rock, metal & electronic

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he discovery o gold in Sacramento Valley in 1848 drove threehundred thousand people to Caliornia, digging the groundand panning the rivers, chasing the dream o wealth in the WildWest. One and a hal centuries later, China launched its own

Go West movement with the Great Western Development Campaign.Over the past 15 years the central government has poured over hal atrillion dollars into the west,1 aimed at raising the regions economicstandards while eyeing what attracted people to Caliornia in the mid-1800s: resources and wealth.

ROCK, METAL, AND ELECTRONIC:

Yunnans Environmental Discord Between Mining,

Aluminum, and Hydropower

by Luan Jonathan Dong

This report is part of the ChinaEnvironment Forum Circle of Blue

joint Global Choke Pointinitiative.The initiative, for three years, has been

supported by Skoll Global Threats Fund,Energy Foundation China SustainableEnergy Program, Rockefeller Brothers

Fund, U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelopment, and Vermont Law School.


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2 Rock, Metal & Electronic

Chinas Go West investment has created channelsto extract resourceswater, gas, and electricityandtranser them rom the landlocked west to the eastcoast. Yunnan, Chinas southwestern-most province,

lies at the birthplace o much o these resources.Here, over 150 types o minerals boast a potential

value o a whopping hal a trillion dollars.2Its highmountains, deep valleys, and abundant rainall alsoavor Yunnan with a hydropower goldmine.

However, this combination o abundant mineralsand hydropower potential, while a boon or the localeconomy in the short-term, has been disastrous tothe environment. Te intertwined interests o the

hydropower, mining, and metallurgy industries areinflating energy demand, spurring on dam-building,and enriching energy-intensive development. Teseinterdependent industries are creating a vicious cyclethat pollutes Yunnans air and water and threatensthe ecosystem in this biodiverse-rich province.Local governments perpetuate this cycle by creatingincentives or industrial development, oentimescontrary to the central governments orders to curbenergy-intensive industries.

In particular, aluminum production has gainedtraction in Yunnan. Te aluminum industry hasproved all too eager to exploit Yunnans hydropowercapabilities. Te growth o this industry has catalyzedopposition rom concerned citizens, who are le tofight the uphill battle to slow down the perversecycle o hydropower, mining, metallurgy, and localgovernment interests.

ROCK: MINE A WAY OUT OF POVERTY

Yunnan is poor. Out o the 592 poorest counties inthe entire country, 73 are in Yunnan, second only toibet.3Te mountainous terrain ormed by a canyonregion to the west and a plateau region to the easthas prevented prosperity rom visiting this remote,hilly, and landlocked province.

Buried underneath the ground is a hopeul key outo poverty. Known as the kingdom o non-errous

metal, Yunnan possesses the largest deposits omany mineral resources in the nation, includingzinc, lead, tin, cadmium, indium, and thallium.It also enjoys significant deposits o iron, coal,

aluminum, copper, gold, mercury, silver, antimony,and sulur. Spurred by this rich cache o mineraldeposits, the metallurgical and chemical industrieshave become a critical engine or local growth, jobcreation and local governments tax revenue. Out othe ten most profitable companies in the province,hal are in these two industries.4

Yunnan is bestowed with another gi: hydropower.Te unique geology on the edge o the Yunnan-

Guizhou Plateau shapes the deep valleys that hoststhree parallel riversthe Yangtze, the Mekong, andthe Salweenand with it brings huge hydroelectricpotential. Its economically exploitable hydropowercapacity amounts to 97.95 GWsecond largestamong all provinces and almost a quarter o thenational total.5 Te annual hydropower generatingpotential o the Lancang River (upper Mekong)within Yunnan is estimated to be more than 100Wh.6o get a sense o scale, 80 Wh per year would

be enough to power all our major cities in Chinassouth: Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Gongguan, andKunming.7Tis goldmine o hydropower resourceshas led to the construction o 1,939 damsincludingChinas very first dam, the Shilongba built in 1912to this province.8

Compared with the vast potential, the currentinstalled capacitya mere 32.02 GWleavesalluring opportunities or Yunnan to urther

tap into this clean and renewable energy.9

In thecentral governments 12thFive-Year Plan or EnergyDevelopment, at least 18 medium and large dams arespecifically mentioned as being under constructionor planned in Yunnan.

Te combination o mining resources andhydropower is a match made in heaven. Metallurgyrequires huge amounts o electricity that dams areable to provide at low prices. Yunnan can process the

mineral resources and then transport the finishedproducts to consumers. Tough this partnership


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makes economic sense, it is creating painulenvironmental damage to this biodiverse region.

METAL: WHEN LIJIANG MEETSALUMINUM

In early 2013, Chinese netizens on Weibo, Chinaswitter, read the news o a proposed aluminumelectrolysis plant in Lijiang, a city in Yunnan knownor its natural beauty and ethnic culture. Spreadby both traditional and new media, the potentialenvironmental impact o a dirty aluminum plantdrew the ire o more than just local citizens. In an

online poll soon aer the story, 93 percent o 1,680participants opposed the construction o the plant.10

Aluminum electrolysisthe process to extractaluminum oxide out o oreis highly energy-intensive and polluting. (See Box 1).Te currentglobal best practice, using Center-Feed Prebakedcell, requires 13.6 MWh o electricity to produce aton o aluminum.11 Even though some o Chinasprimary aluminum producers are now equipped

with this technology and operate efficiently at aninternational advanced level,12 the Chinese industry-average electricity consumption is still at around 14.3MWh/t. (See able 1). With a production volume o20 million tons in 2012, Chinas aluminum industry

consumed a colossal 286 Wh o electricity. Tisis three times the annual electricity generated bythe Tree Gorges Dam, or about 6 percent o thecountrys entire power consumption (4.96 trillion

kWh).

