role of education in the social conflict s resolution …
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ROLE OF EDUCATION IN THE SOCIAL CONFLICTS RESOLUTION
AND PEACE BUILDING AT SECONDARY LEVEL IN
KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA
BY
KHALID IQBAL
Registration No. 123-NUN- 0684
FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
NORTHERN UNIVERSITY, NOWSHERA
PAKISTAN, 2016
ROLE OF EDUCATION IN THE SOCIAL CONFLICTS RESOLUTION
AND PEACE BUILDING AT SECONDARY LEVEL IN
KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA
BY
KHALID IQBAL
Registration No. 123-NUN- 0684
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
In
Education
FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
NORTHERN UNIVERSITY, NOWSHERA
PAKISTAN, 2016
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ii
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DEDICATION
DEDICATED TO HAZRAT
SALLAHO ALAIH-E-WASALLAM
THE PROPHET OF PEACE
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XVI
ABSTRACT XVII
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 01
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 05
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 05
1.3 HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY 06
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 06
1.5 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY 06
1.6 METHOD AND PROCEDURE 06
1.6.1 Population 06
1.6.2 Sample 06
1.6.3 Research Instruments 07
1.6.4 Data Collection 07
1.6.5 Analysis of Data 07
Chapter 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 08
2.1 SOCIAL CONFLICTS 08
2.1.1 Nature and Concept of Conflicts 09
2.1.2 Types of Conflicts 12
2.1.3 Causes and Sources of Conflicts 14
2.1.3.1 Basic Forces behind Conflict 15
2.1.4 Beliefs about Conflicts 18
2.1.4.1 Superiority 18
2.1.4.2 Injustice 19
2.1.4.3 Vulnerability 19
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2.1.4.4 Distrust 20
2.1.4.5 Helplessness 20
2.1.5 Drivers of Conflicts 21
2.1.6 The Phases of Conflict 23
2.1.7 Dimensions of Conflicts 24
2.1.7.1 Structural Dimension 25
2.1.7.2 Instrumental Dimension 25
2.1.7.3 Dimension of Interest 26
2.1.7.4 Dimension of Value 26
2.1.7.5 Personal Dimension 26
2.1.8 Perspective of Social Conflicts 27
2.1.9 Conflict Structure 28
2.1.10 Analysis of Conflicts 29
2.1.11 Responses to Conflicts 30
2.1.12 Approaches to Conflicts 33
2.1.12.1 Social conflict theory 33
2.1.12.2 The conflict dynamic approach 33
2.1.12.3 The rational calculation approach 34
2.2 CONFLICTS RESOLUTION 34
2.2.1 Theories and Theorists in C R 37
2.2.1.1 Lewis Coser 37
2.2.1.3 Kurt Lewin (Field theory) 37
2.2.1.3 John Burton 38
2.2.1.4 Morton Deutsch 38
2.2.1.5 George Simmel 39
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2.2.1.6 Game theory 39
2.2.2 Approaches to Conflicts Resolution 40
2.2.2.1 Win-lose approach 40
2.2.2.2 Lose-lose approach 40
2.2.2.3 Win-win approach 41
2.2.3 Dual Concern Model: A Conceptual Model 41
2.2.3.1 Avoidance conflict style 42
2.2.3.2 Yielding conflict style 42
2.2.3.3 Competitive conflict style 42
2.2.3.4 Cooperation conflict style 43
2.2.3.5 Conciliation conflict style 43
2.2.4 Conflicts Resolution Skills and Techniques 44
2.2.5 Conflicts Resolution Processes 46
2.3 PEACE BUILDING 47
2.3.1 Peace 47
2.3.2 Peace Phenomenon 49
2.3.2.1 Inner Peace 49
2.3.2.2 Social Peace 49
2.3.2.3 Peace with Nature 50
2.3.3 Negative and Positive Peace 50
2.3.4 Peace-building 51
2.3.5 Basic Principles 52
2.3.6 Concepts and Distinctions with Peace-building 53
2.3.6.1 Peace making 53
2.3.6.2 Peace keeping 54
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2.3.6.3 Peace enforcement 54
2.3.6.4 Conflicts management 55
2.3.6.5 Conflicts prevention 55
2.3.6.6 Conflicts transformation 55
2.3.6.7 Conflicts resolution 56
2.3.6.8 Peace-building 56
2.3.7 Dimensions of Peace-building 56
2.3.7.1 Structural Dimension 57
2.3.7.2 Relational Dimension 57
2.3.7.3 Personal Dimension 58
2.4 EDUCATION, CONFLICTS RESULATION AND 58
PEACE BUILDING
2.4.1 Academies /Education and Conflicts Resolution 60
2.4.2 What and Why To Teach Peace Education 61
2.4.3 Objectives of the Peace Education Program 62
2.4.4 How to Teach 63
2.4.4.1 Teaching methods for peace education 65
2.4.5 Curriculum 66
2.4.5.1 Categories of teaching programs 67
2.4.6 Education Policy 69
2.4.6.1 Educational Vision and Performance in NEP (2009) 70
2.4.6.2 Aims and Objectives of NEP (2009) 70
2.4.7 Conflicts Resolution Process 71
Chapter 3: METHOD AND PROCEDURE 74
3.1 POPULATION 74
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3.2 SAMPLE 75
3.3 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS 76
3.3.1 Questionnaire 76
3.3.2 Pilot testing 77
3.4 DATA COLLECTION 78
3.4.1 Administration of questionnaires 78
3.5 ANAYSIS OF DATA 78
Chapter 4: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 80
4.1 ANALYSIS OF HEADS AND TEACHERS RESPONSES 80
4.1.1 COMPARISON OF HEADS & TEACHERS RESPONSES 107
4.1.2 DISCUSSION 137
Chapter 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 143
5.1 SUMMARY 143
5.1.1 CONCLUSIONS 144
5.1.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 148
BIBLIOGRAPHY 152
APPENDICES 165
A. COVERING LETTERS 165
B. QUESTIONNAIRES 167
C. LIST OF VISITED SCHOOLS 174
D. THE X 2 DISTRIBUTION TABLE 178
E. THE T-DISTRIBUTION (TWO-TAILED) TABLE 179
F. SPSS SPREAD SHEET OF CALCULATING COMPARISON 181
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LIST OF TABLES
No. Page No
1. Details of Population 74
2. Details of Sample 75
3. Details of distribution of the each part of the questionnaires 77
4. Social conflicts are natural part of the life, every one experiences it 80
5. In social conflicts disagreement exists between the parties 81
6. Shared sources cause social conflicts 81
7. Most of the Social conflicts may arise in members of the same group 81
8. An individualistic trend in our society creates social conflicts 82
9. Social conflicts may arise due to the abuse of power 82
10. Social conflicts arise with incompatibilities of needs 82
11. Social conflicts arise with psychological of needs 83
12. Social conflict leads to violence in society 83
13. Misunderstanding leads to social conflicts 83
14. Poor communication is the main reason of the social conflicts 84
15. Differences in opinions cause social conflicts 84
16. Discriminatory attitude leads to Social conflicts 84
17. Emotional aggression creates social conflicts. 85
18. Differences of goals among the members of the society create S.C 85
19. Abuse of law leads to social conflicts in society 85
20. Competitive behavior causes social conflicts 86
21. Lack of tolerance creates social conflicts 86
22. Ignorance breads social conflicts 86
23. Social conflicts are due to cultural differences 87
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24. Religious extremism causes social conflicts 87
25. Poor democratic structure is one of the causes of S.C 87
26. Lack of moral education breads social conflicts 88
27. Conservative thinking creates social conflicts in our society 88
28. Class system in society is the root cause of social conflicts 88
29. Poverty in our society is the main cause of the social conflicts 89
30. Ideological differences create social conflicts 89
31. Gender discrimination is the cause of creating social conflicts 89
32. Economic disparity leads to social conflicts 90
33. Injustice in our society is one of the causes of social conflicts 90
34. Sectarianism is the root cause of social conflicts 90
35. Social conflicts begin in the mind of the men, so peace should begin
in the mind of child 91
36. S.C.R is comprehensive social process that requires proper training 91
37. S.C.R requires understandings of the very nature of the social conflicts 91
38. Negotiation helps to make soften the social conflicts 92
39. Social conflict resolution is critical to peace building 92
40. For S.C.R individual has to seek mutual agreement on the issues 92
41. Observance of law leads to create peace in society 93
42. Improving relationships among the disputants resolve the S.C 93
43. Compassion leads to resolving the Social conflicts 93
44. Adaptation of cooperative behavior helps in the social S.C.R 94
Peace-building
45. Control on the emotions helps in the S.C.R and peace-building 94
46. Compromising attitudes are adopted in resolving the social conflicts 94
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47. Self awareness plays key role in the S.C.R process 95
48. Reconciliation is helpful in resolving the social conflicts 95
49. Political stability leads to the S.C.R and peace-building 95
50. Non-violent behavior of the citizen helps in S.C.R and peace-building 96
51. Tolerance among the individuals controls social conflicts 96
52. Cooperation is helpful in social conflicts resolution 96
53. Acceptance in the society leads to resolving the social conflicts 97
54. Honest relationship is helpful in social conflicts resolution 97
55. Justice helps in eradicating social conflicts in societies 97
56. Paying respect to the feelings of others resolves the social conflicts 98
57. Religious leaders are helping in social conflicts resolving process 98
58. Human rights preservation makes help in peace building 99
59. Education is the powerful behavioral change agent in the society 99
60. Highly educated societies are more peaceful 99
61. Peace education exists formally in our education system 100
62. Education provides long term solution and strategies for Social conflicts
prevention and peace building 100
63. Education improves the analytical power of the individuals about the S.C 100
64. Education creates positive attitude towards the social conflicts resolution 101
65. Education system of Pakistan provides practical skill for social conflicts
resolution and peace building 101
66. Educators are sensitive about the S.C.R and peace-building 101
67. Educators develop awareness about S.C and its resolution 102
68. Teachers are trained in S.C.R and peace building skills 102
69. The existed curriculum contains materials for S.C.R and peace-building 103
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70. Hidden curriculum promotes environment and attitudes, which exerts
influence over the transmitting of the social conflicts 103
71. Education department arrange workshops about the conflicts and S.C.R 103
72. Educators conduct dialogues among the students about the S.C.R and
peace-building 104
73. Education develops analytical skills which help in S.C.R 104
74. Educators teach the values of respect, tolerance and understanding 105
75. Educators foster the knowledge, practical skills and attitudes about S.C.R
and peace 105
76. Community programs about the S.C.R and peace-building are conducted 105
by the education department
77. Education promotes democratic attitude in individuals 106
78. Quality education builds peace in the society 106
79. Social conflicts are natural part of the life, every one experiences it 107
80. In social conflicts disagreement exists between the parties 107
81. Shared sources cause social conflicts 107
82. Most of the Social conflicts may arise in members of the same group 108
83. An individualistic trend in our society creates social conflicts 108
84. Social conflicts may arise due to the abuse of power 108
85. Social conflicts arise with incompatibilities of needs 109
86. Social conflicts arise with incompatibilities of needs 109
87. Social conflict leads to violence in society 109
88. Misunderstanding leads to social conflicts 110
89. Poor communication is the main reason of the social conflicts 110
90. Differences in opinions cause social conflicts 110
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91. Discriminatory attitude leads to social conflicts 111
92. Emotional aggression creates social conflicts 111
93. Differences of goals among the members of the society create S.C 111
94. Abuse of law leads to social conflicts in society 112
95. Competitive behavior causes social conflicts 112
96. Lack of tolerance creates social conflicts 113
97. Ignorance breads social conflicts 113
98. Social conflicts are due to cultural differences 113
99. Religious extremism causes social conflicts 114
100. Poor democratic structure is one of the causes of S.C in our society 114
101. Lack of moral education breads social conflicts 115
102. Conservative thinking creates social conflicts in our society 115
103. Class system in society is the root cause of social conflicts 115
104. Poverty in our society is the main cause of the social conflicts 116
105. Ideological differences create social conflicts 116
106. Gender discrimination is the cause of creating social conflicts 117
107. Economic disparity leads to social conflicts 117
108. Injustice in our society is one of the causes of social conflicts 117
109. Sectarianism is the root cause of social conflicts 118
110. S.C begin in the mind of the men, so peace should begin in the mind
of child 118
111. S.C.R is comprehensive social process that requires proper training 119
112. S.C.R requires understandings of the very nature of the S.C 119
113. Negotiation helps to make soften the social conflicts 119
114. Social conflict resolution is critical to peace building 120
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115. For S.C.R individual has to seek mutual agreement on the issues 120
116. Observance of law leads to create peace in society 121
117. Improving relationships among the disputants resolve the S.C 121
118. Compassion leads to resolving the Social conflicts 121
119. Adaptation of cooperative behavior helps in the S.C.R 122
120. Control on the emotions helps in the S.C.R and peace building 122
121. Compromising attitudes are adopted in resolving the S.C 123
122. Self awareness plays key role in the S.C.R process 123
123. Reconciliation is helpful in resolving the social conflicts 123
124. Political stability leads to the S.C.R and peace building 124
125. Non-violent behavior of the citizen helps in S.C.R and peace-building 124
126. Tolerance among the individuals controls social conflicts 125
127. Cooperation is helpful in social conflicts resolution 125
128. Acceptance in the society leads to resolving the social conflicts 125
129. Honest relationship is helpful in social conflicts resolution 126
130. Justice helps in eradicating social conflicts in societies 126
131. Paying respect to the feelings of others resolves the social conflicts 127
132. Religious leaders are helping in social conflicts resolving process 127
133. Human rights preservation makes help in peace building 127
134. Education is the powerful behavioral change agent in the society 128
135. Highly educated societies are more peaceful 128
136. Peace education exists formally in our education system 129
137. Education provides long term solution and strategies for Social conflicts 129
prevention and peace-building
138. Education improves the analytical power of the individuals about S.C 129
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139. Education creates positive attitude towards the S.C.R 130
140. Education system of Pakistan provides practical skill for S.C.R and 130
peace-building
141. Educators are sensitive about the S.C.R and peace-building 131
142. Educators develop awareness about S.C and its resolution 131
143. Teachers are trained in S.C.R and peace-building skills 131
144. The existed curriculum contains materials for S.C.R and peace-building 132
145. Hidden curriculum promotes environment and attitudes, which exerts 132
influence over the transmitting of the social conflicts
146. Education department arrange workshops about the conflicts and S.C.R 133
147. Educators conduct dialogues among the students about the S.C.R and 133
peace-building
148. Education develops analytical skills which help in S.C.R 133
149. Educators teach the values of respect, tolerance and understanding 134
150. Educators foster the knowledge, practical skills and attitudes about the 134
S.C.R and peace
151. Community programs about the S.C.R and peace-building are conducted 135
by the education department
152. Education promotes democratic attitude in individuals 135
153. Quality education builds peace in the society 135
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of ALLAH, the Omnipotent, Lord of the universe “Unto ALLAH
belongeth the Sovereignty of the Heaven and Earth, And ALLAH is the Able to do all
the things”.
It is pleasure for the researcher to express his heartiest gratitude for his supervisor
Dr. Rabia Tabassum for her encouragement, motivation and inspirational support that
helped the researcher to complete this research work. The researcher also, with great
esteems wishes to express his deep indebtedness to Dr. R .A. Farooq for his guidance
and efforts that leads to completion of this study. Almighty ALLAH blesses him.
The researcher is indebted to all the supervisory staff for their academic
guidance, assistance, professional opinions and encouragement for the completion of this
research work.
Researcher would like to pay tributes to his parents, Mr. Muhammad Qiash khan,
and Mrs. Muhammad Qiash khan and My wife for their encouragement and motivation
that give strength in the time of stress and strain in the life of the researcher.
The researcher thanks and acknowledged the following personalities and
colleagues for their co-operation in this research study; Mr. Abdullah, Dr. Irshadullah,
Dr. Eid Akbar, Mr.Yousaf Shah, Mr. S. Mukhtar Shah, Dr. Zafar Iqbal, Dr. Hamza
Burky, Dr. Abdul Waheed, Mr.Muhammad Bilal, Mr. Abid Saddique and Afaq-u-zaman.
Researcher would also like to thank the Mr. Maqsood (format specialist), Sameed
Ahmad Jan and Waleed Ahmad Jan for their valuable services rendered.
KHALID IQBAL
xvii
ABSTRACT
The current study was intended to investigate the role of education in the social
conflicts resolution and peace-building at secondary level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Social
conflicts are the indispensable and unavoidable human phenomena. These social conflicts
arise of human interaction, where there is interaction there are differences, discords,
disagreements, struggles, clashes and tiffs between the individuals and groups that lead to
social conflicts in society. Objectives of the study were: (1) to explore awareness of the
principals and teachers about the social conflicts; (2) to identify the factors that cause social
conflicts; (3) to determine the effect of individual behavior on social conflicts and conflicts
resolution; (4) to judge the role of education in addressing the social conflicts and peace-
building; and (5) to compare the responses of urban heads with rural heads and urban
teachers with rural teachers.
For achieving these objectives, a null hypothesis “Education role is ineffective in
social conflicts resolution and peace-building at secondary level” was tested. All the 25243
male Secondary/Higher Secondary Schools Heads and Teachers constituted the population
for this study. A sample of 640 was selected randomly. Data were collected from eight
districts out of 25 districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa i.e. Peshawar, Nowshera, Mardan,
Abbottabad, Swabi, Kohat, Swat, and Dera Ismail Khan. Questionnaires were used for the
collection of data. Data were collected from Heads of the institutions and Secondary/
Higher Secondary Schools Teachers. The collected data were tabulated, analyzed and
interpreted by using chi square and t- test.
On the basis of analysis it was found that there were certain factors that cause social
conflicts in society. These factors were related to the behaviors/values of the individuals and
structure of the society. The study also found factors that were helpful in the resolution of
social conflicts and promoting peace. The study found out that the education sector plays a
xviii
key role in addressing the social conflicts, because all the factors that created conflicts in
society could be addressed directly or indirectly through education. However it was
indicated that there were some changes needed in the formal system of education.
In the light of the findings it was recommended that change should be brought in the
existing curriculum. Conflicts resolution and peace-building should introduce as a separate
subject if possible, or integrated approach should be applied at secondary level. All the
educators should provided proper training and the skills that required for the resolution of
social conflicts and peace-building should be inculcated in them.
It was also recommended that community programs, workshops and seminars
should be conducted in respect of social conflicts resolution and peace-building.
International experts in conflicts resolution and peace-building should be hired to give
training to the educators. It was also recommended to establish a provincial agency to
monitor teachers’ education programs, textbooks and all other learning programs to promote
such things that are helpful in resolution of the social conflicts and peace and to keep check
on all those things and aspects that pose threat to peace.
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LIST OF ABBREVAITIONS
CR: Conflicts Resolution
CRE: Conflicts Resolution Education
CRIC: Conflict Resolution Centre of Iowa
DFID: Department for International Development
GASC: General Assembly Security Counsel
ICCCR: Columbia International University Centre for Cooperation
IPRA: International Peace Research Association
NGO: Non Governmental Organization
NEP: National Educational Policy
NOUN: National Open University of Nigeria
PBEA: Peacebuilding, Education and Advocacy
PIRO: International Peace Research Institute
UNESCO: United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organization
UNCF: United Nations Children Fund
UNDPKO: United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
UPEACE: United Nations University for Peace
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
To live in peace is the dream of every human being, family, community and
nation. Every one strives for peace according to his peculiar and best approach. At the
same time conflict is the unavoidable and undeniable phenomenon of human life.
Resolution to conflict becomes indispensable to bring peace in the disturbed society.
Among the different tools for conflict resolution, education is one of the most effective
tools that can transfer the social conflicts into durable peace.
There are many roots from which conflicts stem out. It may involve human
nature, competition and contest between individuals or groups for authority and sources.
It arises from the design of the social setup, the organization of the institutions and
associations, and from the unavoidable tussles among the different classes of the society.
Apart from these; values, beliefs, emotions, communication style, mode of interaction
among the individuals and other social, emotional, and behavioral characteristics of
human are the root causes of social conflicts. Namande (2008), holds that things like
egoistic trends, racism based beliefs, intolerance, disputation, strive for substantial
things, exertion for identification, ignorance, dignity, and fear are the causes of conflicts.
He adds that anything that generates disappointment or discontent can swell up the
conflicts among individuals.
Brahnam et al, (2005), stated that conflict is a natural phenomenon of the life, it
is a routine occurrence and make happens in every walk of life. Social conflict is an
inevitable constituent of human interaction. It may involve discord, scuffle, tussle, clash,
heated discussion, bickering and even hot war or combating between individuals or
groups. It manifests in different forms, from interpersonal concerns like interpersonal
confusion, disagreement on certain point, falling-out and gap in exchange of ideas
2
between individuals, to issues of responsibility at job, control, supremacy and authority.
Dzurgbe (2006) is of the opinion that a social problem in which differences or
disagreements exist between two or more than two individuals, family units, parties,
communal groups, or regions is called social conflict.
Deutsch & Coleman (2000) assert that conflict arises among the individuals in all
social settings and all human relationships. Because there are a variety of differences
among people, when there is no interaction there is no conflict, whenever there is
interaction there is conflict. Conflict is neutral; by itself it is neither good nor bad. It is
the way of handling and dealing of the conflict that makes the nature of the conflict
constructive or destructive. According to Dubrin (2005), conflict occurs when
differences or dissents arise in a social setting over subject or some concern. It also
happens when emotional aggressions give rise to frictions among individuals or group of
individuals.
Wilmot and Hocker (2011) are of the opinion that conflict is a perceived
resistance among the inter-reliant individuals over irreconcilable disparities that are felt
in ideas, standards, and dogmas, tenets and targets. It may arise where disagreement
takes place for respect and esteem, power and authority, and alliances.
Conflicts resolution acknowledges that long-lasting concurrence should be
provided to the particular needs of all the disputant parties: safety needs, identification
and acknowledgment, progress, participation and advancements. There are some of basic
things that play a role in the resolving of social conflicts. These factors are empathy,
equality, honesty, discipline, recognition, esteem, determination, self-control, reliability,
sincerity, truthfulness, admiration, gratitude, open-mindedness, patience, compassion,
responsibility and fair play.
3
Miall and Woodhouse (2001), peer into the conflict resolution and stamped that
conflict resolution is potent only when the root causes are curtailed and rooted out. The
behavior of the individuals seems no more aggressive and no more hostile and structure
of the conflict is changed. According to (Albert, 2005; Omoluabi, 2001), conflicts
resolution is an intellectual process to tackle conflicts. It needs meticulous examination
to get insight about the conflict. It is a deductive process in which the opposing parties
are brought to decisive stage through productive communication. The solution is
amicable and agreeable to the opponents.
Conflicts resolution as per expert opinion of McCandless et al (2007) is the
methodical procedure directed towards the durable solution to all the catalyst of conflicts
and is chalking out potential planning to cope with it at institutional, socio-economic and
national levels and to promote justice and build positive peace.
