtheWestIndies;turkeyfromEurope

18.OnekeydifferencebetweentheOttomanEmpireandtheTokugawaShogunatewasthat

(A) whiletheOttomanEmpireestablishedChristianityasitsstatereligion,theTokugawabannedCatholicism

(B) theTokugawaShogunategovernedoveradecentralized,feudalisticsystemwhiletheOttomanswereabletocentralizeandgovernusinganeo-Confucianismmodel

(C) theOttomanEmpirewaslessinterestedinexpansionismthantheTokugawaShogunate

(D) theTokugawaShogunatewaslessinfluencedbyotherculturesthantheOttomanEmpirewas

(E) theTokugawaShogunatewasgovernedbyoligarchy,whiletheOttomanEmpirewasamonarchy

19.Thethreemajormercantilecity-statesinmedievalItalywere

(A) Genoa,Sicily,Rome

(B) Rome,Sicily,Pisa

(C) Pisa,Genoa,Marseilles

(D) Vienna,Genoa,Rome

(E) Genoa,Pisa,Venice

20.WhichofthefollowingwasNOTanoutcomeofWorldWarI ?

(A) TheLeagueofNationscalledfordisarmamentandglobalsecurity.

(B) TheTreatyofVersaillesrequiredGermanytopaywarreparations.

(C) FranceandGreatBritaingrantedindependencetotheircoloniallandsinIndiaandAfrica.

(D) ApolicyofisolationismwithintheU.S.CongresspreventedtheUnitedStatesfromaggressivelybecominginvolvedinworldaffairs.

(E) Globaldepressiondestabilizedtheeconomyandpoliticsofseveralcountries,namelyGermany.

21.WhichofthefollowingisNOTanaccuratestatementaboutConfucianism?

(A) Theethicalsystemisprimarilyconcernedwithrelationships.

(B) Specificdutiesaretiedtoone’sstatusinsociety.

(C) Itprescribesthecorrectorganizationofthestatetoachievethemaximumbenefitsforthemostmembersofsociety.

(D) Onlythosewhoaredevoutandleadmoralliveswillbesaved.

(E) ManyChineseadopteditasaphilosophytopracticealongsidethereligionofDaoism.

22.Whichofthefollowingstatementsabouttheinformationintheabovemapisaccurate?

(A) TheSovietUnionwastheprimarysourceofmilitaryaidthroughoutSouthandCentralAmerica.

(B) DuringtheColdWar,EnglandplayedagreaterroleinAfricanpoliticsthantheUnitedStatesortheSovietUnion.

(C) ThealliancesystemwasabletomaintainpeaceinalloftheregionsshownexceptSoutheastAsia.

(D) ChinamaintainedamilitarypresenceinsouthernAfricannationsduringtheColdWar.

(E) UnitedStatesmilitaryaidhadlittleimpactonWesternEuropeanpoliticalstructure.

23.WhichofthesewasNOTanoutcomeoftheBronzeAge?

(A) Increasedagriculturalefficiency

(B) Theriseofanaristocraticmilitaryclass

(C) Thefallofcentralizedgovernments

(D) Additionaloutletsforartisticexpression

(E) Advancesinseafaringtechnology

24.WhichoftheseisatruestatementaboutMongolinvasionsbetween1100and1500C.E. ?

(A) WhileMongolswereabletoconvertRussiatoIslam,theyfailedtospreadMuslimbeliefsthroughoutIndia.

(B) MongolsadoptedelementsofChineseculture,whichwerethenspreadtootherpartsofAsia.

(C) MongolinvasionsweresuccessfulinChinaandJapan,butunsuccessfulinKorea.

(D) MongolruleinRussiahelpedbuildapeacefulsocietybasedonRussiantraditions.

(E) MongolruleinJapanhelpedusherinaneraofpeace.

25.Inthe1100s,manorialismbegantoendinEuropeannationsforallofthefollowingreasonsEXCEPT

(A) thedevelopmentofamoney-basedeconomy

(B) theformationoftownsandcities

(C) peasantrebellionsagainstnobles

(D) severefloodsthatdestroyedfieldsandcrops

(E) formationoftraderelationshipsmadeself-sufficiencylesscrucial

26.Whichofthefollowingisanexampleofculturalsynthesis?

(A) TranslationoftheBibleintoFrench

(B) TheteaceremonyinJapan

(C) ConstructionofgalleonsbytheSpaniards

(D) PapermakinginChina

(E) Frenchrevolutionaries’useoftheguillotine

27.WhichofthefollowingisNOTanaccuratestatementaboutBritishruleinIndia?

(A) BritishruleledtothemodernizationofIndia’sinfrastructure.

(B) TherewaslessconflictbetweenMuslimsandHindusunderBritishrule.

(C) India’scottonmarketdeclinedduetothemercantilistpracticesoftheBritishEastIndiaCompany.

(D) ThecastesystemwasnoteliminatedwiththeintroductionofWesternculture.

(E) TheSepoyRebellionof1857wassuccessfulinoustingtheBritishfromIndia.

28.WhichadvancementfromtheScientificRevolutionismatchedcorrectlywithitsinventor?

(A) Morgagni:philosophy

(B) Copernicus:chemistry

(C) Newton:physics

(D) Kepler:botany

(E) Galileo:biology

29.Inthemid-1300s,MansaMusacreatedastrongcentralizedIslamicgovernmentin

(A) Kush

(B) Ethiopia

(C) Axum

(D) Mali

(E) Madagascar

30.TheHaguewasoriginallycreatedto

(A) administerScandinavianbureaucracy

(B) resolveregionaldifferencesamongAustria,Prussia,andRussia

(C) regulatethetradeactivitiesofDutchmerchantandcraftguilds

(D) handletheforeignaffairsoftheNetherlands’provinces

(E) toserveastheNetherlands’officialcapitolbuilding

31.WhichofthefollowingstatementsillustratesthedifferencebetweenEnglishandPortuguesecolonization

efforts?

(A) WhileEnglishcolonizationeffortsincludedattemptstoconverttheindigenouspopulations,Portuguesecolonialauthoritiesallowedreligioustoleration.

(B) WhilePortugalintroducedtheconceptofmonocultureinitsAfricancolonies,Englandwaslessconcernedwithexploitingnaturalresources.

(C) PortugueseterritorieswerelimitedtoAfricaandAsia,whileEnglandheldmorecoloniesaroundtheworld.

(D) WhileEnglishcoloniesdependedonslavesforagriculturallabor,Portugalreliedonnativepopulationstoworkonplantations.

(E) EnglandgenerallygoverneditsterritoriesinalessinvasivefashionthanPortugaldid.

32.WhichofthefollowingisNOTatruestatementabouttheHolyRomanEmpire?

(A) Theempiredidnothaveonecommonlanguageornationality.

(B) Theempiregrantedcitizenshiptomeninsomeconqueredterritories.

(C) Theempirehadadecentralizedgovernmentwithstronglocalautonomy.

(D) TheempiresplitintoGermany,Austria,andItalyinthelate1300s.

(E) ItsroyalfamilyintermarriedwithotherimportantEuropeanrulingfamilies.

33.WhichofthefollowingwasacauseofbothWorldWarIandWorldWarII ?

(A) PoliticalinstabilityinthenationsofeasternEurope

(B) ThecomplicatednetworkofsecretalliancesforgedbyEuropeannations

(C) ThemassivedebtowedbyGermanytootherpartsoftheworld

(D) TheinabilityoftheLeagueofNationstoenforceitsdecisions

(E) Assassinationattemptsonworldleaders

34.Themainideaofthiscartoonisthat

(A) JapanwasbecomingastrongerplayerinexpansionismandimperialisminAsia

(B) EuropeancolonialismwasdestroyingAsiannationsandculturesonepieceatatime

(C) JapanwascontenttoacceptsmallernationslikeFormosa,leavingthelargerAsiannationsforEuropeancolonialism

(D) JapanesecolonialismwasaimedprimarilyatsouthernAsia,whileEuropeannationsfocusedoncentralandnorthernAsia

(E) EuropewasignoringJapan’scolonizationefforts

35.Whichofthefollowingtrendsisaccuratelyrepresentedonthesecharts?

(A) Between2000and2025,fewerBotswananswilllivetoreacholdage.

(B) Inthetimeperiodshown,theratioofmentowomenwillremainroughlyconsistent.

(C) By2025,thelargestgroupofpeoplewillbe14yearsoldandunder.

(D) Between2025and2050theinfantmortalityrateisexpectedtodropsignificantly.

(E) Between2000and2050,thenumberofchildrenunderage10willremainconstant.

36.ItisthoughtthatearlyBantumigrationscirca1000B.C.E.throughAfricawerecausedby

(A) growthintheAfricanslavetrade,whichcausedpeopletomigratefartherinlandandsouth

(B) establishmentoftraderoutesalongcoastalwestAfrica,whichcreatedmoreroutesbywhichtomigrate

(C) environmentalchanges,whichdisturbedtheecosystempeoplereliedonforhunting,gathering,andfarming

(D) advancesingoldandsaltminingtechnologiesandimprovedtransportationroutestoMaliandGhana

(E) violentoppressionoftheTutsisbytheHutus

37.IncomparingtheHanDynastywiththeRomanEmpire,whichofthefollowingstatementsisNOTcorrect?

(A) BoththeHanDynasty’sandRomanEmpire’seconomiessufferedasaresultofmilitaryspending.

(B) WhileRomewassuccessfulatspreadingitscultureacrossawidearea,theHanwereunabletodiffusetheirculturetoneighboringlands.

(C) Whilebothsocietieswererunbycentralizedgovernments,Romegavesignificantautonomytolocalofficials.

(D) WhiletheChinesewereabletore-establishtheirimperialempire,Romewasneverrestoredtoitsformerstatus.

(E) BoththeHanDynastyandRomanEmpiresawimportantadvancesinstructuralengineering.

38.WhichofthefollowingactionshadthemostdirectimpactonthedissolutionoftheSovietUnion?

(A) TheofficialunificationofGermanyandthedemolitionoftheBerlinWall.

(B) PublicawarenessofthehumanrightsatrocitiescommittedbytheregimeofNicolaeCeausescuinRomania.

(C) Labordisputesandworking-classresistancetocommunistruleinPoland.

(D) TheimpositionofmartiallawinCzechoslovakiaaftertheVelvetRevolution.

(E) TheillhealthofseveralimportantSovietofficials,includingMikhaelGorbachev.

39.AmajordifferencebetweenindustrializationinEnglandandJapanwasthat

(A) whileEnglandhadawell-developedrailsystem,Japandependedonwatertransportation

(B) JapanwasmoredependentthanEnglandonforeignimportstoestablishandoperateindustrialfacilities

(C) workingconditionswerebetterinJapanthaninEngland

(D) classtensionsbetweenworkersandownerswereanissueinEnglandbutnotinJapan

(E) workersinJapanweregender-segregated,whileworkersinEnglandwereentirelyintegrated

40.TheCongressofViennaledtowhichofthefollowing?

(A) TheexileofNapoleonBonapartetoElba

(B) ThedestructionoftheOttomanEmpireandindependenceofitsformerterritories

(C) ThedivisionofeasternEuropeamongGreatBritain,Italy,andGermany

(D) ThepartitioningofAfricaintoEuropeancolonies

(E) TherestorationofthemonarchyinFranceandtheNetherlands

41.JapanesefeudalsocietycomprisedallofthefollowingpositionsEXCEPT

(A) shinto

(B) daimyo

(C) shogun

(D) samurai

(E) taikun

42.Overtsyncretismisanessentialfeatureofwhichofthesereligions?

(A) Legalism

(B) Greekpaganism

(C) Christianity

(D) Judaism

(E) Islam

43.TheprimarycatalystfortheJewishmigrationsfromGermany,Hungary,andCrimeawasprobably

(A) theimpactoftheCrusadesonJewishsettlementsineasternEurope

(B) moretolerantpoliciestowardsimmigrantsandminoritiesinPolandandRussia

(C) theOttomanEmpire’sexpansionistpoliciesinwesternEuropeanandMediterraneanlands

(D) thedevelopmentofpogromsandtheestablishmentofghettoswhereJewishpeoplewereforciblysenttolive

(E) theshrinkingofthePaleofSettlement

44.WhichofthesescientificandculturalachievementsareINCORRECTLYmatchedwiththecivilizationinwhichtheydeveloped?

(A) Gunpowderandpapermaking:China

(B) Poetryandalgebra:Islam

(C) Astronomyandtheideaofzero:Maya

(D) Geometryanddrama:Greece

(E) Cyrillicalphabetandengineering:Rome

45.WhichofthefollowingdidNOTplayaroleintheCrusades?

(A) MilitaristicandexpansionisticEuropeanmonarchies

(B) ThepromiseofsalvationtoChristiancrusaders

(C) Thedesireofnobilitytobecomemoreinvolvedintrade

(D) TheestablishmentofaJewishstateinPalestine

(E) AdesiretocapturethewealthoftheHolyLands

46.TheRenaissancedidnothaveagreatimpactonSpainbecause

(A) languagedifferencespreventedthespreadofRenaissancethinking

(B) SpainwasgeographicallyisolatedfromotherpartsofEurope

(C) theSpanishgovernmentstrictlycensoredhumanisticideasandwriters

(D) IslamicinfluenceinSpainpreventedtheadoptionofmanyoftheartformsoftheRenaissance

(E) theSpanishInquisitionprohibitedallsecularartandwriting

47.WhichofthefollowingisthemostimportantfactorinbringingabouttheendoftheColdWar?

(A) ThebreakdownofdiplomaticrelationsbetweentheSovietUnionandChina

(B) TheeconomiccoststoboththeUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionrequiredtosustaintheconflict

(C) TheendofcivilconflictsinSoutheastAsiannationssuchasCambodia,theKoreas,andVietnam

(D) Thespreadtoothernationsofnucleartechnologyandtheabilitytocreateweaponsofmassdestruction

(E) ThefalloftheBerlinWallnecessitatedimmediatepeace

48.TheabilityofdevelopingnationstoestablishstableeconomiesiscompromisedbyallofthefollowingEXCEPT

(A) problemsattractingforeigninvestmentandmultinationalcorporations

(B) cultural,tribal,andethnicdifferencesthatthreatenpoliticalstability

(C) insufficientphysicalinfrastructure,suchasrailwaysandroads

(D) unstablecurrencyandunmitigatedinflation

(E) theinabilitytoattractasufficientworkforcetourbanareas

49.WhichofthefollowingisanaccuratestatementaboutEthiopiaandThailandbefore1915 ?

(A) Theybothremainedtheonlyfreenationsintheirregions.

(B) Theybothgainedtheirfreedominpeacefulrevolutions.

(C) Civilwarsineachcountrytoppledmonarchiesandinstalleddemocracies.

(D) ThecitizensofbothnationswereconvertedtoIslambefore1915.

(E) Onlyonewasruledbyamonarchy.

50.WhichofthefollowingisanaccuratestatementabouttheTreatyofNankingandtheMonroeDoctrine?

(A) Thepurposeofboththetreatyandthedoctrinewastomaintaintraderelationshipsandpreventforeigninterferenceinlocalaffairs.

(B) WhilethetreatyopenedChinesetradetovariousnations,thedoctrineprotectedtraderelationshipsbetweentheUnitedStatesandLatinAmericancountries.

(C) ChinaandLatinAmericannationsbothexperiencedinternalrebellionandweakenedcentralgovernmentsasaresultofthetreatyandthedoctrine.

(D) BothdocumentswereintendedtolimitEuropeaninterferencewithformercolonies.

(E) NeitherinvolvedtheforeignpolicyoftheUnitedStates.

51.Whichofthefollowingstatementsabouttheslavetradebetween1450and1750isNOTtrue?

(A) NewethnicandracialcategoriesgrewasaresultofcontactamongEuropeans,Africans,andNativeAmericans.

(B) InsomeAfricannations,slaverystrengthenedexistingmonarchies.

(C) NewcropsandagriculturaltechnologyimprovedthedietandhealthofAfricans.

(D) ItescalatedduetoincreasingdemandforlaborintheAmericas.

(E) Bythelate1700s,theslavetradehadbeenabolishedinAsianandIslamicnations.

52.AfricangoodstradedontheTrans-SaharanRouteincluded

(A) teaandcloth

(B) teaandgold

(C) saltandgold

(D) silkandsalt

(E) riceandsugarcane

53.Allofthefollowingwerefeaturescommontothesuccessofearlynation-statesinEuropeEXCEPT

(A) acommonlanguage

(B) geographicallydistinctterritory

(C) asetofcommonlaws

(D) afeudalsystem

(E) asharedreligion

54.Romanlawwasuniqueinwhichofthefollowingways?

(A) Itwasthefirstsetoflawswrittendownforeasytransmission.

(B) Itwasarrangedsystematicallyforeasyreference.

(C) ItwasacombinationofRomanlawandforeignlaw.