Electricity accounts or more than 40 percent othe total cost o primary aluminum production.13Aer June 2010, the central government stoppedsubsidizing aluminum industrys electricity use.Cheap electricity thus became a driver or aluminumand other energy-intensive industries to migrate westand plug into the expanding hydropower. More than90 percent o new aluminum electrolysis capacity

since 2010 has been located in Chinas hydropower-rich southwest.14

Tough equipped with advanced electrolyzer designand smelting technology, most Chinese aluminumproducers still lag behind in adopting adequatepollution monitors and control systems.15 In early2013, an aluminum plant in Shandong Provinceleached hazardous chemicals into the ground water.In a nearby village, China Youth Dailyreported that

the visibly contaminated well water killed crops, andmany local residents who drank the water became illand some died.16

Nevertheless, during a visit in October 2004, Yunnan

Box 1. Eeg Cosmpto ad Poto o

Amm Podcto

In order to break the strong chemical bonds between aluminum and oxygen in the ore, a process calledelectrolytic smelting is used. In the current technique, known as the HallHroult process, alumina is rstdissolved into molten cryolite-based electrolyte and then electrolytically reduced to aluminum at a temperaturebetween 950 and 980 C (1,740 to 1,800 F). The aluminum metal then sinks to the bottom of the electrolyzerand is tapped o, usually cast into large blocks for further processing.

The electrolysis process emits carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, several gaseous and particulate uorides,sulfur dioxide, and other polluting gases. Moreover, the transportation and feeding of alumina to the celldisperses dust into the air. Wet air emission control devices, such as wet scrubbers and wastewater treatment,

generate solid waste. Wastewater, if left untreated, contains uorine, suspended solids, and other chemicalcomponents that pollute the surface and ground waters. Furthermore, spent carbon potlining is a hazardous

waste containing signicant amounts of leachable uoride, iron cyanide complexes, free cyanides, and otherorganics.


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Peoples Consultative Committee representativesvoiced support or the aluminum electrolysis projectportraying it as necessary to help alleviate povertyin an area with ew other options.17Te mayor oLijiang too stated in early 2013 that to maintain the

vintage and simple scene that tourists envisionedwould mean a closed and impoverished Lijiang.18Local officials have bought into the idea that energy-intensive industries are a painul but necessarymethod to alleviate poverty, but their strategy

violates central policy and is not likely a silver bulletor long-term economic growth.

Punk: ThE OvEr-CAPACiTy Of METAl

PRODUCTION

As the second most used metal aer steel (See Box

2), around 45 million metric tons o aluminumis produced globally every year. China, by ar thelargest producer, accounts or almost 44 percent oglobal production.19

o date, China has 27.65 million tons o installedcapacity or aluminum electrolysis. O that, however,only 72 percent was used in 2012.20 A surge inexpansion between 1985 and 2005during whichChina accounted or 119 o the 133 aluminumsmelters built globallyrendered Chinas primaryaluminum industry in massive over-capacity.21Overa million tons o unnecessary aluminum has piled upin warehouses. Tat number reached an astonishingpeak o 1.2 billion tons in May 2010.22

Over-capacity o heavy industry brings twoimmediate problems:

Tabe 1. Cese Goemets Eeg Cosmpto

Stadads o Amm Eectoss

Sector Indicators

Minimum EnergyConsumption

Performance forExisting Plants

Minimum EnergyConsumptionPerformance

for NewlyConstructed

Plants

AdvancedMinimum Energy

ConsumptionPerformance

ElectrolyzedAluminum

Alternating currentconsumption ofliquid aluminum(kWh/t)

14400 13800 13500

Comprehensivealternating currentconsumption ofaluminum ingot(kWh/t)

14300 14000

Comprehensiveenergyconsumption ofaluminum ingot forresmelting (tce/t)

1.900 1.850 1.800

Note: Electricity is converted at fnal energy value (0.1229 kgce/kWh).

Source: Lu Hongyou, collected from GB 21346-2008: The norm for energy consumption per unit products of aluminum metallurgicalenterprise, General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the Peoples Republic of China, andStandardization Administration of the Peoples Republic of China, January 9, 2008.


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1. Financial loss. Over-supply dramaticallydecreases companies profit margins. In early2013, none o the 12 aluminum electrolysiscompanies in Henan Province were profitable,

causing three to shut down.23A similar over-capacity in the steel industry cost more than$100 million industry-wide in June 2013alone.24 Chinas leading steel companies areexpecting a all in net profits ranging rom 50percent to 95 percent in the first hal o 2013.25

2. rade disputes. In good times, China gobblesup most o the aluminum it produces.26 Butits slowing economy may orce more o its

aluminum products to go overseas. Similarto Chinese solar panels and tires, the state-subsidized aluminum products could triggeranother wave o trade disputes on the globalmarket. In 2010, the Obama administrationruled Chinese aluminum suppliers liable ordumping their products on the U.S. market.27Since March 2013, the European Union alsohas begun to impose heavy anti-dumpingduties on Chinese aluminum oil.28