When conflict resolved, resultantly peace occurs. The term peace has its origin
and roots in the French language where peace is “pais” in the Latin language “pacem/
pax” mean peace and Hebrew word for peace is shalom. All these words are synonymous
and mean to be safe from the disorder in society (Weekley, 2010).
The term peace is usually used for the end of war, fight or combat. Actually
peace goes beyond the war and fight. It is a long-standing strategy that requires to be
conceptualized. Most often the term peace is misused with the end of war etc. peace-
building is something different. It encompasses all the areas that related to social justice
(Dupuy, 2008).
The world peace is used and comprehended in several ways but usually it is
identified that this concept includes issues related to different walks of life i.e. culture,
economic, political, social, and other humanitarian evils (Goodhand & Hulme, 1997).
According to Lederach (2005), the strategy that trims down the cycles of aggression and
4
devastative social relations and also improves the equity among the individual’s relations
is termed as just peace.
Peace education is skills development process that enables the students to
discover the ways and means to resolve the conflicts productively and constructively and
to live with concordance with every one. It is the duty of every one to take part in the
peace-building process and the challenges that is faced by the humanity.
Education is seen to be a cornerstone in the process of social conflicts resolution
and peace-building. The education sector, with all its capacities and abilities for
imparting training, knowledge and learning, has a worthy role to play in the peace-
building process. Education is conceivably the most imperative and chief instrument for
human development and the means by which successive generations promote and
develop the values, knowledge and skills for their own and make safe the future for
social, cultural, economic and political development.
Education for peace is a scheme of studies that instills discipline in masses. It
holds to teach the current and past conflicts, their cause, implications and provide
suggestions in order to cope these evils. It also usually teaches expectations, duties,
responsibility and obligations, activities of individual, influential leaders and followers
and supporters. Peace education provides information and knowledge about the basic
human rights, the rise and fall of the nations in the past and importance of the observance
of law, and other such conveniences occurred due to the power structure and leadership
(Odejobi & Adseina, 2009).
According to Ajala (2003), education for peace is a kind of education that affects
the novice in all standards and values and attitudes that could result in a milieu which
favorable for human life.
5
Academies play a key role in uplifting the human from pity position to the glory.
It deals with factors like social inequality, unfairness, groundless beliefs, ruthless custom
which serve the base for disputes and conflicts. This gives detailed information about the
current conflict to deal with it effectively and also tries to off the outbreak of conflict in
the future. The involvement of academics in the field of conflict studies and resolution
are multidimensional subjects of studies. Extensive acknowledgment and the use of a
multi-dimensional method and approaches to conflicts resolution strategies recognized
academies one of the key players in the process of handling the dispute. Examples and
experiences set forth in the history and the development at the present time may
encourage profound investigation in the field of conflicts resolution at various levels.
Investigation of a range of practices and explore novel substitutes in this area may
identify clearly the role of academics in the future (Bhaskaran, 2003). Children need to
be educated so that they can understand the society and the dynamics of social harmony.
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The study was aimed to investigate the role of education in the social conflicts
resolution and peace building at secondary level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study was based on the following objectives:
1. To explore awareness of the principals and teachers about the social conflicts.
2. To identify the factors that cause social conflicts.
3. To determine the effect of individual behavior on social conflicts and conflicts
resolution.
4. To judge the role of education in addressing the social conflicts and peace-building.
5. To compare the responses of urban heads with rural heads and urban teachers with rural
teachers.
6
1.3 HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
H0: The role of education is ineffective in the social conflicts resolution and
peace-building.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The study might be extremely significant. Social conflicts have destroyed the
society’s peace. It is crystal clear that education has to play a central role in identifying
the underlying causes of social conflicts, its resolution and to promote peace. It would
help the educators to understand why social conflicts took place and how to deal with
their legacies. This study has opened new dimensions to the education sector. The study
might be able to apply new and dynamic approach to the curriculum design. The
students, teachers, principals and other stakeholders might be able to play their
constructive role in social conflicts resolution and to bring peace and harmony to the
society.
1.5 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
This research study was delimited to the Government Secondary / Higher
Secondary Schools for Boys of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
1.6 METHOD AND PROCEDURE
1.6.1 Population
All the 1592 Principals and 23651 Secondary School Teachers for boys of
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa constituted the population of the research study.
1.6.2 Sample
A sample of 640 from eight districts was randomly selected. Out of 25 districts,
eight districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa i.e. Abbottabad, Peshawar, Swat, Mardan, Swabi,
7
Kohat, Nowshera, and Dera Ismail Khan were selected randomly. The sample included
80 heads of the Secondary/Higher secondary schools and 560 teachers. For the proper
representation from each district 10 schools i.e. five urban and five rural Secondary
/Higher Secondary Schools for boys were randomly selected. From each school seven
teachers and the principal were chosen as respondents for the study.
1.6.3 Research Instruments
A questionnaire was designed in accord with the objectives of the study with the
consultation of the supervisor and was used as research instrument. The questionnaire
was composed of 75 items. It was designed as a sort of check list. There were two
options in the check list i.e. agreed and disagreed. The questionnaire for heads of the
institutions and teachers was composed of the same items.
1.6.4 Collection of Data
The required data were collected through the questionnaire by the researcher. The
sample included 560 teachers and 80 heads/principals of the government
secondary/higher secondary schools for boys of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Questionnaires
were administered by the researcher in some districts by himself and in some by the
fellows to collect data from the sampled teachers and heads. Hundred percent
questionnaires were returned from the respondents.
1.6.5 Analysis of Data
The data were collected by the researcher from the heads / principals and teachers
on two point scale. The data were tabulated and analyzed through chi square and t-test.
8
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 SOCIAL CONFLICTS
The history of humankind has been greatly moulded by two passions i.e. love and
conflict which regulate human experiences in a cycle of compassion and bitterness.
These competing values are present in any human community, in our homes, our work
places, in groups or associations where people come together and in the society as a
whole. Even though human beings were created by an act of love by the Almighty God,
conflicts and misunderstandings unfortunately hold sway in many human encounters
where two or more persons engaged continually. Socio-economic pressures sometimes
build up tensions within an individual and everywhere we find people distressed,
oppressed and challenged by the realities of misunderstanding, conflict and peace
building (Schilling, 2012).
Conflict may be defined as a situation of falling-out, chaos and turmoil or
antagonism. When two parties or individuals are engaged in protracted fight, struggle or
quarrels with each other. Obegi & Nyamboga (2008) stated that social conflict is the
condition where two or more than two people individually or collectively exhibit
opposing behaviour. He maintained that it is a struggle for drag and draw and
compromising attitude and also struggle for maintaining balance of power.
A conflict has usually been defined as a situation in which two or more than two
parties, groups endeavor to acquire the same scant resources simultaneously
(Wallensteen, 2002). The word conflict is its origin a Latin word confligere, which
means to “strike together” (Barash & Webel, 2002). So conflict means to collide with
each other. Bercovitch (1990) is of the opinion that conflict is a situation which creates
incompatibility of goals or values among different parties. There is always opposing,
9
antagonistic and aggressive behavior exhibited by the parties. Ayoko, Hartel, & Callan
(2002), state that when there is disagreements or differences of opinions, needs and
desires between the individuals or group of individuals and are apparent and exhibit from
their behaviour is called conflict.
There are many views of conflict in our social life such as social divergence, conflicts of
interests, bickering and spat between individuals, group of individuals, or associations
without proper social planning, managing and stress and strain among the peoples may
shoot out from these social conditions. Conflict is inexorable, with the passage of time
changes occur in people and disruption or disorder occurs with these changes. Conflict
arises due to differences and disagreements. Differing and conflicting views about
interests, aspirations and goals may cause conflicts. At times differences in behaviors of
the members of the parties also result in breeding conflicts (Mughal & Khan, 2013). In
conflict differences in opinions that exists between individuals. It can vary from a meek
and gentle disagreement to a win-or-lose situation, jam-packed emotional confrontation.
Davies (2004) defines conflict as the incompatibility of interests or goals in real,
noticeable and perceptibly apparent. It can not be believed that the strong desires of
having peace can be availed by both the conflicting groups at the same time or at once.
This struggling situation is only the outcome and results of having the superiority of
cultures, status quos and other production units. It is also an intermediate stage of
struggle that expedites and causes more devastation.
2.1.1 Nature and Concept of Conflicts
Mughal and Khan (2013, state that research on conflict signifies that conflict is
dynamic and not a static one, it always varies. Conflict is not the picky occurrence or
phenomenon that one can feel straight away or instantaneously. It may be possible that
conflict is already there but not picked out or felt by the parties yet. Human beings feel
10
fear or frightened of the conflict yet they affirm that there is peace and there is no
conflict. As time passed the conflict slowly and steadily stemmed out and then
individuals realized its existence.
Manjor (2011), expressed that Conflict is an unavoidable, inevitable and
undeniable fact of our daily lives, be different a lot for its various elements, and even
with a change of space and time it also retort in a different form and fashion. Its nature,
facets, and other characteristics are so varied that it is impossible to resolve it with one
method. However, there is one method or other that can be used for conflict settlement,
which requires appropriate changes according to the situation and nature of the conflict.
Conflict has a lot of appearances and takes place at a number of stages of human
operation and working. There is great deal of variation in human nature and society;
therefore, there is a lot of variation in conflicts. Actually, a conflict is the result of the
change in the human society, civilization, traditions, practices, rites and rituals. It is the
natural result of multiplicity in beliefs and values, dissimilarity in attitudes and gap in
perceptions that contend social, economical and political interests among human beings,
different ethnic and social groups (Rashid, 2005).
De Janasz, et al (2006), stated that conflict is a reality of life in association.
Conflict is not concrete or substantial thing rather it arises of the perception of
individuals. It takes a concrete form when reasoning, threatening and combating are
involved. It is the people that are unable to handle it and get through it effectively. If
conflict is managed effectively then it can be constructive. If not, it will be destructive in
all social settings.
A social conflict is a situation where two or more persons hankers after (go in
pursuit of) aim or aspiration that they did not agree on it to share with each others. The
conflict is not necessarily violent. Conflict arises when change occurs. Some want
11
change, while others oppose it. Conflict has both negative and positive effects on the
lives of human beings, it depends upon how the conflict dealt and managed. If it is not
managed appropriately then it becomes terrible. If discord and conflict are tackled
serenely and creatively, the result can be positive. It promotes good relationships,
constructs unity and nourishes smooth interaction. It also builds up organizations and
institutions, promotes new beliefs, principles and rules (Phillips & Goldberg, 2011).
Conflicts are not of the same nature and identical characteristics or features. It is
a multiple phenomenon. There is uniqueness in all conflicts; every conflict has its own
perspectives, backgrounds, origins, milieu and indigenous structure. Neither conflicts
have the same characteristics nor do they pass through the same phases. All the countries
that are liable to conflicts some way or other they have some root causes if it gets proper
environment can easily be grown into objectively possible conflict (Thruelsen, 2009).
Social conflict is started for a common cause by group of social setup. It can be
divided into two domains. One is that which is caused by a voluntary exchange
framework like market type conflict. The other is the social conflict caused by a social
problem common in society; in such a conflict the people are having mutual interests
(Vahabi, 2009).
Deutsch (2000) is of the opinion that conflicts are neutral. He viewed the concept
of conflict by distinguishing between destructive and constructive conflicts. A conflict is
neither destructive nor constructive by its fundamental nature; it is the dealing and
management of conflict that makes it destructive or constructive. According the theory of
social independent by Deutsch’s (2000, & 2001), conflicts and disputations are the off
shoots of competition and co-operation on the part of the conflicting forces. The use of
compulsion, intimidation, force, simulation, skimpy interaction, adverse and negative
behaviors, endangering disparity, and scanty similarities in beliefs, values and attitudes
12
are the main constituents of the competitive approach. On the other hand similitude in
idea, standards, and attitudes; friendly feelings; closed interaction; sympathetic
behaviour and helpfulness; and compassion for mutual achievements are the features of
cooperative approach.
Zeleza (2008) holds that conflicts put severe threats to human safety, peace,
tranquility and solidarity. It gives threat and hindrance to social and economic
development. It makes institutions and organizations destabilized, crack the social
integrity and many other disasters and misfortunes like expatriation, and dislodgment
occur.
2.1.2 Types of Conflicts
According to Vinyamata (2007), Conflict has different expressions. There is
personal conflict, we often say that a person has in dilemma actually the person has a
conflict with him/herself. Such a conflict is called personal conflict. The couple conflict
is the most widespread or most frequent accruing interpersonal conflicts. There are group
conflicts which arise or exist between friends or with colleagues where they are working
or serving. These are called conflicts within group or between groups. There are
organizational conflicts; it may be in industries, in governmental organizations or
institutions and with other interests groups. It may arise between states. These conflicts
mostly result in wars.
Conflicts are of various types and kinds. It may be between two persons or
among many, sometimes community involved in it and sometimes states. There are
numerous kinds of conflicts. Durojaye (2010), under the title of “Understanding Conflict
and War” expresses that some of the conflicts we involved in our day to day activities
are the following:
13
a) Intra-personal Conflicts
Conflicts occur within an individual and person is called intra-personal conflicts.
Goal differences, interests, ethical questions and such other things cause such conflicts.
b) Inter-personal Conflicts
When conflicts occur over an issue or some concern among or between
individuals are called inter-personal conflicts.
c) Intra-group Conflicts
Intra-group conflicts occur between persons, members or faction belong to the
same group e.g. within a same group.
d) Inter-group Conflicts
These types of Conflicts arise between or among the different groups of the
society e.g. among the different classes or among the different families.
e) National Conflicts
In such types of conflicts whole nation is involved. These are conflicts which
arise within a nation, in which groups with in nation involved. It may be resources,
ideology etc. These conflicts could be in the shape of inter-ethnic, struggle for resources
or inter-religious and sectarian.
f) International Conflict
These are the conflicts which arise between or among the nations. There are
many reasons for it. The source of these conflicts could be ideology, territorial claims,
and political antagonism etc (Durojaye, 2010).
g) Symmetric and Asymmetric Conflicts
Symmetric conflicts are those conflicts which arise among or between the similar
parties. Conventional conflict resolution applies to these types of conflicts. Asymmetric
14
conflicts are conflicts which arise amongst or between dissimilar parties (Mitchell,
1992).
2.1.3 Causes and Sources of Conflicts
Individual or group difference, discord, disagreement, struggles, clash, tiff, or
even combating and wars create social conflicts. It covers issues like responsibility,
authority and personal misconceptions etc. Karip (2000) stated that conflict will occur
when there is diversity in opinions, differences in interests, assortment in beliefs and
values, and the wishes of individuals.
Conflict is unavoidable and can be felt in every one’s life in different situations.
It can arise in any setting, everywhere, whenever there is human interaction. We are
well-aware of those things that cause conflicts. Durojaye (2010), under the title of
“Understanding Conflict and War” categorized these into four namely:
a. Conflicts related to resources
b. Psychological requirements or needs
c. Conflicts over values
d. Conflicts over insufficient or defective information (Durojaye, 2010).
Rahim (2002), States that when incompatibility of wishes, desires, wants, needs,
demands and motives arise conflict become bound to happen. Conflict refers to a form of
confrontation, dissonance, or dissension which arises amongst the group of people when
their ideas, attitudes or dealings of members of the group either refuse to accept or
oppose by the members of another group. Thus situation of confrontation prevails.
Denohue and Kott (1992), are of the opinion that Conflict is the situation or
condition in which differences exist between or among the inter-reliant people when they
struggle to achieve their needs and goals, it also occurred when disparity or discrepancy
15
arise among the people that make changes necessary in a person in order to achieve the
goals.
According to Laue (1990), when there is struggle between the parties to agree on
their wants, needs and beliefs, conflict arises. Plunkett and Attner (1989), expressed that
shared resources, goals differences, gape in perceptions, divergence view about values,
dissent in the role requirements, nature of work , peoples attitude, and the phases of
advancement in developing the structure and shape of an organization are the sources
that cause conflicts.
There are many reasons of disputatious circumstances like lack of proper
exchanging of ideas, competitive sense of achievement of common goals and too many
other unrealistic things. According to Fisher (1997), people are having inevitable
requirements and aspiration, glory, safeguard, equality in decision taking. Frustration in
these things leads towards social conflicts. Coser (1956) defines it as a struggle over
lacking values and claims and status, power and resources, as a result of which the
disputants try to defuse and oust the opponents.
Fisher (1990) is of the opinion that conflict arises when there is incompatibility of
goals or values exist between two or more parties in a relationship, combined with
endeavor to control each other and feels aggression and hostility towards each other.
According to De Bono (1985), difference in thoughts, necessities, aims and values create
the sense of competition among and between different groups and individuals. He further
said that in conflict clearly clashes are there because of the conflicting view points,
similarities in interests, differences in perceptions about things and causes of actions.
2.1.3.1 Basic forces behind conflicts
How Conflicts originated? Many hypotheses have been formulated to know about
the start of these conflicts in the societies. Conflicts have many roots; conflicts and
16
clashes are there in human nature, as they are the out comes of those struggles which are
for the capturing of more and available source, from power struggle and unrealistic
shapes and forms of the social setup. It arises from association and organization people
create, and from the class struggle. The five basic forces or sources which originate
conflicts are: communication, emotions or feelings, environments and process of
interaction, historical changes which had been taking place from time to time in history.
a. Communication
Communications is one of the forces behind the conflict. Humans are very
defective and imperfect communicators. This deficiency and defectiveness leads to breed
conflict. Communication affects the whole body of the society. Decent, respectable and
positive communication is the necessity for peace-building in society. These includes all
walks of the life and people of the society i.e. class differences, age level, gender biased
and even way of living. But majority of the world’s dwellers believed on their
visualization of imperfect and imprecise perceptions, and their communications
conclusions drawn from past experiences or previous relations and contacts.
b. Emotions
Emotions, sentiments or feelings play the role of fuel that originate or provide the
energy to conflict. It is the previous experiences and specific interaction that promotes
feelings and emotions. When emotions or feelings are directly expressed it may
accelerate conflict. People who are parties to the dispute or conflict should discuss their
feelings with out showing or displaying them in order to promote safe environment for
emotional expression so that to reduce emotional out break. For this purpose mediation
should be given a chance to curb the explosion of emotions.
17
c. Values
Values are the beliefs i.e. philosophy and standards of life are the basics of living.
Values are very important and give effects to our lives. These are the guidelines and
basics that we follow in every walk of life. The important thing is to know about the
different angle of the society. Each and every thing has got two tokens i.e. bad and good.
Conflict may not be there, if our lives are being spent in positive way and positive out
look. While conflict arises of values it becomes more bothersome and vexing. Because
molested and attacked, they feel they are being attacked. People never compromise on
their values and beliefs. Because to them compromise on beliefs is compromise on their
own and their integrity. In conflicting situation one considers as righteous, uprightness,
good and honorable while the opponent as devilish, spiteful, wicked, malevolent, mean
and dangerous.
d. Structure
A framework, where the conflict really started on issue or nourishes is called
structure. It is also a cause which gives arise to conflict. The availability of assets, time
limit, physical environment, managerial techniques and the way to communicate may be
the main components of the structure. Propinquity or nearness of the opposing parties,
resource’s allocation and information approaches, and legitimate consideration,
configuration of the organization or association, and political pressures are the other
structural components that cause conflicts.
e. History
For understanding of conflict it is necessary to understand its historical context. It
should be given historical consideration. The written records of those people, who were
18
involved in the dispute and the issue themselves that make influence in shaping the
conflict. History provides impetus to the growth of conflicts (Mayer, 2000).
Conflict often shoots out from relationships and dealings between people. It
arises from individual behaviour and characteristics. It also arises from the
organizational setup and as well as from underlying structural organization based-factors
(Mughal & Khan, 2013).
2.1.4 Beliefs about Conflicts Roy Eidelson and Judy Eidelson (2003) examined some of the significant beliefs
that can play a part in driving or constricting conflicts among individuals. There are five
belief areas or sphere of influence that should be noted. Superiority, injustice,
vulnerability, distrust and helplessness are the belief domains that take part in the driving
or constraining of the conflicts. Each one of these domain may be classified into
individual level core belief and group level worldview.
2.1.4.1. Superiority
a. Individual level
The sense of specialness, deservedness, prerogatives and privileges are
normally the feelings or mind-set related to this core belief. According to this one
individual considering that he is better than other individuals in one way or the
other.
b. Group-level
The worldview belief at group level includes mutual or joint belief of
ethical and moral supremacy, privileges, claims, extraordinary or exceptional
providence. These sorts of things are the basic constituents of the group level
beliefs. The belief in superiority domain that exerts one group on other group are
19
history, values, ideals, morals principles, language, customs, practices, folklore
etc which is better known the cultural legacy.
2.1.4.2 Injustice a. Individual level
It is commonly the apparent abuse by certain parties. This attitude can
take an individual towards a mishap or misunderstandings which engenders
improperly retaliatory actions. This mindset creates injustice in social setup.
b. Group level
It reveals a view among the groups against another group a kind of belief in
which one group has legal accusation against the other. Such kind of thinking
stimulates riots in the social setup, in which common injustice arises and a kind of
disobedience arises in the masses. More over this male treatment is especially in
different cultural sections where justice is defined differently and various standards
are used for its achievement.
2.1.4.3 Vulnerability
a. Individual level
According to this a man has a common belief that he is continually living
in a dangerous situation. It generates a mindset up in a person in whom he feels
various risks which can not be curbed and the person feels himself insecure
against any jeopardy.
b. Group level
It is most commonly detectable in ethnic and racial groups. In this the
individual always has fears of future. In such situation dangerous results are
produced in the shape of violent conflicts. The vulnerability view is a cataclysmic
20
thinking in which a group thinks adversely and feels of the situation to be
unavoidable.
2.1.4.4 Distrust
a. Individual level
This belief concentrates upon the raucous intentions of others. It has been
admitted since long that the issues of trust in a person psychological growth plays
an important role. Expecting people to harm, abuse, insult, trick or cheat are
caused by ignorance, injustice from the people in society. It is the disbelief of a
person or an individual on the society. The people who always have bad,
negative or adverse thinking about others are always non-cooperative in
promoting relations.
b. Group level
The world view about this is the same as in the individual level core
belief. It encompasses particularly on thinking of out groups. It involves a belief
that the others are unreliable and nourishes spiteful intentions for the in-groups.
2.1.4.5 Helplessness
a. Individual level
In this belief an individual thinks that even cautious planning will be fruitless.
Sometimes the person thinks to be short of potentiality required for the
achievements of the goals. Regardless of the fact that this belief mitigates
stimulation because it is mostly self-done and it involves hazy thinking that leads
towards helplessness.
b. Group level
It explains the incapability and dependence of a group. In this belief the
group is just like a parasite depending on others. At this level the group is not
21
only thinking of its helplessness but also evaluates opportunities and the abilities
in the surroundings whether capable of group progress or not
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_(process retrieved on 20th Jan 2015).
