ROBERT UNDERWOOD is an ELT specialist who has taught and worked in teacher edu-

cation, materials writing, and program administration in Kuwait and Egypt and at sev-

eral universities in the United States.

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TT housands of years ago,housands of years ago, a land mass connected Asia anda land mass connected Asia and

North America between what is now known as the Bering Strait, joiningNorth America between what is now known as the Bering Strait, joiningSiberia to Alaska. Animals crossed this land bridge, and hunters, probablySiberia to Alaska. Animals crossed this land bridge, and hunters, probably

traveling in small bands, followed them. Descendants of these hunters, the origi-traveling in small bands, followed them. Descendants of these hunters, the origi-nal inhabitants of the Americas, later developed into the great nations and culturesnal inhabitants of the Americas, later developed into the great nations and culturesof the First Americans. Some groups followed down the coast through present dayof the First Americans. Some groups followed down the coast through present dayAlaska, Canada, California, and Central America, and on to the southern tip ofAlaska, Canada, California, and Central America, and on to the southern tip ofSouth America. Sometime between 11,000 and 18,000 BC, both North and SouthSouth America. Sometime between 11,000 and 18,000 BC, both North and SouthAmerica were peopled by what we in the United States now call Native Americans,America were peopled by what we in the United States now call Native Americans,or American Indians.or American Indians.

EEventually, many groups of First Americans tired of chasing the migrat-ventually, many groups of First Americans tired of chasing the migrat-ing herds of animals and settled in desirable locations throughout the Ameri-ing herds of animals and settled in desirable locations throughout the Ameri-can continents. They built cities, cultivated and grew crops such as beans, corn,can continents. They built cities, cultivated and grew crops such as beans, corn,potatoes, squash, and tobacco, and formed tribes that shared beliefs, values,potatoes, squash, and tobacco, and formed tribes that shared beliefs, values,and laws. In what is now the United States, diverse cultures evolved and thrived,and laws. In what is now the United States, diverse cultures evolved and thrived,of ten as a result of location, climate, and environment. Coastal people becameof ten as a result of location, climate, and environment. Coastal people becameskillful f ishermen, while desert dwellers adapted to their dr y environment. skillful f ishermen, while desert dwellers adapted to their dr y environment. The natural resources of the Americas—the forests, water ways, plains, andThe natural resources of the Americas—the forests, water ways, plains, andmountains—were not only vital to the early Native Americans’ existence butmountains—were not only vital to the early Native Americans’ existence butalso greatly inf luenced their cultures and languages. Religious beliefs and thealso greatly inf luenced their cultures and languages. Religious beliefs and theceremonies that sprang from them were of ten derived from nature, and theyceremonies that sprang from them were of ten derived from nature, and theyplayed a key role in daily life.played a key role in daily life.

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Before European explorers arrived, in theheart of North America, near present day St.Louis, Missouri, where the Mississippi and Mis-souri Rivers (both American Indian names) con-verge, a sophisticated urban civilization haddeveloped with trade routes that may havereached all the way to Central America. Cahokia,as the area is known today, was the largest cen-ter of Native American urban life north of Mexi-co. In its zenith between 1100 and 1200 AD, thiscivilization contained open plazas for gather-ings, agricultural fields, and 20,000 citizens liv-ing within a six-square-mile radius. The inhabi-tants of this first city of what is now the UnitedStates hunted, fished in the great rivers, and cul-tivated gardens.

The people of Cahokia were also greatbuilders. They constructed pyramid-shaped,earthen mounds for ceremonial purposes.Sometimes, like the pyramids in ancient Egypt,these mounds were used as burial tombs forimportant people. These ceremonial moundscan still be found up and down the MississippiRiver and throughout the Midwestern UnitedStates, often in artistic animal shapes such asturtles or snakes. Monks Mound, at the center ofCahokia, is the largest prehistoric earthenmound structure in the Americas. Nearby, thesite of Woodhenge, a circular sun calendar madefrom evenly spaced logs, was where Cahokia’sinhabitants planned their ceremonies and deter-mined the changing of the seasons.