Te Chinese central government acted against the

mushrooming aluminum industry. Te 11th Five-Year Plan (2006-2011) eliminated 840,000 tons ooutdated production capacity by closing small plantsand updating equipment.29 Consequently, average

energy efficiency in the industry rose significantly.In the 12thFive-Year Plan (2011-2015), the Ministryo Industry and Inormation echnology (MII)released a separate and specific plan or thedevelopment o the aluminum industry, calling orstricter controls on the expansion o the aluminumelectrolysis industry and a urther elimination ooutdated capacity.30

In April 14, 2011, MI, the National Development

and Reorm Commission, the Ministry oEnvironmental Protection, and the National EnergyAdministration along with five other ministries,released an urgent notice on containing over-capacity and redundant construction o thealuminum electrolysis industry. Te notice called orthe suspension o all proposed aluminum electrolysisprojects across the country and withheld approvalor new projects that would lead to excessiveproduction. In addition, all local preerential policies

in this industry were declared no longer effective,and any plans or expansion o production capacity

Box 2: Te Age o Amm

Aluminum is light, durable, stainless, recyclable, and easy to process. The metal has become an essential

part of our daily lives. We drink from aluminum cans, use aluminum-containing deodorants and sunscreens,and it increases the eectiveness of vaccines. We drive cars with partssuch as cylinder heads, pistons,radiators and wheel rimsmade of aluminum. Motorcycles and airplane parts also are increasingly madeof aluminum. In the building and construction sector, aluminum is widely used in siding, roong, gutters,window frames, hardware, and paint.

The most visible use of aluminum is in packaging. Aluminum foil and trays, gum and candy wrappers are allmade of aluminum. In 2009, the packaging industry overtook the transportation industry as the top user ofaluminum, in part due to sluggish automotive sales.

MacBooks, iPhones, and other electronics are now largely made of aluminum, as do electrical products such

as light bulbs, power and phone lines. In the health industry, aluminum goes into food additives, astringents,antacids and even buered aspirin. Aluminum is a major component of household cooking products suchas pots, pans and utensils. The recreation industry too uses aluminum in the manufacture of lawn furniture,baseball bats, golf clubs, and tents.


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were strictly prohibited.31On September 10, 2013,the State Council in its new Air Pollution Preventionand Control Action Plan reiterated the 12th Five-Year Plans target in aluminum capacity reduction

and moved its deadline up one year early.32

BLUES: WATER AND ITS IMBAL ANCEDSUPPLY

Compared to other orms o energy generation,hydropower has a unique ability to store electricityin the orm o waterin its reservoirs. Dams candischarge water when needed, providing superiorflexibility or peak electricity needs.

Dams in Yunnan are built across rapid streams insteep and narrow valleys, which create tremendoushydraulic head (water surace elevation), butleave limited space or reservoirs. Consequently,electricity output varies significantly between wetand dry seasons. During the heavy monsoonal rains,dams turn their turbines on ull power to generate asmuch electricity as possible to make up or less powergeneration during the dry seasons. Unortunately,the flat-out generation usually produces moreelectricity than Yunnan can consume. Tereore, thelocal grid has no choice but to lose the water thatcould otherwise be used to generate electricity.

UNPLUGGED: THE FIGHT TO KEEPELECTRICITY

o consume this otherwise wasted hydropowercapacity, Chinese central policymakers built themassive West-East Electricity ranser Project.Conceptualized initially in 1986 to tap thehydropower potential o the Yuan River in Yunnan,33the project now sources electricity rom sevenprovinces. (See CEFs West-East Electricity ranserProject interactive map onlineor more details). In2012 alone, Yunnan transerred more than 41.86billion kWh o electricity to Guangdong Province.

Te aggregated electricity transer volume betweenthe two provinces in the past 20 years has reached

200 billion kWh34an amount that would take theHoover Dam almost 50 years to generate.35

Expanding such a massive electricity transerinrastructure, however, requires both state-o-the-art technology and time. Te current inrastructurecapacity can only transer a small amount oelectricity that is being generated in the westernregion. By the end o 2010, 13 transmission linesin Chinas Southern Corridor, including the worldsfirst ultra-high-voltage (800kV) direct currenttransmission project, held a maximum transmissioncapacity o 2.4 million kilowatts,36 which is merely7.4 percent o the installed generation capacity in the

southern grid.37China Electricity Council estimatesthat during the wet season o 2013, Yunnan will wastea whopping 7 GW o hydropower capacity38theelectricity generated rom which equals to burning8.4 million tons o coal and emitting 22 billion tonso CO

2due to low local consumption and the

inadequate capability o the transmission system.39In the past two years, the province has wasted morethan 20 billion kWh o electricitymore than 6billion Yuan ($1 billion). By the end o the 12th Five-

Year Plan, the capacity o the Southern Corridor willreach 4.3 million kilowatts,40still only a trickle o thegeneration capacity in the region.

For the Yunnan provincial government, a better wayto consume wasted hydropower is to inject thatelectricity into local economic development. As earlyas 2001, heavy industry companies proposed andimplemented strategies to use Yunnans hydropowerlocally.41 More recently, a Lijiang local official said

that the city should keep hal o the electricityit generates in order to drive a leap-roggingindustrial development.42His government aims tocreate a 40 billion Yuan ($6.5 billion) heavy- andmanuacturing-industry by 2015.43 o incentivizemore energy consumption, Yunnan governmentnow sells electricity at a 20 percent discount i a userconsumes more than the previous year.44

Local consumption o hydroelectricity is urther

justified in two ways:
http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/map-chinas-west-east-electricity-transfer-projecthttp://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/map-chinas-west-east-electricity-transfer-projecthttp://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/map-chinas-west-east-electricity-transfer-projecthttp://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/map-chinas-west-east-electricity-transfer-project


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1. Products produced locally contain embeddedelectricity, which is still transerred tothe eastthrough products rather thantransmission lines;

2. Te long distances between hydropowerstations and coastal load centers are costly orelectricity transer. Te price o transerredelectricity, however, is set at a low price bythe central government. Te double pressureon prices wreaks havoc on hydropowerdevelopers profit margins, making energytranser less desirable than local consumption.