2.1.5 Drivers of Conflicts
Although Conflicts are natural yet there are many drivers that bring conflicts in to
action. In their findings the PBEA, (2012) (Consolidated Annual Report’s findings)
identified the following drivers of conflicts:
a. Weak governance
Weak and feeble governance is one of the drivers that contribute to
conflicts. Disruptive political situation, restricted strategies, inadequate policies
and legislation are some of the characteristics or indicators of the feeble
governance. This type governance fails to provide safety or protection and also
fail to promote just services to the masses.
b. Political corruption and exclusion
Another driver of conflict is the political corruption and exclusion. When
there is centralization of authority or command, in resource distribution, there
will be short of confidence as well as expulsion while taking the decision.
c. Poverty and economic disparity
Poor infrastructure, lack of fundamental progress caused by injustice,
unfairness, deficient devolution, austerity in educational system and other social
services are the originators and accelerators of conflict.
d. Inequitable social services
Discriminatory and unjust social services provisions are also sources of
conflicts. Lack-ness to the educational amenities and services especially at
22
secondary and university level; teachers problem, quality education and services
provided to different regions, locality and urban and rural areas.
e. Intergroup intolerance
Things like racial intolerance and other such prejudices, stereotyping,
sectarianism, limited ability or reluctance to ease tension and to solve conflicts
before it become furious are some of the main constituents of conflicts.
f. A culture of violence
Hostility and feeling of aggression in social setup i.e. in communities and
families, violence especially against children; gender prejudices such as
kidnapping, child marriages and down beaten or negative feelings toward female
education are the culture of violence. It can work as conflicts drivers.
g. Environment and natural resources
It also provides base for conflicts. Struggle for scanty and inadequate
resources, grievances, mining of natural resources that profiting overseas
corporation and companies or political privileged classes.
h. Ethnic and religious divisions
It involves various racial and religious groups. Racial groups consist of
different races in the social setup and religious groups consist of people with
different dogmas. There is always a political and religious division in such groups
resulting in grievances of inequality and discrimination.
i. Political, economic and social disengagement of youth
There is always a lack of the youth’s employment in the public sector
employment. There is also a lack of basic and relevant education. Lacking in
these youths fall prey to tension and conflicts. This leads the youth to a feeling of
insecurity and frustration.
23
j. Lack of livelihoods
Unemployment and disempowerment faced by adolescents and parents in
despair, economic disparity and inequality, shows the weak and low standard of
the running system if minimize the growth opportunities in the local marked. The
money or fiscal resources are very limited and there is no job satisfaction.
k. Migration, displacement
Migration and dislocation is another driver of conflict. Due to various
reasons people have been relocated, because of which a continuous pressure in
rural and mostly in urban areas has increased. This put a serious impact on the
indigenous communities and resources (PBEA, 2012).
2.1.6 The Phases of Conflicts
Conflicts are differences that create tension among individuals. At the same time
each of the conflict seems to be different and sometimes similar. They are different
because no conflicts are similar. They are similar because all conflicts have common and
understandable patterns. These patterns or designs can be explained in distinct ways. One
way of describing it is called the conflict staircase model. This model sketch out the
typical course of a conflict that how conflict arises. There are seven steps in the model.
This model is used by the Danish centre for conflict resolution
(www.konfliktloesning.dk/files/Simple_and_difficult.pdf).
a) Disagreement
At this stage difference of opinion or discord arise over or about something. This
disagreement creates distress among the people and causes disturbing situation.
24
b) Personalizing the problem
The problem gets personalized approach. One says that it is other’s fault, the
other is blamed. Other is considered dim-witted, and he is considered the source of
problem
c) Escalation
Acceleration starts, more and more problem arise. The previous problems and
issues are brought into disputes and conflicts. Now conflict gets reality.
d) Forming alliances
At this stage each party tries to form alliances to threat the opponent. Now there
is no place for discussion, discourse and talks. Interaction among the disputants or
conflicting parts stopped and action take place.
e) Enemy imaging
At this level the perception about opponent becomes negative. The opponent is
taken as beast, animal and monster. At this point both the parties concentrate upon how
they were insulted.
f) Open hostility
Open aggression starts, each one want to harm or hear each other. This is the sole
intention of the each part. At this stage the mediator or the one who wants to calm down
the things are looked as a conspirator or traitor.
g) Separation or fight
The last and decisive stage, now separation or disconnection is needed. It may be violent
way of war and combats (UNDPKO, 2008).
2.1.7 Dimensions of Conflicts
As conflicts have many diverse causes and factors that create conflicts and
tension in the society. Conflicts may be analyzed from various angles and dimensions.
25
Following are the five dimensions explained by Vestergaard, Helvard & Sorensen,
(2011). When the needs of the people are not fulfilled and the conflict is bound to be
there. These needs embody in them. The five different aspects which are dealing with
structure, instruments, interests, values or the things belong of person. These different
aspects provide the opportunity for facing different challenging situations. Only one
aspect of above mentioned is not responsible for the disputes in the society most of the
disputes directly or indirectly connected with two are more aspects as mentioned earlier.
2.1.7.1 Structural dimension
There are other dimensions that affect on structural dimension, these includes
structure of institution or organization, ownership and legislation. The aspect which deals
with structure does not resolve the dispute in straight forward way among the groups or
individuals, but working in areas dealing with certain conflicts of the aspect connected
with structure is needed to be highlighted for stopping the disputes and differences in the
future which may light up. All those steps which deals with the disputes in the weighted
aspect of the structure, affected the decision makers from the base i.e. from the lower
level of the society and in the light of this, the right of the people are honored and they
are given the choice of opinion.
2.1.7.2 Instrumental dimension
The pivotal point of the conflict is in the instrumental dimension which is always
very solid. When there is a difference of opinions between a person or parties that how
the assigned task should be accomplished. Mostly people concentrate on the issues or
problems while dealing with instrumental conflicts. These disagreements exist among the
people with out increase. When there is enmity or the disagreements are deep rooted in
26
other dimensions then it may increase. Argumentation is the most appropriate approach
to the solution of the problem which is also acceptable to the parties.
2.1.7.2 Dimension of interest
Resources are main focus of this dimension; Wealth, time and space are the
different kind of resources. Moreover, influence and power are also resources which may
cause conflicts. Among many causes of conflicts territories, water and other natural
resources are the out springs of conflicts. Whenever dimension of interest is needed to be
addressed, an appropriate approach should be adopted in order to negotiate an agreement
which divides the resources equally and causes of the conflict will be reduced to a great
extant.
2.1.7.4 Dimension of value
Values are the important basics of a society. There are many type of values in the
society like personal, cultural, moral, religious, aesthetic, political etc. these values are
either collective or individual in nature. The fact remains that these values are always the
source of conflicts, disputes and quarrels in society. These values demarcate both the
extremes. Most of the conflicts arise either from the value dimension or personal
dimension as these are invariable. For greater understanding it is necessary that one
should understand the values of other party or person positively. It will reduce the
tension among the parties. Dialogues, appreciative inquires, diplomacies and positive
communication are the approaches to solve conflicts based on values.
2.1.7.5 Personal dimension
Many of the conflicts arise of the individual behaviour. Personal dimension is
origin of many conflicts. Worries, deep and intense feelings of the individuals cause
conflicts. Negative response, allegiance, denial, trustworthiness, faithfulness, self-
27
respect are the main components of personal dimension. The approaches used for the
solution of such types of conflicts are positive communication, discourse, dialogue,
analysis and positive investigation. Such types of other techniques are useful in personal
dimension (Vestergaard, Helvard & Sorensen, 2011).
2.1.8 Perspective of Social Conflicts
According to Mayer (2000), as mentioned in Lorraine Schaffer (2007)
Perspective of conflicts are three dimensional i.e. the thinking faculties, the feelings and
the empirical aspects of the attitude. Surly the shape and forms of a dispute influences
the other one or two aspects of the earlier mentioned aspects. This three shape aspects
i.e. aspects for the resolution of conflicts, help us to be out of the complex situation of
disputes and it shows that why a dispute seems to be different directions and seems to be
running away from solution.
1. Conflict as Perception
In this capacity both the personal and impersonal factors are there. As the
collection of thoughts, disputes is a conviction or discerning or comprehending
that there is incompatibility of interest, wishes, needs, beliefs and want of one
individual with others.
2. Conflict as Feeling
Conflict also involves feelings; an emotive behaviour or response to a
situational interaction that indicate some kind of difference and disparity among
individuals. Conflict exists when one individual perceives himself in conflict with
another individual, it may be possible that those feelings are not shared by or
even known to the other individuals or parties. These emotions, sensations and
feelings are fright, fury, gloom, rejection and dejection, or the combination of
such kind of emotions.
28
3. Conflict as Action
Actions may be one of the causes that conflict rise to express feelings
which articulate our thinking and enable us to achieve our needs in such a way
that has the power of interrupting another’s ability. In such kind of situation
exercise of power, violent a devastating behaviour may be attempted to make
something happen at another expense (Mayer, 2000, as mentioned in Lorraine
Schaffer, 2007).
2.1.9 Conflict Structure
According to Galtung (1996) attitudes, behaviour and contradiction/the basic
issues of the dispute are the three main components of the disputes. By contradiction he
means incompatibility of goals etc. He is of the opinion that wants and needs form the
contradiction or issue, which he named goal and the attainment is the goal state.
To Mitchell (1981); attitudes, behavior and situation form the structure of the
conflict. This model makes it easier to comprehend the conflict. According to this model
the following process held.
1. At first stage individual or group of individuals attempt to obtain goals, needs that
generate annoyance and disturbance. Eagerness for the achievement of the goal gets
intensified and thus the situation acts upon the behavior of the actor.
2. Now the situation acts upon the attitudes, things like suspicion and doubts, mistrust or
skepticism arise among the actors.
3. In this stage the behaviour of the actor effects the situation and new queries arise as
the demands get multiplied.
4. Now attitudes change due to the behaviour. Hatred swells-up, group solidarity and
cohesion give effect through the results of success or triumph.
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5: Attitudes affect the behavior such as expectations we have traditional enemies and will
be attacked again; it will affect our planning and measures taken defensively.
6. As long as the dispute or conflict remain existed there will be more and more issues
and problems will arise. In this stage the attitude acts or impact upon the situation
(Mitchell, 1981).
2.1.10 Analysis of Conflicts
To understand and solve conflicts it is very essential to make analysis of the
conflicts. Investigating the true nature of the conflict is very much helpful in conflict
resolution. DFID (Department for International Development), (2002) have done efforts
to analyze the conflicts. In the analysis of the structure, all the elements should be
brought onto a single whole. It means structure and agents of conflict should be
combined for analysis and their role must be fixed.
a) Structural analysis
Focal point of structural analysis is the investigation or examination of the long-
standing issues related to Social, political and economic spheres and issues related to
Protection and Safety which may lead to vehement conflicts.
b) Actors’ analysis
The focal point of this analysis is incentive, impetus and motivations of the
individuals which are investigated. Interests, relations, interaction, abilities,
competencies and other faculties of the actors are examined. Conflicts and disputes are
given their own and separate meaning by different groups and societies. They look at the
happenings around them in their own perceptive and interpretation. For this purpose,
they also seek the help of other in the society.
Dispute i.e. conflict mostly multifaceted and of many kinds and embody different
elements. Frequently we discuss many of the conflicts that have become entangled with
30
each other, and that may be component of a system of regional or local conflict. So the
analysis should include dimensions of regional, national and local, and international.
The start of the conflict or the origin of any dispute does not exist in the new
perspective of disputes and differences. Conflicts are not static phenomenon, it is ever
changing reality, in which the original structural anxiety and apprehension even deeply
transformed by the gigantic distraction of combat and warfare. Consequently basic
causes may become less and less relevant in long-drawn-out disputes that have led to the
renovation of a country and society as well.
Extensive data collection is required to make the analysis of the causes of the
conflict. Conflict is a complex phenomenon it can not be comprehended by a
straightforward source. The worth of the analysis is about to recognize connections that
overlap between causes of stress and strain voltages in different sectors and at different
levels (DFID, 2002).
2.1.11 Responses to Conflict
People react and respond differently to handle conflicts. We can react violently,
inertly, assertively or candidly to conflicts. There is fight and flight responses, covering a
range of reactions from massacre and execution to accusation, from pulling out to
evasion. Generally, violent and submissive responses are not very valuable to react to
conflicts, especially in the durable solution. The result in such situation is winning-lose,
where one party is left feeling disgruntled and injured. Therefore there is chance of
breaking out the conflict again.
Assertive and co-operative responses are productive and useful ways to react to
conflict and there is a chance of result in win-win solutions that help improve good
relations (Schaffer, 2007).
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In the report of the US Department of Justice by Crawford and Bodine (1996)
program about Conflict Resolution Education, reports that there are different reactions to
the various conflicts. These responses can be classified into a soft response, hard
responses and principled responses.
In hard and soft responses, disputing party adopts a relative position to this
problem. They negotiate to either neglect or victorious in the competition. Easy and
difficult dialogues result in loss of one side or assert gains of one side. While the
principled responses, disputing parties used of conflict resolution tactics for the
production of judicious accord which deals with the legal and genuine interests of the
opponent parties and it is also kept in view that how it affects the other. Soft responses
such as elude-ness, adjustment, cooperation and such other types of settlement generally
take place among the persons who wish to be nice to one another as these groups will be
contacted in the coming situations and timing. People are trying to keep away from
disputes by receding completely from this situation, overlooking it. In the resolution of
the conflicts interests should be given secondary status. Mild retort results in
disappointments, fright, apprehension and nervousness in future.
Hard responses to conflict usually arise among the people, who are opponents
and wants to achieve success. Featuring of hard responses to conflict is clash that
involves coercion, harassment, violence, antagonism and irritation. Hard mediators insist
compromises as a stipulation to solve the bandage regarding their status. They find out a
unique resolution to the raised question in which one party should quit the claim. They
exert pressure, in an attempt to win the competition. They also use illegal and immoral
things. Hard responses are harmful to the relations and cooperation, and often lead to
violence etc.
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Principle responses to the conflict maintain relations. Principle responses arise
among people who consider theme-selves to solve problems and its objective is the
judicious result achieved cordially and proficiently. Principle mediator recognizes that
communication is essential part of the mutual relations. These mediators should be
skillful, energetic and should be the ability to hear and understand. They make their
efforts for the resolution of disputes while using different angles. Conflicts can be
resolved easily when both of the parties are honored and satisfied while keeping in mind
the interests of the both the parties.
Results of these responses
These mentioned kinds of retorts to disputes breed diverse results as follows:
Soft or mild retorts bring results in two different ways. sometimes in some cases
an individual gives up on his stance for the relationship, and the result is that no one gets
benefits and the result in not in any one’s favour and one side is to withdraw, the result
will be loss-win. Individual sometimes avoid conflicts by conflict by absorbing or
obligating the loss of other and the fundamental wants not possible to be recognized or
fulfilled. As whole those who evade the disputes consider their self suffered.
The rigid retorts bring usually two different types of results and consequences.
When the more belligerent opponent party gets triumphed and the other loses the result
are Win-Lose. Hard responses frequently lead to a condition where the desires to punish
the opponents to take malicious measures that are harmful to themselves and to the other
party as well. This produces a Lose-Lose result.
Principled responses conflict usually results in win-win solution. Compromising
and negotiating principles can solve the conflict and that needs the practical approach of
the person and in the process of the conflict comes to a concurrence on a mutual decision
33
without lock in positions or wipe out relationships. In the process the interests of every
one or party in conflict get satisfied (Crawford and Bodine, 1996).
2.1.12 Approaches to Conflicts
For conflicts resolution it is important to understand approaches to conflicts.
Weissmann (2008), in his studies, mentioned about three theories; (a) Social conflict
theory, (b) The conflict dynamic approach and (c) The rational calculation approach to
the conflicts. They are briefly discussed here:
2.1.12.1 Social conflict theory
Fundamental needs, necessities and grievances are the focal points of the social
conflict theory. According to this theory lack and denial of the basic needs of the
individuals are the basic sources of conflict. Problem solving of the basic needs and
grievances and the base from where these arise are the central point of the conflict
resolution. Dialogues, diplomacy and other such procedures may be used for the
resolution process. It may be the ethnic repression or containment (Gurr 1993), meager
or no observance of human rights (Donnelly 1989), and the lack-ness, scarcity and need
refusal and whishes can be ranged from disparity to a shortage of personal assets,
survival and life (Shue 1996; Renner 1996; Harrison 1992; Booth 1995). According to
Coser (1956, 1967) political system also plays a role in conflict development. It the same
time he argued that it is also the solution to the conflicts.
2.1.12.2 The conflict dynamic approach
This is an oldest conception of conflict. According to this approach conflict is a
social occurrence which takes place in action and reaction design working in cycles.
Conflicts have their base and origin from the reactionary attitudes of the person or
groups. Thus the cyclic process continues. For the resolution of this type of conflicts
34
new, not workable but applicable theories are molded. And mutually acceptable
procedures are shaped in order to tackle with and changing the conflict dynamics. For
this purpose dialogues, confidence building measure and other resolution mechanisms
are adopted to solve the conflicts. Håkan Wiberg, (1976) Mitchell (1981), Kriesberg
(1992) and Galtung (1996) prefer this approach.
2.1.12.3 The rational calculation approach
This approach perceives the conflict as a calculated and planned evaluation done
by logical and sensible pursuers that accomplished their needs and decisions which in
turn starts a chain of events taking towards conflicts (Wallensteen, 2002).
The disputes is not against the set and agreed upon the definition, rather it is in
accordance with the pursuer or actor’s logic. This logic can be applied while trying to
solve a conflict. Conducive atmosphere, where one can see the de-escalation or
resolution as should be created for the resolution of conflict as resolving a conflict is
more reasonable as compare to the adverse. A number of approaches are used for this
purpose. Scholars are stressing upon the negotiation and mediation processes and think
ahead of the disputant’s party’s position to realize the genuine objectives. (Fisher 1995;
Fisher & Ury 1991)
Some focus their views on the significance of high time conflict results in to
nothing except unpleasant stretch of land full of worries in future. According to this idea
the parties should reconsider and rethink their strategies to reach solution to the dispute
(Zartman, 1989, 1995, 1997). Doing so is not an easy task because destructive
repercussions some times spoil the agreement (Stedman 1997, 1998; Weissmann, 2008).
2.2 CONFLICTS RESOLUTION
Wallensteen (2002) stated that conflicts resolution is to make in efforts to remove
the inappropriateness or solve the inaptness of the conflict. In this process the opponent
35
parties agreed upon the existence of each others. A durable solution to the problem is
chalked out in astounding manners.
Weaver (2003) is of the opinion that effort to solve a dispute or conflict is called
the process of conflict resolution. For the success of the resolution process it is necessary
that the needs and interests of all the parties should be realized on equal footing. So that
each party feels satisfied of the out come of the results.
Conflicts resolution demands for untwisted analytical competency, the cruxes are
brought into focus and logical solution is tabled. The word conflict in this context unveil
the state in which the opposing individuals struggle for the achievements of collective or
single requirement, the core motives is the achievement of the desired interests, targets
and values as per the subjective conceptions through negotiation(IPRA, 1994).
Wellensteen (2007) scrutinizes conflicts resolution as the systematic procedures
that cope with stunning views and visit of opponent parties and instill peace process in
individual and groups and to die down the act of aggressiveness against each other.
Datzberger (2014) claimed that it is the procedure or phase of change in national
international level in horizons of politics, economy, institutions, personal and groups. It
is the multisided process of development and ranged from family to international level.
This explores that the violent behavior has been finished, antagonistic feelings
are removed and the inclination regarding conflict is vehemently changed (Ramsbotham,
Woodhouse & Miall, 2005). According to Jhonson & Jhonson (1996), conflicts are
resolved fruitfully when the out results contented the opponent parties, to make the
relationships strong and to enable the opponents for futuristic planning to curtail the
visibility of conflicts.
Conflicts resolution points to all concern steps and stares that remove the
instigator of conflict and ensures lasting situation to all the involved. Burton (1986)
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stated that it is a profound change in conceiving that can’t be denied like the eternal facts
that is win-win ability and not win-lose one.
Conflicts resolution is the analytical study of the causes and changes of conflicts
for the effective comprehension and ensuring the process of paragon of peace. There are
heterogeneous bents towards the aims and practices of conflict resolution. In the present
era the approach or idea of modification and transition becomes the central point of
discussion with in conflict resolution to nip down the sign symptoms of conflicts
(Fischer & Ropers, 2003; Ramsbotham, Woodhouse, & Miall, 2005; Bloomfield,
Fischer, & Schmelzle, 2006).
Conflicts resolution concentrates in the worthy values which are there in the
views and thoughts of others. It cherishes every body with his due regards in strata. It
observes the democratic approach and weighs the intrusion of every body in dynamic
world. It honors the principal of equality and garlands the steps toward non-violence.
Conflict resolution is a dynamic process in which the core targets are to cope, to manage
and to on floor Herculean strategies which nourish the other three concepts. It asserts the
dictum that “No conflict, No conflict resolution”.
Conflict resolution has a progressive aim of the achievement of vital human
needs in due proportion. This strategy detains the solid solution of limited conflicts. The
remaining conflicts are punched for timely resolution which gives partial contentment. It
does not proclaim long lasting configuration (IPRA, 1994).
According to Miller (2005), C.R is the fight to focalize the views intentions and
needs of the dagger drawn parties into cherish existence. The short cut to enjoy these
goals is to sort out those potentials which ensure mutual satisfaction and effective results.
C.R practices at heuristic footing to shun tussle, pensiveness, and disorientation.
37
It encounters flashing setbacks when parties join hand for timely resolution. In
such a drastic condition, role of third party plays enchanting role to settle the conflicts.
Miller (2005) advocates that all categories of conflicts are not untie-able through the
pinches and bunches of conflict resolution methodologies.
2.2.1 Theories and Theorists in Conflicts Resolution
Wani (2011) stated that Mid-nineteen century witnessed the robust of the theorist
and theories dealing with conflicts. Here are some personalities who put their
philanthropic efforts towards the conflict resolution.
2.2.1.1 Lewis Coser
American sociologist named, Coser, maintains his own approach towards social
conflicts. He asserts that conflicts cause different beneficial prospects. He views that
conflict does not de-throng but maintain fellow feelings in the structure of society. He
asserts that conflicts are always functional for the relations where theses conflicts
generate. It is the major source of up building relationships. He stresses that conflict
researchers should focus their canons on the enrichments of conflicts in the functional
and dysfunctional aspects in the society.
2.2.1.2 Kurt Lewin (Field theory)
Kurt Lewin, composed thoroughly on the issue of conflict. His contribution is the
field study of the conflicts. This theory is based on the principal of cause and effect. The
main postulates of his theory are:
(a) Psychological scrutiny or explanation of the attitude or behaviour
b) Methodical or orderly causation instead of historical
(c) Thematic approach to whole situation
He asserts that the nature of a particular conflict is always attached with tension
wheel and ecology of groups. The failure in satisfaction is the foundation to all conflicts.