The seasons, the earth, the animals, and allcreations of nature played, and still play, a cru-cial role in the lives of American Indians. Tradi-

tionally, Native Americans do not separate reli-gion and the spirit world from their everydaylives. Sacred meaning is entwined with all as-pects of daily life. Building a home, eating, sleep-ing, dreaming, creating art and music, and tellingstories are part of the sacred life. Consequently,almost all activities are embedded with a com-ponent of ritual or prayer.

This concept is most apparent in the art of Native Americans. Although their art is self-expressive, it also reflects Native American val-ues and connections to the spirit world. A uniquefeature of the art is that artwork is designed to beused in daily life. For example, “kachina dolls”created by the Anasazi cliff dwellers of theSouthwest are used today by the Pueblo peoplesin that region. These valuable works of art repre-sent a supernatural spirit that visited the Puebloson various occasions. Hundreds of unique kachi-na dolls are used for teaching Pueblo children tounderstand their world and culture.

On the great plains and in the eastern forests,bones, deer antlers, porcupine quills, hides ofdeer and buffalo, feathers, and even stones wereused by Native Americans to produce pipes,bowls, clothing, weapons, moccasins, andspoons. These objects were carefully decoratedwith images of animals or forms of nature thatrepresent spiritual matters, visions, or personalexperiences. But the objects were also utilitari-an. An ornately carved pipe for smoking tobaccocould double as a tool when a sharpened stonewas part of its construction.

(previous page) A Lokota village of about4,000 inhabitants near Pine Ridge, SouthDakota, circa 1891.

(top) The Great Serpent Mound, a quarter-mile-long prehistoric earthen mound thoughtto have been used as a place of worship.

(opposite top) In a Hopi bean plantingceremony, dancers impersonate kachinas(spirits) by wearing masks and headdresses.

(opposite bottom) A Hopi drawing depict-ing the Nakopan Myth Children engaged infoot races.

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Not only their art, but their everyday activi-ties also reflected the values of Native Ameri-cans. The practice of honoring the bones of ani-mals they killed for sustenance was a commontradition in many Native American cultures. Inthe Pacific Northwest, the “First Catch” ritualhonored the salmon, an important source offood, by designating a ceremonial role to thefirst fish caught each year and thanking it forsacrificing its life so that the people of the vil-lage could live. The “First Catch” ritualsinvolved returning the salmon’s bones to theriver so that it could be reborn and live again.On the great plains, where the buffalo was con-sidered sacred and vital to the Plains Indians’existence, these Native Americans believed thatby honoring the buffalo, even in death, it would

be reborn and rise again from the earth to pro-vide them with life. Such religious beliefs andcultural traditions ultimately clashed with thoseof the new European inhabitants of their lands,resulting in often tragic relations between theindigenous peoples of America and the new-comers from the east.

When the explorer Christopher Columbus ar-rived in the Americas at the end of the fifteenthcentury, he was delighted with the natives he en-countered. He sent messages back to Europepraising their manners and behavior. Thinking hehad reached his desired destination, India, hecalled the people he encountered Indios, or Indi-ans. For half a millennium, the name has stuck.Most Indians, however, had their own names fortheir tribes or groups. Many of these names con-

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tain the meaning of the word people. For exam-ple, the Delaware Indians who once lived in theeastern part of North America called themselvesthe “original or genuine people,” or Lenape intheir language. Today, most groups of AmericanIndians such as the Cherokee, the Houma, theLakota, and the Navajo prefer to be referred toby their tribal or community identity.

The Iroquois, a confederation of tribescalled the Haudenosaunee (which means“people building a long house”) lived in thenortheastern part of the present United States.They lived in communities, in long buildingsthat were used not only as homes but also forworship and community meetings. In the six-teenth century, these tribes—the Mohawk,

Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and laterthe Tuscarora—created a constitution and agoverning council to deal with tribal mattersthat affected the entire confederation.