Energy-intensive industries oen end up consumingexcessive electricity. Te electricity, in turn, uels themuch-needed local industrial growth, and bringsmore revenue to hydroelectric companies. Such awin-win-win solution offers significant incentivesor energy-intensive industries, dam developers, andlocal governments to cooperate.

NEW AGE: ELECTRICITY PRICING

MODELS

o urther benefit rom the winning strategy,dam developers and energy-intensive industriesestablished direct channels to transer electricity.Chinas energy pricing system sets different pricesor different industries. Heavy industry is typicallycharged one o the highest electricity prices. I anelectricity generator establishes a direct supplycontract with industrial consumers, the price can

sometimes be as low as 70 percent o the originalretail price.45For generators, these long-term high-

volume contracts lock in demand. Heavy industriesbenefit by considerably reducing their electricitybills. In 2009, Yunnan Aluminum Co. Ltd. paid0.35/kWh directly to its generators,46 compared tothe 0.495/kWh retail price or heavy industry.47Tecompany saved more than 14.5 million Yuan ($2.3million) a year on its electricity bill.

Strikingly, some Chinese hydropower companieshave invested in heavy industry themselves, creating

electricity needs to lock in demand, an initiative thathas been supported by many local governments.In Sichuan and Yunnan, government officials haveencouraged the two industries to cooperate to

orm a hydropower industrial chain and elevatethe electricity consumption level.48 With the localgovernments nod, many hydropower developersobtained shares in heavy industry companies. Giantinvestment firms, such as Sichuan Provincial EnergyInvestment Group, have metallurgical miningcompanies in their portolio.49

Tese investment trends have both boosted localGDP and the development o energy-intensive

industries. During wet seasons, these industriesgobble up electricity generated by dams. In dryseasons they still consume electricity and oencreate local energy shortages. Since 2004, electricityshortages in the dry season have become prevalentin Chinas southwest. In 2007, even Sichuan, thehydropower kingdom, was short in electricitysupply.

When supply or electricity is not met, local

governments and industries sacrifice the transervolume to meet local electricity demands. In 2005,a municipal official in Guizhou Province asked theprovincial government to support local electricityuse.50 Later in Guangxi Province, local officialsproposed that electricity generated rom LongtanDamthe third largest dam in Chinabe entirelyconsumed locally in order to support aluminumproduction.51

Te Yunnan provincial government has activelyprevented direct electricity transmission to easternprovinces so the power can be used locally. Te500kV Jinzhong Direct Current Electricityransmission Project has been repeatedly delayedbecause o the governments desire to connectLiyuan and Ahai dams to the local grid. In May 2011,the Yunnan Development Reorm Commissioneven offered to relocate the residents displacedby dam construction in order to persuade China

Southern Power Grid, the National Developmentand Reorm Commission, and the National Energy


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Administration to directly connect SichuansGuanyinyan Dam into the local grid.52Te additionalstop brings more electricity or local developmentand also provides revenue when Yunnan sells its

electricity to the east at a price that is higher than thatset by the central government or direct transer.53

As hydropower developers continue movingconstruction upstream on the southwest rivers, newdams are built urther away rom the consumptionsources in the east. Tese dams require longertransmission lines and higher voltage technologiesthat drive up the cost o electricity delivery andlower the profit o electricity sales to the east.

Provinces that are ar rom the load centers havealready developed alternative destinations orelectricity transmission: Southeast Asia. Since 2004,Yunnan has been transerring electricity to Vietnamand earned more than $1.2 billion in the past nineyears.54China has reached urther agreements withASEAN to export more electricity to Vietnam,Tailand, Myanmar (Burma), and Laos, which willcreate more incentives or Yunnan to divert powersouthward.

ALTERNATIVE: HIDING FROM THE FARAWAY EMPEROR

In order to circumvent the central governmentsregulations, the aluminum industry has adopted thewidespread practice o registering illegal electrolysisprojects under other business names. Even worse,many companies are launching their projects beore

obtaining government permission: an alarming85 percent o the current electrolysis projects areunauthorized.55

Despite Beijings efforts to rein in over-capacity,the Lijiang municipal government approved thealuminum project, registering it as an aluminumprofiles processingrather than electrolysisacility with an annual SO

2emission o 182.5 tons.56

Being a processing acility with low emissions (the

original Weibo source reported a 2,000 annual SO2emission rom an electrolysis plant), it does not

require the permission o the central government.57Local environmental protection bureaus (EPBs),which oen times are under intense pressure romtheir local governments to prioritize economic

development, have enough authority to give thegreen light to manuacturing plants.