38
Dissatisfaction does not affect a specific area but paralyzes the whole structure. The
dissatisfaction of sexual and safety leads to conflict as these vitalize tension. He submits
tetra sided sketch of conflict.
a) Approach-Approach situations.
b) Avoidance-Avoidance, where both the forces are undesirable.
c) Approach-Avoidance; where a person copes with choices which are both positive and
negative. Lewin’s work is on solid bases and needs to be practiced in live situations.
2.2.1.3 John Burton
John Burton has presented extensive views on conflicts resolution. He asserts that
the study of the conflicts resolution is the tentative study of the human behaviour and
links. He voices against the study based on psychological or economic background. He
expresses the overall study regarding conflict resolution. Humans are needy by nature
and these needs establish their behaviour. The grasp of needs always falls in the domain
of social perspectives. The analysis of human behaviour is always chalked out in social
setup. The causes of conflict are always being kept at the nook of logical methods
because outdated methodologies are failed in solving conflict. The proper study of
human placement in social panorama is the key factor in locating the everlasting solution
to conflicts. Behaviour analysis always demands for analytical data and scientific
precision in submitting the results. He proclaims that avoidance of conflicts rest in
provision of fundamental human rights. This is evergreen for every kind of conflict
resolution.
2.2.1.3 Morton Deutsch
Morton Deutsch has produced far reaching contributions in the field of conflict
resolution. His focus is not how to erode or to eradicate conflicts but is how to make
conflicts fruitful. He forwarded his five assumptions:
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a) Every individual in social communication responds to other in perceptive of his
own.
b) Every persons dislikes the interaction with the other except in his own thinking
and social responses.
c) Social links not only instigates intentions but also precedes new choices and snips
out the old motives.
d) Social interaction is always the result of family, community and of national
civilization which flourishes new methodologies, canons and principals matching
with human relations.
e) Every person bears multisided approaches but all these conception flow in
unidirectional flow towards the aspects of environment.
Deutsch asserts that conflict resolution needs astounding skills to settle it. The
greatest the skill, the durable will be the resolution. He asserts that each conflict has
subjective roots which seek the measurement and analysis of conflict and to produce
easy outlet for its resolution.
2.2.1.4 George Simmel
George Simmel’s work is worthy to mention here as he clearly postulated a social
edge of conflicts. He asserts that conflict breeds socialization and extinguishes tension
between individuals or the group persons. He discharges that human are composed of
sympathy and violence. He is of the opinion that conflict may be solved through these
three ways (a) conflict may end success of one party over other party (b) through give
and take policy and (c) through reconciliation.
2.2.1.5 Game theory
Game theory is the organized study of the resolution of problems in cases
involving at least two parties which are interdependent in the pursuit of some of the
40
results. It is used primarily by economists to study the behavior of solving human
problems. It is a mathematical study strictly developed by nature from a reasonable way
to look at the conflict. This theory developed and forwarded by mathematicians and
economists such as John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern (Wani, 2011).
2.2.2 Approaches to Conflicts Resolution
Blake, Shepard & Mouton, as mentioned in Fisher (2000), have devised some
factual procedures regarding conflict resolution. These polar processes are named as
win-lose, lose-lose, and win-win wheels of conflict resolution.
2.2.2.1 Win-lose approach
It is the most common procedure in solving C.R. Individual comprehends the
behaviour of catastrophic feelings in early age. The spirit of competition, overpowering,
and aggression perturbs social relationships from the family to school play ground.
There is misconception in accordance with gain and lose. This policy stresses on the
other side to surrender. This is always chalked out in socially acceptable way. And other
times there is utilization of productive and secret procedures, threats, and other such
things. It conceives all policies that are the process which verifies the result. There is
strong bonded gestures and gusto in planning. It is based on the principle that there is
always one victorious and one loser. It is the road that leads to the next round. That is the
foundation of defeat-defeat process, where every one is the loser.
2.2.2.2 Lose-lose approach
This process states the easiness over conflict or deciding at the simplest
arrangement. But these sort of approaches are always non productive. Where there is
always disagreement in process. If this is the case then why not absorb all the pining of
conflicts in un-harmful manner. The core belief in the win- lose episode is smashing as
41
in comparison to lose-lose strategies for the loser. This method benefited each party with
gain and readers meager quantity. Both sides are ignorant of the fact that bold
encountering of the conflict benefits both. It is acknowledges both the parities that tackle
the conflict result-fully.
2.2.2.3 Win-win approach
This is gain-gain procedure; it is an organized and the most productive towards
the maximum achievement of goals. Conflict is analyzed as a crisis or dilemma which is
submitted for scanning and treated as war that must be won. This methodical process
evokes the need of curb in approaching towards the conflict with wining attitude. Here
both the parties win. The comprehensive elaboration and scantiness along logical choices
leads to win. All the involved parties join hands and hearts to achieve the equal goal, the
objectives obtained by the parties. Focus here is on the lasting and equal relationships
between the parties. It works through open hand communication. Pressurizing and
scolding are prohibited in this process. It is assumed that correlative relationships in its
full range are productive. Mantel makeup and behaviour are always concentrated
towards trust building and avoiding doubts and anger. The planning of win-win demands
unshaken skill and temperance in locating the solution to conflicts (Fisher, 2000).
2.2.3 Dual Concern Model: A Conceptual Model Goldfien & Robbennolt, (2007) presented a perceptual model for conflicts
resolution. The major postulates of the model are pen pointed as under:
a) Assertiveness: A concern for self, a thinking for self or subjective thinking and
b) Empathy: A concern for others, an objective thinking or thinking for others.
The model concentrates on the thinking and concentration for both the parties on
equal magnitude but utilizing different modes. The joining point between both the
parties flows towards the settlement of the conflict. This model prescribes five major
42
canons of which the participants go for any one keeping the subjective and social ends in
the focus.
2.2.3.1 Avoidance conflict style
Defense mechanism plays a vital role to entertain the conflict. It shows the
capacity of an individual to ignore and push back the ideas that there exists any conflict.
It is the strategy which asks for lack of interest in conflict with other party just to
suppress the odorous feelings of conflict in cultural vista. This principle is out-burstly
applied in china where a Chinese person maintains his smiling temper. Throughout in the
conflict period the avoiders remain staying and wait for the automatic solution with out
taking part in any type of participation. Spectator’s view regarding conflict settled down
the bunchy shocks of it (Bayazit & Mannix, 2003). Regrettably, neglecting conflict
aggravates it more instead of solving it. Conflict resolution is the pace to conflict and not
to push it into dark realm of unconsciousness.
2.2.3.2 Yielding conflict style
This is accommodating conflict pattern. In accommodating conflict phenomena,
the priority is shifted towards others and micro consideration is channelised for personal
motifs. It is a philanthropic conception in which an individual focuses on maintaining
social, durable and time tested relationships for others. In this objective pattern of
conflict resolution, the worth is given to un-cracked relationship for others.
2.2.3.3 Competitive conflict style
Morrill (1995) stages, that fighting conflict practice enhances personal focus
towards himself and reduces feelings regarding others. It is a subject type of conflict
resolution. There are groups contesting in conflict and measure the result with the rod of
win or lose. This process involves the suppression of the opponents through the
43
utilization of crook fighting tips. These tips include insult, accusation and even wildness
to de-throne the opposing parties.
2.2.3.4 Cooperative conflict style
This is collaborative pattern of conflict resolution. In this pragmatic vocation,
every individual feels the results of personal ends equal to the ends of others. It hatches
such a plan which en-ground conflict resolution on equal footing. Individuals in this
process are equally subjective as well as objective in assertion regarding the equal share.
The bases of this concept lie in the deduction that both the parties involved in conflict are
equally the achievers and none is the loser (Sternberg & Dobson, 1987; Jarboe &
Witteman, 1996).
2.2.3.5 Conciliation conflict style
A compromising conflict methodology, patching up the conflict is the personal
style of the individuals who maintains neutral attention to personal and impersonal
results. It lays focus on fair dealing and give and take relationships. Van de Vliert &
Euwema, (1994) stresses, the party consents to the demands tabled by the parties and
evocates to encounter the conflict in the midway to shun its expansion. This method is
the extension of yielding and cooperative methods. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Conflict_resolution, retrieved on 4th Jan, 2014)
Ogungbamila, (2006) have elaborated the following five conflict resolution plans.
a) Confronting/collaborating e.g. challenge, threaten, brazen out compulsion and
supporting, work together, act as a team.
b) Withdrawing/ avoiding e.g. Moving back, retreating, receding, abandonment and
keep away from, shun, evade, escape, over-sighting.
c) Forcing /competing e.g. pressing, contending, challenging and combating.
44
d) Smoothing e.g. easiness, to make soften,
e) Compromising e.g. patching, conciliation, bargain, and give and take policy.
Ogungbamila, (2006) asserts that conflict resolution is always attached with the
planning and procedure adopted by conflicting parties.
2.2.4 Conflicts Resolution Skills and Techniques
Johnson & Johnson (2005), assert that C.R skills are the basic pillars of peace
education because it brings to surface the acceptance of conflict organization.
According to Davies (2005), it furnishes the young learners to devise expertness
and methodologies to encounter these issues in their life. It encompasses several
techniques such as protection against conflicts, dealing, mutual give and take policy,
arbitration, intervention, anger control and seeking fair justice. These devices are used in
pre-conflict humanitarian education. Davidson & Wood (2004) developed a model
regarding conflict resolution in Australia. This model is based on four major parts;
a) Establishing forecasting for win-win resolution by establishing the concepts
that helping hands is the best tonic for conflict resolution.
b) Demarcation of every party’s motives.
c) Mind map for creative choices.
d) Merging the choices into win-win resolution. Conflict resolution skills are basically the tactics to solve it through the
application of discussion, thinking and joint efforts in perspective of conflicting
situation. It has the potential to settle the conflict in smooth style. There are the technical
devices helpful in ravishing the conflict. It lays the following assumptions; Bodine &
Crawford, 1998; Deutsch, 1993; Jones, 2004; Raider, Coleman, & Gerson, 2000).
a) Acknowledge the fact and figures that where there is life, there will be conflicts.
45
b) To be the master of detecting the conflicts and chalking out durable frame work
for its solution.
c) To pay weight-age to the other party and launch a programme in this dimensions.
d) Paying due concentration to demands and desires.
e) To channelize the vocation of emotion in non-violent and non- fiery way.
f) Accepting a conflict as a mutual problem and to smash it with joint truces and
dialogues by involving the third party.
g) Challenging a mind map is vivification for progressive solution. (Bar-Tal &
Rosen, 2009).
Maringer & Steinweg (1997), accept that these socio psychological techniques.
Self education, fellow feeling and sound judgments ensure solid ground for conflict
resolution. Hanged and blocked conflicts require the re-polishing the social concepts
towards conflicts. These practices are to be utilized in true sense.
Blake and Hamrin (2007) stated that cognitive- behavioral techniques are the best
antidote against anger and wildness in young age. Courses or programmes based on
social –cognitive strategies focus on perception, techniques that solve the problems and
issues. It brings revolutionary changes in problem solving social and moral spheres
(Boxer et al, 2005) and is shaped according to the mental levels of youths destined for
the program.
The Conflict Resolution Center of Iowa
Facilitate the people regarding their productive approaches towards
communication and procedures to upgrade their qualitative and quantitative skills in
conflict resolution. The core aims CRIC are curtail the cost of resolution program in
economic and social strata. CRIC nourishes conflict resolution through provision of
futuristic training and education. CRIC provides the following facilitations;
46
a. Training in convincing, intervention and solving skills.
b. Provision of problem solving sessions and knotty communication.
c. Facilitating the parties to utilize aims achieving techniques for resolution of
conflicts.
d. Interventions and supporting services.
e. Support in launching for improvement.
f. Scrutiny of conflicts and truth finding
g. Enrichment in the structure and utilization of systems and process and
h. Bio data provision related with conflict resolution (CRCI, 2006; 2008).
Conflicts are the by products of one’s perceptions. It always demands for
procedural analysis and involvement. It is a joint venture for the resolution of conflicts.
CR is a collaborative approach. The participants are mastered in pen pointing. Their
demands and comprehend how to solve it. When there is bumpy situation than the role of
mediator is very effective to untie the stuck process. This intervention will be time
serving and the stunning solution is always in the domain of the two parties (Abu-Nimer,
2003).
2.2.5 Conflicts Resolution Processes
Conflicts resolution is the orientation approach of each person to strangle the
conflicts with specified manner which is more deductive. All manners are the out come
of different behaviors. This process demands two major approaches. The objective and
the relationships of both the parties, it testifies which objective is crucial for the
individual, goal, relationships both are none of the other. All confirm the familiar style
(Scott, 2005).
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a. Avoidance: The inexpressive state of one’s position is avoidance. In such
circumstances a person over sight conflict and follows the dictum “I lose- you
lose”.
b. Accommodation: The state in which relation highlighted, but the goal is at the
bottom. In this flux, the person vote for compromise. This paradigm is known as
“I lose- you win”.
c. Competition: Conflicts resolution is always result oriented. The believer of this
procedure assumes that one is wrong and the other is right. It is the spontaneous
principle of one win and other loses.
d. Solution: Finalization, it is the crucial factor that enhances the monitoring of
relationships of both the parties. They always struggle for which ensure the
encouraging results of the solution for both the parties. It is neutral in nature
which asserts the success of both the groups (UNDPKO, 2008).
2.3 PEACE BUILDING
2.3.1 Peace
IPRA (2004), in association with United Nation Education Scientific and Culture
Organization, reports that peace is the attitude and state of mind. A situation in which a
person feels comfortable both in the relations that they have with others or in the
opportunities that they have to transform those relations. Either they acknowledge the
existence of relationships or common interests as an essential element of their definition
of self-regard, or they may recognize their different interests, but make a decision to live
with this fact and deal with it. Peace is also a way of conduct which manifests the
common position of enlightened self-interest. It is based on the peaceful conduct of
politeness which assumes common esteem amongst the individuals and receipt of
involvement by all of them (IPRA, 1994).
48
Reynaldo (2011), in his dissertation submitted to Northern Illinois University
Dekalb, Illinois, under the title of writes that: Peace is not simply the nonexistence of
combat or fighting. Galtung (1996) demarcated peace to the negative peace and positive
peace. According to Galtung (1996) and Goldstein (2009) negative peace is there is no
hot war in which physique is involved. On the other hand peace that settle down the root
causes of warfare is called positive peace. Peace is not only a truce, but also the
improvement of relationships (Goldstein and Pevehouse, 2009). It include the eradication
and to cutback of economic and political abuses and oppression (Reynaldo, 2011).
Schilling (2012) in “Peace-building & Conflict Transformation: A resource
book” stated that in general term peace is protection from fright, apprehension and covet
and the absence of sadism. Peace has three stages to develop. The first stage is a lasting
peace which called positive peace. There is strong feeling coordination and consideration
among the parties on the basis of collective aims and ambition. The second phase is
unwavering peace which is the highest in the level of stress than the precedent and
manifest in restricted cooperation and confidence irrespective of the countrywide
stability. The last phase is unstable peace that is result of the differences that yet to be
resolved, leading to the escalation of tensions. The stress and skepticism got high alert
and the prospective of the crisis is on peak point.
Sometimes it is characterized at intra-state level by infrequent acts of aggression
and government suppression of the opponent. If such state of affairs carries on in this
direction, the peace may be transmitted to emergency, characterized by the direct clash
among the conflicting parties. You may move such a conflict from the level of the crisis
and to open full-scale war. (Schilling, 2012)
Peace is not the finishing point of aggression it is a lasting strategy that need to
be thought of. Often it is said that peace with the approaching end of the war. But peace
49
is something else: it does not result in social justice. Mostly it is said that when you
block up using the weapons, peace prevails. So for as education is concerned peace as a
lasting strategy, and its promotion my take more than a decade. It has block off the
prejudices in society. Education is needed so to comprehend the nature and structure of
the society and the nature social synchronization. (Dupuy, 2008)
2.3.2 Peace Phenomenon
Peace is defined in different ways by different writers. However to understand the
phenomena of peace the following source of peace is to be studied. In nature, there have
three different types of peace and tranquility i.e. intrinsic peace, peace in society, and
correspondence with nature i.e. not to fight against the natural forces. These types can be
looked into the following lines.
2.3.2.1 Inner or intrinsic peace
Intrinsic satisfaction and fulfillment of needs leads towards the inner or intrinsic
peace in a person. A state of inner peace is prevail when an individual feels tranquility,
unworried and unruffled. Those remain powerful who are not power thirsty, torturing
and lustful, and which is in grip of obsession, fright or irritation. Social harmony and
peace with in oneself, healthiness and the nonexistence of inner clash, feeling of free
will, and peace that satisfy one’s soul, feelings of sympathy, benevolence and
satisfaction are the signs of inner peace.
2.3.2.2 Social peace
Social peace is art of living together in harmony. According to the UNESCO,
humans are gregarious and can not live alone or in seclusion. The society is being
provided balance by different element i.e. respectfulness to each other, being moral and
religious teaching. The world society which is now like a global village consists of
50
different culture, religious as well as languages. To live in harmony and spend successful
life one must know the art of living, how to live in such diversified society. Only
acceptance or tolerated attitude to the multiplicity will not work. Esteem and admiration
for these diversified forces should be the prerequisites. Concurrence in relations,
compromise and understandings of conflicts, feelings of affection, amity and common
consideration, assistance and the sense fraternity, acceptance and democratic attitude and
other such considerations are the basics of social peace.
2.3.2.3 Peace with nature
Peace with nature means to stop the violation of the dignity of the universe
through the environmental embarrassment or humiliation and ecological dilapidation and
exploitation. There should be no disturbance in nature; earth is the cradle of civilization,
therefore it should be preserved to the utmost (UNESCO, 2005).
2.3.3 Negative and Positive Peace
The term peace can be broken down into two elements, negative and positive.
Negative peace
Negative peace result into the absence of direct war and fight, but sometime
structural and cultural hostility is there. Structural aggression result into restricted life,
civil liberties, free will of citizen and self actualization. It happened when there is abuse
of power and resources, and fairness, impartiality and righteousness buried. It results in
human sufferings in various forms (Harris & Morrison, 2003).
According to Schilling (2012), this is the notion where the conflicting issues are
addressed. There is no stress given to the causes or sources of the conflict. It only deals
with an issue that led to aggression. Negative peace is the absence of warfare, fright,
aggression it different level e.g. personal, local, national and global. It aims
51
organizational amelioration to ward off combat and hot wars by people in person or
collectively. Negative thinking is shifted to positive attitudes and thinking. Antagonistic
feeling among the opponents might be changed into positive behaviour which can build
trust among the parties.
Positive peace
Positive peace is a durable peace, it promote fair dealing, impartiality and social
justice in society. Elias & Turpin (1994) explained the social inequality and
discrimination lead to violence because these appear in economic dispossession, civics
problems and ethnic issues. This leads towards direct wars and viciousness (Dupuy,
2008).
Schilling (2012) explained that positive peace refers to a kind of peace, which
prevails in different levels like behavioral, mind-set and structures. It is composed of
constructive contents which promote positive peace. It aims is to devolve smooth and
strong relationships between individuals and a society which serves and promotes the
legitimate needs of all individuals and groups. Positive peace engulfs all aspects of a
first-class society that a man can think of. All core values are include and uplifted. It
promotes the standard life.
A culture of peace the composite of various factors e.g. customs, belief,
civilization, language, faith and other religious and political convictions. Non-aggressive
attitude, values and high esteem for the every person are the characteristics of peace
culture (Masciulli, 2004; Ministry of Edu Sri Lanka, 2008 & Schilling, 2012).
2.3.4 Peace-building
Peace-building is a lasting and cumbersome task which enrages all activities
aimed at building and strengthening peace and to triumph over aggression and ferocity.
The main purpose of the peace building is stop the eruption of aggressive activities and
52
also to turn vehemence conflicts into peaceful coexistence sustainable way. Paffenholz
(2005) said that peace-building is a term used to cover a numbers of activities that aim to
put off, reduce, mitigate or settle the disputes. Usually the aim of peace-building to
tackle the root causes of conflict and to promote such a social, cultural and institutional
configuration which promote sustainable peace (Goodhand and Hulme, 1997).
Peace-building is a viable method to solve the conflict (Paris, 2004). We use the
methods such as dialogues and discussion, talks, negotiations to build peace. In peace
building process facilitation, mediation, and other strategies are use to calm down the
aggressive and antagonistic feelings in such a way to solve problem (Reynaldo, 2011).
Peace-building is a drawn out and intricate procedure that needed the
environment of open-mindedness and where reality and truth observed. It includes a
wide range of programs of political, developmental and humanitarian aspects and such
other agendas and procedures. Reintegration displaced people, removal of remnants of
war, and emergency assistance in disaster, and rehabilitation in infrastructure, economics
and social sectors are the instances of such program (Schilling, 2012).
2.3.5 Basic Principles
The essential or basic principles to peace-building across different contexts;
Tschirgi (2011), mentioned the following principles in this connection.
a) Specificity of peace-building
Each and every context is distinct and the phases of conflict are non-linear. The
approaches or strategies should be context base and should address the sources or causes
of conflicts.
b) Holistic approach
Peace-building is not a single entity. It includes numerous factors and
dimensions. These include safety, protection, social and economic growth, political
53
constancy, and the observance of law, preservation of human rights, and other
philanthropic support.
c) National ownership
Basically peace-building is the responsibility of national actors they should be the
artist peace-building.
d) Role of external actors
External actors can also be a factor that plays a role in the peace building. This is
because of the bequest of conflict and weak national aptitude and capability.
e) Coordination and shared accountability
For peace building it is necessary for the international and national actors to work
cogently and keep articulated attitude and exchange mutual responsibility.
f) Monitoring, evaluation and continual learning
Supervision, appraisal and constant learning are futures of this programme. Peace
building is a relative new discipline that needs cooperative and comparative learning
form achievement and failure as well. It also involves frequent experiment and novelty
(Tschirgi, 2011).
2.3.6 Concepts and Distinctions with Peace-building
There are different terms and concepts we used for peace building and conflict
resolution, they are the following.
2.3.6.1 Peace making
Peace making is to take initiatives to bring two opposing parties to table for
making a peace agreement. The UN can take initiative through its offices to make the
resolution of such conflicts. Peacemaker can be envoy, state, some groups, organization
or the UN. These initiatives can be also taken by private NGOs or prominently
54
personalities (UNDPKO, 2008). Peace making usually refers the resolution of issues
through diplomacy, mediation and negotiation that settled the issues and to end the
dispute. McCandless et al, (2007) followed the definition, said that to bring a violent
parties to an agreement through political, diplomatic and some time through military
interventions or other such measures. (McCandless et al (2007). According to Gawerc
(2006), peacemaking is a negotiation process in which two or more parties are involved
place between decisions directing towards and official settlement or resolution to a
conflict.