(D) Itcodifiedtherightsofslaves,servants,andthoseaccusedofcrimes.

(E) Itquicklybecamethemodelforlawsinsurroundingregions.

55.“TheordinarymeansthereforetoincreaseourwealthandtreasureisbyForeignTrade,whereinweemusteverobservethisrule;tosellmoretostrangersyearlythanweeconsumeoftheirsinvalue.”

Source:ThomasMun,England’sTreasuresbyForeignTrade,c.1630.

ThomasMun’sobservationsareconsistentwith

(A) laissez-faireeconomics

(B) colonialismpolicies

(C) mercantilismpolicies

(D) manorialismeconomics

(E) feudalism

56.ThemostimportantimpactofthedemilitarizationofJapanafterWorldWarIIwasthe

(A) increaseinanti-AmericansentimentandprotestthroughoutJapan

(B) restorationoftheMeijiEmpireandareturntoamoretraditionalsociety

(C) reassignmentofJapan’scoloniestotheUnitedStates

(D) abilitytodevoteasignificantshareofJapan’sbudgettoindustrialization

(E) suddenlackofresourcestodealwithnuclearfallout

57.TheonlynationthatdidNOTengageinmercantilismduringthe1600sand1700swas

(A) Portugal

(B) Italy

(C) Spain

(D) England

(E) France

58.Whichofthesestatementsaboutwomen’srightsbefore800C.E.isaccurate?

(A) Hindulawandcustomextendedpropertyrightstowomenintheuppercastesonly.

(B) Confucianismgavewomenalimitedrole;however,theycouldbecomemembersofthemeritocracy.

(C) WomenintheJewishfaithwereallowedtoholdpositionsinthereligioushierarchy,buttheycouldnotownlandordivorce.

(D) AccordingtoIslamiclaw,womencouldownproperty,inheritbelongings,andhavedowries.

(E) Christianwomenwereallowedtoownpropertyandmarryastheychose.

59.DuringtheMiddleAges,inwhichofthesesocietiesdidinvasionandmigrationNOTplayasignificantroleinsocial,cultural,andeconomicchange?

(A) GreatZimbabwe

(B) Byzantium

(C) KievanRussia

(D) SongChina

(E) RomanEmpire

60.The“lowestcorner”Chamberlainreferstoismostlikely

(A) NewZealand

(B) Indonesia

(C) theSuezCanal

(D) Argentina

(E) SouthAfrica

61.TheNeolithicRevolutionwascharacterizedbythe

(A) developmentofwrittencommunication

(B) growthofirontoolmakingtechnology

(C) migrationofearlypeoplestotheAmericas

(D) declineoftheRomanEmpire

(E) changefromnomadicherdingtosettledfarming

62.InwhichofthesenationswastheTrumanDoctrinefirstputtouse?

(A) TurkeyandCzechoslovakia

(B) PolandandWestGermany

(C) YugoslaviaandTurkey

(D) GreeceandTurkey

(E) PolandandSerbia

63.Populationtrendsinindustrializednationsbetween1800and1900includedallofthefollowingEXCEPT

(A) higherbirthrates

(B) highermigrationtowesternEuropeandNorthAmerica

(C) lowerinfantmortalityrates

(D) decreaseddeathrates

(E) higherindustrialemploymentratesatyoungerages

64.TheEnglishBillofRightsof1689containedallofthefollowingprovisionsEXCEPT

(A) thekingcouldnotmaintainanarmywithoutParliamentaryapproval

(B) onlymembersoftheProtestantchurchcouldruleEngland

(C) peoplehadtherighttopetitionthekingtoredressgrievances

(D) jurytrialswereguaranteedtoaccusedcriminals

(E) prohibitionofexcessivebailorcruelandunusualpunishment

65.InTheCommunistManifesto,KarlMarxoutlinedhowhebelievedacommunistrevolutionshouldproceedandwhatresultswouldbeproduced.InwhichofthefollowingwaysdidtheRussianRevolutionNOTfitMarx’smodel?

(A) TheRussianRevolutioninvolvedlessviolenceandtookfarlesstimethanMarxhadenvisioned.

(B) RussiawaslessindustrializedthanMarxbelievedwasnecessaryforrevolutiontooccur.

(C) TheRussianRevolutioninvolvedfarmorebourgeoisieandelitecitizensthanMarxhadpredicted.

(D) Marxthoughtthatwomenhadlittletocontributetothesuccessofcommunism,buttheyweremoreinvolvedintherevolutionandreceivedmorebenefitfromitthanMarxhadpredicted.

(E) WhileMarxpredictedtheviolentoverthrowoftherulingregime,hedidnotanticipatetheexecutionoftheczarandhisentirefamily.

66.TheprimarygoaloftheMeijiRestorationwasto

(A) diminishthepoweroftheshogunandthesamurai

(B) isolateitselffromforeigninfluences

(C) liberalizecivilandcriminallegalcodes

(D) increaseagriculturalandindustrialproductivity

(E) mitigatetheeffectsofWorldWarIIontheJapanesepopulation

67.WhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutEuropeduringtheperiod1450to1750istheLEASTaccurate?

(A) Politicalstabilitybroughteconomicgrowththatfueledadvancesintheartsandsciences.

(B) WhileEuropeannationsweresuccessfulatexplorationandexploitationinthewesternhemisphere,littlecolonizationoccurredelsewhere.

(C) EuropeansbenefitedfromcontactandexchangewithothercivilizationsmorethanothercivilizationsbenefitedfromcontactwithEuropeans.

(D) Whilemorewomenhadtheopportunitytobeeducated,mostEnlightenmentideasaboutfreedomandequalitywerenotappliedtowomen.

(E) Europe’slimitedamountoflandandburgeoningpopulationmeantcolonialsettlementofferedsomeEuropeansopportunitiestheywouldnothavehadathome.

68.ThefoundationofancientIndiancivilizationisbestdescribedbyallofthefollowingEXCEPT

(A) reincarnation

(B) theDao

(C) caste

(D) karma

(E) dharma

69.“Icontentthatwearethefirstraceintheworldandthatthemoreoftheworldweinhabitthebetteritisforthehumanrace…IcontentthateveryacreaddedtoourterritoryprovidesforthebirthofmoreoftheEnglishrace,whootherwisewouldnotbebroughtintoexistence.”

Source:CecilRhodes,APlagueofEuropeans:WesternersinAfricaSincetheFifteenthCentury.

CecilRhodes’sstatementisconsistentwithwhichofthefollowing?

(A) Mercantilism

(B) Laissez-faireeconomics

(C) Manifestdestiny

(D) Liberalism

(E) SocialDarwinism

70.ThecivilizationsoftheSumerians,thePhoenicians,andtheMayaweresimilarinthateach

(A) developedextensivewritingsystems

(B) emphasizedequalityineducation

(C) establishedmonotheisticreligions

(D) encourageddemocraticgovernments

(E) performedhumansacrifice

WORLDHISTORY

SECTIONII

Youwillhave10minutestoreadthecontentsofthisgreeninsert.Youareadvisedtospendmostofthe10minutesanalyzingthedocumentsandplanningyouranswerforthedocument-basedquestionessayinPartA.Youmaymakenotesinthisgreeninsert.Attheendofthe10-minuteperiod, youwill be told tobreak the sealon thepink free-responsebooklet and tobeginwritingyouranswersonthe linedpagesof thebooklet.Donotbreakthesealonthepink booklet until you are told to do so. Suggested writing time is 40 minutes for thedocument-basedessayquestioninPartAand40minutesforeachoftheessayquestionsinPartBandPartC.

BESURETOMANAGEYOURTIMECAREFULLY.

Write your answers in the pink booklet with a pen. The green insert may be used forreferenceand/orscratchworkasyouanswerthefree-responsequestions,butnocreditwillbegivenfortheworkshowninthegreeninsert.


WORLDHISTORY

SECTIONII

PartA

(Suggestedwritingtime—40minutes)


Directions: The following question is based on the accompanying Documents 1-8. (Thedocumentshavebeeneditedforthepurposeofthisexercise.)WriteyouransweronthelinedpagesoftheSectionIIfree-responsebooklet.

This question is designed to test your ability to work with and understand historicaldocuments.Writeanessaythat:

Hasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithevidencefromthedocuments.Usesallofthedocuments.Analyzesthedocumentsbygroupingtheminasmanyappropriatewaysaspossible.Doesnotsimplysummarizethedocumentsindividually.Takesintoaccountboththesourcesofthedocumentsandtheauthors’pointsofview.Explainstheneedforonetypeofadditionaldocument.


1. TheChinesehaveasaying,“Youcanwinakingdomfromhorseback,butyoucannotrulefromthere.”Throughouthistory,theworld’sleadershavehadtopersuadeeveryoneelsethattheydeservetheauthoritytheyhold.

Using the following documents, evaluate the different rationales for the legitimacy ofpower.Isthereone“best”waytogovern?Whatadditionaldocumentswouldbeusefulinattemptingtoanswerthesequestions?

Document1

Source:Procopius,authorofofficialhistoriesofEmperorJustinian’sreignsuchasOntheWars,excerptfromChapterVII,SecretHistory,c.550C.E.

AssoonasJustiniancameintopowerheturnedeverythingupsidedown.Whateverhadbeforebeenforbiddenbylawhenowintroducedintothegovernment,whileherevokedallestablishedcustoms:asifhehadbeengiventherobesofanEmperorontheconditionhewouldturneverythingtopsy-turvy.Existingofficesheabolished,andinventednewonesforthemanagementofpublicaffairs.Hedidthesamethingtothelawsandtotheregulationsofthearmy;andhisreasonwasnotanyimprovementofjusticeoranyadvantage,butsimplythateverythingmightbenewandnamedafterhimself.Andwhateverwasbeyondhispowertoabolish,herenamedafterhimselfanyway.

Oftheplunderingofpropertyorthemurderofmen,nowearinesseverovertookhim.Assoonashehadlootedallthehousesofthewealthy,helookedaroundforothers;meanwhilethrowingawaythespoilsofhispreviousrobberiesinsubsidiestobarbariansorsenselessbuildingextravagancies.Andwhenhehadruinedperhapsmyriadsinthismadlooting,heimmediatelysatdowntoplanhowhecoulddolikewisetoothersinevengreaternumbers.

Document2

Source:MaoZedong,concludingremarksattheSixthPlenumoftheCentralCommittee,1938.

Everycommunitymustunderstandthistruth:Politicalpowergrowsoutofthebarrelofagun.OurprincipleisthatthePartycommandsthegun;thegunshallneverbeallowedtocommandtheParty.Butitisalsotruethatwiththegunatourdisposalwecanreallybuildupthepartyorganizations;theEighthRouteArmyhasbuiltupthePartyorganizationinNorthChina.Wecanalsorearcadresandcreateschools,culture,andmassmovements.Anythingcangrowoutofthebarrelofagun.ViewedfromtheMarxisttheoryofthestate,thearmyisthechiefcomponentofthepoliticalpowerofthestate.Whoeverwantstoseizeandholdontopoliticalpowermusthaveastrongarmy.Experienceintheclassstruggleoftheeraofimperialismteachesusthattheworkingclassandthetoilingmassescannotdefeatthearmedbourgeoisandlandlordexceptbythepowerofthegun:Inthissensewecanevensaythatthewholeworldcanberemoldedonlywiththegun.Asadvocatesoftheabolitionofwar,wedonotdesirewar;butwecanonlybeabolishedthroughwar—inordertogetridofthegun,wemustfirstgraspitinthehand.

Document3

Source:NiccoloMachiavelli,excerptfromChapterVIII,ThePrince,(1513).

Henceitistoberemarkedthat,inseizingastate,theusurperoughttoexaminecloselyintoallthoseinjurieswhichitisnecessaryforhimtoinflict,andtodothemallatonestrokesoasnottohavetorepeatthemdaily;andthusbynotunsettlingmenhewillbeabletoreassurethem,andwinthemtohimselfbybenefits.Hewhodoesotherwise,eitherfromtimidityoreviladvice,isalwayscompelledtokeeptheknifeinhishand;neithercanherelyonhissubjects,norcantheyattachthemselvestohim,owingtotheircontinuedandrepeatedwrongs.Forinjuriesoughttobedoneallatonetime,sothat,beingtastedless,theyoffendless;benefitsoughttobegivenlittlebylittle,sothattheflavourofthemmaylastlonger.

Document4

Source:AsourcebookinChinesePhilosophy.

Whatismeantbysayingthatpeaceoftheworlddependsontheorderofthestateisthis:Whentherulertreatstheelderswithrespect,thenthepeoplewillbearousedtowardfilialpiety.Whentherulertreatstheagedwithrespect,thenthepeoplewillbearousedtowardbrotherlyrespect.Whentherulertreatscompassionatelytheyoungandthehelpless,thenthecommonpeoplewillnotfollowtheoppositecourse.Therefore,therulerhasaprinciplewithwhich,aswithameasuringsquare,hemayregulatehisconduct…

Thereforetherulerwillfirstbewatchfuloverhisownvirtue.Ifhehasvirtue,hewillhavethepeoplewithhim.Ifhehasthepeoplewithhim,hewillhavetheterritory.Ifhehastheterritory,hewillhavewealth.Andifhehaswealth,hewillhaveitsuse.Virtueistheroot,whilewealthisthebranch…

Document5

Source:JohnLocke,TwoTreatisesonGovernment,Section95,1690.

Menbeing,ashasbeensaid,bynature,allfree,equal,andindependent,noonecanbeputoutofthisestate,andsubjectedtothepoliticalpowerofanother,withouthisownconsent.Theonlywaywherebyanyonedivestshimselfofhisnaturalliberty,andputsoffthebondsofcivilsociety,isbyagreeingwithothermentojoinanduniteintoacommunityfortheircomfortable,safe,andpeaceablelivingoneamongstanother,inasecureenjoymentoftheirproperties,andagreatersecurityagainstany,thatarenotofit.Thisanynumberofmenmaydo,becauseitinjuresnotthefreedomoftherest;theyareleftastheywereinthelibertyofthestateofnature.Whenanynumberofmenhavesoconsentedtomakeonecommunityorgovernment,theyaretherebypresentlyincorporated,andmakeonebodypolitic,whereinthemajorityhavearighttoactandconcludetherest.

Document6

Source:AshokaMaurya,thethirdemperoroftheMauryaDynasty,convertedtoBuddhismandappliedBuddhistphilosophytorulingapluralisticsociety,excerptfromTheRockandPillarEdictsofAshoka,304–232B.C.E.

Beloved-of-the-Godsspeaksthus:ThisroyalorderistobeaddressedtotheMahamatrasatSamapa.IwishtoseethateverythingIconsidertobeproperiscarriedoutintherightway.AndIconsiderinstructingyoutobethebestwayofaccomplishingthis.Allmenaremychildren.WhatIdesireformyownchildren,andIdesiretheirwelfareandhappinessbothinthisworldandinthenext,thatIdesireforallmen.

Thepeopleoftheunconqueredterritoriesbeyondthebordersmightthink:“Whatistheking’sintentiontowardsus?”Myonlyintentionisthattheylivewithoutfearofme,thattheymaytrustmeandthatImaygivethemhappiness,notsorrow.Furthermore,theyshouldunderstandthatthekingwillforgivethosewhocanbeforgiven,andthathewishestoencouragethemtopracticeDhammasothattheymayattainhappinessinthisworldandthenext.IamtellingyouthissothatImaydischargethedebtsIowe,andthatininstructingyou,thatyoumayknowthatmyvowandmypromisewillnotbebroken.Thereforeactinginthisway,youshouldperformyourdutiesandassurethepeoplethat,“Thekingislikeafather.Hefeelstowardsusashefeelstowardshimself.Wearetohimlikehisownchildren.”

Document7

Source:TheImperialCatechism,1806.

Question:WhatarethedutiesofChristianstowardthosewhogovernthem,andwhatinparticularareourdutiestowardNapoleonI,ouremperor?

Answer:Christiansowetotheprinceswhogovernthem,andweinparticularowetoNapoleonI,ouremperor,love,respect,obedience,fidelity,militaryservice,andthetaxesleviedforthepreservationanddefenseoftheempireandofhisthrone.Wealsoowehimferventprayersforhissafetyandforthespiritualandtemporalprosperityofthestate.

Question:Whyarewesubjecttoallthesedutiestowardouremperor?

Answer:First,becauseGod,whohascreatedempiresanddistributesthemaccordingtohiswill,has,byloadingouremperorwithgiftsbothinpeaceandinwar,establishinghimasoursovereignandmadehimtheagentofhispowerandhisimageuponearth.TohonorandserveouremperoristhereforetohonorandserveGodhimself.

Document8

Source:Sovietpoliticalcartoon,c.1920.

Lenin,TheNewBrushthatsweepsup.