Te Chinese news media has speculated that theprofile processing registration is in act a cover oraluminum electrolysis. Southern Weekly discoveredthat Lijiang EPB was assessing an electrolysis plantsenvironmental impact as early as 2009.58In the sameyear, Lijiang mayor was also reportedly discussingaluminum electrolysis investment with Yunnan

Metallurgical Group.59 Furthermore, the businessscope registered by the processing plant includesunalloyed aluminum, carbon and aluminum oxide,and other raw materials used or electrolysis.60

Industry experts say that the seemingly low SO2

emission volume o 182.5 ton is still unusuallyhigh or a profiling plant. Current practice in theindustry uses natural gas, which emits very limitedSO

2, or uel. Under Chinas new national guideline,

only the electrolysis process in the aluminumproduction lie cycle would produce large amountso SO

2.61 Moreover, experts who were interviewed

by China Business Newssaid that even i companiesstart with manuacturing, many would eventuallybuild electrolysis capacity to provide material ordownstream business and sell aluminum ingotsdirectly to diversiy income.62

Despite all the evidence, the Lijiang government and

the plant developer still appear to be concealing thetruth. Te Lijiang EPB told a journalist that the hardcopy o the projects environment impact assessmentwas documented, but the digital copy was not savedand thereore unavailable or distribution.63Duringmultiple phone conversations with a journalist,officials in the Lijiang municipal governmentalso appeared evasive, claiming that the personresponsible or discussing the plant was not presentand that the investigation had not been concluded.64


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VOCAL: WATCHFUL EYES FROM CIVILSOCIETY

Recent years have witnessed countless waves obottom-up environmental movements in a ashionthat China had previously never seen. Fromthe airpocalypse in Beijing to the discovery ocadmium-laced rice in several provinces, Chinesecitizens are pressuring their local governments orbetter accountability and governance not just withprotests on the street, but also in spirited and creativecomplaints using social media.

Te aluminum electrolysis project in Lijiang is yet

another example o how civil society engagement,supported by social media, can impact public policy.

(See Photo 1). Kindled by a real-name Weibo user,the controversy was pushed orward largely byonline discussion that then sparked investigative

journalism. Experts and respected public figureshave used their blogs and social media to gatherand disseminate inormation. For example, YangFuquan, vice president o Yunnan Academy oSocial Sciences, published a blog in February 2013detailing the progress o the story, educating readersabout aluminum electrolysis, and directing those

who are interested to a long list o other articles onthe controversy.65

Pcte 1.Netizens protested the Lijiang aluminum electrolysis plant on Weibo by posting pictures of themselvesholding posters that read No electrolytic aluminum, protect the environment.


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THE TRUE TUNE OF HYDROPOWER

Largely thanks to calls rom the public, the

municipal and provincial governments could notignore the controversy. During the 2013 NationalPeoples Congree, Yue Yuesheng, Director o YunnanProvincial Industry and Inormation echnologyCommission said that Lijiang is unlikely to buildthe aluminum plant.66 Qin Guangrong, the PartySecretary o Yunnan province, also stressed thatYunnan should cherish its ecology like we cherishour lives; protect its environment like we protect oureyes.67Yunnan would rather sacrifice the speed ogrowth, he said, than ail to protect its ecology and

environment.68

Yunnan aces a difficult choice betweenenvironmental protection and economicdevelopment. On one hand, natural resources couldspur growth or this economically underdevelopedregion. On the other hand, dam construction,mining and metallurgy will destroy its ecologicaldiversity, resh air, clean water, and thick orestsall o which are increasingly rare in China.

Hydropower build-up has put Chinas southwest onthe rontline o environmentalism opposition anddiplomatic conflict. Even i the 18 proposed dams inYunnan, along with many others in its neighboringprovinces, can be constructed responsibly, heavyindustry, cultivated by the excess capacity o electricitygeneration, will still cause immense damage to theenvironment. In dry seasons, hydropower cannotmeet energy-intensive industries large electricity

demand. Yunnan may need to develop other dirtierorms o energy, including coal.69

China may very well build more transmissionlines with state-o-the-art technology to transerelectricity to the east. But Beijing has had and willstill have difficulties to order local governments to

surrender the electricity or growth. Te centralgovernments command-and-control is useul inimproving existing plants energy efficiency, as itis targeting an additional 10,000 enterprises193o which are aluminum companiesor energyconservation in the 12th Five-Year Plan.70 Newplants, however, can still play hide and seek with theemperor that is ar away.

China boasts the worlds largest hydropower

resources. With 249 GW o installed capacity,hydropower currently contributes to 17.4 percento the nations electricity generation.71 Againstthe backdrop o a growing energy demand andthe ever pressing need to address climate change,hydropower is increasingly seen as the silver liningto power Chinas growth.

Yet an overwhelming majority o these resources arelocated in the countrys southwest regionSichuan,

Yunnan, Guizhou, Qinghai, and ibet. Te morehydropower projects these provinces build, the morechallenging it will be to either transer the electricityto the east, or to prevent the unsustainable use o thecheap hydroelectricity in these landlocked areas.

As China re-ignites its dam rush, the real cleannesso its hydropower needs to be constantly examined.Te precise nexus between energy, environment,and development should remind Chinas local and

central governments o the dangerous path thesemagnificent engineering marvels may lead to.

Luan Jonathan Dong is a recent graduate from the Elliott School of International Affairs, TeGeorge Washington University, where he concentrated in international affairs and sustainabledevelopment. He is currently a research assistant at the Woodrow Wilson Centers ChinaEnvironment Forum. He can be reached at: [email protected].