Due to their efficient political and social orga-nization, the Iroquois were studied and compli-mented by the founding fathers of the UnitedStates. Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, andJohn Adams invited the Iroquois chiefs to attendthe meetings that led to the Declaration of Inde-pendence in 1776. Eventually some of the Iro-quois confederation’s original laws—designedto serve, protect, and resolve disputes within theentire confederation, while allowing each indi-vidual tribe to make local decisions—wouldprove to be models for the U.S. Constitution.

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 4

(opposite page, top) Painting of twomen fishing for salmon by Henry WoodElliot (1846–1930), one of the first Amer-ican artists to work in Alaska.

(opposite page, bottom) Wood carvingof a salmon with a man inside made by anAlaska Native, drawn and painted from theoriginal by James G. Swan.

(below) This print from a 1494 letter byChristopher Columbus contains what maybe the first illustration of the New World.

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The arrival of Europeans and their eventualconquest of all of North America was ultimatelydevastating for Native Americans. The newcom-ers exposed them to diseases, such as smallpoxand measles, to which they had no immunity.Thousands of Native Americans perished whenepidemics surged through their communities.Eventually, the Iroquois and other groups wereforced to move from their original lands in theeast, either for reasons of survival or becausethey were displaced by government policies. As

one group was pushed west, it came into con-flict with other groups, who in turn were pushedfarther west to the Mississippi River and beyond.Various tribes got caught up in the wars with theFrench and the English, and in the AmericanRevolution. No matter which side they took, theyeventually lost more and more territory andrights. Treaties were written and territories werepromised to Native Americans, but over and overagain, lands that they had once inhabited, hunt-ed on, and farmed were taken away. Eventually,the U.S. government relocated most Indiansonto reservations—contained areas—wherethey were dependent on the government fortheir livelihood.

Today, the majority of American Indians, pos-sibly 80 percent, live in urban environments, noton reservations. America’s first people take partin every aspect of society in the United States.Those who remain on reservations continue topractice their native culture and traditions, as domany of the “urbanized” American Indians whohave also, in many ways, assimilated into main-stream American culture. With the opening ofthe new National Museum of the American Indianin Washington, DC, the achievements, art, beliefs,and values of Native Americans can now be morefully shared and appreciated by the world.

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(above) This engraving depicts the arrivalin North America of ships from England in1585. These ships carried men and womensent to establish an English colony.

(right) Painting of an Indian council, orga-nized to deal with governing issues. Whenthe Cherokees arrived in Oklahoma, they didnot accept the established Indian councils,instead advocating for Cherokee autonomy.

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confederation n. a joining together ofseveral groups of people into an alliancefor a common purpose

displace v. force someone, or a groupof people, to move to and live in anoth-er location

kachina doll n. a carved, wooden dollthat represents a spirit in the PuebloIndian religion

moccasins n. flat, soft-leather shoesmade and worn by Native Americans

reservation n. a separate area of pub-lic land for Native Americans to live on

ritual n. a procedure that is regularlyfollowed during a ceremony or specialevent to highlight its importance

GLOSSARY

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T H E

NAT I O N A L

MU S E U M

O F T H E

AM E R I C A N

IN D I A N

In the early 1990s, museum curators and rep-resentatives of Native American nations through-out the United States began a dialogue on howthe museum could best present an accurate pic-ture of the indigenous peoples of America. Theiraim was to reach beyond the stereotypes andfalsely held opinions of Native American culturestill prevalent today by creating an institutionthat “illuminate[s] how Native Americans per-ceive their place—spiritually, historically, andphysically—in the universe.”