ENDOFPARTA

WORLDHISTORY

SECTIONII

PartB




Hasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithappropriatehistoricalevidence.Addressesallpartsofthequestion.Useshistoricalcontexttoshowchangeovertimeand/orcontinuities.Analyzestheprocessofchangeand/orcontinuityovertime.

2.Evaluatetheevolutionofnationalismsince1750inONEoftheregionslistedbelow.Includeadiscussionoftherelationshipbetweennationalism,racism,isolationism,andimperialism.Describethestatusoftheregionaround1750asyourstartingpoint.

TheMiddleEast

EasternEurope

SouthAmerica

TheFarEast

ENDOFPARTB

PartC




Hasarelevantthesisandsupportsthatthesiswithappropriatehistoricalevidence.Addressesallpartsofthequestion.Makesdirect,relevantcomparisons.Analyzesrelevantreasonsforsimilaritiesand/ordifferences.

3.Duringthetwentiethcentury,considerableeffortwasexpendedbyWesternnationstosupportdemocraticandwestern-friendlygovernmentsindevelopingnations.SelectTWOofthenationsbelowandevaluatethesuccessofsuchefforts.Foreachnation,considerthereasonsbehindtheinterventionistpolicy,keynationalandworldleadersinvolved,andwhetherthedemocratizationprogramshaveresultedinlong-termpolitical,social,andeconomicstability.

Iran

Vietnam

Nicaragua

Chile

STOPENDOFEXAM

14

PracticeTest2:AnswersandExplanations

1.DTheprimarydifferencebetweensteppetribesandotherancientcivilizationswastheirsettlementpatterns.WhilecivilizationsinChina,India,andtheMiddleEastdevelopedassedentarysocieties,thesteppetribesremainednomadicwellpast800B.C.E.

Using POE, you can eliminate (A) if you remember that the steppe tribes werenomadic,andthusunlikelytobuildmonuments.(B)isnotthecorrectanswerbecauseitisanuntruestatementaboutallofthesocietiesinquestion.WhilethereweresomemonarchiesinancientChina,India,andtheMiddleEast,therewerealsotimeswhenthesecivilizationswereunderthecontrolofmilitarydictatorships,feudalisticsystems,andevenrudimentarydemocracies.Steppetribesweregovernedbyatriballeaderwhocametopowerasaresultoftherespectofothertribalmembers.Indo-Europeansdiddevelop social bonds, and their religionwas based on polytheism, so (C) is not thecorrect answer. The easiestway to recognize that (E) iswrong is to remember thatIslamsplitoversuccessiontoMohammed—apatrilineal,notmatrilineal,question.

2. E In the late 800s, Byzantine missionaries spread into the Slavic regions in easternEurope.OnewaytogainmoreconvertswastopresenttheBibleandotherliturgyinnativelanguages.St.Cyril,amissionary,developedtheCyrillicalphabetfromGreek.

TousePOE,rememberthat,whileMongolinvasionwasanimportantpathofculturaldiffusion,theMongolsadoptedandspreadIslam,notEasternOrthodoxy,so(A)isnotthe correct answer.And,while youmight remember that the iconoclast controversywasresolvedwiththedecisiontoallowiconsandsymbols tobeused inthechurch,(C), thiswasnotamajor factor in the spreadofEasternOrthodoxy todistant lands.Moreover,EasternOrthodoxywasnotveryflexibleinitsacceptanceofotherformsofobservance, especially considering that many of the Slavic people engaged inpolytheistic worship, so (D) is also incorrect. Lastly, (B), too, is wrong because thedevelopment of Cyrillic increased literacy and the accessibility of written material,ratherthanincreasingilliteracy.

3.BUse POE to eliminate theNormans and the Saxons, (C) and (E), because theywerewesternEuropean.WhilethemainareaofVikingraidswaswesternEurope,theyalsomoved into easternEurope, but not in a sufficient enoughnumber to be considereddominant, so (A) is out. Both the Slavs, (B), and the Russians, (D), were easternEuropean;however,theSlavswerethedominantethnicgroupineasternEurope.(B)isthecorrectanswer.

4.DGenocideisatermthatisusedtodescribethewidespreadkillingofmassesofpeoplebelonging to a group, such as an ethnic, religious, or political group.WhileMexicoexperiencedwidespreaddeathtollsduetowars,governmentoverthrows,andpovertyduringthetwentiethcentury(especiallyintheearlierpartofthecentury),therewasnosignificantactofgenociderecordedinthecountry.

ByusingPOE,youcaneliminateanycountrywheregenocideexistedinthetwentieth

century. In the 1970s, the Khmer Rouge under Pol Pot slaughtered asmany as onemillionCambodians,soeliminate(B).Duringthe1990s,theSerbscommittedgenocideagainstBosnians,andinRwandaandBurundi,theHutuscommittedgenocideagainstthe Tutsis (in a continuation of conflict that had stretched for decades in bothcountries),soeliminate(A),(C),and(E).

5.BAscentralgovernmentsweakened, theneed forcooperationandprotectionprovidedtheimpetusfortheformationofthefeudalsystem.YoucanusePOEon(C),(D),and(E)—feudalismhadnothingtodowiththeconditionsincities,andtheshiftawayfromnomadic lifestyles occurred long before the onset of feudalism, but the economicchangesthatdidoccurwithfeudalismwerebasedmoreonpoliticaldisunitythanonnewtechnology.Although(A)isasmartguess,itisincorrectbecauseitonlyappliestoEuropeanfeudalism.ThedeclineofthesetwoempireshadlittleimpactonthepoliticalandeconomicorganizationofChina.

6.D In the late1700sandearly1800s,Europeannationswere interested in establishingmoretradewithChina.WhileChinahadmanygoodsthattheWestwanted,Chinawasnot that interested in western goods. There was a trade imbalance and this wasunacceptable (especially to England). To address this, Britain took opium grown inIndia and shipped it to China. Before long, the balance of trade had been reversedunder anOpenDoor (permissive trade) agreement, and silver and teawere flowingfreelyoutofChina.TheOpiumWarswereattemptsbytheChinesegovernmenttostoptheopiumtradeandexpelforeigninfluencefromitsshores.Answerchoice(D)wasthegoalofChinaduringtheOpiumWars,butunfortunately,itwasnottheresult.

The other choices are true and therefore not the answer. The British won the firstOpiumWar(1842),whichrequiredChinatoopenupmoreportcitiestoforeigntrade—an Open Door policy, (E). This policy would soon be extended to other westernEuropeannationsandeventuallytotheUnitedStates.EnglandalsotookpossessionofHongKong,(A).(B)and(C)werealsoallimpactsoftheconflicts.ChinawasforcedtosigntreatiesthatallowedmoreWesterngoodsintothecountry.And,whileChinahadkickedmissionariesoutofthecountryinthe1600sand1700s,noworganizedreligionwas free to enter China. Furthermore, treaties signed in the mid-1800s actuallylegalizedtheopiumtradeinChina.

7.BFeudalismwasapoliticalsystemcharacterizedbyaseriesof interlockingobligationsbetween amonarch and nobles of different levels. The systemwas based on givinglandinexchangefor loyaltyandmilitaryaidandresultedinadecentralizedformofgovernment.Manorialismwasaneconomicsysteminwhichwealthwasbasedonland.Peasantsworkednobles’farmsinexchangeforfood,shelter,andprotection.

Use POE and common sense to get rid of (A) and (C). During themedieval period,there was simply not a great deal of trade and commerce occurring. Plus,advancements in agricultural technology that increased yields or efficiencies wouldcertainly have had a positive impact on manorialism. (D) is also incorrect because

therecertainlywasahierarchywithin the feudalsystem. InbothEuropeandJapan,theclassstructurelookedlikeapyramid:themonarchatthetop,followedbydifferentlevelsoflordsinthemiddle,andthentheknightsatthebottom.Finally,laborwasnotcharacteristicofalllevelsoffeudalism,aslordshadfeudalobligationstokingsthatdidnot involve labor so much as military service and tribute, whereas manorialismdirectlyinvolvedlabor.

8.EThecluehereissmall-pox.UsingPOE,youcangetridof(A)becausetheimplicationisthatsomethingwasbeingputin,nottakenout,andthereisnomentionofleeches.(B),(C),and(D)areoutbecausenoneof them isaprocedure.WhileLadyMontagudoeswriteabout“whatveinyoupleasetohaveopened,”theimportantprocedurethatshewitnessed—and thatwas later adopted bywestern nations—was (E), the use of livevaccinestopreventillness.

9.CInthelatetenthcentury,theShi’amovementdevelopedtochallengeSunnidominanceof Islam. The Sunni believed that while the caliphs were leaders, they were notreligiousauthorities.Ontheotherhand,theShi’athoughtthatthecaliphatewasbotha spiritual and political leader and that the position should only be held by adescendantofMohammad.

UsingPOE,youcangetridof(B)becausethissimplydidnothappen.Andwhiletherewere philosophical differences between the two groups, the catalyst for the splitbetweenShi’aandSunniMuslimswasnot(A),(D),or(E).

10.DWhohas nuclearweapons?Countries that havedetonatednuclear bombs (either fortesting or for real) include Russia, the United States, France, North Korea, India,Pakistan,China,andGreatBritain.NotArgentina,(D).

11.DBytheearly1900s,theOttomanEmpirewasreferredtoasthe“SickManofEurope.”Beginning in the 1700s, internal and external pressures eroded the power of theempire. European encroachment into northern Africa, nationalist rebellions in theBalkans, and the rise of the Young Turks contributed to political instability in theregion.

Use POE on (A), (C), and (E), because Africa is not “Eastern,” and neither are themajority of Europe’s less-than-entirely-compliant colonies, and becausewhile China,Japan,andKoreaareeastern,itshouldstrikeyouthatwhatthisanswerchoiceismorenearlydescribingistheOpenDoorpolicy,bywhichwesternnationsexploitedChina.(B) is a smart guess because the EasternQuestion did involve power plays betweenEuropeannations, but the nations involvedwereEngland, France,Russia, and Italy.The issue questioned what would be done with the Ottoman Empire’s land, so thepresumptionwasthattheywouldnolongerbeapowerinworldpolitics.

12.DRemembertoreadthequestioncarefullyandeliminateanswerchoicesthatyouknoware true reasons for imperialism. Immigration into western European nations

(especially into urban areas) provided sufficient labor resources to fuel industrialexpansion. Imperialismwascloselytiedto industrialization,andasEuropeannationsbegantodominatetheworldeconomytheysearchedfornewsourcesofrawmaterialsandnewmarketsformanufacturedgoods.(A)isanaccuratestatement,asis(E),and,thus,neitheristheanswer.

(B)isalsotrueandthereforenottheanswer.Industrializationalsoinvolvedtheneedtomovegoodsquicklyandsafely,soEuropeannationsusedtheircoloniesasmilitarybases aswell. ThePanamaCanal and the SuezCanal are examples of protectorates,whichservedbotheconomicandmilitarypurposes.(C)istrue(andthereforenottheanswer)—English philosopher Herbert Spencer applied the biological evolutiondescribed by Charles Darwin to social interactions. Social Darwinism justifiedimperialism because the supposed superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race gave them amoralimperativeto“civilize”therestoftheworld.

13.EPriorto1000C.E.,nearlyallpre-moderncivilizations,includingChinaandIndia,tradedslave labor. Indo-Aryansaddedanewcaste, the sundras, toaccommodate slavesandservantsatthebottomofthecastesystem.

All theotheranswerchoicesare trueandthereforenot theanswer.Slaves inGreeceweremostoftenprisonersofwarorforeignerseitherlivinginGreeklandsorbroughtback from Greek military and trade expeditions, (A). The Islamic Empire had ahierarchyofslavesthatallowedthosewhoservedatthehighestlevelstoattainhighsocial status, and some even rose to high governmental positions, (B). Only non-MuslimscouldbeenslavedinIslamiclands,(C),althoughthechildrenofslaveswhoconverted to Islam were free citizens. (D) is particularly true of African societies,though the loss of honor is a common theme in slavery both worldwide andthroughouthistory.

14.DWhiletheAztecdidhaveaformalsystemofwriting,theIncadidnothaveasimilarsystem and instead relied on quipu, a rope with different color and size knots, forrecordkeeping.

SavvyPOEwillgetridof(A),(B),(C),and(E).BoththeIncaandAztecweresedentarycivilizationswithahierarchicalsocial structure—bothofwhicharecharacteristicsofagrarian,notnomadic,societies.Likewise,youknowthatreligionplayedadominantroleinallMesoamericancivilizationsandthatarchitecturalmonumentbuildingwasafeatureofboththeAztecandtheInca.Finally,generalknowledgeaboutMesoamericaincludespolytheismandthesupremacyofthesungod.BoththeAztecsandtheIncaexpanded their empires to control large territories at the height of their respectivereigns.Atonepoint,theAztecEmpirestretchedfromnorthernMexicotoGuatemala.Finally,boththeIncaandtheAztecpracticedhumansacrifice.

15.AThisquestionasksyoutodrawabroadgeneralizationaboutthevariousrevolutionsinLatinAmericannations.Whatyouneedtodoisfindanequallybroadanswerthatfits

a diverse range of independence movements. In the late 1800s, independencemovements occurred in Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Mexico, Venezuela,Columbia, and Ecuador (among other nations). The only answer that applies to thenationsofLatinAmericais(A).Therevolutionsinmanynationswereledbytheupperandmiddleclasseswhowerefrustratedatthelackofmobility.Inotherlands,lower-class workers led independence movements. Simon Bolivar, himself a member ofVenezuela’s upper class, proclaimed that successful revolutions depended on theparticipationofallgroups.Theresultsofrevolution,however,weresimilarinthisoneregard: Social stratification continued to exist, clashes among different classes andracespersisted,andtheeconomicgapamonggroupsofpeoplegrew.

UsingPOE,rememberthattherewerefewkeyindustriesemerginginLatinAmericannations, and these countries relied on significant foreign investment to build theireconomies.Foreignconcernsranmostoftherubber,coffee,rail,andsugarindustriesin Latin America. These nations did not nationalize their key industries, (B). Feweconomic reformswere institutedbecause, in somenations, elites led the revolutionand were opposed to long-lasting change. In other lands, reforms might have beendesired, but political and social instability prevented them from occurring. (C) isincorrectaswell.WhilesomeCentralAmericancountrieswereoriginallypartofNewSpain(Mexico),theygainedtheirindependencebytheendofthenineteenthcenturyas well. By and large, constitutional democracies failed in Latin American nations.Militarydictators ruled in somenations (Mexico,Brazil) andcivilwarsbrokeout inothers. (D) is not the correct choice. Neither, for that matter, is (E), as Europeanconquerors’ insistence on Catholicism had given the faith a virtual monopoly onreligionintheNewWorld,therewerefewdifferencestoevenbegincausingproblems,butwhenthosearose,theywerenotparticularlywelltolerated.

16.CThedownfallofcommunismintheoldSovietUnionoccurredinlargepartbecauseofeconomicproblemsassociatedwithahugebureaucracythatwasn’tflexibleenoughtorespond to changing global economic conditions. Communism was abandonedthroughoutEasternEuropeandmostoftherestoftheworld.EvenChina,thelargestremainingcommunistcountry,mademassiveeconomicadjustmentsbyadoptingmanyelements of capitalism, a change which further supports the idea that, during the1990s,mostpeopleconcludedthat therearesome inherentproblemswith toomuchcentraleconomicplanning.

UsingPOE,youcangetridofanyanswerchoicethateitherdoesn’tdescribeRussiaorthat isn’t a resultof changes inRussia. (B)and (D)don’tdescribeRussiaduring the1990s.Culturalandethnicdifferencesfuelednationalism(which,afterthedownfallofcommunism, led to independencemovementsand thesubsequentbreakingupof theSoviet Union into different republics, including Russia, the Ukraine, Latvia, andUzbekistan). Plus, a substantialmiddle class didn’t developunder communism, so itcouldn’thavebrought about thepolitical changes in the early1990s.Modernizationalso lagged behind thewest during the communist years; so, even though efforts tomodernizeincreasedthroughoutthe1990s,youcangetridof(A)becauseit’stooearly

totellwhetherthatwillleadtolong-termsocialandpoliticalstability.Asfor(E),thequestion of farming versus industrializationwas not an issue in the break-up of theSovietUnion.

17. B To use POE, find one product in the choice that is not correctly matched to itsgeographiclocation.(A)and(D)arethemostobviouswrongchoices,but(E)and(C)are also no good. (A) is incorrect because sugarcane came first from Africa to theCaribbean—where, incidentally, itwasoftenturnedintorum,as(E)suggests,butbecareful, turkeys didn’t originate in Europe!—and (D) is out because slaves did notcomefromNorthAmericabutratherweresentthere.CoffeecamefromSouthAmerica,so(C)isincorrect.