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1. Guangming Daily (December 21, 2011). Guojia agaiwei:xibu dakaia touzi guimo chao sanwan yiyuan (NationalDevelopment and Reorm Committee: investment in the GreatWestern Development surpassed three trillion RMB). [Online].Available: http://economy.gmw.cn/2011-12/21/content_3221495.htm

2. Yunnan Minerals (2009). Yunnan kuangye (Yunnans miningindustry). [Online]. Available: http://www.ynkcw.com/topic/gqxl/index.htm

3. Te Central Peoples Government o China (March 19, 2012).Fupin ban abu guojia upin kaia gongzuo zhongdianxianmingdan (Te [State Council] Office o Poverty Alleviationreleases Te list o national poverty alleviation and developmentkey counties). [Online]. Available: http://www.gov.cn/

gzdt/2012-03/19/content_2094524.htm4. Yunnan Provincial Industry and Inormation echnology

Commission (2011). 2011 Yunnan 100 qiang qiye (2011Yunnan top 100 most profitable companies). [Online]. Available:http://www.ynetc.gov.cn/qiang100/2011/index.html

5. Yunnan Zhaotong Association or Science and echnology. Bashuili ziyuan kaia he cujin Yunnan jingji shehui azhan jieheqilai (Combine hydropower development with Yunnans socio-economic development). [Online]. Available: http://www.ztast.com/bencandy.php?id=3374

6. Magee, Darrin. (March 2006). Powershed Politics: YunnanHydropower under Great Western Development, Te ChinaQuarterly, No. 185, 23-41.

7. Ibid.

8. China Electricity Council (July 29, 2013). Yunnan shoucishuili pucha jieguo gongbu, gelei shuiku 6051 zuo (Yunnanreleases the results o its first hydraulic survey, 6051 reservoirso all kinds). [Online]. Available: http://www.cec.org.cn/hangyeguangjiao/adianxinxi/2013-07-29/106447.html

9. Carbon Emission rade (May 30, 2013). Yunnan jinrulyuse shuidian shidai (Yunnan enters green hydropowerera). [Online]. Available: http://www.tanpaiang.com/qingjienengyuan/2013/0530/20882.html

10. Sina Weibo (March 2013). Lijiang shiou gaishang dianjielvxiangmu toupiao diaocha (Lijiang aluminum electrolysisproject survey). [Online]. Available: http://vote.weibo.com/

vid=225140211. Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. World

best practive energy intensity values or selected industrialsectors. [Online]. Available. http://eetd.lbl.gov/sites/all/files/industrial_best_practice_en.pd

12. Kingpower Aluminum Industry. Chinese electrolytic aluminumenergy saving reached international advanced level. [Online].Available: http://www.aluminium-profile-extrusion.com/aluminium-profile-technology/2_628.html; Based on theinterview with Lu Hongyou rom the China Energy Group,Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, May 14, 2013.

13. China Energy News (April 8, 2013). Dianjielyu handong,zaitan zhigongdian (Winter or aluminum electrolysis, time toreexamine direct electricity supply). [Online]. Available: http://paper.people.com.cn/zgnyb/html/2013-04/08/content_1223043.

htm14. Xinhua News (April 18, 2012). Woguo dianjielyu chanliang jushijie shouwei, channeng jiasu xiang xibu zhuanyi (Chinas

aluminum electrolysis production tops the world, capacityrelocation to the west accelerates). [Online]. Available: http://news.xinhuanet.com/ortune/2012-04/18/c_111803207.htm

15. Shanghai Environment Online (July 7, 2004). Xianzhi dianjielyuhangye de enge liyou (Reasons to curb aluminum electrolysisindustry). [Online]. Available: http://www.envir.gov.cn/ino/2004/7/77304.htm

16. China Youth Online (February 21, 2013). Shandong chipingcunmin cheng dixiashui bei lyuye wuran, zhineng he linxianshui (Shangdong Chiping village residents report groundwatercontaminated by aluminum actory, can only drink water romneighboring village). [Online]. Available: http://zqb.cyol.com/html/2013-02/21/nw.D110000zgqnb_20130221_1-08.htm

17. Xinhua News (October 26, 2004). Sheng zhengxie weiyuan:

Nujiang shuidian kaia ying chuli hao huanjing he qunzhongliyi de guanxi (Yunnan Political Consultative Conerence:Hydroelectric development on Nu River should benefit theenvironment and the masses). [Online]. Available: http://www.yn.xinhuanet.com/gov/2004-11/08/content_3180040.htm, qtd.Magee. Powershed Politics.

18. Te Observer (March 16, 2013). Lijiang shizhang: Youke suoxiangwang de gupu yiweizhe bise he pinqiong (Lijiang mayor:the vintage and simple scene that tourists envision meansisolation and poverty). [Online]. Available: http://www.guancha.cn/local/2013_03_16_132257.shtml

19. International Aluminium Institute (July 22, 2013). Primaryaluminium production. [Online]. Available: http://www.world-aluminium.org/statistics/#data

20. China Luxus (February 22, 2013). Lijiang gucheng dianjielyuxiangmu xushi (Te acts and fictions o Lijiangs aluminumelectrolysis project). [Online]. Available: http://ep.chinaluxus.com/Es/20130222/265743.html

21. Quartz (October 26, 2012). China now has almost onemillion tons o unnecessary aluminum and cannot stopproducing it. [Online]. Available: http://qz.com/20209/it-is-tin-hat-time-or-aluminum-company-shareholders-china-has-a-glut-o-the-stuff-and-cannot-stop-producing-it/.