2.3.6.2 Peace keeping
Peace keeping is a dynamic process organized by the UN to bring about and
everlasting peace in conflict stricken countries. This process of peacekeeping is not a
unilateral, it is multidimensional and not limit to the military operations only. This
process includes ample agreements and pacts that implement the peacekeeping activities
through peace-building for longer time (UN, 2010). Peacemaking is a technique intended
for peace preservation through a weak one, but can implement agreements made by
peacemakers for peace. Peace keeping is primarily observed through ceasefire and then
a complex inter-state model of military, police and civilian is made after internal wars,
which put a foundation stone for long-lasting peace (UNDPKO, 2008). It is a third party
intervention to ward off direct violence among the opponents (Gawerc, 2006).
2.3.6.3 Peace enforcement
Peace enforcement is compulsory measures taken by authorities are taken in
extreme of the Security Council to implement peace; sometimes military force is also
used. Such as initiative are taken in extreme condition like aggression, threat to peace
55
or breach of the peace. The Security Council uses regional organization and agencies for
this purpose to maintain and enforce peace in region (UNDPKO, 2008).
2.3.6.4 Conflicts management
Bringing positive changes in behaviors of the disputant’s parties to decrease the
violence between the various groups in coming times (Fisher et al. 2000; McCandless et
al, 2007). Peace making transgresses the aims and methods of conflict management
which goes beyond the behaviors.
2.3.6.5 Conflicts prevention
Conflict prevention is warding off violence in such way to eradicate injustices
which cause conflict. Peace-building is more maximalist in the preventions of conflict
while minimalist approach is most used in this regard (Fisher et al. 2000; McCandless et
al. 2007). Conflict prevention is a process in which initiatives are taken diplomatically to
ward off inter-state of intra-state conflicts. It should be based on pre-monitions, pre-
information and cautious analysis of factors leading toward conflicts. Diplomatic
initiative should be taken for prevention and confidence building (UNDPKO, 2008).
2.3.6.6 Conflicts transformation
Positive social changes that build right and appropriate relations and social setup
with the help of revolutionary step to motivate human rights and non-violence in life
(Lederach, 1995). It concentrates upon the relation and interaction of two opposing
parties engaged in conflict. Also focus on wider, social, economics and political
conflicts; negative forces are transformed into positive aspects of society (Fisher et al.
2000; McCandless et al. 2007 )This way of making peace is more resembled to peace
making. Dispute or Conflict resolution and conflict studies appear from conflict concept,
while peace studies give birth to peace-building (McCandless et al. 2007).
56
2.3.6.7 Conflicts resolution
Conflict resolution intended to spot out the reason of disputes and search out
fresh and everlasting bonds among the opponents (McCandless et al, 2007; Fisher et al.
2000). Practically priority is given to the relationships as compare to causes of conflict.
That is why, peace building encompasses more activities, and not only limited to
relationships.
2.3.6.8 Peace-building
Peace-building is a process to reduce the tension of any risk which may leads to
conflict. It enforces the national capacities to manage all levels of conflict easily and
peacefully. It is a long-term process which addresses the deep-rooted causes of violent in
a good way. These initiatives for peace target core issues which can affect the society
function and state. It seeks to build state capacities to provide good governance
(UNDPKO, 2008). It is a wide range activity which received little disclosure; it
concentrates on economic, social and psychological environments at the starting levels. It
provides positive approaches to the people, which include justice, equality and
cooperation. Through this the causes of conflict are underlined and reduced in future.
It’s a dynamic process always contributing to move towards peace and stability in the
society (Gawerc, 2006).
2.3.7 Dimensions of Peace-building
Peace-building measures include every level of the social setup and all part of the
state structure. It requires a broad range of representative for its execution and
realization. Peace-building may be assisted by exterior actors but should be drive by
internal forces and actors. The aim of peace-building is to generate a favorable
atmosphere or situation for the self-sufficient and lasting peace, and to avert the conflict
57
to rise again. So, the parties must solve their twisted aggression and annihilation with
peace. To create such a situation has the following three central dimensions. Each of
these dimensions depends on different strategies.
2.3.7.1 Structural dimension
There are many factors involve structural dimension. The focal factors of this
dimension are related to the societal, economic, political and cultural conditions that
promote vehement conflicts. The origins of the conflicts are generally complicated and
can include the unjust distribution of land and environmental dilapidation and other
political abuses. For durable peace, problem related to economy, civic, political and
cultural should be settled down because this quenches the thirst of masses. So there must
be analytical approach to the structural sources which cause conflict development and
there must be structural change in social setting.
2.3.7.2 Relational dimension
The central point of relational dimension is to curtail the opposing result and out
comes of the dispute by establishing positive, smooth interaction and relationships. It
stress on compromises, clemency and forgiveness, and to build confidence in future
relations. An effectual interaction or communication is need for this. Dialogue is also a
valuable tool in peace building process, through dialogues the individual or parties
develop their perceptions about one-self and of other which result in understanding of
each others and make increase the level of awareness. This may be helpful in developing
in durable peace. Dialogue must be futuristic, it should vision for future trends and all
parties should agree upon it. Reconciliation means to recognize both common futures,
the past irregularities. What happened should be dealt with and perhaps be forgiven if
the parties are to renew their relationship and build a coherent future.
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2.3.7.3 Personal dimension
Personal dimension required changes at the personal level. It is the individual that
is responsible, if individuals are not able to undergo the restorative process, it may
influence on civic life, political and economic spheres. The social structure which has
been destroyed should be reconstructed again. Peace building should be given
psychological and emotional consideration of the conflict. Susceptibility, danger,
defenseless and helplessness are the feeling of the person after the aggression. If you
ignore the psychological consideration it will be risky for futuristic events. Enable
victims can help to break this cycle. Should, therefore, peace-building efforts and plans
provide or support suitable for various levels and areas in the community programs
(Schilling, 2012).
2.4 EDUCATION, CONFLICTS RESULATION AND PEACE BUILDING
Education is seen as a fundamental to the process of peace-building. The
education sector, with all its capabilities to provide knowledge and training, has an
important role in the reconstruction process. Education is conceivably the most vital
instrument for up lifting humanity and poverty purge. It is the means to develop the
philosophy of life, ideologies, knowledge and provide skillfulness for every walk and
spheres of the life.
Education is the guard that protects the human from disaster and calamity occurs
in their lives. The spirit of peace education is education that can generate a safety for
human existence. Education for peace is inducting peace in the man’s thinking capacity
can solve the conflicts found in human minds which are really hatred (UNESCO, 2005).
Education is an important tool of civic growth and can help in those changing and
happenings which take peace after the solution of conflict by changing the aggressive
59
feelings and the police and the judicial system. An improved awareness of the political
system, how it works and its consequence for regional population; it promotes skill that
assist economic rejuvenation and prosperous life. It assists in changing interaction
among the groups or dealing with the remnants of conflict (UNCF, 2011).
Process designed to enhance the knowledge; techniques and approach needed to
bring adjustment in behavior that permit the inhabitants of the community to put off
conflict and aggressions. And solve the conflict calmly and to provide a favorable
environment for peace development at various levels, both within the same person and,
personal, and groups, national or international level (Fountain, 1999).
According to PBEA (2012) Consolidated Report; the report presented to the
Secretary General by the General Assembly security counsel regarding peace making
after the dispute (2009) stated that the role of education in peace is of great worth.
Education creates the sense of confidence toward the onslaught of conflicts. It can reduce
the disparity or injustice among the local communities affected by the conflict, and that it
can promote attitudes, enhance beliefs and create valuesthat promote peace.
Simultaneously it contributes to great extent to dispute. If it is implement with no
partiality in the resolution of dispute. So education role in lasting peace has been
tremendously recognized (General Assembly Security Council, 2009).
Education for Peace arranges dialogue on life-threatening issues in society, in
order to change repressive setup of the trend towards a peaceful way of life. Only
education can minimize the level of aggression both for teachers and students .i.e.
student s and teachers can go for open discussion on this issue and the peace can be
establish in the society. Education also makes them involved in the identification of the
conflict and its resolution (Boulding, 1988; Hicks, 1994).
60
Describes Salomon (2002), peace education for contains trainings in various
spheres like Anti-ethnic, conflict transformation, and in different cultural setups, cultural
diversity, and also imparting peaceful point of view in general. Lantieri and Patti (1996),
writes that the goals of this education is to increase capabilities and abilities for social
and emotional development for children by teaching such life competence as part of their
formal education.
2.4.1 Academies/ Education and Conflicts Resolution
Education and learning that promotes social equity, empathy, commiseration and
human rights and responsibilities. It promotes harmony among the cultures,
environmental, personal care and peace, and to ward off the war and aggression
(University of Peace, 2011; Reynaldo, 2011).
According to Garrard and Lipsey (2007), distinctive programs of resolving
disputes than the others to combat bullying, education, and training for social skills, or
belligerency aversion plans offered in three different forms: direct teaching skills,
friend’s arbitration and implanted curricula. This includes direct teaching skills activities
that provide students with clear information on resolving the conflict and plentiful
chances to repeat skills. Peer mediation e.g. friend’s arbitration encompasses training in
the field of conflict resolution for a subset of students who use a specific process to help
other students in conflict resolution. Curriculum is an integral part of learning the
concepts and strategies to resolve the disagreements through conventional classroom
debate of literature, history, and such other things.
2.4.2 What and Why to Teach Peace Education
The key notion in conflict resolution education is to enhance the intellectual
capacity to comprehend the conflict and help people to develop non aggressive attitude
61
to conflict resolution (Raider, 1995). According to the Deutsch (2005), the main idea of
education in conflict resolution is to inculcate behaviour, understandings, ability and
competence that lead to operative, collaborative problem solving and dissuade the usual
attitudes and responses that lead to win- lose result, in which on win and other lose.
Change the views of the students look at different types of conflicts of win and
lose shared issues that can be solved just cooperatively is an essential element of the
culture of peace. It is supposed that this point of view about the resolution of the conflict
will be changed to a knotty conflict which involving the community (Van Slyck, Stern,
and Elbedour, 1999). Students will be in line with the need to settle the dispute gently
through negotiation process (Bar Tal & Rosen, 2009).
Kester (2010) is of the opinion that education for peace compost of cultivation
skills of peace-building such as mediation and technical accomplishments and discussion
and dialogue. Peace educators teach different values and beliefs that is reverence,
kindness, appreciation and peacefulness and promote skills to analyze international
conflict, knowledge for protection of the systems the use of teaching methods that are
egalitarian and cooperative. Objective of the peace education is harmonizing elements
between education and society. In peace education why to teach is social principles and
the subject matters and how to teach, the methods of educational process is favorable and
contributing to the promotion of peace. Education for peace is dialogue which is made
from experience-based learning through participation, where learners collectively and
cooperatively fighting current problems related to the indigenous and international levels
(Kester, 2010).
In 2002, through mutual discussion global peace educators, Reardon was also
include, the United Nations University for Peace began to develop a modal and plan to
offer sixteen year education syllabus for peace. Document reaching to the high point of
62
mutual discussion and consultation Jenkins designed the sixteen year education program
on distinct rules. Education for Peace is:
1. Overall in significance
2. As whole totalitarian institution
3. Based on values
4. Research oriented and investigative,
5. Theoretically planned
6. Learner-centered teaching methods
7. Aims to build up and cultivate peace-making skills, and
8. Learning that accepted globally and in line with intentional norm etc.
2.4.3 Objectives of the Peace Education Programme
The objectives of the education should be to build a constructive and Productive
society. For the creation of conflict free society it requires the development and
advocacy for social and civic equity. A constructive conflict community needed mutual
or common responsibility conscientiousness for civic evils and social attainment. In such
type of society, it looks that devastating conflict as something that society needs to be
addressed. This is one of the fundamental hypotheses highlighting the concept of
curative justice methodology of C.R education (Ierley and Wilson, 2003).
The curriculum in this connection is the following objectives:
a) Educating or to make aware the society about the sources or cause of conflicts of
the community etc.
b) The development of sense of awareness, feeling and understanding of the
problems of the learners that are helpful and increase the analytical power to
understand war and peace, power and righteousness and to understand gender
and other ethnic issues.
63
c) Development and inculcation of competences and techniques of critical approach,
problem solving, compassion, and self-assertion, participation and teamwork and
collaboration.
d) To promote the attitudes of learner about self-worth, self-confidence and self-
esteem and also develop the behaviour which characterize by respect for others,
openness and farsightedness and to prevail or promote atmosphere conducive for
justice, etc.
e) Promoting attitudes, tactic, abilities that assist the learner in pro-peace situation.
f) Planning of methodologies that are effective in dealing with the aggressive
behaviour and bring peace inside and outside the Organization (UNESCO, 2005).
Social and Emotional Growth of the Students
It is the core objectives in CRE is to help students to nourish in such way to
become best people to be more socially and emotionally skillful. To enable them to live
happier life and play a positive role in civic life (Kessler, 2003). If this is achieved, the
logic is that other CRE goals will also be realized (Lantieri, 2001).
a) Improved perception taking.
b) Enhance problem-solving skills
c) Developed emotional intelligence.
d) Trimmed down violent behaviour and antagonistic feelings.
e) Promotion of productive conflict attitudes in educational institutions and in home
and societal perspective.
2.4.4 How to Teach
Teaching methods contribute a lot and any form of learning. The hub of
Pedagogy for Peace education is shedding light on the cause and effect relations, and to
promote sympathetic attitude and to the development or provide skills that cope
64
aggression at local and international level. Teacher and educators must be aware of
different forms of aggression from both the side indirectly or may be directly aggression,
hostility and conflicts. Education may control all these belligerent concerns. The
teaching or methodologies of education for Peace program stresses on different types of
values e.g. acceptance, patience, admiration and parity, empathy and kindness. It has also
to developed different capacities such as cultural competence, sensitivity in feelings and
to enhance tactics and strategies for non-aggressive attitude, listening full of spirit and
development of proficiency in different languages. It also deals with the promoting of
knowledge about the various cultures, about the past events and the different peace
movement of the past. The methodology or pedagogy for peace education is composed
of collaborative learning techniques, views between the sexes, innovative and creative
thinking, dramas, development of sympathetic attitudes etc (Kester, 2010).
Communities established for the sole purpose of peace education to promote
peace-building process through regarding different prevailing important problems and
their off shoots i.e. issues, and the exchange of best educational and teaching practices,
providing creative and innovative ideas of individuals and education to react to the life-
threatening problem and other such concern in hand. Program deems aggression with
the help of the lens of learning and education, we can tame the situation but with the
contest of political circles. This parallel and discussion process of societal learning,
mutual responsibility among the learning community promotes a learning community. It
represents both, a culture of peace and contribution in democratic life. Through inter
communal participation in education, the member of the different communities learn
from each other, about the possible solution about the political action to address the civic
problems under consideration sequentially to change violent associations (Jenkins,
2008).
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2.4.4.1 Teaching methods of peace education
The levels of peace education and its layer can be proposed and defined. But
some systematic methods are also there for education of peace, which include a scheme
of curriculum, organizational structure, various processes and personnel. The curriculum
approach very suitable level in tertiary and secondary education, the socialist agenda
rather than nationalist agenda must be followed which creates and breeds the
cosmopolitanism. The syllabus and curriculum have formulated likely.
Curriculum has to recognize the deficit and isolate the masses. History and civics
are both to be thoughts with clear vision. Even though it may also imperative other
disciplines. Structure and a proper procedure are vital for educational institutions. In fact
without proper procedure and shape, discussion about the peace-building, if negative
then curriculum design in this way is devastating, it might generate skepticism and
detachment and it create the sense of separation and loneliness among the individuals.
Justice and peace are inter-dependent. So the need is of the positive education. Education
program with lot of rhetoric of peace, education and if there is an educational program
which does not have justice in its structure and function, it is obvious that students will
be pessimistic about the education for Peace program. The concluding stage is the
personal leaderships, which is the most testing one. Mostly learning held by illustration
and role replica. Peace is learned when one sees peaceful people. Peace can be thought in
dictating mood, and then its utility is under question mark, empowering other means of
peace education. In this connection the role of he teacher is very laborious, so there are
some basic steps which should be taken for empowering the teachers. On the whole the
methods applied to peace education, and certainly peace education is relatively new
field, it requires further research in future both theoretically and practically (Page, 2010).
66
The objective of peace education is clear and obvious. Aim of the peace
education is to face, awareness of, and resistance to aggression and hostility attitude. It is
not struggle for dogmatization or programme of indoctrination (Mayor, 2005).
2.4.5 Curriculum
To achieve utmost realization schools are needed to evaluate their programmes if
needs improvement than reform should be brought about to enhance its performance.
Systematic and improved reforms and changes needed coordination and collaboration to
be the some expectation regarding norms and principles which can be applied in both the
field of academies and the human behaviour and this is not only for the young but also
for the grown-up and adults (Haberman & Schreiber, 1995).
Columbia International University Center for Cooperation and Conflict
Resolution (ICCCR) conducts research and training in the field of conflict resolution
(Coleman and Fisher Yoshida, 2004). Training school mediators carry out this
programme. It inserts concepts and skills of conflict resolution in the curriculum. The
teaching method used is the cooperative and collaborative learning and productive and
positive argumentations is also used as a pedagogical technique. It tries to change the
culture of competition into collaborative environment and the involvement of the wider
community in the program.
Peace education is a holistic in approach. It includes all the area of development
e.g. physical, emotional, intellectual and social growth and development in children. This
is tally the outline and frame of conventional human values. It teaches devotion,
tenderness and sympathy, faith, fairness, assistance and respect for the human, all forms
of life on earth.
According to Jones (2004), Conflicts resolution education introduce programs for
the learners that promote understanding of the disposition of dispute or conflict, the
67
dynamics of force and pressure that carry out in conflict. It is also seen that how the
culture plays and react.
2.4.5.1 Categories of teaching programmes and their characteristics
Bodine and Crawford (1998) give a glimpse of model programs in the United
States. There are four fundamental methods of conflict resolution education working in
the in academic institution. But practically, there is an overlap between categories.
a) Curriculum approach
Under this programmes are carried out as distinct subject or course and
curriculum as the other subjects. It offers subject matters or contents as curriculum
usually did and training colloquium for academies and organization of juvenile services.
In this connection different seminar or practicum arranged for the parents. All the
teaching activities are associated with community oriented programmes.
b) The mediation programme
Training are provided to the chosen members, grownup or learner about
conflict resolution philosophy or standards and skills and the arbitration skills to
facilitate the provision of a neutral third party to help the disputants party or the
individuals who are part of the conflict to come across the durable resolution. Mediator,
the third party is responsible to manage this process, while disputing control of the
effects. Peer mediation programs as one of the species used on a wide range of programs
have emerged conflict resolution in schools. Training lasts at least 12-15 hours with an
incessant follow-up. Bodine and Crawford (1998) denotes that the purpose of the training
and simulation programme with multi-cultural issues and social justice problems offer
useful and suitable technique to groom peer mediators to cope with disputes arising from
the mixed bag . There programmes like sensitization for prejudice, cultural aptitude,
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reduce bias, issues related authority and power, and application of complicated
arbitration and keeping up for collective discussions, and self assessment programme are
the recommended follow up lessons or learning units to be followed.
c) The peaceable classroom methodology
It is a full class room methodology which is composed of teaching the principles,
tactics and competency of the students to resolves conflicts. CRE included the basic
subjects of the curriculum and classroom managing tactic and approach. It makes a
peaceful school building. Educator seeks the ability and competencies and manages the
classroom in such way that supports the resolution of conflicts and social attitude.
Collaboration, interaction and transmission process, emotional expression, appreciation
of diversity and conflict resolution are five characteristics of the classroom. Students are
encouraged to opt that are non aggressive, and meet the needs of the persons concerned,
and develop good relation.
d) The peaceable school approach
Peaceful schools approach is a complete methodology for the entire school,
which is foster on the peaceful classroom approach. School community which is consist
of learner, instructors, administrators, counselor and even guardian learns the principles
and processes to resolve the dispute and used by each and every worker of the school
with the inclusion of parents. Parent education is conducted and community-based
initiatives are used.
Objectives of he peace education is to achieve personal and collective goals and
institutional as well, and to develop cooperative environment in which cooperative
relations develop. A peaceful school program is instilling resolution strategies the
approach the educational institute conduct their affair, among the students, between
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teacher and learner, among the supervisors and teachers, and between parents and school
employees. A relationship of mutual faith and gratitude between teacher and student is
needed for development successful conflict resolution attitude. The most important
challenge of a teachers or educationist in a peaceful school is to connect constantly to all
students. Similar concept also applies to relations between adults (Carlsson, 1999).
According to Smith, and Vaux (2003), the "well-educated" are equally capable of
turning to violence as "uneducated", and this underlines the need to focus more on the
type of training that is on offer and the values and attitudes of the promotion is to be
sought. Merely offering education does not guarantee peace education.
According Harris (2004), peace education into five fields they are:
a. Global education
b. Development of education
c. Environmental education
d. Education in the field of human rights
e. Education for conflict resolution
A peace education curriculum has a wide range and too many topics and sub-
topics can be included. It also embodies the way of living of the concerned people i.e.
community.
2.4.6 Education Policy
According to Tawil and Harley (2004), the termination of aggression and to seek
peace through education possibilities for social and civic renovation and rebuilding is
necessary to define. The nature of the political arrangement, whether developed imposed
from inside or out side. It has the insinuation for the nature of the political will to
improve education, as well as building or strengthening valid and justifiable methods and
techniques that authorize education policymakers to make reforms.
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2.4.6.1 Educational Vision and Performance in NEP (2009)
The National education policy (2009) giving the reference of the article 38(d) and
speaks for inculcating of moral values and to provide education to all citizens
irrespective of gender, caste, creed, or race. The policy further says an education system
cannot survive in isolation of the challenges and opportunities provided internationally.
These are in different walk of life i.e. business and commerce, technology, cultural
values, identity etc. According to the vision provided by national educational policy
(2009 that our education system must offer quality education the kids and adolescent to
promote their abilities to achieve individual success and play a part in society and the
nation's development, and to develop the sense of one nation, the notion of toleration,
equity base social setup, democratic system. To develop regional, local culture and
history to tallies the ideology of Pakistan (NEP, 2009).
2.4.6.2 Aims and Objectives of the National Education Policy (2009)
According to the NEP (2009), there are many things and plans that directly or
indirectly on the social life and social cohesion. These may envisage in the objective of
the national education policy of Pakistan. Some of the main points of the policy are;
a) To activate the current education system to meet the social, political and spiritual
needs of individuals and society.
b) To create a sense of harmony and nationalism and elevate the desire to make
Pakistan a welfare state.
c) To promote national unity through respect for all religions and recognition of
cultural and ethnic assortment.
d) Education should a process to build social and cultural harmony.