18.DRememberthatthecorrectanswermustcontainstatementsthataretrueaboutbothofthese civilizations. The Tokugawa Shogunate worried about the influence Christianmissionariesand foreign tradersmighthaveonJapan, so itcreatedaclosedsociety.Ontheotherhand,theOttomanswereinfluencedbymanyofthecultureswithwhichtheyhadcontact.TheOttomansconvertedtoIslam,blendedByzantineandPersianart,andlearnedaboutgunpowderandConfucianismfromChina.

UsePOEtogetridofanswersyouknowareuntrueabouteithertheOttomanEmpireortheTokugawaShogunate.AlthoughitiscorrecttostatethattheTokugawadidbanChristianity to prevent Spanish and Portuguese colonization attempts, theOttomansembraced Islam, not Christianity, so (A) is incorrect. One defining feature of theTokugawa Shogunate was its success in removing power from the daimyo andestablishing a strong, central government,making (B) thewrong answer. (C) is alsoincorrectbecauseitmisrepresentsboththeOttomansandtheTokugawa.TheOttomanEmpirewas built and sustained on expansionism; the Tokugawa brought peace andprosperity to Japan through isolationist policies. Finally, an oligarchy is rule by aselect group of elite individuals, not by one leader—while the shoguns were eliteleaders, they received theirpower, at leastnominally, fromanemperor,making theTokugawaShogunatenotanoligarchyand(E)incorrect.

19.EOnewaytotacklethisquestionistoeliminateanswerchoicesthatcontaincitiesthatarenotinItaly.Marseilles,(C),isinFrance.Ifyoureadtheanswersquickly,(D),thewordVienna looks a lot likeVenice. But, Vienna is in Austria, so (D) isn’t the rightanswer.That leavesyouwith(A),(B),and(E).Rememberthe importantroleplayedby Venice, not only in the formation of strongmaritime city-states, but also in theRenaissance.Evenifyouareunsureabouttheothercities,youknowthatVeniceneedstobepartoftheanswer,sopick(E).

20.CIfyouknowthedatesofWorldWarIandthedatesoftheindependencemovementsinIndiaandAfrica,you’llknowthatFranceandGreatBritaindidn’tgrantindependencetotheircoloniesuntilafterWorldWarII,notWorldWarI.OneofthereasonsWorldWar II spread throughout much of the world was that Europe still had its globalempire.

UsingPOEyoucaneliminateanythingthatyouknowwastrueintheyearsfollowingWorldWar I. You should know that both the League of Nations and the Treaty ofVersaillesweredirectresultsofWorldWarI,soeliminate(A)and(B).EventhoughtheLeaguewaspromotedbyPresidentWilson,theU.S.Congressfailedtojoinduetoitscontinued isolationism from the rest of the world (recall that it reluctantly enteredWorldWarIinthefirstplace),soeliminate(D)aswell.Depressionoftenfollowswars,as(E)suggestshere,anditwasindeedthesorrystateoftheGermaneconomyandtheensuingpolitical instability thatAdolfHitler capitalizedon to rise topower there in1933.

21. D Remember that Confucianism is a philosophy and not a religion. The notion ofsalvation and how to attain it are features of many religions, but not hallmarks ofphilosophicalsystems.

Use POE to eliminate the answer choices that are characteristics of Confucianism,including (E), which correctly identifies it as a philosophy, practiced alongsidereligiousfaith.OneoftheprinciplesofConfucianthoughtisthataharmonioussocietyisbuiltonfiveimportantinterpersonalrelationships,eachofwhichspringsfromfilialpiety, or respect for parents and elders. (A) is a valid statement and, therefore, anincorrect answer choice. So is (B) because the philosophy is based on the properconduct for each role in society. Confucianism also served as the basis for themeritocracysystemandcivil serviceexaminations,whichwereembracedbyChinesedynasties. Benevolent rulers surrounded bywell-educated scholars acted to promotethecommongood.Thus,Confucianismdoesaddressgovernmentorganization,and(C)isnottheanswer.

22.E Western Europe was already noncommunist. Using the map, you can eliminate (D)becauseChinadidnothaveanyholdingsinAfricaduringthisperiod,(B)becauseyoucannot tell this information from themap,and (A)because themapcontradicts thisinformation. While France, Russia, and the United States are represented in thegraphic,Englandisnot.And,whilemostofthefightingtookplaceinSoutheastAsia(Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia), there were wars of independence in Pakistan(Bangladesh), civil wars throughout sub-Saharan Africa (Uganda, Zaire) and LatinAmerica (Nicaragua, Chile) where military aid from both sides was used to try toinfluencepoliticaloutcomes.(C)isincorrect.

23.CTheabilitytoproduceasurplusoffoodduetobetterfarmingtechnologyledtomorepermanent settlements, which grew into cities. This gave rise tomore formal socialsystems,includingtheneedtogoverngroupsofpeople.Rememberyouarelookingfortheanswerthatisnottrue.

UsePOEandyourknowledgeof theBronzeAge toget ridofanswers thatare true.Youknow that theBronzeAgehada significant impacton themovementofpeopleand the interactionof cultures.Don’t forget to read thequestion carefully, and then

usePOEtoselecttheanswerthatisnotanaccuratestatement.Eliminate(A)becausenew tools, such as plows and shovels, led to greater production. (B) is true, andtherefore not the answer, becauseweaponsmade out of bronzewere expensive andwerereservedonlyforthehigherclasses.(D)isalsonottheanswerfortworeasons.First,withanagriculturalsurplus,morepeoplewerefreetopursuelifeasartisansandcraftspeople. Second, newmaterialswere available for different types of art such asjewelrymaking. If youweren’t surewhat todowith (E), you should takeyourbestguessbetween (E)and (C),buthistoriansandarchaeologistsbelieve theBronzeAgesawthedevelopmentofthefirstplank-builtboats.

24.B The impact ofMongol invasions on European, Asian, and north African countries isuneven.WhileMongolsbroughtpeaceandprosperitytoChina(underYuanrule)andIndia(undertheSultanateofDelhiandtheMughalDynasty),theirconquestofRussiaresulted in thedestructionandemigrationofnativeRussians. (This iswhy (D) isanincorrectanswerchoice!)WhilerulingChina,MongolsintegratedelementsofChineseculture and society (most notably the formation of a strong, central bureaucracy tohelprungovernment).Throughsubsequentinvasionsofotherlands,culturaldiffusionoccurred.

UsingPOE,rememberthattheMongolswereunsuccessfulinspreadingIslamtoChinaandRussia;however,manyIndiansconvertedtoIslamduringMongolreignasawaytobreakfreeofthesocialconstraintsofthecastesystem.(A)isnotthecorrectanswer.Makesureyoureadalltheanswerscarefully!Yes,theMongolinvasionwassuccessful(fora time) inChina,but theMongolsnever successfullyoccupiedJapan—crossout(E)!—thoughtheytriednumeroustimesduringtheYuandynasty.KoreadidfalltotheMongolsunderKublaiKhan’sreign.(C)isnottherightanswer.AkbarwasaMughalleaderwhomodernized themilitaryand instituted land reformprograms.He isbestknownforhisinterestinotherreligionsandbuildingasocietybasedontolerance.

25. D Manorialism was the dominant medieval European economic system and wascharacterized by a focus on agricultural production.While therewere certainly badseasonsofdroughtand flood, thiswasnot reallyan important reason for theendofmanorialism.Remember,youarelookingfortheanswerthatisnottrue.

UsePOEtogetridofchoicesthataretrue.Youshouldeliminate(B)and(C)becauseanything that competedwith farms and farming or undermined the labor forcewasbadformanorialism,butyoushouldalsoeliminate(E)becausecreatingself-sufficientestates in exchange for lords’ care and protection was at the core of why peasantsfoundthemselvesinlords’service.(A)isalsooutbecausethemanorialsystemequatedlandwithwealth;thedevelopmentofamoneyeconomybasedontheproductionandsaleofgoodswasonefeaturethatledtoitsdownfall.

26.CCulturalsynthesismeansthatsomethingcreatedinonecivilizationwasblendedwithsomethingfromanothercivilization.ThegalleonwasbasedonaChinesedesignthatwas thenmodifiedby theSpanish to increase itsutility forcross-Atlantic travel.The

galleon became the dominant ship used in exploration and supply missions to theAmericas (numerous galleons are sunk off the coast of Florida). Independentdevelopmentoradoptionofanelementfromanothersocietyisnotsynthesis,norisasocietyinventingsomethingonitsown,so(B),(D),and(E)areincorrect—crossthemoff.Similarly,translationoftheBibleintoFrenchdidnotchangethetext,so(A)isout.

27.EWhile youmight not remember the exact year, it should have occurred to you thatIndia did not gain its freedom in the nineteenth century. Independencewaswon in1947.TheSepoyRebellionresultedintheremovaloftheBritishEastIndiaCompanyasthegoverningbodyinIndia,butdidnotfreeIndiafromforeignrule.

UsePOEtoeliminateanswerchoicesthatareaccuratestatementsaboutBritishruleinIndia. Compared with France and Spain, England was not the worst colonizer, andcertain segments of Indian civilization did benefit from British rule. (A) is a truestatementbecausetheBritishdiddevelopextensiveraillinesandroadsystemsinorderto facilitate the movement of goods. With a more impartial ruling party (as far asreligionwent)therewasrelativeharmonybetweenMuslimsandHindusunderEnglishrule, so (B) is not the answer either. TheBritish imported various formsofWesterncivilization into India: for instance, education, culture, and 4:00 afternoon tea.However, the caste system persisted. In away, a new, higher castewas added thatcontained the English who moved to India. (D) is accurate and therefore not theanswer.So,too,is(E):cottonwasgrowninwhatisnowIndia(andPakistan)asearlyas the fifthcenturyB.C.E.,but the Indiancottonmarketdid sufferdue to thepoliciesandpracticesoftheBritishEastIndiaCompany.

28.CEvenifyouhavenoideawhoMorgagniandKeplerare,youcananswerthisquestion!UsePOEtoeliminate thosepairsyouknoware incorrectlymatched.CopernicusandGalileo both studied astronomy, not chemistry and biology, so (B) and (E) are out.Nowyoumightbe stuck.However, lookingat the two remainingchoices,youknowthat the little experiment with the apple and gravity means that Newton’s field ofstudywas physics, so (C) is the correct answer. You don’t even need to know thatKepleralsostudiedastronomyandphysicsorthatMorgagniwassomewhatfamousforhisworkinmedicine,especiallyanatomy!

29.D It is rumored that the wealth displayed by Mansa Musa on a pilgrimage to Meccapersuaded Ibn Battuta to journey to Mali. Mansa Musa opened trade routes andbroughtIslamtoMali.Evenifyouaren’tsurewhoMansaMusawas,thewordIslamicwillhelpyoueliminatesomeoftheanswerchoicesandtakeasmartguess.Ethiopia,(B),wasoneofthefeweastAfricannationstoremainChristian.Axum,(C),wasalsoconverted to Christianity. (More importantly, note that Axum reached its height ofpowerinthemid-500s).

SpeakingoftheAxum,itwasthesuccessorcivilizationtotheKushinnortheastAfrica.Another interestingpoint is that theKushcouldnothavebeenMuslimbecausetheirruleendedbefore570C.E.(Muhammad’sdateofbirth).So,foravarietyofreasons,(A)

is an incorrect answer. (E) may have been hard to get rid of, but consider this:Madagascarisanisland,andMansaMusa’stravelswereprimarilyland-basedanddidsubstantivelyinvolvenavigation.

30.DWhileotherEuropeannationswereadoptingabsolutisminthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies, theNetherlandsretainedalocalizedgovernancestructurewithpowerheldby provincial legislatures. Naturally, disagreements arose over various policies andactions,mostlythosehavingtodowithforeignaffairs,sotherewasafederalassembly(theStatesGeneral)whometinTheHague.

Use POE and common sense to eliminate answer choices you know arewrong. TheHague is in the Netherlands, so it would probably have little involvement in theactivitiesofcentralEuropeannations,suchasthoselistedin(B),andlittleinterestinrunningScandinaviangovernment, (A). (C) isnot abadanswer choice,but it isnotcorrect.TheHaguealsoisnottheNetherlands’capitolbuilding.

31. E Think in relative terms. The British were relatively better imperialists than thePortuguese(andtheSpanishandBelgians, forthatmatter). InIndiaandHongKong,theEnglishcultivatedaclassofnativecitizens tohelprunthegovernmentandwhocouldrisetorelativelyhighpositionsofpower.

YoucanusePOEtoeliminate(A),(C),and(D).TheEnglish,whiletheydidengageinsome conversion efforts, were not beholden to the same papalmandate as Catholiccountries—suchasPortugal—toconvertindigenouspeople.So(A)doesn’tmakealotofsense.ThefactthatBrazilisinSouthAmericamakes(C)thewronganswerchoice,andyouarewellawareoftheuseofslavesonsugarcaneplantationsthroughoutLatinAmerica,so(D)cannotbetherightanswereither.(B)isanincorrectchoicebecauseall colonizers built their economic relationshipswith their colonies onmercantilismandmonoculture. European nations had little concernwith the long-term economicsurvivaloftheirprotectorates;theneedforagriculturalproductsandnaturalresourceswasmoreimportant.InBrazil,thoseresourceswerecoffeeandsugar.

32.DYoumightassociatetheHolyRomanEmpirewithItalybecausethat’swhereRomeislocated.However,theempireencompassedthepartsofcentralEuropethateventuallybecameGermany,Austria,andsomeoftheSlavicnations.Rememberyouarelookingforthechoicethatisnottrue.

DuringtheAgeofAbsolutism,theHolyRomanEmpirestoodasanexampleofhownotto form a nation-state. The empire was a loose confederation of Germans, Italians,French,Hungarians,andSlavsthatwasheldtogetherbyreligionandlittleelse.(A)isaccurate,soit’snottheanswer.Therulerofthislargeterritory,forpartofitshistory,waselectedbyacouncil(Diet)ofnobleswhowereautonomous,regionalrulers,so(C)isnottheanswer.HabsburgemperorsweretheHolyRomanEmpire’smostprominentline of rulers, and they intermarried with the ruling families of Spain, France, andotherEuropeannations,so(E)isalsonottheanswer.TheRomanEmpiregrantedfull

citizenship to men in Rome automatically, but the same was not true of men inconquered territories. The empire offered citizenship to men in conquered areas tominimize resistance to its rule, but also to encourage men to enlist in the Romanarmies,whichneededaconstant sourceofnewrecruits tomaintainandexpand theempire.So(B)isnottheanswer.

33.ATheAustria-HungaryannexationofBosnia,Slavicdesiresfortheirownhomeland,and,ultimately,theassassinationofArchdukeFerdinandledtoWorldWarI.TheGermanoccupationofAustriaandCzechoslovakiawasoneofthecausesofWorldWarII.

Use POE to eliminate answer choices you know cannot be correct. The League ofNationswascreatedafterWorldWarI,so(D)cannotbetherightanswer,eventhoughtheweaknesses of the League contributed to the tensions leading up to the SecondWorldWar.Similarly,thehugedebtsaccumulatedbyGermanyoccurredduringWorldWar I, so (C) is also incorrect.Remember, if it is half-wrong, it is allwrong. SecretallianceswereoneofthefactorscontributingtoWorldWarI.Asamatteroffact,oneofWilson’s Fourteen Pointswas to prohibit secret agreements between nations. Yet,secretallianceswerenotarealcauseofWorldWarII.(B)isout.AndwhileWorldWarIwascatalyzed inpartby theassassinationofArchdukeFranzFerdinandofAustria-Hungary,noanalogousassassinationaffected thestartofWorldWar II, so (E) isnottheanswer.

34. A By the beginning of the twentieth century, Japan was an industrial power andcompeted with Western nations for colonies and influence. That is not to say thatEurope was any less interested in gaining land in Asia. Looking at the cartooncarefully, youwill see Japan “cutting off” Korea from the rest of Asia. The cartoondoesnot focusattentiononEuropeancolonizationefforts, so(B), (C)and(D)areallout.Whileyoumightfeellike(E)sortofmatches,thisistooliteralaninterpretationandshouldn’tsquarewithyourknowledgeofhistory.EuropewasnotignoringJapan’sefforts—afterall,theRussiansfromwhomtheJapanesetookKoreawerewellawareoftheirefforts.So(E)isnottheanswer.

35. B Through all three time periods, the ratio of men to women will remain roughlyconsistent.Using the informationon thecharts,youcaneliminate (A), (C), (D),and(E)becausenoneofthoseareaccuratestatements.Thenumberofpeoplereachingoldagewillgrowslightlyby2025;in2025thelargestagecategorywillbe15-to24-year-olds;whethertheinfantmortalityratewillriseorfallisunclear;andaddingthe0-to4-year-olds’ group to the 5- to 9-year-olds’ group produces different totals for thenumberunder age10 in eachyear. (What is shown is that therewill be fewerveryyoungchildren.Thiscouldbeduetoanumberoffactors.)