22. Ibid.23. China Energy News. Dianjielyu handong (Winter or

aluminum electrolysis).24. Xinhua News (July 31, 2013). Overcapacity sends Chinas steel

sector into loss. [Online]. Available: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-07/31/c_132590939.htm

25. Te Economic Observer (August 2, 2013). Chinas SteelProblem. [Online]. Available: http://www.eeo.com.cn/ens/2013/0802/247660.shtml

26. Quartz. China now has almost one million tons o unnecessaryaluminum and cannot stop producing it.

27. International rade Administration, U.S. Department oCommerce (2010). Fact sheet: Commerce finds dumping andsubsidization o aluminum extrusions rom the Peoples Republico China. [Online]. Available: http://ia.ita.doc.gov/download/actsheets/actsheet-prc-alum-ext-adcvd-final-032911.pd

28. Metal Bulletin (March 14, 2013). EU imposes heavy anti-dumping duties on Chinese aluminium oil. [Online]. Available:

http://www.metalbulletin.com/Article/3169382/EU-imposes-heavy-anti-dumping-duties-on-Chinese-aluminium-oil.html29. Ministry o Industry and Inormation echnology o China. Lyu

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gongye shierwu azhan zhuanxiang guihua (12th Five-YearPlan or aluminum industry). [Online]. Available: http://www.miit.gov.cn/n11293472/n11293832/n11293907/n11368223/n14447635.files/n14447355.doc

30. Ibid.

31. Ministry o Industry and Inormation echnology o China(April 20, 2011). Jiubumen jinji tongzhi ezhi dianjielyu hangyechanneng guosheng he chengu jianshe (Nine departmentsrelease urgent notice curbing aluminum electrolysis industryover-capacity and redundant construction). [Online].Available: http://www.miit.gov.cn/n11293472/n11293832/n12843926/13722300.html.

32. Te Central Peoples Government o China (September 10,2013). Guowuyuan guanyu yina daqi wuran angzhi xingdong

jihua de tongzhi (Te State Councils Notice on Distributingthe Airborne Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan).[Online]. Available: http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2013-09/12/content_2486773.htm

33. Magee, Powershed Politics.

34. China.com.cn (January 9, 2013). Yunnan xiang Guangdong lejishudian yu 2000 yi qianwashi, shishi xidian dongsong (Yunnantransmits over 200 billion kWh o electricity to Guangdong,implementing West-East Electricity ranser). [Online].Available: http://finance.china.com.cn/roll/20130109/1227201.shtml

35. Calculated with 4.2 Wh as the Hoover Dams annual generation.Bureau o Reclamation (February 2009). Hoover DamFrequently Asked Questions and Answers. [Online]. Available:http://www.usbr.gov/lc/hooverdam/aqs/poweraq.html

36. Xinhua News (December 27, 2010). Shierwu nanang dianwangxidian dongsong guimo jiangda 4300 wan qianwa (SouthernGrid will reach 43 GW o capacity or West-East Electricityranser during the 12th Five-Year Plan). [Online]. Available:http://news.xinhuanet.com/ortune/2010-12/27/c_12922533.htm

37. China Southern Power Grid. Gongsi gaikuang (Aboutus). [Online]. Available: http://csgi.csg.cn/qyjj/gsgk/201112/t20111202_36113.html

38. China Electricity Council (May 9, 2013). Waisongdian tongdaoyongji, xinan quyu xunqi kongyu qishui engxian (Electricitytranser tunnels jammed, the southwest may have to wastehydroelectricity during wet season). [Online]. Available: http://www.cec.org.cn/xinwenpingxi/2013-05-09/101939.html

39. China Energy News (July 22, 2013). Yunnan qishui haijiangdailai shenme (Yunnan wastes hydroelectricity, what will itbring). [Online]. Available: http://paper.people.com.cn/zgnyb/html/2013-07/22/content_1272403.htm

40. Xinhua News. Shierwu nanang dianwang xidian dongsongguimo jiangda 4300 wan qianwa (Southern Grid will reach 43GW o capacity or West-East Electricity ranser during the 12thFive-Year Plan).

41. Ma, Jun. (February 18, 2009). Xinan shuidian guodu kaiawuzhu jieneng jianpai (Over-development o hydropowerin southwest China will not help energy saving or emissionreduction), China Science Daily. [Online]. Available: http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews//2009/2/216348.html

42. Sina (March 1, 2013). Yunlyu Lijiang jianchang beihoudianli boyi: Yunnan qidian chao 200 yi du (Behind YunnanAluminums project in Lijiang: Yunnan wastes over 20 billionkWh o electricity). [Online]. Available: http://finance.sina.com.cn/chanjing/sdbd/20130301/015214681699.shtml.

43. Ibid.44. Nengyuan (Energy) (July 8, 2013). Shendu diaocha: Yunnan

shuidian qishui huoyin nanyi xiaona (Investigation: Yunnanshydroelectricity curtailment may due to limited consumption).[Online]. Available: http://finance.sina.com.cn/chanjing/cyxw/20130708/125816049114.shtml

45. Ma, Jun, Xinan shuidian guodu kaia (Over-development ohydropower in southwest China).

46. 163.com (March 4, 2013). Yunnan lyuye deng 15 jiadianjielyu qiye shidian zhigoudian (Yunnan Aluminumand 14 other aluminum electrolysis companies pilot direct

electricity supply). [Online]. Available: http://money.163.com/09/0304/02/53HCOE7700252G50.html

47. China Electricity Open Inormation (December 14, 2009).Yunnan sheng zhigong dianjia biao (Yunnan direct electricitysupply pricing). [Online]. Available: http://www.12398.gov.cn/html/inormation/217430570/217430570201000006.shtml


49. Sichuan Provincial Investment Group. Company profile.[Online]. Available: http://www.invest.com.cn/EenglishIno.aspx .