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e) To promote equal chance of education for all who inhibit in Pakistan. Minorities
should be given the opportunities to promote their culture and religion and enable
them to participate in national life.
f) Values of democracy and morality will be raised, they will be making aware of
human rights, launching of new ideas, and there is a sense of personal
responsibility and participation in prolific activities in the community which is
fruitful for the entire citizen.
g) To achieve equality in access to education through the provision of basic
facilities will be provide equally to both gender.
h) To sort out a national process for the growth and expansion of education that
would reduce the discrepancies among the provinces and regions and support
coordination and exchange of experiences (NEP, 2009).
2.4.7 Conflicts Resolution Process Conflicts resolution education promotes important and vital skills that are
essential to build considerate societies. It promotes positive and productive relations
(Jones & Compton, 2003). This procedure necessitates more skillfulness and proficiency
in this area. Educational institution can play a bigger part of conciliator or arbitrator in
particular situation and at another time as an arbitrator to settle the dispute. At the time of
the conflict to increase rapidly into aggression, educational institution as a third option
can organized peace rally, peace prayers and the use of other intrusion method and tactic
to avoid conflict to be more worsen. It also contains building an organization or
association that academics can stimulate masses to continue this task and to extend
support these organization or associations etc. many of the educational are associated
with that organization.
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United Nations Children’s Funds (2011) in their finding, under the title of, The
Role of Education in Peace-building: Literature Review, deals found that the theoretical
literature distinguishes between the negative and positive peace. Negative peace only
stop the war while positive peace bring structural changes that address deal with social
inequality and other prejudices that may be the cause of aggression or fight. According to
the peace-building theory also the need for education to keep up the conversion
processes related to changes in the safety and political organization and association, and
the renewal of economic and social growth in post-conflict societies.
It shows that the majority of educational activities are not planned to keep in
view the post-conflict scenario and clearly peace building perspectives in consideration.
It also spotlighted the frail proof base on the effects of education; few numbers of
documents recognized an exact scheme of change.
The appraisal also showed that peace-building needs additional concentration to
make changes in the field of education and to see how it assists the social change to bring
about in post-conflict social setup. The occurrence of reversion into conflict proposes
that durable peace-building needs more inclusive change and development like arms
reduction, multi-party general voting system and to set up a market based economy.
Education sector can put his share transformation process in post-conflict
communities to change the attitudes and changing attitudes and conduct to aggression,
law enforcement and the judiciary; to make well awareness of the existed political setup
and its effects on local population, to promote the techniques that enhance the economy
and generate such a social interaction among the individuals and groups working with
the heritage of the conflict.
United Nations Children’s Fund (2011), in their concluding remarks states that:
a. Education program had not everlasting effects on the idea of peacemaking.
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b. Education for peace making is only meant for positive change especially after
the change which had taken place after the resolution of disputes.
c. Curriculum and instructional program are mostly not pre-planed for the
establishment of peace.
d. The result of that program matters not the contents.
e. In this regard, the developmental funding pays the pivotal role.
f. Peacemaking needs two things i.e. proper time and positive results.
g. Education and its implication regarding peace must in accordance with the
UN chalked policies.
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Chapter 3
METHOD AND PROCEDURE
This was a descriptive study and Kothari (2003) holds that the main objective of
descriptive research is to describe or ascertain the existed or current status of events,
situation or a thing as it exists. It can be said in crystal clear that resolution of conflicts
and promoting of peace is the main issue of the day. It affected every walk of life,
locally, nationally, and internationally. The researcher collected the views of the heads/
principals and teachers about the problem through questionnaires. As Dr. Farooq (2001)
is of the opinion that questionnaire is the most suitable and extensively utilized tool by
the investigator for the collecting of data or information about past, present, and future
proceedings.
This chapter explained the detail account of methodology used for this research
study. It included description of population, sample, instruments and tool used for the
collection of data, the conduction of pilot testing and the analysis procedures.
3.1 POPULATION
Population for this research study included all the 1592 heads/ principals and
23651 teachers of government secondary and higher schools for boys of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa who teach to the secondary classes (EMIS, 2014).
Table 1: Population from 25 Districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
S.No Schools No of Schools Teachers 1 Higher Secondary 241 6182 2 Secondary 1351 17469 3 Total 1592 23651
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3.2 SAMPLE
Gay (2000) stated that if the population is beyond certain point (N= 5000), then
400 sample size will be enough. However the more is the sample the accurate will be the
result procedure was used here.
The province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is composed of 25 districts. Out of 25
districts, eight districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa i.e. Peshawar, Mardan, Abbottabad,
Swabi, Kohat, Nowshera, Swat and Dera Ismail Khan were selected randomly as sample,
thus sample of 640 respondents were selected randomly. For the proper representation
from each district 10 schools i.e. five urban and five rural Secondary /Higher Secondary
Schools for boys were selected randomly. From each school seven teachers and the
principal were chosen as respondents for the study.
Table 2: Sample from the Eight District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
District No of institutions
Heads Teachers G. Total
Heads (Urban)
Heads (Rural)
Teachers (Urban)
Teachers (Rural)
Peshawar 10 05 05 35 35 80
Nowshera 10 05 05 35 35 80
Mardan 10 05 05 35 35 80
D.I. Khan 10 05 05 35 35 80
Kohat 10 05 05 35 35 80
Abbottabad 10 05 05 35 35 80
Swat 10 05 05 35 35 80
Swabi 10 05 05 35 35 80
G. Total 80 40 40 280 280 640
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3.3 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
A researcher has need of suitable data gathering tools. Bulmer (2004) stated that
questionnaire is a highly recognized tool used in the field of research for obtaining data
from member or participant about past and present conduct, attitudes and their values,
ethics and rationale behind the act with high regard to the subject or thing which is under
the examination or going to be investigated.
Dichotomous questions were used in this study. Cohen, Manion & Morrison,
(2007) mentioned that a well designed questionnaire are inquired close-ended questions.
Such types of questions are handy, because it restricts the respondents to come about the
problem or subject. It gives a lucid, unambiguous response to the question or statement.
Furthermore, here is the possibility to give rapid responses, because there are only two
categories of responses. Dichotomous question is beneficial to channelize or organize
plan for subsequent questions.
The aim of the study was to find out the perceptions of teachers and principals
about the role of education in the social conflicts resolution and peace-building in the
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Questionnaire was developed as a research tool. The
questionnaire was designed in accord with the objectives of the study. Consultation of
the supervisor was obtained while developing the questionnaire.
3.3.1 Questionnaire
The questionnaire was composed of 75 items. It was designed as a sort of check
list. There were two options in the check list i.e. agreed and disagreed. The questionnaire
for heads of the institutions and teachers was the same. It was divided into the following
three parts.
1: Statements related to the causes or factors that cause social conflicts. It was composed
of the following sections:
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a) Structural b) Behavioral c) Values
2: Statements related to social conflicts resolution and peace-building. It was also
composed of the three sections:
a) Structural b) Behavioral c) Values
3: Statements related to the role of education. Table 3: Details of distribution of the each part of the questionnaires
Conflicts
Total Items
Structural 9 Items 31 Items Behavioral 10 Items
Values 12 Items
S.C.R & Peacebuilding
24 Items Structural 7 Items
Behavioral 9 Items Values 8 Items
Role of Education
20 Items
Total 75 Items 3.3.2 Pilot Testing of Instruments
The aim of the pilot testing was to come across the flaws and complication of the
questionnaire. The researcher selected experienced principals and teachers for the pilot
testing. Questionnaires were administered by researcher to obtain the reliability and
validity of the instrument. According to Downing (2003), accuracy of the research tool is
called validity. For the validation educational experts and subject specialists were
consulted and for the reliability, Cronbach’s Alpha test was conducted to determine the
internal consistency of the instrument. By getting the feed back from the pilot testing and
experts’ opinions, the questionnaire was finalized.
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3.4 DATA COLLECTIOIN
Questionnaire was used by the researcher for the data collection in this study. The
sample included 80 heads/ principals and 560 teachers of the government secondary/
higher secondary schools for boys of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. This research study was
conducted to determine the role of education in the social conflicts resolution and peace-
building at secondary level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Data collection through
Questionnaires was as under:
3.4.1 Administration of Questionnaires
According the Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007), self-administered
questionnaires are two types of:
1. The questionnaires that are filled when the researcher is present at the time of
filling.
2. The questionnaires that are completed when the researcher is not present. This
allows respondents to fill the questionnaire in confidential, and to give as much
time as he or she desires to complete. So, the second method was used in this
study. Questionnaires were administered by the researcher in some district by
himself and in some by the fellows to collect data from the sampled teachers and
heads. Hundred percent questionnaires were returned from the respondents.
3.5 ANALYSIS OF DATA
The data were collected by the researcher from the heads/principals and teachers
on two point scale. Ary, Jacobs and Sorensen, (2010) stated that when data fall in
nominal or ordinal categories, Non-parametric tests are used. Chi-square test of
significance is widely used when data is nominal. It compares observed frequencies and
expected frequencies. In this study chi-square was used for analysis of data and t- test for
79
independent sample was used for the comparison to find out the significant difference
between the heads/ principals and teachers responses. For both of the tests SPSS
(Statistical Package for Social Sciences) version 16 was used.
Supporting and Rejecting of the Statements
Statement was supported, when the chi-square value was found greater than the
table value of 3.841 at the 0.05 level of significance at the df = 1 and was not supported
when was found less than the table value. In comparison the null hypothesis was
rejected by the researcher, where the t-value was 1.96 or more, and was accepted when
found less than the table value at df = 638, as up to infinity (∞.) the table t-value is 1.96
Formula for chi-square is:
X 2 = ( O - E )2 E Where as O = Observed Frequency in each category
E = Expected Frequency in the corresponding category
df = Degree of freedom (N-1)
X 2 = Chi-square
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Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
This chapter deals with the analysis of collected data. The aim of the study was to
investigate the role of education in social conflicts resolution and peace building at
secondary level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. All the heads and teachers of the
secondary/higher secondary schools of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa constituted the population
for this study. The data were collected through questionnaires from the respondents. The
collected data were tabulated and analyzed through chi-square and interpreted. As said
by Schreiber and Self (2011), Chi-square is a first-class induction to non-parametric
analysis. Hence the collected data was tabulated and analyzed through Chi-square, which
is considered the suitable and statistical tool that is extensively used for the analysis of
nominal data (Gay, 2000). For comparison of heads and teachers responses t-test for
independent sample was used.
4.1 ANALYSIS OF HEADS AND TEACHERS RESPONSES
Table 4: Social conflicts are natural part of the life, every one experiences it.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 39 1 1 36.10
Teachers Urban 275 5 1 260.35 Rural 269 11 1 237.72
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 4 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Social conflicts are natural part of the life, every one experiences it” was
supported.
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Table 5: In social conflicts disagreement exists between the parties.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 36 4 1 25.60 Rural 38 2 1 32.40
Teachers Urban 244 36 1 154.51 Rural 257 23 1 195.55
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 5 reveals that that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “In social conflicts disagreement exists between the parties” was supported.
Table 6: Shared sources cause social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 36 4 1 25.60 Rural 32 8 1 14.40
Teachers Urban 230 50 1 115.71 Rural 234 46 1 126.22
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 6 indicates that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Shared sources cause social conflicts” was supported.
Table 7: Most of the Social conflicts may arise in members of the same group.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 29 11 1 8.10 Rural 27 13 1 4.90
Teachers Urban 202 78 1 54.91 Rural 205 75 1 60.35
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 7 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Most of the Social conflicts may arise in members of the same group” was
supported.
82
Table 8: An individualistic trend in our society creates social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 37 3 1 28.90 Rural 34 6 1 19.60
Teachers Urban 244 36 1 154.51 Rural 242 38 1 148.92
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 8 indicates that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “An individualistic trend in our society creates social conflicts” was supported.
Table 9: Social conflicts may arise due to the abuse of power.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 34 6 1 19.60
Teachers Urban 244 36 1 154.51 Rural 251 29 1 176.01
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 9 indicates that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Social conflicts may arise due to the abuse of power” was supported.
Table 10: Social conflicts arise with incompatibilities of needs.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 36 4 1 25.60 Rural 38 2 1 32.40
Teachers Urban 236 44 1 131.65 Rural 220 60 1 91.42
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 10 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Social conflicts arise with incompatibilities of needs” was supported.
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Table 11: Social conflicts arise over psychological needs.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 26 14 1 3.60 Rural 26 14 1 3.60
Teachers Urban 216 64 1 82.51 Rural 220 60 1 91.42
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 11 describes that in the case of heads of both categories the calculated X 2
value was found less than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement was not
supported. While in the case of teachers of both categories was found to be greater than
the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement “Social conflicts arise over
psychological needs” was supported.
Table 12: Social conflict leads to violence in society.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 39 1 1 36.10
Teachers Urban 264 16 1 219.65 Rural 263 17 1 216.12
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 12 explains that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Social conflicts leads to violence in society” was supported.
Table 13: Misunderstanding leads to social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 33 7 1 16.90 Rural 27 13 1 4.90
Teachers Urban 232 48 1 120.91 Rural 236 44 1 131.65
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 13 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Misunderstanding leads to social conflicts” was supported.
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Table 14: Poor communication is the main reason of the social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 27 13 1 4.9 Rural 28 12 1 6.40
Teachers Urban 200 80 1 51.42 Rural 207 73 1 64.12
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 14 explains that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Poor communication is the main reason of the social conflicts” was
supported.
Table 15: Differences in opinions cause social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 37 3 1 28.90 Rural 37 3 1 28.90
Teachers Urban 229 51 1 113.15 Rural 244 36 1 154.51
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 15 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Differences in opinions cause social conflicts” was supported.
Table 16: Discriminatory attitude leads to social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 36 4 1 25.60
Teachers Urban 261 19 1 209.15 Rural 260 20 1 205.71
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 16 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Discriminatory attitude leads to social conflicts” was supported.
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Table 17: Emotional aggression creates social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 36 4 1 25.60 Rural 32 8 1 14.40
Teachers Urban 242 38 1 148.62 Rural 246 34 1 160.51
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 17 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Emotional aggression creates social conflicts” was supported.
Table 18: Differences of goals among the members of the society create S.C.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 31 9 1 12.10 Rural 29 11 1 8.10
Teachers Urban 210 70 1 70.00 Rural 197 83 1 46.41
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 18 reveals that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Differences of goals among the members of the society create social
conflicts” was supported.
Table 19: Abuse of law leads to social conflicts in society
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 36 4 1 25.60
Teachers Urban 260 20 1 205.71 Rural 255 25 1 188.92
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 19 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Abuse of law leads to social conflicts in society” was supported.
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Table 20: Competitive behavior causes social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 29 11 1 8.10 Rural 28 12 1 6.40
Teachers Urban 190 90 1 35.31 Rural 207 73 1 64.12
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 20 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Competitive behavior causes social conflicts” was supported.
Table 21: Lack of tolerance creates social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 33 7 1 16.90
Teachers Urban 261 19 1 209.15 Rural 244 36 1 154.51
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 20 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Lack of tolerance creates social conflicts” was supported.
Table 22: Ignorance breads social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 35 5 1 22.50
Teachers Urban 250 30 1 172.85 Rural 257 23 1 195.55
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 22 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Ignorance breads social conflicts” was supported.
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Table 23: Social conflicts are due to cultural differences.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 30 10 1 10.00 Rural 30 10 1 10.00
Teachers Urban 200 80 1 51.42 Rural 207 73 1 62.12
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 23 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Social conflicts are due to cultural differences” was supported.
Table 24: Religious extremism causes social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 35 5 1 22.50 Rural 34 6 1 19.60
Teachers Urban 234 46 1 126.22 Rural 241 39 1 145.72
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 24 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Religious extremism causes social conflicts” was supported.
Table 25: Poor democratic structure is one of the causes of S.C in our society.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 35 5 1 22.50 Rural 32 8 1 14.40
Teachers Urban 231 49 1 118.30 Rural 226 54 1 105.65
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 25 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Poor democratic structure is one of the causes of Social conflicts in our
society” was supported.
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Table 26: Lack of moral education breads social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 38 2 1 32.40
Teachers Urban 262 18 1 212.62 Rural 264 16 1 219.65
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 26 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Lack of moral education breads social conflicts” was supported.
Table 27: Conservative thinking creates social conflicts in our society.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 29 11 1 8.10 Rural 30 10 1 10.00
Teachers Urban 230 50 1 115.71 Rural 208 72 1 66.05
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 27 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Conservative thinking creates social conflicts in our society” was supported.
Table 28: Class system in society is the root cause of social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 36 4 1 25.60 Rural 35 5 1 22.50
Teachers Urban 248 32 1 166.62 Rural 237 43 1 134.41
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 28 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Class system in society is the root cause of social conflicts” was supported.
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Table 29: Poverty in our society is the main cause of the social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 34 6 1 19.60 Rural 30 10 1 10.00
Teachers Urban 222 58 1 96.05 Rural 216 64 1 82.51
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 29 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Poverty in our society is the main cause of the social conflicts” was
supported.
Table 30: Ideological differences create social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 33 7 1 16.90 Rural 33 7 1 16.90
Teachers Urban 212 68 1 74.05 Rural 233 47 1 123.55
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 30 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Ideological differences create social conflicts” was supported.
Table 31: Gender discrimination is the cause of creating social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 31 9 1 12.10 Rural 29 11 1 8.10
Teachers Urban 216 64 1 82.51 Rural 220 60 1 91.42
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 31 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Gender discrimination is the cause of creating social conflicts” was
supported.
90
Table 32: Economic disparity leads to social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 37 3 1 28.90
Teachers Urban 245 35 1 157.50 Rural 250 30 1 172.85
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 32 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Economic disparity leads to social conflicts” was supported.
Table 33: Injustice in our society is one of the causes of social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 39 1 1 36.10
Teachers Urban 273 7 1 252.70 Rural 271 9 1 245.15
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 33 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Injustice in our society is one of the causes of social conflicts” was supported.
Table 34: Sectarianism is the root cause of social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 31 9 1 12.10 Rural 34 6 1 19.60
Teachers Urban 237 43 1 134.41 Rural 232 48 1 120.91
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 34 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Sectarianism is the root cause of social conflicts” was supported.
91
Table 35: Social conflicts begin in the mind of the men, so peace should begin in the
mind of child.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 36 4 1 25.60 Rural 37 3 1 28.90
Teachers Urban 258 22 1 198.91 Rural 248 32 1 166.62
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 35 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Social conflicts begin in the mind of the men, so peace should begin in the
mind of child” was supported.
Table 36: S.C.R is comprehensive social process that requires proper training.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 37 3 1 28.90 Rural 30 10 1 10.00
Teachers Urban 223 57 1 98.41 Rural 230 50 1 115.7
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 36 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Social conflicts resolution is comprehensive social process that requires
proper training” was approved.
Table 37: S.C.R requires understandings of the very nature of the social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 30 10 1 10.00
Teachers Urban 251 29 1 176.01 Rural 243 37 1 151.55
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
92
Table 37 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Social conflict resolution requires understandings of the very nature of the
social conflicts” was supported.
Table 38: Negotiation helps to make soften the social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 35 5 1 22.50
Teachers Urban 244 36 1 154.51 Rural 262 18 1 212.62
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 38 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Negotiation helps to make soften the social conflicts” was supported.
Table 39: Social conflict resolution is critical to peace-building.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 36 4 1 25.60 Rural 35 5 1 22.50
Teachers Urban 244 36 1 154.51 Rural 251 29 1 176.01
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 39 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Social conflict resolution is critical to peace-building” was supported
Table 40: For S.C.R individual has to seek mutual agreement on the issues.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 37 3 1 28.90 Rural 36 4 1 25.60
Teachers Urban 251 29 1 176.01 Rural 245 35 1 157.50
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
93
Table 40 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “For social Conflict resolution individual has to seek mutual agreement on the
issues” was supported.
Table 41: Observance of law leads to create peace in society.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 38 2 1 32.40
Teachers Urban 265 15 1 223.70 Rural 260 20 1 205.71
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 41 depicts that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Observance of law leads to create peace in society” was supported.
Table 42: Improving relationships among the disputants resolve the social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 36 4 1 25.60
Teachers Urban 259 21 1 202.16 Rural 263 17 1 216.12
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 42 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Improving relationships among the disputants resolve the social conflicts”
was supported.
Table 43: Compassion leads to resolving the Social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 36 4 1 25.60 Rural 35 5 1 22.50
Teachers Urban 248 32 1 166.62 Rural 256 24 1 192.62
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
94
Table 43 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Compassion leads to resolving the Social conflicts” was supported.
Table 44: Adaptation of cooperative behavior helps in the S.C.R and peace building
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 38 2 1 32.40
Teachers Urban 258 22 1 198.91 Rural 267 13 1 230.41
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 44 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Adaptation of cooperative behavior helps in the social conflict resolution and
peace building” was supported.
Table 45: Control on the emotions helps in the S.C.R and peace building.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 39 1 1 36.10
Teachers Urban 262 18 1 212.92 Rural 260 20 1 205.71
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 45 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Control on the emotions helps in the social conflict resolution and peace
building” was supported.
Table 46: Compromising attitudes are adopted in resolving the social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 34 6 1 19.60
Teachers Urban 245 35 1 157.50 Rural 243 37 1 151.55
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
95
Table 46 reveals that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Compromising attitudes are adopted in resolving the social conflicts” was
supported.
Table 47: Self awareness plays key role in the S.C.R
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 31 9 1 12.10 Rural 38 2 1 32.40
Teachers Urban 246 34 1 160.51 Rural 239 41 1 140.01
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 47 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Self awareness plays key role in the social conflicts resolution process” was
supported.
Table 48: Reconciliation is helpful in resolving the social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 36 4 1 25.60
Teachers Urban 252 28 1 179.20 Rural 248 32 1 166.62
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 48 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Reconciliation is helpful in resolving the social conflicts” was supported.
Table 49: Political stability leads to the S.C.R and peace building.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 31 9 1 12.10 Rural 31 9 1 12.10
Teachers Urban 245 35 1 157.50 Rural 248 32 1 166.62
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
96
Table 49 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Political stability leads to the social conflicts resolution and peace building”
was supported.
Table 50: Non-violent behavior of the citizen helps in S.C.R and peace building process.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 39 1 1 36.10
Teachers Urban 254 26 1 185.65 Rural 261 19 1 209.15
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 20 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Non-violent behavior of the citizen helps in social conflict resolution and
peace-building process” was supported.
Table 51: Tolerance among the individuals controls social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 37 3 1 28.90
Teachers Urban 273 7 1 252.70 Rural 264 16 1 219.65
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 51 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Tolerance among the individuals controls social conflicts” was supported.
Table 52: Cooperation is helpful in social conflicts resolution.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 38 2 1 32.40
Teachers Urban 270 10 1 241.42 Rural 269 11 1 237.72
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
97
Table 52 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Cooperation is helpful in social conflicts resolution” was supported.