36.CThefragileecosystemofsub-SaharanAfricacouldnotsupport thepopulationgrowththat came with new farming technologies developed by the Bantu. In addition,desiccationturnedmuchoftheavailableagriculturalandgrazinglandstodesert.

It is theorized that the biggest Bantu migrations, from about 400 B.C.E. to 500 C.E.,beganineasternNigeriaandmovedsouthandeastalongthepathoftheCongoRiver.(A)and(B)areoutbecause,whiletradeandreligiondidopenupsignificantpartsofAfrica to exploration and settlement, they were not primary causes of the Bantumigration.(D)isalsoincorrectbecause,whilenewtechnologiescertainlydidopenupmore areas of Africa to development, this was not a reason for Bantu migrations.Finally, (E) is also incorrect because the conflict between the Hutus and Tutsis isprimarilyatwentiethcenturyconflict,notonethatoccurredbeforetheCommonEra.

37.BWhileitisanaccuratestatementaboutRome,(B)isnottrueabouttheHan.TheHanconqueredpartsofKorea, southwestChina,Vietnam,andcentralEurasia,whichnotonly strengthened existing trade routes and formed new ones but also exportedChineseculturetootherlands.

Use POE to eliminate answer choices that are true for both the Han and Romancivilizations.Ifananswerchoiceistrueforonlyoneofthegroups,keepit.(A)isoutbecauseitisanaccuratestatementaboutbothgroups.Militaryexpansionism,theneedto govern large territories, and the cost ofmaintaining a professionalmilitarywereeconomic drains in both societies. (C) is also true of both groups. In the RomanEmpire, provincial governors and administrators who were loyal to Rome hadconsiderable autonomy. During the Han Dynasty, feudal land holdings weretransferredbacktothecentralgovernments,diminishingthepoliticalpoweroflords.(D)isalsotrue,asChinawaseventuallyreunified(undertheSui),yetRomewasneveragain restored (despite theeffortsduring theByzantineEmpire).Furthermore, (E) isalso true because while little remains of Han structures, what does remain reflectsadvancedsystemsofplumbing,archedbridges,andundergroundminingexcavations.Similarly, the Romans were known for their advanced aqueducts, monumentalbuildings, and carefully laid out major roadways through significant parts of theempire(allofwhich,bypopularexpression,weresaidtoleadtoRome).

38.C In 1980, Polishworkers organized the first nonsanctioned union in the Soviet bloc.While their demands began with better working conditions and wages, Solidarityeventually took on the communist government, calling for free elections. Whileinitiallyunsuccessful,theideasespousedbySolidarityspreadtoothersatellitenations.Makesureyouchoosetheanswerthat isnotonlyaccuratebutalsohadthegreatestimpactonthecollapseoftheSovietUnion.

UsingPOE,rememberthatreunification,(A),wasaresultofthecollapseoftheSovietUnion, not an antecedent to it. In 1989 and 1990, the Soviet Union allowedreunification tooccur,mainlybecause theyno longerhad thepower todoanythingabout it. While the Ceausescus’ reign was one of terror and abuse, worldwideawareness of these atrocitieswas not a contributing factor to the end of the SovietUnion, so (B) is out. In 1989, there was a peaceful overthrow of the communistgovernment in Czechoslovakia known as the Velvet Revolution, (D). While animportant landmark inEasternEuropeanpolitics, thiswasa less significant factor in

thefalloftheSovietUnionthan(C).Lastly,whileGorbachevwastheleaderofRussiaduringthecollapseoftheSovietUnion,illness—eitherhisorotherleaders’—playednoroleinitsdemise.

39.BTheprimarydifferencebetweenindustrializationinJapanandEnglandwasthatJapanlackednaturalresources.Englandhadamplesuppliesofcoalandhadhugeamountsofresources in its colonies. Japan had comparatively fewer natural resources andcolonies,andthereforehadtoimportmostoftheenergysourcesandrawmaterialsforitsfactories.

Using POE, you can get rid of anything that doesn’t accurately describe Japan orEngland. Both countries are island nations that built rail lines between their majorcities (althoughEnglandhadmore rail lines) andwere entirely dependent onwatertransportationforcontactwiththeoutsideworld,soeliminate(A).Additionally,classtensions existed in both Japan and England, but working conditions improved inEnglandasprogressivepolicieswereenactedbyParliamentandasunionsformed,so(C) and (D) have to be eliminated. Finally, (E) is not an accurate statement aboutgendereddivisionoflabor,socrossthatout,too.

40. E The stated purposes of the Congress of Vienna were to establish a lasting peacethroughoutEuropeandmaintainthebalanceofpoweramongmajorEuropeanpowersby restoring some European borders to their pre-Napoleon locations while alsodrawing some new ones. One of the ways that the Congress chose tomaintain thebalanceofpowerwastoreasserttheauthorityofthemonarchs,specificallyinFranceandtheNetherlands.

You may remember that Napoleon Bonaparte was exiled to the island of Elba.However, thiswasnotaconsequenceof theCongressofVienna; itactuallyoccurredmonthsbefore.NapoleonreturnedfromexileinElbain1815,butwassooncrushedatWaterloo.Hewasthensentintoexileagain,thistimeinSt.Helena.Sogetridof(A).EasternEuropewasnotdividedamongGreatBritain,Italy,andGermany,sogetridof(C). Great Britain was given no possessions in eastern Europe, and Germany didn’tevenexistasacountryuntilmorethan50yearsaftertheCongressofVienna.NoneofthishadanythingtodowiththeOttomanEmpire,socrossout(B).

Finally,getridof(D)becausethepartitionofAfricaintoEuropeancoloniesoccurredaftertheBerlinConferencein1884,notaftertheCongressofViennain1815.

41.AJapanesefeudalsocietywasorganizedinahierarchysimilartothatinfeudalEurope.UsePOEtocrossoffthepositionsyouknowwerepartofthesystem:daimyo,samurai,andshogun.Ifyouweren’tsureabout(E),taikun,takethe50-50shotbetween(A)and(E) andmove on to something you knowmore about. But if you remembered thatShintoisareligion,notasocialposition,youshouldhavebeenabletoeliminate(E)andpick(A).

42.B First use POE to eliminate (A) because it is not a religion. Syncretismmeans, “theintegration of different religious beliefs and practices.”Akbar theGreat’s attempt tosynthesize Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Jainism, and Christianity is one example.Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are monotheistic religions with relatively strictdoctrines,noneofwhichencourageintegrationofcompetingreligiousthoughtsintoitsbeliefsystems,socrossoff(C),(D),and(E).Therightansweris(B).Greekpaganismcombined different ideologies and rituals as it expanded its territory and absorbedothercultures.

43.BRussiaandPolandopeneduptheirbordersinordertobringinmoresettlers.Religiousintolerance in western Europe certainly played a role in the Jews’ willingness tomigrate. If you look at themap, you’ll see that Jewsmigrated into eastern Europe,Russia, and Lithuania. Get rid of (C) because this might have accounted for somemovement fromCrimea, but not fromGermany andHungary. (A) is not the correctanswereither.TheCrusades(andtheReconquistainSpainandPortugal)hadmoreofanimpactonreligioustoleranceinwesternEurope,theMediterranean,andtheMiddleEast.ItwasnotamajorfactorinthemovementofJews.However,theimpactoftheCrusadesontheJewishpopulationinwesternEurope isacluetothecorrectanswer.(D), then,makes for adecent guess, but (B)will be the answer. If youweren’t surewhat to do with (E), you have to take the best guess you can, but the Pale ofSettlementhadtodowithIreland—notRussiaorPoland.

44.EWhileRomancivilizationmadesignificantcontributionsinthefieldofengineering,theCyrillicalphabetwasinventedintheByzantineEmpire.Tricky!

Makesureyoureadthequestioncarefullytoensurethatyouselecttheanswerthatisnot true.UsePOE to eliminate the choices that you knoware true.Gunpowder andpapermakingarebothassociatedwithChina,(A).Similarly,intheIslamiccivilization,literatureconsistedofcomplexpoetryformsandmathematicaladvancesincludedthecreation of algebra, so (B) is not the answer. You should remember that drama,especiallytragedies,wereinventedbytheGreeksandthattheworkofmathematicianssuch as Pythagoras and Euclid led to the field of geometry. (D) is out. And (C) iscorrect—andthereforenottheanswer,socrossitout—becausetheMayansdidindeeddeveloptheconceptofzero(theyweren’ttheonlyones)andacomplexunderstandingofastronomy.

45.DDon’tforgettoreadthequestioncarefully—youneedtofindtheanswerchoicethatisnot accurate. While the Crusades did involve converting the Holy Land back toCatholicism, a Jewish state was not established in theMiddle East until 1947. TheCrusades were a series of military campaigns with a strong religious overtone thatoccurred from the late eleventh century through the thirteenth century. While theprimary purpose of the Crusades was to take Jerusalem back from the Muslims, itturned into a quest to prevent the spread of Islam and to acquiremorewealth andpower for European leaders. As a consequence of the Crusades, feudal powerdiminished and commerce and cultural diffusion increased. However, they also

resultedinwidespreadreligiousintolerance.

UsePOEtoeliminateanswersthataretrue.DuringtheCrusades,kingsbecamemorepowerful because they were the only ones who could put together the substantialresourcestomountsuchextensivecampaigns.TherewasalsocompetitionamongthevariousmonarchsforthewealthandpowerassociatedwiththeCrusadestotheHolyLand.(A)and(E)are trueandthereforenot theanswer.Becauseyouknowthat theCrusadeswerereligiousinnature,youcaneliminate(B).Thereweremanyrisksandfew rewards facing the average Crusader, and the promise of salvation was anincentive offered by the Church to recruit soldiers. While the original idea for theCrusades was religious, returning crusaders brought back goods and tales of thethrivingcommercial tradenetwork they saw in theMiddleEast.With thedeclineoffeudalism, European aristocrats (and royalty) saw the Crusades as away to expandeconomicpowerandinfluence,so(C)wasareasonbehindtheCrusades(andthereforenottheanswer).

46.CBeforeweconsiderwhatmadeSpaindifferentfromotherEuropeannations,usePOEtoeliminate answer choices you know are wrong. For instance, (A) makes no sense.Somehow,theRenaissancespreadtoEnglandandFrance,andneitherofthosenationswasItalian-speaking.Youalsoknowthat(B)iswrong.Spainisnotisolated.ItbordersFrancetothenorth,andEnglandisgeographicallyfartherfromItalythanSpain.

Knowing that (D) is the incorrectanswer is thekey tounderstandingwhy(C) is thecorrectanswer.Duringthe700s,SpainandPortugalcameunderMuslimrulewiththeinvasionoftheMoors.Forhundredsofdecades,SpainfoughttofreeitselfofIslamicinfluence,andwhatresultedwasastrongnation-statewithextremelylittletoleranceforreligiousdissent.SotheCatholicrulersofSpaindidnotwarmlyembracetheideasoftheRenaissance.Whilethismayseemlikeagreatcasefor(E),then,notethat(E)isfar too extreme—even though the Spanish Inquisition cracked down on religiousdissent, it is simply going too far to say that secular art andwritingwas prohibitedentirely.

47.BThevarioustreatiessignedbytheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion,suchasSALTIand II and the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty did signal the success ofdétenteanddiplomacy,andtheywerealsoasignthatneithernationwasinapositiontocontinueuncheckedmilitaryspending.ThemostimportantreasonfortheresolutionoftheColdWarwas,simply,theeconomiccosts.

UsingPOE,rememberthat,whiletensiondidincreasebetweentheSovietUnionandChina beginning in the 1950s, this had little impact on the end of the Cold WarbetweentheUSSRandtheUnitedStates,so(A) isnot thecorrectanswer.(C) isoutbecausetensionsbetweenNorthandSouthKorearemainedhigh,andtheresolutionofconflict inVietnamandCambodiadidnotplayanimportantroleinendingtheColdWar. While (D) is a true statement, it is not the correct answer. While numerousnationsnowhavetheabilitytocreatenuclear,chemical,andbiologicalweapons,this

didnotleadtotheendoftheColdWar.AndwhilethefalloftheBerlinWalliscloselyassociatedwiththeendoftheColdWar, itwasasymptom,notacauseanddidnotnecessitateimmediatepeace,sotheanswerisn’t(E)either.

48.ERememberthatyouarelookingfortheanswerthatisnottrue.Urbanpopulationsswellaspeoplemigratefromruralareashopingtobuildbetterlives.

Crossofftheanswersthataretrue.Developingnationshaveadifficulttimebecomingself-sufficient forpolitical, social, cultural,andeconomicreasons.Political instabilitypreventsforeignfirmsfrominvestinginsomeofthesenations.Theinabilitytoensureprofitableoperationplusemployeesafetyhaspreventedcompanies frominvesting inmanycountriesinAfrica,SoutheastAsia,andLatinAmerica.(A),(B),and(D)arenottheanswer.Insomecountries,thecolonialpowerbuiltinfrastructuretoserveitsownimperialist purposes. Most nations did not have extensive road, sewer, and powernetworkswhen theygained their independence,and fewhave the funds tomaintaintheir infrastructure ingoodworkingcondition. (C) isalsoanaccuratestatementandthereforenottheanswer.

49.A As other nations in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia fell to imperialism, bothEthiopiaandThailandmanagedtomaintaintheirindependence.EthiopiasuccessfullydefeatedtheItaliansinthelate1800s.Thailandcloseditsportstoforeignersuntilthe1820s.

Using POE, you can eliminate (D) because Thailand is a predominantly Buddhistnation.Bothnationswereabletomaintaintheirindependenceasaresultoftheruleofstrongmonarchs, so (C) and (E) are both out. Because neither country came undercolonialrule,(B)isincorrect.

50.BTheTreatyofNanking(1842)wasanunequaltreatythatgrantedsignificantrightstowesternnationswhowantedtoengageintradewithChina.ItalsogaveChineselandto theBritishand justifiedEnglish involvement inChinesegovernment.TheMonroeDoctrine (1823)wasmeant to prevent further European imperialism in thewesternhemisphere. However, it was used to justify American intervention in Central andSouthAmericaandintheCaribbean.TheRooseveltCorollarytotheMonroeDoctrinewas invoked when the United States interfered in the affairs of the DominicanRepublic, Nicaragua, Honduras, and the Panama Canal. The Treaty of NankingcertainlybenefitedmorenationsthandidtheMonroeDoctrine.

The Treaty of Nanking explicitly allowed for foreign (British) intervention; theapplicationoftheMonroeDoctrineresultedinU.S.interference.(A)isnotanaccuratestatement about the two treaties.Nor is (D) because only theMonroeDoctrinewasdesigned to limit European influence. (C) is also incorrect because the MonroeDoctrinedidnotreallyunderminestablegovernmentsinLatinAmerica.AndbecausetheMonroeDoctrinediddealwiththeUnitedStates,(E)isalsoincorrect.TheUnitedStates employed a subtler, more economic form of imperialism in the western

hemisphere.Itistrue,however,thattheTreatyofNankingfurtherweakenedtheQingDynastyandledtotheTaipingRebellion,acivilwar.

51.EWhilethefocusofmuchoftheliteratureisonthetransatlantic,European-dominatedslavetrade,IslamicandAsiannationsalsoengagedinslavery.Remembertoreadthequestion carefully—the correct answer is the one that is not true. Use POE andeliminatethechoicesthatyouknowaretrueabouttheslavetrade.(A)istrue.IntheNew World, intermarriage led to the creation of the mestizo, mulatto, and zamboclasses. While the slave trade decimated Africa’s population, its impact on Africanrulerswasnotalwaysnegative.Numerouskings,suchasthoseinAshantiandBenin,sawcooperatingwiththeEuropeansasapathtoriches.Tradingslavesforguns,theserulerswereabletomaintainstrongcontrolovertheirempires;therefore,(B)isnottheanswer.Asaresultoftriangulartrade,cropssuchascornwereintroducedtoAfrica.Someof theseweremore tolerant todroughtand someproducedhigheryields thannativeplants,sodietandhealthwereimproved.(C)isnottheanswer.(D),too,isnottheanswer,becausetheneedforlaborintheNewWorldispreciselywhatpromptedtheampingupoftheAfricanslavetradethatmadetheleadersofAshantiandBeninsowealthy.

52.CThetrans-SaharantraderouteranfromwestAfricatonorthAfricatoEurope.EastandcentralAfricabecamemoreprosperouswiththesuccessofthisroute,whichwasalsoresponsibleforincreasedEuropeanandMuslimmissionaryeffortsintheregion.Whilecloth, silk, and spices from Europe and Asia did comprise some of the goodstransported on the Trans-SaharanRoute, the question askswhatAfrican goodswereinvolved.UsePOEtoeliminateanswerchoicescontainingAsiangoods(tea,silk,andspices). But in doing so, be very careful—both rice and sugar cane were Africanproducts, even though you may associate rice with Asia and sugar cane with theCaribbean.SugarcanecametotheCaribbeanasaresultoftheColumbianExchange,butricecultivationdevelopedseparatelyinbothAfricaandAsia,witheachcontinentusingdifferentstrainsofrice.Africans,however,generallygrewonlyenoughriceforthemselves and their familieswithout a tradable surplus, so itwouldnot havebeenpartofthetrans-Saharanmovementofgoods,products,andpeople.