From these talks emerged the concept ofcreating a “living” museum that is in harmonywith nature and reflects the influence of natureon Native American culture. In keeping with thisidea, the design of the museum, prepared by acollaborative architectural team of Native Amer-icans and others, was to include rich naturalmaterials, colors, forms, imagery, and symbols.The final result is a state-of the-art edifice fea-turing details and patterns that represent theNative universe and the influences of the natur-al world that informed these cultures.

The choice of NMAI’s location, on a body ofland between two rivers, the Potomac and theAnacostia, highlights the important role riversplayed in early Native Americans’ existence. Theplaza that precedes the main entrance isdesigned to reflect the pattern of the constella-tions that appeared in the night sky on Novem-ber 28, 1989, the day federal legislation for thecreation of the museum was introduced. Theexterior of the museum is a spectacular designcomposed of Kasota stone, a limestone fromMinnesota, in the distinctive wind-sculptedshapes and curves of a Southwestern mesa.

A “Welcome Wall” at the entrance of themuseum greets guests in hundreds of NativeAmerican languages.At the request of the Elders,leaders and spokespeople of Native Americannations, a large central gathering place that rep-resents the heart of Native activities was includ-ed in the plan; this space provides a performancearea that rises 120 feet to a central dome.Named the Potomac, a local Native Americanword meaning “where the goods are brought

On September 21, 2004, the Smithsonian Institution’snewest museum, the National Museum of the American Indian(NMAI), located on the National Mall in Washington, DC, openedits doors to the public. According to its mission statement, thismuseum is “dedicated to the preservation, study and exhibition ofthe life, language, literature, history and arts of the Native Peo-ples of the Western Hemisphere.” The NMAI’s unique architecturaldesign and comprehensive collection attract a wide range of visi-tors curious about Native American history and culture.

(above) North side of the National Museumof the American Indian.

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in,” this gathering place encourages visitors toacknowledge the significance of the sun, moon,and heavens in the life of Native Americans.

Inside, the museum contains a main theaterthat evokes a forest clearing at night, completewith bright stars for storytelling—the oral tradi-tion of many Native American people throughwhich cultural customs, values, and history arecommunicated to future generations. Audiencesenjoy the storytellers, dancers, film festivals, andmany other activities that illuminate the richNative American cultural traditions.

In the Lelawi Theater, a multimedia presenta-tion projected on a 40-foot dome transports vis-itors from the Andes mountain range in SouthAmerica, through the forests and deserts of Cen-tral America and the United States, to the farreaches of the Arctic. Through this presentation,visitors learn about many Native American cul-tures that inhabited South, Central, and NorthAmerica, including the Maya, Navaho, Cree,Cheyenne, and Inuit tribes.

The museum’s three exhibition galleries con-tain thousands of artifacts, collected over a 54-year period. About 70 percent of the collection isfrom North America (roughly 67 percent fromthe United States and 3 percent from Canada),and about 30 percent is from Central and SouthAmerica. Notable items in this comprehensivecollection include an ancient Mayan vase fromA.D. 55–85, baskets and dolls from Californiatribes, a Blackfeet hide shirt with quill work fromMontana, and a Tlingit canoe model from early19th Century Alaska.

A visitor to the National Museum of theAmerican Indian will discover that this institutionhonors the myriad indigenous peoples that haveinhabited the Americas while it informs and wel-comes visitors into the rich and varied world ofNative American cultures.

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American Indian Resource Directoryhttp://www.indians.org/Resource/natlit/natlit.htmlThe American Indian Resource Directory fea-tures links to Native American literature sitesas well as a link to the very informative site,History and Discussion of Native AmericanLanguages, where you can learn about howAmerican Indians are working to preserve theirlanguages and heritage.

Illinois Historic Preservation Societyhttp://www.state.il.us/hpa/Mounds.htmThis website provides information about thehistoric Cahokia Mounds, the mound culture,and the prehistoric peoples who once inhab-ited the area. Pictures of the archeologicalremains and information about the Interpre-tive Center are also provided.