Table 53: Acceptance in the society leads to resolving the social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 34 6 1 19.60 Rural 32 8 1 14.40
Teachers Urban 248 32 1 166.62 Rural 252 28 1 179.20
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 53 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Acceptance in the society leads to resolving the social conflicts” was
supported.
Table 54: Honest relationship is helpful in social conflicts resolution.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 36 4 1 25.60
Teachers Urban 259 21 1 202.30 Rural 265 15 1 223.21
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 54 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Honest relationship is helpful in social conflicts resolution” was supported.
Table 55: Justice helps in eradicating social conflicts in societies.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 37 3 1 28.90 Rural 39 1 1 36.10
Teachers Urban 270 10 1 241.42 Rural 267 13 1 230.40
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
98
Table 55 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Justice helps in eradicating social conflicts in societies” was supported.
Table 56: Paying respect to the feelings of others resolves the social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 35 5 1 22.50 Rural 36 4 1 25.60
Teachers Urban 246 34 1 160.51 Rural 245 35 1 157.50
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 56 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Paying respect to the feelings of others resolves the social conflicts” was
supported.
Table 57: Religious leaders are helping in social conflicts resolving process.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 21 19 1 .100 Rural 24 16 1 1.60
Teachers Urban 172 108 1 14.62 Rural 162 118 1 6.91
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 20 shows that in the case of heads of both categories the calculated X 2
value was found less than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement was not
supported and it was concluded that religious leaders did not helping in social conflicts
resolving process. While the calculated X 2 value in case of teachers of both categories
was found greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement was
supported.
99
Table 58: Human rights preservation makes help in peace building.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 37 3 1 28.90 Rural 34 6 1 19.60
Teachers Urban 247 33 1 163.55 Rural 248 32 1 166.62
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 58 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Human rights preservation makes help in peace building” was supported.
Table 59: Education is the powerful behavioral change agent in the society
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 34 6 1 19.60
Teachers Urban 258 22 1 198.91 Rural 255 25 1 188.92
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 59 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Education is the powerful behavioral change agent in the society” was
supported.
Table 60: Highly educated societies are more peaceful.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 33 7 1 16.90 Rural 32 8 1 14.40
Teachers Urban 226 54 1 105.65 Rural 238 42 1 137.20
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 60 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Education is the powerful behavioral change agent in the society” was
supported.
100
Table 61: Peace education exists formally in our education system.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 19 21 1 .100 Rural 16 24 1 1.60
Teachers Urban 133 147 1 .70 Rural 137 143 1 .12
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 61 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found less than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement was
not supported and it was concluded that peace education did not exist formally in our
education system.
Table 62: Education provides long term solution and strategies for Social conflicts prevention and peace building.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 34 6 1 19.60 Rural 33 7 1 16.90
Teachers Urban 241 39 1 145.72 Rural 247 33 1 163.55
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 62 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Education provides long term solution and strategies for social conflicts
prevention and peace building” was supported.
Table 63: Education improves the analytical power of the individuals about the Social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 38 2 1 32.40
Teachers Urban 270 10 1 241.29 Rural 257 23 1 195.55
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 63 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
101
statement “Education improves the analytical power of the individuals about the Social
conflicts” was supported.
Table 64: Education creates positive attitude towards the S.C.R
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 38 2 1 32.40 Rural 38 2 1 32.40
Teachers Urban 266 14 1 226.80 Rural 261 19 1 209.15
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 64 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Education creates positive attitude towards the social conflicts resolution”
was supported.
Table 65: Education system of Pakistan provides practical skill for S.C.R and peace building.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 6 34 1 19.60 Rural 5 35 1 22.50
Teachers Urban 71 209 1 68.01 Rural 49 231 1 118.30
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 65 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. But the tendency of
responses was towards disagreement. So, the statement was negatively accepted and it
was concluded that the education system of Pakistan did not provide practical skill for
social conflicts resolution and peace building.
Table 66: Educators are sensitive about the S.C.R and peace building.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 21 19 1 .100 Rural 22 18 1 .40
Teachers Urban 166 114 1 9.65 Rural 158 122 1 4.62
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
102
Table 66 describes that in the case of heads of both categories the calculated X 2
value was found less than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement was not
supported and it was concluded that educators were not sensitive about the social
conflicts resolution. While the calculated X 2 value in case of teachers of both categories
was found greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement was
supported.
Table 67: Educators develop awareness about social conflicts and its resolution. Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 24 16 1 1.60 Rural 25 15 1 2.50
Teachers Urban 170 110 1 12.85 Rural 185 95 1 28.92
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 67 signifies that in the case of heads of both categories the calculated X 2
value was found less than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement was not
supported and it was concluded that educators did not develop awareness about social
conflict and its resolution. While the calculated X 2 value in case of teachers of both
categories was found greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement
was supported.
Table 68: Teachers are trained in S.C.R and peace building skills. Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 5 35 1 22.50 Rural 6 34 1 19.60
Teachers Urban 52 228 1 110.62 Rural 56 224 1 100.80
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841 Table 68 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. But the tendency of
responses was towards disagreement. So, the statement was negatively accepted and it
was concluded that the teachers were not trained in Social conflict resolution and peace
building skills.
103
Table 69: The existed curriculum contains materials for S.C.R and peace building.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 6 34 1 19.60 Rural 5 35 1 22.50
Teachers Urban 85 195 1 43.21 Rural 82 198 1 48.05
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 69 describes that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases was found to
be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. But the tendency of responses was towards
disagreement. So, the statement was negatively accepted and it was concluded that the
existed curriculum did not contain materials for social conflicts resolution and peace
building.
Table 70: Hidden curriculum promotes environment and attitudes, which exerts influence over the transmitting of the social conflicts.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 23 17 1 .900 Rural 26 14 1 3.60
Teachers Urban 158 122 1 4.62 Rural 167 113 1 10.41
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 70 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of heads of
both categories was found to be less than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement was not supported. While the calculated X 2 value in case of teachers of both
categories was found greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement
was supported.
Table 71: Education department arrange workshops about the social conflicts and S.C.R
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 9 31 1 12.10 Rural 4 36 1 25.60
Teachers Urban 59 221 1 93.72 Rural 40 240 1 142.85
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
104
Table 71 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. But the tendency of
responses was towards disagreement. So, the statement was negatively accepted and it
was concluded that the education department did not arrange or conduct workshops
about the conflicts and social conflicts resolution.
Table 72: Educators conduct dialogues among the students about the Social conflicts resolution and peace building.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 11 29 1 8.10 Rural 8 32 1 14.40
Teachers Urban 60 220 1 91.42 Rural 52 228 1 110.62
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 72 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. But the tendency of
responses was towards disagreement. So, the statement was negatively accepted and it
was concluded that the educators did not conduct dialogues among the students about the
Social conflicts resolution and peace building.
Table 73: Education develops analytical skills which help in S.C.R.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 32 8 1 14.40 Rural 34 6 1 19.60
Teachers Urban 223 57 1 98.41 Rural 214 66 1 78.22
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 73 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Education develops analytical skills which help in social conflicts resolution”
was supported.
105
Table 74: Educators teach the values of respect, tolerance and understanding.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 30 10 1 10.00 Rural 37 3 1 28.90
Teachers Urban 237 43 1 134.41 Rural 246 34 1 160.51
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 74 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Educators teach the values of respect, tolerance and understanding” was
accepted.
Table 75: Educators foster the knowledge, practical skills and attitudes about the S.C.R and peace.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 18 22 1 .400 Rural 18 22 1 .400
Teachers Urban 161 119 1 6.30 Rural 158 122 1 4.62
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 75 describes that in the case of heads of both categories the calculated X 2
value was found to be less than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement was
not supported and it was concluded that the educators did not fostering the knowledge,
practical skills and attitudes about the social conflicts resolution and peace. While the
calculated X 2 value in case of teachers of both categories was found greater than the
table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the statement was supported.
Table 76: Community programs about the S.C.R and peace-building are conducted by the education department.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 9 31 1 12.10 Rural 6 34 1 19.60
Teachers Urban 67 213 1 76.12 Rural 55 225 1 103.21
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
106
Table 76 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories of both categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level.
But the tendency of responses was towards disagreement. So, the statement was
negatively accepted and it was concluded that the education department is failed to
conduct Community programs about the social conflicts resolution and Peace-building.
Table 77: Education promotes democratic attitude in individuals.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 34 6 1 19.60 Rural 36 4 1 25.60
Teachers Urban 244 36 1 154.51 Rural 238 42 1 132.20
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 20 signifies that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Education promotes democratic attitude in individuals” was supported.
Table 78: Quality education builds peace in the society.
Respondents Category Agreed Disagreed DF X 2
Heads Urban 39 1 1 36.10 Rural 39 1 1 36.10
Teachers Urban 271 9 1 245.15 Rural 274 6 1 256.51
Significant level = 0.05 Table value = 3.841
Table 78 shows that the calculated X 2 value in both of the cases of both
categories was found to be greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Therefore, the
statement “Quality education builds peace in the society” was supported.
107
4.2 COMPARISON OF HEADS AND TEACHERS RESPONSES
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 79: Social conflicts are natural part of the life, every one experiences it.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638 1.02
.157 0.020 -0.180
Teachers 560 1.03 .167
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 79 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.180 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 80: In social conflicts disagreement exists between the parties.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value Heads 80
638 1.08 .265
0.036 -0.84 Teachers 560 1.11
.307
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 80 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.84 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 81: Shared sources cause social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638 1.15
.359 0.045 -0.47
Teachers 560 1.17 .377
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
108
Table 81 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.47 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 82: Most of the Social conflicts may arise in members of the same group.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.30
.461 0.054 0.50
Teachers 560 1.27
.446
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 82 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.50 which was less than the table
t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis “There is no significant
difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 83: An individualistic trend in our society creates social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.11
.318 0.040 -0.48
Teachers 560 1.13
.339
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 83 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.48 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 84: Social conflicts may arise due to the abuse of power.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.10
.302 0.038 -0.42
Teachers 560 1.12
.321
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
109
Table 84 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.42 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 85: Social conflicts arise with incompatibilities of needs.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.08
.265 0.045 -2.46
Teachers 560 1.19
.389
Significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 85 shows the t- value was found to be -2.46 which was greater than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was rejected.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 86: Social conflicts arise over psychological needs.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.35
.480 0.051 2.53
Teachers 560 1.22
.416
Significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 86 indicates the t- value was found to be 2.53 which was greater than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was rejected.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 87: Social conflict leads to violence in society.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638 1.04
.191 0.028 -0.77
Teachers 560 1.06 .236
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
110
Table 87 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.77 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 88: Misunderstanding leads to social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.25
.436 0.045 1.89
Teachers 560 1.16
.371
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 88 indicates the t- value was found to be 1.89 which was less than the table
t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no significant
difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 89: Poor communication is the main reason of the social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.31
.466 0.054 0.73
Teachers 560 1.27
.446
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 89 depicts the t- value was found to be 0.73 which was less than the table t-
value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no significant
difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 90: Differences in opinions cause social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.08
.265 0.042 -1.91
Teachers 560 1.16
.363
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
111
Table 90 indicates the t- value was found to be -1.91 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 91: Discriminatory attitude leads to social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.08
.265 0.031 0.17
Teachers 560 1.07
.255
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 91 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.17 which was less than the table
t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no significant
difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 92: Emotional aggression creates social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.15
.359 0.040 0.53
Teachers 560 1.13
.335
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 92 depicts the t- value was found to be 0.53 which was less than the table t-
value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no significant
difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 93: Differences of goals among the members of the society create social
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.25
.436 0.053 -0.43
Teachers 560 1.27
.446
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
112
Table 93 shows the t- value was found to be -0.43 which was less than the table t-
value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no significant
difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 94: Abuse of law leads to social conflicts in society
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.06
.244
0.032 -0.55 Teachers 560
1.08
.272 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 94 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.55 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 95: Competitive behavior causes social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.29
.455
0.054 -0.66 Teachers 560
1.29
.455 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 95 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.66 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, hence the null
hypothesis, “There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers
responses” was accepted.
113
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 96: Lack of tolerance creates social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.11
.318 0.036 0.39
Teachers 560 1.10
.298
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 96 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.39 which was less than the table
t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no significant
difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 97: Ignorance breads social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.09
.284 0.035 -0.20
Teachers 560 1.09
.293
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 97 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.20 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 98: Social conflicts are due to cultural differences.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.25
.436 0.053 -0.43
Teachers 560 1.27
.446
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
114
Table 98 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.43 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 99: Religious extremism causes social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.14
.347
0.043 -0.33 Teachers 560
1.15
.359 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 99 shows the t- value was found to be -0.33 which was less than the table t-
value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no significant
difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 100: Poor democratic structure is one of the causes of social conflicts in our
society.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.16
.371
0.046 -0.46 Teachers 560
1.18
.388 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 100 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.46 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
115
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 101: Lack of moral education breads social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.04
.191 0.028 -0.83
Teachers 560 1.06
.239
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 101 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.83 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 102: Conservative thinking creates social conflicts in our society.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.26
.443 0.050 0.89
Teachers 560 1.22
.413
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 102 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.89 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 103: Class system in society is the root cause of social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.11
.318 0.040 -0.53
Teachers 560 1.13
.341
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
116
Table 103 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.53 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 104: Poverty in our society is the main cause of the social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.20
.403
0.049 -0.36 Teachers 560
1.22
.413 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 104 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.36 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 105: Ideological differences create social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.18
.382
0.048 -0.63 Teachers 560
1.21
.404 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 105 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.63 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
117
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 106: Gender discrimination is the cause of creating social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.25
.436 0.050 0.57
Teachers 560 1.22
.416
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 106 indicates the t-value was found to be 0.57 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 107: Economic disparity leads to social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.06
.244 0.037 -1.43
Teachers 560 1.12 .321
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 107 indicates the t- value was found to be -1.43 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 108: Injustice in our society is one of the causes of social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.02
.157 0.020 -0.18
Teachers 560 103
.167
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
118
Table 108 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.18 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 109: Sectarianism is the root cause of social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.19
.393
0.043 0.86 Teachers 560
1.15
.357 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 109 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.86 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 110: Social conflicts begin in the mind of the men, so peace should begin in
the mind of child.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.09
.284
0.035 -0.25 Teachers 560
1.10
.295 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 110 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.25 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
119
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 111: S.C.R is comprehensive social process that requires proper training.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.16
.371 0.047 -0.61
Teachers 560 1.19
.393
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 111 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.61 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 112: Social conflict resolution requires understandings of the very nature of
the social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.15
.359 0.039 0.82
Teachers 560 1.12
.323
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 112 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.82 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 113: Negotiation helps to make soften the social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.08
.265 0.035 -0.61
Teachers 560 1.10
.295
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
120
Table 113 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.61 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 114: Social conflicts resolution is critical to peace building.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.11
.318
0.038 -0.09 Teachers 560
1.12
.321 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 114 indicated the calculated t- value was found to be -0.09 which was less
than the table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is
no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 115: For social conflicts resolution individual has to seek mutual agreement
on the issues.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.09
.284
0.038 -0.71 Teachers 560
1.11
.318 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 115 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.71 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
121
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 116: Observance of law leads to create peace in society.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.04
.191 0.028 -0.88
Teachers 560 1.06
.242
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 116 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.88 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 117: Improving relationships among the disputants resolve the social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.08
.265 0.030 0.23
Teachers 560 1.07
.252
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 117 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.23 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 118: Compassion leads to resolving the social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.11
.318 0.036 0.34
Teachers 560 1.10
.300
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
122
Table 118 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.34 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 119: Adaptation of cooperative behavior helps in the social conflicts
resolution and peace building.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.04
.191
0.028 -0.88 Teachers 560
1.06
.242 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 119 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.88 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 120: Control on the emotions helps in the social conflicts resolution and peace building.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.02
.157
0.029 -1.48 Teachers 560
1.07
.252 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 120 indicates the t- value was found to be -1.48 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
123
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 121: Compromising attitudes are adopted in resolving the social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.10
.302 0.040 -0.72
Teachers 560 1.13
.335
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 121 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.72 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance . Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 122: Self awareness plays key role in the social conflicts resolution process.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.14
.347 0.040 0.087
Teachers 560 1.13
.341
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 122 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.087 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 123: Reconciliation is helpful in resolving the social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.08
.265 0.036 -0.88
Teachers 560 1.09
.288
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
124
Table 123 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.88 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 124: Political stability leads to the social conflicts resolution and peace
building.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.22
.420
0.040 2.60 Teachers 560
1.12
.325 Significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 124 indicates the t- value was found to be 2.60 which was greater than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was rejected.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 125: Non-violent behavior of the citizen helps in social conflict resolution and
peace building process.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.02
.157
0.031 -1.77 Teachers 560
1.08
.272 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 125 indicates the t- value was found to be -1.77 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
125
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 126: Tolerance among the individuals controls social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.06
.244 0.024 0.87
Teachers 560 1.04
.199
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 126 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.87 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 127: Cooperation is helpful in social conflicts resolution.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.04
.191 0.023 0.00
Teachers 560 1.04
.190
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 127 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.00 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 128: Acceptance in the society leads to resolving the social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.18
.382 0.038 1.77
Teachers 560 1.11
.310
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
126
Table 128 indicates the t- value was found to be 1.77 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 129: Honest relationship is helpful in social conflicts resolution.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.06
.244
0.029 -0.06 Teachers 560
1.06
.245 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 129 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.06 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 130: Justice helps in eradicating social conflicts in societies.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.05
.219
0.024 0.37 Teachers 560
1.04
.199 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 130 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.37 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
127
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 131: Paying respect to the feelings of others resolves the social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.11
.318 0.039 -0.27
Teachers 560 1.12
.329
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 131 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.27 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 132: Religious leaders are helping in social conflicts resolving process.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.44
.499 0.059 0.57
Teachers 560 1.40
.491
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 132 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.57 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 133: Human rights preservation makes help in peace building.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.11
.318 0.038 -0.09
Teachers 560 1.12
.321
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
128
Table 133 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.09 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 134: Education is the powerful behavioral change agent in the society.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.09
.284
0.033 0.10 Teachers 560
1.08
.278 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 134 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.10 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 135: Highly educated societies are more peaceful.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.19
.393
0.045 0.35 Teachers 560
1.17
.377 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 135 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.35 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
129
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 136: Peace education exists formally in our education system.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.56
.499 0.060 0.74
Teachers 560 1.52
.500
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 136 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.74 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 137: Education provides long term solution and strategies for Social conflicts
prevention and peace building.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.16
.371 0.041 0.83
Teachers 560 1.13
.335
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 137 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.83 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 138: Education improves the analytical power of the individuals about the
Social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.04
.191 0.028 -0.77
Teachers 560 1.06
.236
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
130
Table 138 indicates the t- value was found to -0.77 which was less than the table
t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no significant
difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 139: Education creates positive attitude towards the S.C.R
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.05
.219
0.028 -0.32 Teachers 560
1.06
.236 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 139 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.32 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 140: Education system of Pakistan provides practical skill for social conflicts
resolution and peace building.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.86
.347
0.048 1.59 Teachers 560
1.79
.411 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 140 indicates the t- value was found to be 1.59 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
131
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 141: Educators are sensitive about the S.C.R and peace. Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.46
.502 0.059 0.69
Teachers 560 1.42
.494
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 141 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.69 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 142: Educators develop awareness about social conflicts and its resolution.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.39
.490 0.058 0.37
Teachers 560 1.37
.482
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 142 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.37 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 143: Teachers are trained in social conflicts resolution and peace building skills.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.86
.347 0.047 1.19
Teachers 560 1.81
.395
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
132
Table 143 indicates the t- value was found to be 1.19 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 144: The existed curriculum contains materials for S.C.R and peace
building.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.86
.347 0.053 3.01
Teachers 560 1.70
.458
Significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 144 indicates the t- value was found to be 3.01 which was greater than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was rejected.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 145: Hidden curriculum promotes environment and attitudes, which exerts
influence over the transmitting of the social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.39
.490 0.059 -0.57
Teachers 560 1.42
.494
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 145 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.57 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
133
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 146: Education department arrange workshops about the conflicts and
social conflicts resolution.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.84
.371 0.045 0.31
Teachers 560 1.82
.382
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 146 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.31 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 147: Educators conduct dialogues among the students about the social
conflicts resolution and peace building.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.76
.428 0.048 -0.77
Teachers 560 1.80
.400
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 147 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.77 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 148: Education develops analytical skills which help in social conflicts.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.18
.382 0.049 -0.91
Teachers 560 1.22
.414
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
134
Table 148 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.91 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 149: Educators teach the values of respect, tolerance and understanding.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.16
.371
0.042 0.60 Teachers 560
1.14
.345 Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 149 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.60 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 150: Educators foster the knowledge, practical skills and attitudes about the
social conflicts resolution and peace.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.55
.501
0.059 2.01 Teachers 560
1.43
.496 Significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 150 indicates the t- value was found to be 2.01 which was greater than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was rejected.
135
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 151: Community programs about the S.C.R and peace-building are
conducted by the education department.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638
1.81
.393 0.049 0.61
Teachers 560 1.75
.434
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 151 indicates the t- value was found to be 0.61 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 152: Education promotes democratic attitude in individuals.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638 1.12
.333 0.041 -0.34
Teachers 560 1.14 .347
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
Table 152 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.34 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
H0: There is no significant difference between the heads and teachers responses.
Table 153: Quality education builds peace in the society.
Respondents N df Mean Std. Deviation S.ED t-value
Heads 80 638 1.02
.157 0.019 0.05
Teachers 560 1.02 .157
Not significant Table value at 0.05 = 1.96
136
Table 153 indicates the t- value was found to be -0.05 which was less than the
table t-value at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis, “There is no
significant difference between the heads and teachers responses” was accepted.
137
DISCUSSION The aim of the study was to investigate the role of education in the social
conflicts resolution and peace-building at secondary level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
Education has a direct or indirect impact upon the social conflicts resolution and peace-
building process. In a crystal clear, it can be said that education is the most powerful
changing behavioral tool. Education has a great implication on the personal, family and
national life of the individual. It provides a character building process which promotes
and develops the physical, intellectual, social, emotional and aesthetic aspects of the
individual. Education promotes and enhances the critical thinking, tolerance, honesty,
cooperative attitudes, empathy, respect for other human beings, generosity, team work
spirit, value development and improves analytical power of the individual.
This study revealed that most of the factors that related to the cause or source of
social conflicts and also the factors that helped in social conflicts resolution were directly
or indirectly related to education. According to Harris and Morrison (2003), it seems that
from last two decades conflict resolution education has been getting impetus as an
educational movement. Conflicts resolution education is now the part of curriculum of
many educational institutions. It teaches and provides skills to the learners about how to
handle conflicts constructively and productively.
The results of the study indicated that both the respondents i.e. head of the
institutions and teachers affirmed that social conflicts were the natural part of the life and
it occurred in every individual life. This is in line with Brahnam et al, (2005).