53.D The term nation implies certain bonds among people. Early nation-states in Europe(England, France, Germany, Italy)metwith varying levels of success, depending onhowstrongthosebondswere.Don’tforgetthatyouarelookingfortheanswerchoicethatisnottrue.Thinkaboutthesuccessfulnation-states(England,France)andusePOEtoeliminatethefeaturesyouknowwerepresentinthesetwolands.InbothEnglandand France there existed a common language, (A), a distinct territory, (B), andcommonlaws(nomatterhowunevenlyapplied),(C).Notonlywasfeudalism,(D),nota necessary feature of nationalism, but such fragmentation actually had to beeliminatedforstrongnation-statestoarise.OneoftheproblemsinItalyandGermany(in addition to cultural and language barriers)was the persistent power of regionalnobility.Religiousconflictwasnotabsent,butEuropeanleaderssuchasFerdinandandIsabellaofSpain,forexample,hopedtoensurenationalunitybymandatingreligious

unity(rememberthatwholeReconquistathing?),andsuchpoliciesgenerallyworked.

54.CRead thequestioncarefully—youneed to select the response that isnotonly trueofRomanlaw,butisalsounique.Romanlawwasuniqueinthatittookintoaccountallofthelawsofthelandsconqueredbytheempireanddevelopedtwosetsoflaws:jusgentium,todealwithnon-citizensandjuscivile,todealwithRomancitizens.

Use POE to eliminate answers that you know are not unique, such as (B) and (D).WhileRomanlawwaswell-organizedanddidcodifytherightsofthoseaccused,thatdid not make Roman law unique; these same traits are also found in the Code ofHammurabiandtheJustinianCode.(A)canbeeliminatedbecauseitisnottrue—thefirstsetoflawswrittendownwastheCodeofHammurabi.(E)isalsowrong,inlargepart due to the word “quickly”—changes, when they came, were a long time incoming.Thecorrectanswer,then,is(C).

55. C (A) is not correct because traditional laissez-faire economics state that economiesfunctionbestwiththeleastgovernmentalinterferences,andMun’squoteclearlycallsforsomepoliciesthatwouldinterferewiththeworkingsoflaissez-faire.Theideasofmanorialism and feudalismwere long gone by the time that Europeannationswerecolonizingtherestoftheworld,so(D)and(E)areout.WhileMun’squotefitsintothereasonsforimperialism,(B)isnotthecorrectanswer.Colonialismalonedidnotcreatethe economic conditions favorable to the mother country. Instead, it was theimpositionofmercantilismoncoloniesthatallowedforthisfavorablebalanceoftradetooccur.

56.D One reason for Japan’s rapid industrialization and growth as a global power wasbecausethenationcoulddevoteallof itsresourcestorebuildingitseconomy.WhiletheUnitedStates(anditsallies)andtheSovietUnionspentbillionsofdollarsontheCold War, Japan was free to focus on internal growth—meaning (E) can’t be theanswer.Usewhatyouknowaboutpost-WorldWarIIJapantoeliminate(B)and(C).Whiletherewassomeanti-AmericansentimentinJapan,itwasnotthemostimportantimpactofdemilitarization,so(A)isalsoout.

57.BSimplyput,every colonizingnationengaged inmercantilismwith its colonies.Undermercantilism, theeconomic relationshipbetweencoloniesandEuropeannationswasdevelopedtocreateafavorablebalanceoftradeforthemothernations.Colonieswererestricted inwhat they could trade andwithwhom, and theywere prevented fromdevelopingself-sufficienteconomies.Forexample,theBritishcoloniesinAmericawererequiredtobuycertaingoods(tea)fromEnglandandwerenotallowedtotradecertainitemswithFranceand Italy.Coloniesbecamenotonly sourcesof rawmaterials,butalso captivemarkets for goodsmanufactured in Europe. The correct answer to thisquestionistheonenationwhowasnotinvolvedincolonization:Italy,(B).

58.DIfyourememberthatIslamicsocietywasprettyegalitarianintermsofsocialhierarchy,you can apply this to the rights of Muslim women. Also keep in mind that most

civilizationsgrantedfewwomenanysubstantialrightsinpre-moderntimes.UsingPOEand common sense, eliminate (A) because the Hindu caste system did not onlydiscriminate against those in lower castes, but against women as well. (B) is outbecauseonlymencould sit for thecivil serviceexamand serveasmandarins.As inother faiths, Jewish women were not allowed to hold positions in the religioushierarchy, so (C) is also incorrect.As for (E),Christianwomenwere givennowherenearthatmuchfreedomonaregularbasis,so(E)isout,too.

59.DAmajorthemeontheAPexamischangeandcontinuityinsocietiesovertime.Changecan occur through different methods: invasion, migration, independent populationgrowth,innovationandinvention,andsoon.TheSongDynastywentthroughaperiodof tremendous social, economic, and cultural growth beginning in the late 900s.Innovations inagriculture ledtothegrowthofhugecommercialcitiesandincreasedprosperity.TousePOE,rememberthatduringtheperiodfrom600to1450C.E. therewas a tremendous increase in the contacts among different people. Many of theseexchangesoccurredasaresultofmigration,trade,andwar.Thecorrectanswertothisquestionwillbethesocietythatexperiencedtremendouschangeyetnotastheresultofoutsideinfluence.

InAfrica,theGreatZimbabwechangedasaresultofthediscoveryofnewtraderoutesand valuable natural resources. (A) is not the right answer. As you (hopefully)remember, Mongol invasions of Russia had a long-lasting (and not very positive)impact. The Tartars destroyed theKievan city-state system and isolatedRussia fromEuropean civilization. Kievwas changed through invasion, so (C) is out. Byzantiumsocietywaschangedgreatlyasaresultofinvasion;notonlybecauseofArab,Slav,andBulgur invasions into the empire but also as a result of Byzantium expansionism.Moreover, western Catholics led an attack on Constantinople as part of the FourthCrusade,whichfurtherweakenedtheempireandleftitopentolaterArabattack.(B)isnot thecorrectanswer. (E),however, isalso incorrect, for itwas the instabilityofrepeatedinvasionsthatsettheRomanEmpire’sdirectpathofdecline.

60.EUsePOEtoeliminate(A)and(D)becauseQueenVictoria is lookingatAfricaonthemap. Although it’s not terribly clear, Queen Victoria’s paintbrush is perched at thesouthern tipofAfrica.NotAsia, socrossout (B).Makesureyou lookat thecartooncarefullybeforeansweringthequestion.

61.ETheNeolithicRevolution(about8000–3000B.C.E.)wascharacterizedbypeoplemovingfromnomadiclifestylestoagriculturallifestyles.EvenifallyourememberisthattheNeolithic Revolution happened way in the past, near the beginning of the historycoveredinyourAPWorldHistoryclass,youshouldbeabletoeliminatesomeanswers.PeoplebegantousebronzeneartheendoftheNeolithicRevolution,andirondidn’tcomeuntilway after that, so (B) has to go. “Revolutions” usually describe a totallynewwayofdoingthingsoranoverthrowofleadershiporgovernment,so(C)and(D)don’t makemuch sense. Plus, you can eliminate (A) because it came later and (D)becauseitcamewaylater.

62.D The purpose of theTrumanDoctrinewas to contain the spread of communism. TheUnited States perceived a communist threat to Greece and Turkey and approved a$400million aid package for these two nations. If you remember that the TrumanDoctrinewas not applied in communist nations, then you can use POE to eliminateanswerchoiceswithCzechoslovakia,(A),Poland,(B)and(E),andYugoslavia,(C).

63.A In industrialized nations, birth rates are generally lower for a number of reasons.Childrenweretheprimarysourcesoflaborinnationsthatwerehighlyagrarian.Morechildrendiedduring theirearlyyears in these lands, so familieshadmoreoffspring.Remember,youneedtofindtheonetrendthatisnottrue.

If you can remember that industrialization has positive impacts onmost populationdemographics,thenyoucaneliminate(C)and(D).Withhigherstandardsoflivingandbetterhealthcareandeducation,fewerpeopleinindustrializednationsdieyoung,buttheydidenterformalemploymentatyoungeragesduringthiscentury,socrossoff(E)for being true. During the time periodmentioned, the industrialized nations of theworldwerecenteredprimarilyinwesternEuropeandtheUnitedStates.So(B)istrue(andthereforenottheanswer)becausepeoplemigratedtowherethejobswere.

64.BBecauseyouknowthattheAmericanBillofRightswasbasedonkeyprovisionsoftheEnglishBillofRights,youcanguessthatreligiousrestrictionswerenotincluded.Thecorrect answer is the provision thatwasnot part of the Bill of Rights. The test andCorporation Acts of the late seventeenth century ensured that British office-holderswereAnglican.

TheBillofRightsplacednumerouslimitationsonthepoweroftheEnglishmonarch.AmongthoserestrictionswasonethatstatedthekingcouldnotraisetaxesorestablishanarmywithoutParliamentaryapproval. It alsogave jury trials to thoseaccusedofcrimes and allowed British citizens the right to appeal decisionsmade by the king.Furthermore, itallowed those inParliament to speak freelyandeven tocriticize themonarch. Finally, it prohibited excessive bail and cruel andunusual punishment. So(A),(C),(D),and(E)wereallpartsoftheBillofRights.UsePOEtogetridofthesechoices.

65.BMarxbuilthisargumentontheneedfortheproletariattoriseupagainstthecapitalist-industrialist regime. In 1917,Russia didnot have a large industrialworker base, soLenin and Trotsky adapted Marxism to include all oppressed people, includingpeasants. The great irony of communism is that it has beenmost successful in less-industrializednations.

Use POE and eliminate answers you knowarewrong or don’tmake sense, like (A).Marxprobablydidnot envisionhow longa revolutionwould takeorhowbloody itwouldbe.(C)isalsonotanaccuratestatement.The1905(non-communist)Revolutionwasrunbythebourgeois,andthe1917Revolutionwasmoreradicalandproletariatinnature. (D), too, is out, because Marxism appealed to women because it promised

equaltreatmentofallpeopleundercommunism,andMarxwroteextensivelyabouttheunequalburdenassumedbywomeninindustrialsocieties.Finally,though,Marxalsoknew that violent overthrow does sometimes lead to rulers’ deaths, as it led toNicholasII’sandhisfamily’s,socrossout(E).

66.DThekeythingtorememberabouttheMeijiRestorationisthat itwasatimeofgreatmodernizationandwesternizationinJapan.Allclassdistinctionswereeliminated,theemperorwasreinstalledastheleaderofJapan,lawsweremodernized,andthenationrapidly industrialized.A two-house legislature (Diet)was established. Japan also setouttobecomeanimperialpowerintheworld.While(A)and(C)wereoutcomesoftheMeijiRestoration,theprimarygoalwas(E).Japanbelievedtheonlywayitcouldavoidentering into unequal treaties and be subjected to foreign influences (like whathappened inChina)was tobuild itsown industrialandmilitarybases. (B) isnotanaccuratestatementabouttheMeijiRestoration.Neither,forthatmatter,is(E),whichoccurredlongaftertheMeijiRestoration.

67.BExplorationtookEuropeanstoAfrica,India,andtheFarEastinadditiontothewesternhemisphere.Remember to read thequestioncarefullyandchoose theanswer that isthe least accurate statement about Europe during this time period. Use POE toeliminate answers that are true. (A) is true. A direct result of the establishment ofstable, centralized political units in France, England, and Spain was the ability tospendresourcesonart,literature,education,andexploration,so(A)isnottheanswer.Eliminate (C) because you know that the benefits of exploration and colonizationrarely,ifever,accruedtothenativepopulationsofNorthandSouthAmerica,Africa,and India. (D) is true and cannot be the answer, because while there were someEuropean women who played important roles as nuns, writers, painters, and salonhosts, the rights and roles of women were not greatly expanded during theEnlightenment,eventhoughmorewomenhadaccesstoeducation.Theresimplywerenoopportunitiestobecomeequalmembersinsociety.Finally,(E)isatruestatement,particularly for themid- to lateportionof this timeperiod, so it also cannotbe theanswer.

68.B If youknow thatHinduism is anancient religion thatdeveloped in Indiaand if youunderstand its general components, this question is easy. That’s because all of thewronganswerchoiceshavetowithHinduism.ThecorrectanswerchoicehasnothingtodowithHinduism.TheDaoisdefinedasthe“wayofnature”andit isthecentralcomponentofDaoism,anancientChinesebeliefsystem.

Reincarnation, (A), the caste system, (C), karma, (D), and dharma, (E), are allassociatedwithHinduism.Karma anddharma gohand-in-hand, as dharma refers tothe behaviors necessary to maintain natural order, and karma refers to the law ofmoralconsequences(ofviolatingthosebehaviors),whichholdsthatone’sstatusinthepresent lifehasbeendeterminedby thedeeds inprevious lives (reincarnation).Thatstatus is known as one’s caste, and it can change as one’s karma changes. Afterreincarnation, a higher or lower caste awaits a person whose karma improved or

declinedinthepreviouslife.

69.ECecilRhodes,aBritishadventurerwhobecametheprimeministeroftheCapeColony,wasa firmbeliever inEnglish imperialpower.Whilehis reasons forcapturingmorelandforMotherEnglanddidinvolvepowerandadvantage,theyalsocenteredontheidea of European supremacy and a moral imperative to convert “savages.” Thesesentimentsaremostconsistentwith(E),SocialDarwinism.

70.ATheSumerians,Phoenicians,andtheMayaalldevelopedextensivewritingsystems.ThePhoenicians laid the groundwork for the alphabet later used by the Greeks, theSumeriansusedcuneiform,andtheMayausedhieroglyphs.

Even if all that you remember is that these were ancient civilizations, you caneliminateacoupleofanswerchoices.Noneofthesecivilizationsemphasizedequalityin education because none of them emphasized equality at all. Equality is a fairlymodernconcept,sogetridof(B).Thesamegoesfordemocracy.Itwasattemptedforawhile in ancient Greece and Rome, but it didn’t re-emerge until the Age ofEnlightenment,sogetridof(D).Allofthesocietieswerepolytheistic,soevenifyoujustrememberoneofthem,youhavetogetridof(C).Similarly,ifyoucanrecallthatevenoneofthesesocietiesdidnotpracticehumansacrifice,youmusteliminate(E).