51. Ibid.52. Nengyuan (Energy). Shendu diaocha (Investigation).

53. China Energy News. Yundian waisong boyi zhengxiang(Te truth behind the controversy o electricity transer romYunnan).

54. China-ASEAN Expo (February 21, 2013). Yunnan dianwanghezuo zhi dongmeng zhanlue: Dianli maoyi cheng xin zengzhangdian (Southern Grids ASEAN strategy: Electricity trade becamethe new growth point). [Online]. Available: http://www.caexpo.org/gb/caa/t20130221_106371.html

55. Xinhua News (April 1, 2013). Dianjielyu xiangmu engkuangxijin, yijian xiangmu 85% weijing hezhun (Aluminumelectrolysis projects rush to the west, 85% current projectsunauthorized). [Online]. Available: http://news.xinhuanet.com/ortune/2013-04/01/c_115225787.htm

56. CBN News (February 27, 2013). Gucheng dianjielyuzhiyou: Lijiang shizhengu jieru xiangmu diaocha (Oldown aluminum electrolysis controversy: Lijiang municipalgovernment investigates the project). [Online]. Available: http://www.yicai.com/news/2013/02/2513973.html.

57. Sina (March 15, 2013). Yunlyu guen touliang huanzhu:Lyu jiagong yaosheng biancheng dianjielyu (YunnanAluminum bait-and-switch: Aluminum profiling becameelectrolysis). [Online]. Available: http://finance.sina.com.cn/stock/s/20130315/022614837552.shtml.

58. Southern Weekly (March 7, 2013). Lijiang helai, Lijiang hequ:Dianjielyu luoshengmen beihou de shengsi jueze (Te past anduture o Lijiang: Te lie and death behind the Rashomon oaluminum electrolysis). [Online]. Available: http://www.inzm.

com/content/88600.59. Yunnan Electricity. Wang Junzheng kaocha yunye cu dianjielyuluodi Lijiang (Wang Junzheng visits Yunnan MetallurgicalGroup, urge aluminum electrolysis project lands in Lijiang).[Online]. Available: http://www.yunnanpower.cn/showino.asp?id=2485.

60. Oriental Morning Post (February 25, 2013). Lijiang dianjielyumiju: Lyucai jiagong xiangmu yueyi yana zhongxin baopi(Lijiang aluminum electrolysis myth: Aluminum profiling projectsubmitted as research center). [Online]. Available: http://www.ddaily.com/html/33/2013/2/25/951409.shtml

61. CBN News. Gucheng dianjielyu zhiyou (Old own aluminumelectrolysis controversy).

62. China Luxus. Lijiang gucheng dianjielyu xiangmu xushi (Te

acts and fictions o Lijiangs aluminum electrolysis project).63. CBN News. Gucheng dianjielyu zhiyou (Old own aluminum

electrolysis controversy).64. Sina (February 27, 2013). Lijiang dianjielyu xiangmu beizhi

nianpai eryanghualiu zhibiao 2000 dun (Lijiang aluminumelectrolysis projects annual SO2 emission may reach 2000
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tons). [Online]. Available: http://finance.sina.com.cn/chanjing/gsnews/20130227/014614655009.shtml

65. Yang, Fuquan. (February 17, 2013). Budong Lijiang weishenmeyaoshang zhongwuran de dianjielyu xiangmu (Lijiangs heavy-polluting aluminum electrolysis project evade reasoning),

Sina blog. [Online]. Available: http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_48a464120102e1h1.html

66. Sina Yunnan (March 14, 2013). Yue Yuesheng: Lijianggucheng shangma dianjielyu xiangmu de kenengxing buda(Yue Yuesheng: Lijiang Old own unlikely to build aluminumelectrolysis project). [Online]. Available: http://qcyn.sina.com.cn/lijiang/ljnews/ljyw/2013/0314/1655589090.html

67. Yunnan.cn (March 6, 2013). Qin Guangrong: Ningke xishengdian sudu, yeyao shouzhu shengtai huanjing (Qin Guangrong:rather sacrifice the speed o growth than ail to protect its ecologyand environment). [Online]. Available: http://yn.yunnan.cn/html/2013-03/06/content_2641062.htm

68. Ibid.69. Ma, Jun, Xinan shuidian guodu kaia (Over-development o

hydropower in southwest China).70. National Development and Reorm Commission (May 12,

2012). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guojia azhan he gaigeweiyuanhui gonggao (NDRC Announcement). [Online].Available: http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/zcf/zcfgg/2012gg/t20120521_480769.htm

71. State Power Inormation Network (July 23, 2013). Zhongguoshuidian daazhan, jinwunian leiji zhengrong 101 jiwa (Chinashydropower mass development: adding 101 GW o installedcapacity in the past five years). [Online]. Available: http://www.sp.com.cn/dlyw/gndlyw/201307/t20130723_196608.htm
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www.wilsoncenter.org/program/china-environment-forum

Since 1997, the China Environment Forum(CEF) an initiative o the Wilson CentersGlobal Sustainability and Resilience Program has implemented projects, workshops, andexchanges that bring together U.S., Chinese, andother environmental policy experts to explore the

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Cover Photo: Wireman on theriverside of Mekong.

Courtesy of ickr user Zhou Mingjia.
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