Language Policy – Endangered Languageshttp://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/brj.htmJames Crawford’s article “Endangered NativeAmerican Languages: What Is to Be Done andWhy?” is a comprehensive and well-document-ed examination of the loss of Native Americanlanguages, what is being done to stem the loss,and why we should be concerned.

National Museum of the American Indianhttp://www.nmai.si.eduFor descriptions of museum exhibits, teach-ing materials, articles on the construction andgrand opening of the museum, and more, visitthis Smithsonian website.

Native American Home Pages –Educationhttp://www.nativeculture.com/lisamitten/education.htmlThis site has numerous links to information ontribal colleges, native studies programs, and In-dian education. Click on “General Indian Educa-tion Resources” to find information you coulduse in your classroom, such as the material from“American Indians and the Natural World.”

Teaching Indigenous LanguagesHome Pagehttp://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/TIL.htmlFor descriptions of museum exhibits, teach-ing materials, articles on the construction andgrand opening of the museum, and more, visitthis Smithsonian website.

WEBSITES OF INTEREST

(above) The Potomac, the symbolic centerof the museum, is used for many programs,such as the demonstration of Native boatbuilding shown here.

(right) The 1801 Thomas Jefferson PeaceMedal was carried, in three different sizes,by the Lewis and Clark Expedition to pre-sent to Indians along the route as a sign ofpeace and friendship.

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The Cherokee Indians, originally inhabitantsof America’s southeastern states, were forced toleave their homeland and move to the territory ofOklahoma in the late 1830s. Accompanied byU.S. Army escorts, they traveled the “Trail ofTears” from the east coast to the region nowknown as the state of Oklahoma. Many of theCherokee people died on the long and cruelmarch to the designated “Indian Territory.” Theancestors of those who survived and are still liv-ing on reservations today are now attempting to keep their culture alive in the tradition ofSequoyah, a half-Cherokee who, in 1823, invent-ed a system for writing the Cherokee language.Sequoyah’s innovative system—using symbolsfor syllables—allowed many Cherokees to learnto read and write in their native tongue. News-papers were eventually printed in the Cherokeelanguage. Today Sequoyah’s writing system isstill used in schools that are actively preservingthe Cherokee language.

In the 19th century, the U.S. governmentestablished a policy that required areas of landto be designated as reservations for NativeAmericans to inhabit. Later this policy was mod-ified to force the removal of children from theirparents, stipulating that the children be educat-ed in boarding schools, away from parental andcultural influences. In these boarding schools,Native American children were not allowed tospeak their native language, could not practicetheir religious beliefs, and were forced to imitatethe dominant European-American culture. Theultimate intention of this policy was to extinguishthe Native Americans’ culture by eradicatingtheir beliefs, traditions, languages, and religions

in a single generation—in effect, to erase theNative Americans’ traditional culture. This planproved to be a failure. American Indian culturesand languages, although fragile, broken, andendangered, continue to survive to this day.

The loss of languages is a universal problem.Today there may be as many as 6,000 languagesspoken in the world, but that number could pos-sibly shrink by half as an older generation pass-es away and a younger one, raised on television,radio, the Internet, and mass marketing, takesover. When Spanish conquerors arrived in Cali-fornia in the early 16th Century, over 100 indige-nous languages were spoken there, many ofthem as different from each other as English isfrom Chinese. Today the number of languagesand the cultures they reflect have disappearedby half. In the United States today, nearly 200Native American languages still exist. Almost 90percent of them are spoken by an aging genera-tion that has not passed on its linguistic heritageto the younger generation. The result: rich NativeAmerican traditions and customs are graduallydisappearing or dying out. And because thesenative languages are not being preserved, theyare at risk of extinction.