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Index

AbbasIAbbas,MahmoudAbbasidDynasty,7.1,7.2abortionabsoluteauthorityabsolutemonarchabsoluteruleAbuBakrAeschylusAfghanistanAfricaAngolaAxumcivilizationBantu,6.1,7.1BenincultureearlycivilizationsGhanaimperialisminindependencefromEuropeancolonistsKongoKushMali,7.1,8.1nationalismoralliteratureSonghaiAfricanNationalCongress,9.1,10.1AgeofExplorationColumbianExchangediseaseandencomiendasystem,8.1joint-stockcompanylistofexplorersmissionariesNewWorldtechnologyandtraderoutesAgeofImperialism,9.1,9.2,9.3

AgriculturalRevolution,6.1,9.1agriculturalsocietiesfloodingand,6.1,6.2irrigation,6.1,6.2Neolithic(“NewStone”)RevolutionnomadicsocietiescontrastedwithoverviewAhmadinejad,MahmoudairplaneAkbartheGreat(MughalIndia)AkkadAlQaedaAlexanderI,CzarofRussia,9.1,9.2,9.3AlexandertheGreatAlfonsoI,KingofKongoalgebraAlliesAmericanCivilLibertiesUnionAmericanRevolutionAmnestyInternational,10.1,10.2AmritsarmassacreAnalects(Confucius),6.1AnglicanChurchAngolaAnti-CominternPactanti-slaverymovementAntigonidEmpireapartheidappeasementAprilThesesAquinas,ThomasArafat,YassirArchimedesArgentina,9.1,9.2aristocracyAristotle,6.1,7.1,7.2,8.1ArmisticeAryans,6.1,6.2,6.3,10.1Ashoka,6.1,6.2assemblylineAssyrians,6.1,6.2astrolabeAtaturk,KemelMustafaAthens

atheistsatomicbomb,10.1,10.2,10.3AttilaAugustusCaesarAxumcivilizationAzteccivilization,7.1,8.1

BaburBabylonBacon,FrancisBaghdad,7.1,7.2,7.3BahadurShahIIBalboa,VascodeBalfourDeclarationBangladeshBantuBatistaDictatorshipBattleofBritainBattleofToursBayofPigsInvasionBegin,MenachamBelarusBelgium,8.1,10.1beliefsystems.SeealsoIslamicEmpire;RomanCatholicChurchatheismBuddhism,6.1,6.2,6.3,7.1,8.1Christianity,6.1,6.2,6.3,7.1conflictsandConfucianism,6.1,6.2,7.1,8.1,10.1Daoism,6.1,6.2,7.1DeistsEgyptianEmpireGreekmythologyHinduism,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4,7.1,8.1humansacrifice,7.1,7.2,8.1intentionaldiffusionofreligionJudaism,6.1,6.2,6.3,10.1Legalism,6.1,6.2mapofworldreligionsmonotheism,6.1,6.2,6.3OrthodoxChristianity,7.1,7.2paganismpolytheism,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4,6.5ProtestantReformation

reincarnationRomanmythologyRussianOrthodoxChurchsalvation,8.1,8.2,8.3scholasticismShangdynastyShintoreligionslaveryandtimelinewomenand,6.1,7.1

Ben-Gurion,DavidBeninBerlinAirliftBerlinBlockadeBerlinConferenceBerlinWall,10.1,10.2BillofRightsbinLaden,OsamaBismarck,Ottovon,9.1,10.1BlackDeath(BubonicPlague),7.1,7.2,8.1BlackshirtsblitzkriegBloodySundayBoerWarBoleyn,AnneBolivar,SimonBolsheviksBonaparte,JosephBonaparte,Napoleon,9.1,9.2BosniaBostonTeaPartyBourbons,7.1,9.1BoxerProtocolBoxerRebellionBrahe,TychoBrahmansBrandenburgBrazilBritishEastIndiaCompany,8.1,8.2,9.1BronzeAgeBrunelleschiBubonicPlague,7.1,7.2,8.1Buddhism,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4,7.1,8.1Bulgaria,10.1,10.2

bureaubureaucracies,6.1,7.1burghersBurmaByzantineEmpire,7.1,7.2,7.3Byzantium

Cabot,JohnCaesarscalculuscalendarMayancalendar,6.1,6.2OlmeccalendarSumercalendarcaliphatecaliphsCalvin,JohnCampDavidAccordsCanadaCapeofGoodHope,8.1,8.2,9.1capitalismcaravalsCarolingianDynastyCarter,JimmyCarthageCastro,FidelcathedralsCatherineofAragonCatherinetheGreatCavaliersCavour,CountCamilloChaldeansChamberlain,NevilleChampariceChandraguptaChang’an(Xi’an,China)Charlemagne,7.1,7.2,9.1Charles,HolyRomanEmperorCharlesI,KingofEnglandCharlesII,KingofEnglandCharlesV,KingofSpainChavincivilizationChechnyaChiangKai-shek

ChichenItzaChile,9.1,9.2ChinaBoxerRebellionBubonicPlague,7.1,7.2bureaucracydevelopment,6.1,7.1ChineseRevolutionof1911civilservicesystem,6.1,7.1,8.1collectivization,10.1,10.2communismConfucianism,6.1,6.2,7.1,7.2,8.1,10.1CulturalRevolutionGreatLeapForwardGreatWallofChina,6.1,6.2HanDynasty,6.1,6.2,6.3,7.1,7.2,8.1Kuomindang(KMT)LegalismManchuDynastyMandateofHeaven,6.1,6.2,8.1MingDynasty,7.1,7.2,8.1Mongolsand,7.1,7.2,8.1one-childpolicy,10.1,10.2Open-DoorPolicyOpiumWarspatriarchalstructure,6.1,7.1printinginventionQinDynasty,6.1,6.2,6.3Self-StrengtheningMovementShangDynastySongDynasty,7.1,7.2TaipingRebellionT’angdynasty,7.1,7.2,7.3ThreePrinciplesofthePeopleTiananmenSquaremassacretradeTreatyofNanjintributesystemWhiteLotusRebellionsYuanDynastyZhouDynastyChineseRevolutionof1911chivalryChristianity.Seebeliefsystems;RomanCatholicChurch;specificbeliefsChurchMilitant

ChurchofEnglandChurchill,Winstoncircumnavigatecity-states,6.1,6.2,6.3civildisobediencecivilservicesystem,6.1,7.1,8.1civilizationclassicalcivilizationsGreeceHanDynasty,6.1,6.2,6.3,7.1MauryanEmpireMayancivilization,6.1,6.2,7.1QinDynastytimelineClive,RobertClovis,KingofFranksCodeofBushidoCodeofHammurabiCodeofJustiniancoffeeColbert,JeanBaptisteColdWar,10.1,10.2,10.3collectivization,10.1,10.2,10.3Colombia,9.1,9.2colonialism.SeeAgeofExplorationColosseumColumbianExchangeColumbus,Christopher,8.1,8.2CommitteeofPublicSafetyCommonSense(Paine),9.1commonwealthcommunismCommunistManifestocompassConfucianism,6.1,6.2,7.1,8.1,10.1CongressofViennaConstantine,6.1,6.2Constantinople,6.1,7.1,7.2,7.3,7.4,8.1constitutions,9.1,9.2,10.1containmentConventionCopernicanRevolutionCopernicus,Nicolaus,8.1,8.2Cornwallis,George

corporationCortes,HernancottonginCouncilofTrentcounter-reformationcreolesCrimeanWarCromwell,OliverCrusades,7.1,7.2,7.3,7.4,8.1CubaCubanMissileCrisisCubanRevolutionculturaldiffusion,definitionofCulturalRevolutioncuneiformcurrencyCyrillicalphabetCzechoslovakia,10.1,10.2

D-DaydaVinci,LeonardodaimyoDaoism,6.1,6.2,7.1Darwin,Charles,9.1,9.2deGama,VascodeLeon,PonceDeclarationoftheRightsofManDeistsDelianLeaguedemocracy,6.1,10.1DengXiaopingDias,BartholomewDiocletianDirectorydisease,6.1,6.2,7.1,7.2,8.1,8.2AgeofExplorationand,8.1,8.2BubonicPlague,7.1,7.2,8.1smallpoxdivinerightofmonarchsdivorceDoctorsWithoutBorders,10.1,10.2DomeoftheRockdomesticsystemDonatello

Dostoyevsky,FyodordowryDracoDrake,Francis,8.1,8.2DumaDurer,AlbrechtDutchEastIndiaCompany,8.1,8.2

EarlycivilizationsAfricaancientEgyptcity-states,6.1,6.2earlyChinaemergenceIndusValleycivilizationmapMesoamericaMesopotamiatimelineEarthSummitEasternBloceconomics.SeemoneyandbankingEcuadorEdictofNantesEdoperiodEgypt,9.1,10.1,10.2,10.3EgyptianEmpireachievementsdeclinehieroglyphicsmappharaohsreligionslaverysocialstructureThreeKingdomswomenEightFoldPathElizabethI,QueenofEnglandElizabeth,QueenofEnglandElizabethanAgeEmancipationEdictemancipationofserfsEmpressWu(T’angChina)

enclosureEncomiendasystem,8.1EnglandActofSupremacyElizabethanAgeexplorationFranceliberatedfromIndiaand,8.1,9.1,9.2LongParliamentProtestantReformationStuartRestorationWWII,10.1,10.2EnglishBillofRightsEnglishCommonwealthEnlightenedMonarchsEnlightenmentenvironmentalchangeErasmusErechEstatesGeneral“ethniccleansing”EuclidEuphratesRiver,6.1,6.2EuripidesEuropeanexplorationEuropeanUnion(EU)excommunication

factorysystemfamily,earlyChinafascismFatahFerdinand,KingofSpain,7.1,8.1,8.2Ferdinand,ArchdukeFranzFerdinandI,HolyRomanEmperorfeudalismcodeofchivalryEncomiendasystem,8.1feudalJapanGermanareashierarchyprimogeniturethree-fieldsystemfiefs

FirstCrusadefirsttriumvirateFivePillarsofIslamFiveYearPlansFlandersfloatingempiresflooding,6.1,6.2flyingshuttlefootbinding,7.1,9.1foragingsocieties(hunter-gatherers)forumFourNobleTruthsFourteenPointsFranceAmericanRevolutionBourbonsCatholicisminCommitteeofPublicSafetyconstitutionsConventionDeclarationoftheRightsofManDirectoryEdictofNantesEstatesGeneralexplorationFrenchRevolutionHuguenots,8.1,8.2Indiaand,8.1,9.1JacobinsliberationfromEnglandNapoleonNationalAssemblyReignofTerrorsocialclassesunificationVietnamWWIIFranco,FranciscoFranco-PrussianWarFranks,7.1,7.2FrederickII,KingofPrussiaFredericktheGreatfreemarketsystemFrenchandIndianWar

FrenchRevolutionFujiwarafamily,7.1,7.2Fulton,Robert

G6G8Galileo,8.1,8.2Gandhi,MohandasGaribaldi,GiuseppeGazaStripGeneralAgreementonTradeandTariffs(GAAT),10.1,10.2GenghisKhangeometryGeorgiaGermanyBerlinConferenceCatholicismindivisionafterWWIIfeudalismHanseaticLeague,7.1,7.2HolyRomanEmpireHolyRomanEmpireandnationalism,8.1,9.1Nazis,10.1,10.2ReichstagreunificationRhinelandThirdReichThirtyYears’WarTreatyofVersailles,10.1,10.2,10.3unificationWeimarRepublicWWIWWIIGhana,7.1,8.1,10.1Glasnost,10.1globalwarmingglobalizationGloriousRevolutionGolanHeightsgold,8.1,9.1GoldenAgeofPericlesGoldenHordeGorbachev,Mikhail

GothicstyleGreatDepression,10.1,10.2GreatLeapForwardGreatPurgeGreatRoyalRoadGreatWallofChina,6.1,6.2GreeceAncientGreeceAthensconquerofDelianLeagueGoldenAgeofPericlesGreekdramaGreekmythologyHellenismPeloponnesianWarPersianWarspolisslaverysocialstructureSpartaGreekalphabet“greenrevolution”Grenville,GeorgeGroupofSix(G6)GuamguerillaGulfWargunpowderGupta,ChandraGuptaDynasty,6.1,6.2,6.3Gutenberg,Johannes

Habyarimana,JuvenalHagiaSophia,7.1,8.1HaguehaikuHaitiHamasHanDynasty,6.1,6.2,6.3,7.1,8.1HannibalHanseaticLeague,7.1,7.2,8.1Hapsburgfamily,8.1,8.2Harappa

Hariri,Rafiq,10.1,10.2Hatshepsut,QueenHebrewsHellenismHenrytheNavigator,PrinceofPortugalHenryVIII,KingofEngland,8.1,8.2heresies,7.1,8.1,8.2,8.3HerzegovinaHezbollahHidalgo,Miguelhierarchyhieroglyphics,6.1,6.2hijraHinduism,6.1,6.2,6.3,7.1,8.1HippocratesHiroshimaHitler,Adolph,10.1,10.2HittitesHoChiMinhHobbes,Thomas,8.1,8.2HollandHolocaustHolyRomanEmpiredeclineFranksandGermanyandNapoleonandRichelieuandrulers,8.1,8.2Homerhordeshorses,6.1,8.1Hudson,HenryHuguenots,8.1,8.2HughCapet,KingHumanRightsWatchhumansacrifice,7.1,7.2,8.1humanismHundredYears’WarHungary,7.1,8.1,8.2,10.1Hunshunter-gatherers(foragingsocieties)Hussein,SaddamHutu

IAEA(InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency)Incacivilization,7.1,8.1IndexIndiaAmritsarmassacreAryans,6.1,6.2,6.3BuddhismcastesystemDelhiSultanateEnglandand,8.1,9.1,9.2Franceand,8.1,9.1GuptaDynasty,6.1,6.2Hinduism,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4,7.1,8.1independencefromEnglandIndianNationalCongressIndusValleycivilizationIslamMauryanEmpireMughalEmpireMuslimLeagueSepoyMutinysocialstructureIndianNationalCongress,9.1,10.1indulgencesIndusValleycivilizationAryansandcastesystemHarappaKhyberPassMohenjo-DaropotteryreligiontechnologyIndustrialRevolutionAgeofImperialismandagriculturalrevolutioncolonialismandfactorysystemfreemarketsystemnaturalresourcessocialclassesandtechnologyurbanization

infanticideInnocentIII,PopeInquisition,7.1,7.2,8.1,8.2interactioninterchangeablepartsinternalcombustionengineInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA),10.1,10.2,10.3InternationalCommitteeofRedCross(ICRC)InternationalCriminalCourtInternationalMonetaryFund(IMF),10.1,10.2intifada,10.1IranianRevolutionIraqGulfWarIranandIronCurtainirrigation,6.1,6.2Isabella,QueenofSpain,7.1,8.1,8.2IslamFivePillarsofIslamhijraLevantMeccaMedinaQu’ran,7.1,7.2,10.1religioussplitriseofIslamschisminShiite(Shia)Islam,7.1,7.2,8.1,10.1,10.2SufisSunnis,7.1,7.2,8.1theocracywomenIslamicEmpireAbbasidDynasty,7.1,7.2Baghdad,7.1,7.2caliphsdeclineFivePillarsofIslamhijraLevantMeccaMedinaQu’ran,7.1,7.2

religioussplitriseofIslamslaverytheocracyUmayyadDynastywomen

isolationismIsraelBalfourDeclarationCampDavidAccordscreationofmodernIsraelGazaStripGolanHeightsintifada,10.1SixDayWar

Istanbul,8.1,9.1ItalyBlackshirtsfascismnation-states,7.1,8.1nationalismunificationWWIWWII

IvanIII,CzarofRussia,7.1,8.1IvanIV,CzarofRussiaIvantheTerrible,7.1,8.1

JacobinsJahan,ShahJamesI,KingofEnglandJamestowncolonyJanissariesJapanAnti-CominternPactatomicbombBuddhism,7.1,8.1ChristianityCodeofBushidodaimyoEdoperiodfeudalJapan,7.1,8.1Fujiwarafamily,7.1,7.2haiku

JapaneseimperialismKabukitheatreMeijiRestoration,9.1,10.1NationalSeclusionPolicynationalismShintoreligion,7.1,8.1shoguns,7.1,8.1,8.2TaikaReformsTripartitePactWWIIYamatoclan

Jenne-JenoJesuitsJesusofNazarethJinnah,MuhammadAliJoanofArcJohnVI,KingofPortugaljoint-stockcompanyJordan,10.1,10.2JosephII,KingofAustriaJudaism,6.1,6.2,6.3Zionists

JuliusCaesarJustinianJustinianCode

KabukitheatreKangxi,EmperorofChinaKashmirKennedy,JohnF.Kepler,JohannesKerensky,AlexanderKhadijaKhyberPassKing,MartinLutherJr.Kipling,RudyardKishKnox,JohnKhomeini,AyatollahKongoKorea,7.1,9.1,10.1KoreanWarKublaiKhan,7.1,7.2Kuomindang(KMT)

KushKuwaitKyotoProtocol

laborunionlaissez-fairecapitalismlanguage,6.1,7.1,8.1,8.2Lao-tzulateensailslawCodeofBushidoCodeofChivalryCodeofHammurabiJustinianCodeprimogenitureLeagueofNations,10.1,10.2,10.3,10.4,10.5Lebanon,10.1,10.2Legalism,6.1,6.2Lenin,VladimirLeoX,PopeLeonardodaVinciLevantLeviathan(Hobbes),8.1,8.2lightbulbliteracyliteratureofRenaissanceLittleRedBook(Mao),10.1Locke,John,8.1,8.2LongParliamentLouisXIV,KingofFrance,8.1,9.1LouisXVI,KingofFranceL’Ouverture,PierreToussaintLoyola,IgnatiusLuther,Martin,8.1,8.2Lutherans,8.1,8.2LuxembourgLydians

MacArthur,DouglasMacedoniansMachiavelliMachuPicchuMagellan,FerdinandMagnaCarta

magneticcompassMagyarsMahayanaBuddhismMali,7.1,7.2,8.1mamluksManchuDynastyManchukuoMandateofHeaven,6.1,6.2,8.1Mandela,NelsonManhattanProjectmanorsMansaMusa,7.1,7.2MaoZedongmapsCentralEuropecirca13thcenturyColdWarinEuropeearlyAmericancivilizationsEgyptianEmpireEuropeandWWIEuropeandWWIIEuropeancoloniesinAfricain1914Italiannation-statesinRenaissanceperiodMacedonianEmpireMiddleEastmodernIsraelPersianEmpirePortugueseexplorationin1500sRomanEmpire,6.1,6.2SilkRoadtraderoutesofHanseaticLeagueunificationofItalyworldreligionsMarieAntoinettemarriageMarshallPlanMartel,Charles,7.1,7.2MarxismMasaccio,Tommasomathematics,6.1,6.2algebracalculuscalendars,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4pimatriarch

matrilinealMaurya,Ashoka,6.1,6.2Maurya,ChandraguptaMauryanEmpireMayancivilization,6.1,6.2,6.3,7.1,7.2Mazarin,CardinalMazowiecki,TadeuszMcDonalidizationMeccaMedesMedicifamilyMedinaMeijiRestoration,9.1,10.1Menes,Kingmercantilism,8.1,8.2MesoamericaMesopotamiaBabylonHebrewsLydiansoverviewPersianEmpirePhoeniciansSumer,6.1,6.2

mestizosmetals,6.1,6.2,6.3,8.1,9.1Metternich,PrincevonMexico,9.1,10.1Azteccivilization,7.1,8.1,8.2Mayancivilization,6.1,6.2,6.3,7.1,7.2

MichelangeloMiddleAgesmigrationsMingDynasty,7.1,7.2,8.1missionaries,8.1,8.2,9.1MohammadMohammadal-RaziMohenjo-Daromonarchymoneyandbanking,6.1,7.1capitalismChinaandearlycivilizationsjoint-stockcompany

mercantilism,8.1,8.2NAFTA(NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement)papermoney,7.1,8.1tradeand

MongolEmpire,7.1,7.2AkbarBaburChinaandhordesimpactoncultureriseRussiaandruthlesswarriorsSamarkand,7.1,7.2TimurLang

Mongoliamonkmonopolymonotheism,6.1,6.2,6.3MonroeDoctrineMonroe,JamesMontenegroMontesquieuMontezumaMore,ThomasMorelos,JosemosquemoveabletypeMughalEmpireMuhammedAlimulattoesmummification,6.1,7.1MuscovyCompany,8.1,8.2MuslimLeagueMuslims.SeeIslamicEmpire;IslamMussolini,Benito

NAFTANagasakiNapoleon,9.1,9.2Nasser,GamalNationalAssemblyNationalSeclusionPolicyofJapanNationalSocialistParty(Nazis)

nationalism,8.1,9.1,9.2,10.1,10.2nation-stateNATO(NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization),10.1,10.2,10.3naturalresourcesNazi-SovietPactNazis(NationalSocialistParty),10.1,10.2Nebuchadnezzar,6.1,6.2Neolithic(“NewStone”)Revolution,6.1,6.2Neo-ConfucianismNepalNeroNetherlands,8.1,8.2,8.3,9.1NewEconomicPolicy(NEP)NewfoundlandNewton,IsaacNgoDihnDiemNGOs(nongovernmentalorganizations),10.1,10.2NicholasI,CzarofRussiaNicholasII,CzarofRussia,9.1,10.1NigerRiverValley,6.1,8.1NileRiverNinevehnoblesnomadsagriculturalsocietiescontrastedwithBantumigrationsearlypeoplesfoodandnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs),10.1,10.2NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA)NuclearNonproliferationTreatynucleartechnology,10.1,10.2,10.3,10.4Nzinga,QueenofAngola

OctaviusO’Higgins,Bernardooil,10.1,10.2Olmeccivilizationone-childpolicyinChina,10.1,10.2OPEC(OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries)Open-DoorPolicyOpiumWarsoralliteratureOrthodoxChristianity,7.1,7.2

OttotheGreatOttovonBismarckOttomanEmpire,8.1,9.1,10.1,10.2,10.3OttomanTurks,7.1,8.1,8.2Ovid

paganismPahlavi,ShahRezaPaine,ThomasPakistanPalestine,6.1,10.1,10.2PalestineLiberationOrganization(PLO)PanamaPanamaCanalPantheonparliamentpassiveresistancepastoralsocietiespatriarchalstructureinChinapatriciansPaulofTarsusPaxRomana,6.1PeaceofAugsburgPeaceofWestphalia,8.1,9.1PearlHarborpeasants,7.1,7.2PedroPedroIIPeloponnesianWarpeninsularesPeople’sRepublicofChina.SeeChinaPepin,KingofFranksPerestroika,10.1PericlesPerry,CommodoreMatthewPersianEmpireconquerbyAlexander,6.1,6.2developmentofGreeceandPeruPetertheGreatPetitionofRightpharaohsPhidias

PhilipofMacedonPhilippinesPhoenicianspiPilgrimspilgrimagesPizarro,Franciscoplague,7.1,7.2,8.1Plato,6.1,7.1PlattAmendmentplebeiansPLOPoland,8.1,8.2,9.1,10.1,10.2,10.3,10.4Solidaritymovement

polispolytheism,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4,6.5,6.6popes,7.1,7.2,7.3,8.1populationgrowthPortugalBrazilColumbianExchangeexplorationmapofexplorationSpiceIslandsspicetrade

postalsystemPotsdampottery,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4predestinationPrince(Machiavelli),8.1Princip,Gavriloprintinginvention,7.1,8.1primogenitureProtestantReformationcausesforcounter-reformationLutherand

Prussia,8.1,8.2PtolemaicEmpirePtolemy,6.1,7.1PunicWarsPuritanspyramids,6.1,6.2,6.3Pythagoras

Qianlong,EmperorofChinaQinDynasty,6.1,6.2,6.3QinShihuangdiquipo,7.1Qu’ran,7.1,7.2,10.1

radiorailroad,9.1,9.2RapeofNanjingRedArmy,10.1,10.2RedCrossReformation.SeeProtestantReformationReichstagReignofTerrorreincarnationreligion.Seebeliefsystems;RomanCatholicChurch;specificbeliefsRenaissanceartsBlackDeathandhumanismprintingpress

reparationsRepublicofChina.SeeTaiwanRevenueActrevolution.SeealsoIndustrialRevolutionAmericanRevolutionChineseRevolutionof1911CopernicanRevolutionCubanRevolutionCulturalRevolutioninChinaFrenchRevolution“greenrevolution”IranianRevolutionNeolithic(“NewStone”)Revolution,6.1,6.2RussianRevolution

RhinelandRichelieu,CardinalRobespierre,MaximilienRockandPillarEdictsRomanCatholicChurchinAfricaCatholicReformationCouncilofTrent

heresies,7.1,8.1,8.2humanismandindulgencesInquisition,7.1,7.2,8.1Jesuitspopes,7.1,7.2,7.3,8.1ProtestantReformationandscientificrevolutionandinSouthAmericansplitwithOrthodoxChristianity,7.1,7.2TheIndexRomanesquestyleRomania,10.1,10.2RomanovDynasty,8.1,9.1,10.1Romanov,MichaelRomebeliefsystemsin,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4collapse,6.1,6.2firsttriumvirateleadershipmap,6.1,6.2militarydominationmythologyPunicWarsRomanRepublicsecondtriumviratesenateslaverysocialstructuretechnologyTwelveTablesofRomeRooseveltCorollaryRoosevelt,FranklinRoosevelt,TheodoreRoundheadsRousseau,Jean-Jacques,8.1,9.1Russia,7.1,7.2BloodySundayBolsheviksCatherinetheGreatChristianityandcollectivizationczarsDuma

EmancipationEdictGlasnost,10.1GreatPurgeIvanIII,7.1,8.1IvanIVIvantheTerrible,7.1,8.1MuscovyCompanyNapoleonNewEconomicPolicy(NEP)Perestroika,10.1PetertheGreatRedArmy,10.1,10.2RussianRevolutionSovietblocsovietsStalinTatarsTimeofTroubleswesternizationRussianOrthodoxChurchRussianRevolutionRussificationRusso-JapaneseWarRwanda

sacramentsSadat,Anwarsalvation,8.1,8.2,8.3Samarkand,7.1,7.2SanMartin,Josedesati,8.1SaudiArabia,10.1,10.2,10.3,10.4SaxonySchlieffenPlanscholasticism,7.1,8.1scientificmethodsscientificrevolutionCopernicanRevolutionDeismandscientificmethodScotland,8.1,8.2,8.3secondtriumvirateSeleucidEmpireSelf-StrengtheningMovement

SepoyMutinySeptember11,2001attacksSerbiaserfs.Seealsopeasants,7.1SevenYears’War(FrenchandIndian)sewersShakespeare,William,8.1,8.2ShangDynastySharon,ArielSharpevillemassacreShi’ite(Shia)Islam,7.1,7.2,8.1,10.1,10.2Shintoreligion,7.1,8.1ship-buildingshippingshoguns,7.1,8.1Shotoku,PrinceofJapanSilkRoad.SeealsotradeAbassidDynastyBubonicPlagueand,7.1,7.2ByzantineEmpireexplorationandHanDynastymapMauryanEmpireproductstradedonurbanizationand,7.1,7.2silversilverorsinglewhipsystemSino-FrenchWarSino-JapaneseWarSixDayWarSixNationsTalksslaveryabolition,9.1,9.2earlycivilizations,6.1,6.2EgyptianEmpireGreeceHaitiIslamicEmpireNewWorldRomesmallpoxSmith,Adamsocialclasses,9.1,9.2

socialcontractsocialDarwinism,9.1,10.1socialismSocratesSolidaritymovementSolonSongDynasty,7.1,7.2SonghaiSonniAliSouthAfrica,9.1,10.1,10.2SovietUnion.SeeRussiaSpainJosephBonaparteCatholicReformationcivilwarcoloniesColumbianExchangeexplorationterrorisminunificationWarofSpanishSuccessionSpanish-AmericanWarSpanishInquisition,7.1,8.1SpanishRenaissanceSpartaspheresofinfluenceSpiceIslands,8.1,8.2,8.3spices,8.1,8.2spinningjennySt.CyrilStalin,Joseph,10.1,10.2StampActStateDumaofRussiasteampower,9.1,9.2steamshipStephenson,GeorgesternpostrudderstirrupsStolypin,PeterStuartRestorationSuezCanalsuffragemovement,9.1,10.1Sufissugar

suicidesuicidebombings,10.1,10.2,10.3SuleimantheMagnificentSumer,6.1,6.2SummaTheologica(Aquinas),7.1“SunKing”SunYatSenSunnis,7.1,7.2,8.1surplusSwitzerlandSyria,10.1,10.2

TaikaReformsTaipingRebellionTaiwan,8.1,10.1Taizu,EmperorofChinaTajMajalTalibanTamerlaneT’angdynasty,7.1,7.2,7.3Taraki,NurMuhammadTatarsTchaikovsky,PyotrIlyichTeaActtechnology.Seealsospecifictechnology;IndustrialRevolutionAgeofExplorationearlytechnologygunpowderweaponsIndustrialRevolutionnavigation,8.1,8.2nucleartechnology,10.1,10.2,10.3,10.4printinginvention,7.1,8.1printingpressrailroadRomantechnologyshipbuilding,8.1,8.2steampower

telegraphtelephoneTempleoftheSunTenochtitlanterrorism,10.1,10.2TheIndextheocracy

Theravada(Hinayana)BuddhismThirdReichThirtyYears’Warthree-fieldsystemThreeKingdomsthree-mastedcaravalsThreePrinciplesofthePeopleTiananmenSquaremassacreTibetTigrisRiver,6.1,6.2TikalTimbuktu,7.1,7.2,8.1TimeofTroublestimelineofmajordevelopments600–1450C.E.,7.1timelineofmajordevelopments1450–1750C.E.,8.1timelineofmajordevelopments1750–1914C.E.,9.1timelineofmajordevelopments8000B.C.E.–600C.E.,6.1timelineofmajordevelopmentssince1914TimurLangTokugawaShogunateTolstoy,Leotools,6.1,6.2TorahTownshend,Charlestrade.SeealsoSilkRoadbalanceoftradeBubonicPlagueand,7.1,7.2culturaldiffusion,6.1,6.2,6.3,7.1,7.2EgyptiancivilizationHanseaticLeague,7.1,7.2,8.1IndianOceantrademapMauryanEmpirereligiousdiffusionurbanizationandwealthgenerationwomen’sroleand

TreatyofTordesillasTreatyofBrest-LitovskTreatyofCordobaTreatyofKanagawaTreatyofNanjinTreatyofShimonosekiTreatyofVerdun

TreatyofVersailles,10.1,10.2trenchwarfaretributesystemTripartitePactTripleAllianceTrotsky,LeonTrumanDoctrineTruman,HarryTurkey,10.1,10.2,10.3Turks,7.1,7.2,8.1Turks.SeeOttomanTurksTutsiTwelveTablesofRomeTwoTreatisesonGovernment(Locke),8.1,8.2

UkraineUmayyadDynastyunequaltreatiesUnionofSouthAfricaUnionoftheSovietSocialistRepublic(USSR)UnitedArabEmiratesUnitedNations,10.1,10.2,10.3,10.4UnitedStatesAmericanRevolutionMonroeDoctrineRooseveltCorollaryslaveryWWIWWII

UniversalChurchUpanishads,6.1Urban,Popeurbanization,9.1,9.2utopia

VanEyckVaticanvassalsVedas,6.1,6.2Venezuela,9.1,10.1vernacularVerrazano,GiovannidaVersailles,8.1,9.1Vespucci,Amerigo

viceroysVictorEmmanuelII,KingofSardiniaandItaly,9.1,10.1Victoria,QueenofEnglandVietminhVietnam,7.1,7.2,8.1,10.1VikingsVirgilVisigothsVladimir,princeofRussiaVoltaire

Walesa,LechWangMangwar.SeealsoWorldWarI;WorldWarIIBoerWarColdWar,10.1,10.2,10.3CrimeanWarFranco-PrussianWarFrenchandIndianWarGulfWarHundredYears’WarOpiumWarsPeloponnesianWarPunicWarsSino-FrenchWarSino-JapaneseWarslaveryandSpanish-AmericanWarSpanishcivilwarThirtyYears’WarWarofSpanishSuccession,8.1,9.1WorldWarI

WarofSpanishSuccession,8.1,9.1WaronTerrorWarsawPact,10.1,10.2waterWaterlooWatt,JamesWealthofNations(Smith),9.1weavingWeimarRepublicWellington,DukeofWestIndiesWesternbloc

westernizationwheel,6.1,6.2WhiteLotusRebellions“WhiteMan’sBurden”(Kipling)Whitney,EliWilliamandMaryWilliamI,KingofPrussiaWilliamII,EmperorofGermany,9.1,10.1WilliamtheConqueror,7.1,7.2Wilson,WoodrowwomenAztecculturebeliefsystemsandChina,6.1,7.1,7.2communismEgyptianEmpirefeudalismglobalizationandGreeceIncasIndia,6.1,6.2,7.1IndustrialRevolution,9.1,9.2Islam,7.1,7.2,10.1JapanmixedculturesandRomanEmpire,6.1,6.2sati,8.1suffrage,9.1,10.1tradeandroleof

WorldBank,10.1,10.2,10.3WorldTradeCenterWorldTradeOrganization(WTO),10.1,10.2WorldWarIAlliesBalkansimpactmapSchlieffenPlanTreatyofVersaillesTripleAlliance

WorldWarIIappeasementatomicbombBattleofBritain

blitzkriegD-DayfascismHitlerHolocaustManhattanProjectmapMarshallPlanMunichConferenceof1938PearlHarborPotsdamYalta

WorldWildlifeFundWormswritingcuneiformGreekalphabethieroglyphics,6.1,6.2Olmecwritingstandardization

WuTiWuZhao,EmpressofChina

XinDynastyXiongnu,6.1,6.2Xuanzong,EmperorofChina

YaltaYamatoclanYuanDynastyYugoslavia,10.1,10.2

Zaire,10.1,10.2ZhengHezeroZhouDynastyziggurats,6.1,6.2ZimmermanntelegramZionists

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

MontyArmstronghasbeen teachingAdvancedPlacement formore than16yearsandhasbeen anAdvancedPlacement Exam reader for 10 years.He is a sample selector and tableleaderfortheAPWorldHistoryExamandisalsothemoderatoroftheElectronicDiscussionGroupforthistest.HehasbeenapresenteratnumerousstateandnationalmeetingsandAPinstitutes and workshops. Mr. Armstrong teaches at Cerritos High School in SouthernCalifornia.

DavidDanielhastaughtforThePrincetonReviewformorethan11years.AgraduateofTheUniversityofTexasatAustinandTheOhioStateUniversityCollegeofLaw,Davidcurrentlymakes his home in New York City, where he is Director of Guidance Services for ThePrincetonReview.

AlexandraFreerhasbeenteachingstudentshowtobeattheSATsince1987.AsExecutiveDirectorofThePrincetonReviewinNewJersey,AlexnotonlyhelpedpreparethousandsofstudentsfortheSAT,LSAT,GMAT,GREandMCATbutalsoworkedtorefineThePrincetonReview’s test-taking strategies. Alex’s writing credits include The Girl’s Guide to the SAT,CrackingtheSystemfortheSAT2000Edition,andCrackingtheAPPsychologyExam.

Abby B. Kanarek received her doctorate in Environmental Analysis and Design from theUniversityofCalifornia,Irvine.Shehasbeeninvolvedintestpreparationatallgradelevelsformorethanfifteenyearswithparticularemphasisonverbalskillsandsocialstudies.

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