But a welcome movement is occurring in theNative American community, one that promotesappreciation and preservation of indigenous cul-tures and their languages. A generation of writ-ers—among them Linda Hogan, whose essay“For Life’s Sake” is featured in this issue ofForum—is educating a new generation of read-ers while simultaneously preserving, giving dig-nity to, and enhancing their ancestors’ cultures.Hogan, for example, writes in English, and her

In a small town in Oklahoma, teachers of children ofthe Cherokee Nation address their students by their Cherokeenames and teach them about the world in the Cherokee language.At one time, Native American education in native language wasprohibited, but today Cherokee children are studying the cultureand language that their grandparents, and their ancestors beforethem, knew. Throughout the United States, there is a movement topreserve the cultures and languages of American Indians. Thismovement is not meant to replace the use of the English languagebut to encourage the learning of and respect for Native Americans’heritage and their contributions to American society.

(top) Nameplate of the first newspaper touse the Cherokee alphabet. Its first issue waspublished February 21, 1828.

(above) This statue of Sequoyah stands in Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol. Sequoyahdeveloped a table of symbols for the 86sounds in the Cherokee language. This alpha-bet has been in use since 1823. Photo:Courtesy of The Office of the Architect,U.S. Capitol

PRESERVINGNATIVECULTURESANDLANGUAGES

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work serves as a guide to the heritage of herChickasaw ancestors who, like the Cherokeeand other Indian nations, were forced on the“Trail of Tears” into Oklahoma in the 19th centu-ry. Hogan’s works and those of many otherNative American writers and artists are taught inuniversities across America. In the tradition ofher elders, Hogan often writes of the natural andspiritual world, giving breath and life to a worldthat enriches her readers.

Preservation of Native cultures is also beingaided by a developing system of Tribal Collegesand Universities across the United States. At pre-sent there are 34 such schools stretching fromthe west coast of California and Washington tothe Midwestern and Southwestern United States.

These schools not only provide a quality educa-tion but also feature curricula that impart valu-able tribal histories, languages, and customs tostudents who otherwise might not have anopportunity to learn about their native heritage.

The leaders of these colleges and universi-ties, which are usually located on or near areservation, work with tribal elders to developand refine their curriculum. Courses in tradition-al art and literature are created to preserve, givecurrent meaning to, and teach appreciation forthe ancient cultural heritage of the First Ameri-cans. Other courses are designed to meet thepresent needs of a particular reservation suchas preserving the environment, securing cleanair and water, and satisfying specific agricultur-al or ranching needs. Additional courses havebeen developed to assist Native American stu-dents in preparing for their future employment.For example, Sitting Bull College in North Dako-ta and the University of South Dakota are collab-orating to create the first Master of BusinessAdministration (MBA) degree program for NativeAmericans in the United States. Surveys showthat tribal institutions of higher learning areproving to be very successful and that NativeAmerican students who attend a tribal college oruniversity are far more likely to finish their col-lege education than those who enter schoolsoutside their reservations.

Stabilizing, reviving, and maintaining the cul-tures and languages of people who have inhab-ited, cherished, and enriched the earth is ofvalue to us all. Efforts by many American Indiansare progressing toward this goal. With dedica-tion and hope, Native Americans will continuetheir efforts to honor and preserve the rich cul-tural and linguistic heritage of their ancestors.

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REFERENCES

Kopper, P. 1986. The Smithsonian book of NorthAmerican Indians: Before the coming of the Euro-peans. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books.

Rose, C. and D. Champagne, eds. 1994. NativeNorth American almanac. 2 vols. Detroit: UXL.

Taylor, C, ed. 1991. The Native Americans: Theindigenous people of North America. New York:Smithmark Publishers Inc.

Trout, L, ed. 1999. Native American literature: Ananthology. Lincolnwood, IL: National TextbookCompany.

Viola, H. 1990. After Columbus: The Smithsonianchronicle of the North American Indians. NewYork: Orion Books.

The World of the American Indian. 1979. Washing-ton, DC: National Geographic Society.

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(above) The Cherokee alphabet.

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