The study identified that social conflict is a social phenomenon in which
disagreement exists between the parties or individuals, as the view of Dubrin (2005), and
Duzrgbe (2006).
138
The study revealed that most of the social conflicts arose in the same group. It
may be concluded that because there occurred more human interaction in the same group
and imperfection in interaction caused conflicts. These were also the views of Bodine
and Crawford (1998) and Rahim (2002).
The study exposed the factors that caused social conflicts and these factors
related to the structural areas of the phenomenon. Things like shared resources, as by
Plunkett and Attner (1989), abuse of power as by Deutch (2000), individualistic trends in
society as by Hocker and Wilmot (2011), incompatibility of needs and aspirations as to
Rahim (2000), psychological tension and needs as viewed by Durojaya (2010) were the
sources that caused social conflicts and these social conflicts always led to violence and
aggression in the society. Education is always helpful to overcome these things to a great
extent and also to inculcate abilities to cope with these things.
Individual behaviour is important and it plays a key role in promotion,
preservation and transformation of the norms of the society. The study revealed that most
of the behavioral agents when misappropriated and were not positively controlled that
became the sources of social conflicts and disturbed the peace of the society. These
characteristics of behaviour are misunderstandings as perceived by Mayer (2000), poor
communication as viewed by Deutch (2000) and Fisher (1997), discriminatory attitudes
as by Denohue and Kott (1992), emotional aggression or antagonism as by Dubrin
(2005) and Mayer (2000), differences in opinions, and differences in goals as by
Bercovitch (1990). Sometime things like competitive behaviour as by Hocker and
Wilmot (2011), abuse of law and lack of tolerance lead to social conflicts. The study also
indicated that ignorance led to social conflicts. This is also the views of Namande
(2008).
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As education is the most powerful tool of changing the behaviour in positive
direction so these behavioral agents can be positively directed by the education and the
negative direction of these can be shaped for the constructive development of the society.
Values are always weighed in the societies and are the spirit of life. When these
values are molested, the peace of the society will be disturbed. This study indicated that
these molested values might cause the social conflicts as said by Davies (2004). Things
like culture differences as the view of Rashid (2005), religious extremism and
fanaticism, poor democratic structure, conservative thinking, moral degeneration, social
strata i.e. upper and lower class feelings, ideological differences, gender discrimination,
injustices in societies and the feelings of sectarianism cause social conflicts. The study
found out that ignorance and intolerance also bred social conflicts, as viewed by
Nomande (2008). This research study revealed that poverty and economic disparity also
led to social conflicts as reported by PBEA (2012).
Education is the main actor that can refine these molested values of the society
into constructive force that brings peace and prosperity in the society and makes the road
clear for the development and progress.
Problems should be solved and the solution should be constructive and
productive one. The study revealed that the social conflict always started in human mind
and it should be redressed there as expressed in UNESCO preamble (UN, 1945).
Education also stands for cognitive development. It is the education that changes the
mind of the individual about the particular phenomenon. It can best be done through
education system.
The research study revealed that social conflict resolution was a comprehensive
social process and it required proper trainings. As mentioned by Jones (2003) and it can
140
be concluded that there are skills that should be learned for the transformation of the
social conflicts.
The study signified that resolution of the social conflict required understanding of
the true nature of the conflict, as viewed by Albert (2005). It means that every conflict
had its own unique context and should have been dealt according to that specific
condition.
The study admitted that negotiation was a tool or technique that could soften the
social conflicts, so the art of negotiations should have been learned. The study also
revealed that for conflict resolution one had to seek agreement on the issue.
The study indicated that for social conflicts resolution the relation of the
disputants should be improved, as said by Lederach (1995). The study revealed that there
were some behavioral characteristics that were very helpful in social conflicts resolution
and peace-building process. Those were compassion, cooperative behavior, and control
of emotions, compromising attitudes, self-awareness and non-violent behavior.
Education’s role in the promotion of these is very obvious and no one can deny it.
The study revealed that behavioral characteristics like tolerance, cooperation, and
acceptance in society, honest relationships, justice, paying respect to others as mentioned
in Jones (2003) and observance of human rights were helpful in the process of conflict
resolution and peace-building process. All these things can be promoted and developed
through a sound system of education, in other words it can be said that it is the education
that is responsible for the development of these characteristics.
The study revealed that majority of the heads of the institutions and teachers
affirmed that education is the powerful behavioral changed agent in society.
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This research study exposed that peace education did not exist formally in our
education system. So, in the light of these facts it should be the part of formal education
system.
The study indicated that education improved the analytical power of individual
about the social conflicts. It also admitted that education created positive attitudes toward
the social conflicts resolution process.
The study affirmed that education provided a long term solution and strategies for
social conflict prevention and peace-building. So, education system should work as
antibiotic for social conflicts.
The study exposed that the education system of Pakistan did not provide practical
skills for the social conflicts resolution and peace-building. At the same time the study
also revealed that the educators were sensitive about the social conflicts and peace-
building.
The study revealed that the teachers were not trained in the social conflicts
resolution and peace-building skills. Salomon (2002) said that training was necessary for
conflict resolution.
It was also exposed that the existed curriculum did not contain materials for the
social conflicts resolution and peace-building; however the hidden curriculum promotes
environment and attitude that are helpful in transformation of social conflicts. Kester
(2010) spoke highly for curriculum.
The research study pointed out that the education department did not arrange
workshops about the social conflicts and their resolution. It is also indicated that the
educators did not conduct dialogues etc among the students about the social conflicts
resolution. Ajala (2003) said that education for Peace arranges dialogue on life-
threatening issues in society.
142
Majority of the respondents reckoned that education developed analytical skills
which help social conflicts resolution and peace-building as stated by Kester (2010).
They also affirmed that educators developed the value of respect, tolerance and
understanding.
The study revealed that education promoted the democratic attitude in individuals
and quality education built peace in the society. At the same time it was also confirmed
that education department failed to arrange community programmes for social conflicts
resolution and peace-building.
From the comparison of the responses of heads and teachers, it was found out that
in the majority cases i.e. 70 out of 75 cases the null hypothesis was accepted and it was
concluded that there was no differences found in the responses of heads and teachers.
Only in five cases the null hypothesis was not accepted and it was concluded there was a
difference between the responses of heads and teachers. So in most of the cases their
perception was the same.
The researcher has reached to this conclusion after the thorough discussion of the
findings that the findings of this study are in full conformity with the prevailing situation
and conditions of the society.
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Chapter 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 SUMMARY
The aim of the study was to investigate the “Role of education in the social
conflicts resolution and peace-building at secondary level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa”.
Peace is a phenomenon whose importance has been reckoned by entire world. There is
no compromise on peace even some time blood has been shed for the sake of peace-
building. The peace-building process, when connected to education it becomes more
interested.
The objectives of the study were: (1) to explore awareness of the principals and
teachers about the social conflicts; (2) to identify the factors that causes social conflicts; (3)
to determine the effect of individual behavior on social conflicts and conflicts resolution;
(4) to judge the role of education in addressing the social conflicts and peace building; and
(5) to compare the responses of urban heads with rural heads and urban teachers with rural
teachers.
Population for this research study included all the 1592 heads/ principals and
23651 teachers of government secondary / higher schools for boys of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa.
The province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is composed of 25 districts. Out of 25
districts, eight districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa i.e. Peshawar, Mardan, Abbottabad,
Swabi, Kohat, Nowshera, Swat and Dera Ismail Khan were randomly selected as sample
of the study, thus sample of 640 respondents were selected randomly. For the proper
representation from each district 10 schools i.e. five urban and five rural secondary
/higher secondary Schools for boys were selected randomly. From each school seven
teachers and the principal were chosen as respondents for the study.
144
Questionnaires were used as research instrument for the collection of data. The collected
data were tabulated, analyzed and interpreted by using the chi-square test and t-test.
5.2 CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of analysis of the statements, interpretation and discussion, the
following conclusions were drawn. The findings of the study can be divided into three
sections; in the first section there are the factors that cause social conflicts. The second is
dealing with the individual behaviour or the characteristics of the individual’s behaviour
that determined its effects on social conflicts, its resolution and peace-building process.
The third part revealed the role of education in social conflicts resolution and peace-
building.
Factors that caused social conflicts
1. Majority of the respondents i.e. heads of the institution and teachers affirmed
that social conflicts were the natural part of the life and they occurred in every
individual life.
2. It was found that social conflicts were social phenomena in which disagreement
existed between the parties or individuals.
3. Majority of the respondents were of the opinion that most of the social conflicts
arose in the same group.
4. In the light of the responses it was found that there were factors that caused social
conflicts. The study indicated that shared resources, abuse of power,
individualistic trends in society, incompatibility of needs and aspirations,
psychological tension and needs were the sources that caused social conflicts. It
was also found out that these social conflicts always led to violence and
aggression in the society.
145
5. It was found out that there were some behavioral agents or characteristics, when
misappropriated and were not positively controlled that became the sources of
social conflicts and disturbed the peace of the society. These characteristics of
behaviour were misunderstandings, poor communication, emotional aggression
or antagonism, differences in opinion, discriminatory attitudes and differences in
goals.
6. Majority of the respondents were of the opinion that competitive behaviour,
abuse of law and lack of tolerance were the sources that created social conflicts.
The study also indicated that ignorance led to social conflicts.
7. Values are always weighed in the societies and they are spirit of life. When these
values are molested the peace of the society would be disturbed. The study
indicated that there were values that caused social conflicts, if molested. Things
like culture differences, religious extremism and fanaticism, poor democratic
structure, conservative thinking, moral degradation, social strata i.e. upper and
lower class feelings, ideological differences, gender discrimination, injustices in
societies and the feeling of sectarianism caused social conflicts.
8. This research study revealed that poverty and economic disparity also led to
social conflicts in societies.
Factors that led to Conflicts resolution and Peace
The study revealed that the conflict always started in human mind and it
should be redressed there. It is the education that changes the mind of the individual
about the particular phenomenon.
9. Majority of the respondents viewed social conflicts resolution as a
comprehensive social process and it required proper trainings. Thus, it was
146
concluded that there were skills which should be learned for transformation of the
conflicts.
10. The study highlighted that for the resolution of the social conflict it was required
to understand the very nature of the conflict. It means that every conflict had its
own unique and peculiar context and should be dealt with according to that
specific condition.
11. It was found out that negotiation was one of the tools that could soften the social
conflicts. The study revealed that for conflict resolution one had to seek
agreement on the issue. The study also indicated that for conflict resolution the
relation of the disputants should be improved.
12. The study revealed some behavioral characteristics that helped in conflict
resolution and peace-building process. Those were compassion, cooperative
behaviour, and control of emotions, compromising attitudes, self-awareness and
non violent behaviour.
13. The study found out that characteristics like tolerance, cooperation, acceptance in
society, honest relationships, justice, respect and observance of human rights
were helpful in the process of conflict resolution and peace-building process.
Role of education
14. The study revealed that majority of the heads of the institutions and teachers
affirmed that education was the powerful behavioral changing agent in society.
15. The overwhelming majority of the respondents were of the opinion that highly
educated societies were more peaceful.
16. Majority of the respondents disagreed to the statement that peace education
formally existed in our education system of Pakistan. It was concluded that peace
education did not exist formally in our education system.
147
17. Most of the respondents affirmed that education improved the analytical power of
individual about the social conflicts.
18. It was also admitted by the respondents and showed good turn to the statement
that education created positive attitudes towards the social conflicts resolution
process.
19. The study affirmed that education provided a long term solution and strategies for
social conflicts prevention and peace-building.
20. The study exposed that the education system of Pakistan did not provide/
inculcate practical skills for the social conflicts resolution and peace-building.
21. It was found out that the educators were sensitive about the social conflicts
resolution and peace-building programs.
22. The study pointed out that the teachers were not trained in the social conflicts
resolution and peace-building skills.
23. It was also exposed by the study that the existed curriculum did not contain
materials for the social conflict resolution and peace-building; however the
hidden curriculum promoted environment and attitude that helped in
transformation of social conflicts.
24. This research study pointed out that the education department did not arrange any
type of workshops about the social conflicts and its resolution. It was also
indicated that the educators did not conduct dialogues etc among the students
about the social conflicts resolution.
25. Most of the respondents opined that education developed analytical skills which
helped social conflicts resolution and peace-building. They also affirmed that
educators developed the value of respect, tolerance and understanding.
148
26. It was concluded from the responses of the respondents that the community
programs about the social conflicts resolution and peace-building were not
conducted by the education department.
27. The study revealed that education promoted the democratic attitude in individuals
and it was also found out that quality education could build peace in the society.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Education system is incomplete without a number of constituents or elements that
are identical to peace education. It may be in the shape of morals, beliefs, values,
ideologies, cultural ingredients, civic values and democratic or global education.
Education for peace should be obligatory in each school. In the light of the findings the
recommendations were made:
1. It was found out that education was powerful changing behavioral agent in
society. In the light of the findings, it was recommended that education should
develop and enhance aptitudes, capacities and faculties of individuals to
recognize and spot out political, economical, cultural, psychological and
situational dynamics that are useful in conceptualizing and comprehending the
social conflicts and their resolution. The government should expand the faculties
of the educators to enhance essential communicative skills, mediation, and
negotiation proficiency for social conflicts resolution and peace-building.
2. The study revealed that Peace education did not exist formally in our education
system. It was recommended that the textbooks and Syllabus for the secondary
level needed to be rationalized and re-organized to manifest the concerns that
peace education needed.
149
3. It was recommended that education for peace should be a convincing component
of any future educational appraisal and assessment or re-organization of policy
documents. It should be attributed strongly in every discussion, debate / training
programmes organized for educators.
4. In the light of the findings, it was recommended that the educators should foster
the knowledge, practical skills and attitudes for the social conflicts resolution and
peace. For this purpose they should provide reading materials that are already
available or should be arranged in such ways which promote values and skills of
peace. Handbooks for social conflicts resolution and peace-building should be
prepared which encompass guiding principles for an integrated approach to
education for peace. It should be made easier to be tagged on by every educator,
textbooks designers and writers for the entire subjects especially social sciences
that are taught in schools and teacher training colleges and institutions.
5. The study found that the existed curriculum did not contain materials for social
conflicts resolution and peace-building. It was recommended to start conflicts
resolution and peace education as a separate subject at secondary school
curriculum, or if not possible due to burden of subjects then the main beliefs and
doctrines of peace education should be included in other regular subjects of the
formal school curricula.
6. It was found that aggressiveness, hostile attitudes, and abhorring feelings on the
bases of race, culture, religion, ethnicity, sex and other such social chauvinisms
and injustices are the factors that led to the social conflicts. It was recommended
that government should analyze and check out the existing curriculum and
textbooks to detect if there were any such contents in them which caused to
promote antagonizing feelings.
150
7. The study indicated that hidden curriculum promoted environment and attitudes,
which exerted influence over the transmitting of the social conflicts. It was
recommended that in pre-service and in-services training programmes, practical
training should be arranged to develop the skills that help in achieving the hidden
curriculum.
8. The study indicated that teachers were not trained in social conflicts resolution
and peace-building skills. It was recommended that the teachers education and
training programmes at all levels .i.e. PTC, CT , B.Ed, M.Ed, and other such
trainings and refresher courses to be re-structured and rationalized that develop a
system of education that may meet the needs of education for peace.
9. The study indicated that educators did not conduct dialogues and debates among
the students about the social conflicts resolution and peace-building. It was
recommended that the education department should conduct such activities to
make possible the enhancement of students’ socialization via taking part in
cooperative and interactive learning strategies.
10. It was found that the education department did not arrange workshops about
conflicts resolution and peace-building. It was recommended that education
department should organize workshops, seminars and symposia in education for
understanding the phenomenon of social conflicts, their resolution and peace-
building for teachers, principals, parents and students as well.
11. It was highly recommended that at provincial level an agency should be setup to
monitor and supervise the execution of education for peace. Particularly teacher
education, textbooks writings, classroom and learning process, and the whole
school environment. It would be responsible for the conduction of proper
151
research in education for peace in turn to make reforms in the curriculum in the
light of findings.
12. It was recommended in the light of the findings that community programmes for
the awareness should be conducted by the education department.
13. It was recommended that international conflicts resolution experts should be
hired from the different countries along with local experts to provide trainings
and skills to educators. Further more projects for peace education should be run
by the government by itself or through NGO’S to manage these types of
trainings.
14. It was recommended that participation of educators should be assured and
arranged in international peace seminars and peace conferences just like the
government doing in other areas.
15. The media in all their forms i.e. print, electronic and other channels have to play
a constructive role in the conflict resolution process. The government should
keep vigilant eyes on such programmes that promote conflicts prejudices.
16. This study was conducted at secondary level. It was recommended that such type
of research should be conducted at graduate and post graduate level.
152
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A-1
COVERING LITTERS
Covering Letter for the Heads
_______________________ Dear:__________________ Assalam-o-Aliakum! The undersigned is working on a Doctorial Research Thesis entitled “Role
of Education in Social Conflict Resolution and Peace building at Secondary Level in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa”. It shall be appreciated if the enclosed Questionnaires are filled
by the Head/Principals. It is assured that the information so collected will be kept in
secret and only the treated for the research purposes.
Your cooperation in this regard shall enable the researcher to complete his study
will in time.
Thank You.
Yours truly,
Khalid Iqbal
Northern University Nowshera
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
166
APPENDIX A -2
COVERING LITTERS
Covering Letter for Teachers _______________________ Dear:__________________ Assalam-o-Aliakum! The undersigned is working on a Doctorial Research Thesis entitled “Role
of Education in Social Conflict Resolution and Peace building at Secondary Level in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa”. It shall be appreciated if the enclosed Questionnaires are filled
by the Teachers. It is assured that the information so collected will be kept in secret and
only the treated for the research purposes.
Your cooperation in this regard shall enable the researcher to complete his study
will in time.
Thank You.
Yours truly,
Khalid Iqbal)
Northern University Nowshera
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
167
APPENDIX B-1
ROLE OF EDUCATION IN THE SOCIAL CONFLICTS RESOLUTION
AND PEACE BUILDING AT SECONDARY LEVEL IN KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA
Questionnaire for Head
Respected Sir, The researcher is going to investigate “Role of Education in the Social Conflicts Resolution and Peace Building at Secondary level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa”. You are requested to fill the following questionnaire for the development of new knowledge in the field of Education. Kindly tick any one of the following options:
Agree Disagree
Name:________________________________Designation:___________________
Academic Qualification: ____________Professional Qualification: _____________
Exp in Years: ________ School: _____________________Mob no: ______________
Khalid Iqbal, Ph.D.Scholar, Northern University,Nowshera
CONFLICTS
S.No Statements Agreed Disagreed
STRUCTURAL 1 Social conflicts are natural part of the life, every one experiences it. 2 In social conflicts disagreement exists between the parties. 3 Shared sources cause social conflicts. 4 Most of the Social conflicts may arise in members of the same group 5 An individualistic trend in our society creates social conflicts. 6 Social conflicts may arise due to the abuse of power. 7 Social conflicts arise with incompatibilities of needs. 8 Social conflicts arise over psychological needs. 9 Social conflict leads to violence in society.
BEHAVOURIAL 10 Misunderstanding leads to social conflicts. 11 Poor communication is the main reason of the social conflicts. 12 Differences in opinions cause social conflicts.
168
13 Discriminatory attitude leads to social conflicts. 14 Emotional aggression creates social conflicts. 15 Differences of goals among the members of the society create social
conflicts.
16 Abuse of law leads to social conflicts in society. 17 Competitive behavior causes social conflicts. 18 Lack of tolerance creates social conflicts. 19 Ignorance breads social conflicts.
VALUES 20 Social conflicts are due to cultural differences. 21 Religious extremism causes social conflicts. 22 Poor democratic structure is one of the causes of Social conflicts in our
society.
23 Lack of moral education breads social conflicts. 24 Conservative thinking creates social conflicts in our society. 25 Class system in society is the root cause of social conflicts. 26 Poverty in our society is the main cause of the social conflicts. 27 Ideological differences create social conflicts. 28 Gender discrimination is the cause of creating social conflicts. 29 Economic disparity leads to social conflicts. 30 Injustice in our society is one of the causes of social conflicts. 31 Sectarianism is the root cause of social conflicts.
CONFLICTS RESOLUTION AND PEACEBUILDING
S.No Statements Agreed Disagreed
STRUCTURAL
32 Social conflicts begin in the mind of the men, so peace should begin in the mind of child.
33 Social conflicts resolution is comprehensive social process that requires proper training.
34 Social conflict resolution requires understandings of the very nature of the social conflicts.
35 Negotiation helps to make soften the social conflicts. 36 Social conflict resolution is critical to peace building. 37 For social Conflict resolution individual has to seek mutual
agreement on the issues.
38 Observance of law leads to create peace in society.
BEHAVOURIAL
39 Improving relationships among the disputants resolve the social conflicts.
40 Compassion leads to resolving the Social conflicts. 41 Adaptation of cooperative behavior helps in the social conflict
resolution and peace building.
42 Control on the emotions helps in the Social Conflict resolution and peace building.
169
43 Compromising attitudes are adopted in resolving the social conflicts. 44 Self awareness plays key role in the social conflicts resolution
process.
45 Reconciliation is helpful in resolving the social conflicts.
46 Political stability leads to the social conflicts resolution and peace building.
47 Non-violent behavior of the citizen helps in social conflict resolution and peacebuilding process.
VALUES 48 Tolerance among the individuals controls social conflicts. 49 Cooperation is helpful in social conflicts resolution. 50 Acceptance in the society leads to resolving the social conflicts. 51 Honest relationship is helpful in social conflicts resolution. 52 Justice helps in eradicating social conflicts in societies. 53 Paying respect to the feelings of others resolve the social conflicts. 54 Religious leaders are helping in social conflicts resolving process. 55 Human rights preservation makes help in peace building.
ROLE OF EDUCATION
S.No
Statements Agreed Disagreed
56 Education is the powerful behavioral change agent in the society 57 Highly educated societies are more peaceful. 58 Peace education exists formally in our education system. 59 Education provides long term solution and strategies for Social
conflicts prevention and peace building.
60 Education improves the analytical power of the individuals about the Social conflicts.
61 Education creates positive attitude towards the social conflicts resolution.
62 Education system of Pakistan provides practical skill for social conflicts resolution and peace building.
63 Educators are sensitive about the Social conflicts resolution and peace building.
64 Educators develop awareness about social conflicts and its resolution.
65 Teachers are trained in Social conflicts resolution and peace building skills.
66 The existed curriculum contains materials for social conflicts resolution and peace building.
67 Hidden curriculum promotes environment and attitudes, which exerts influence over the transmitting of the social conflicts.
68 Education department arrange workshops about the conflicts and social Conflicts resolution.
69 Educators conduct dialogues among the students about the Social
170
conflicts resolution and peace building. 70 Education develops analytical skills which help in social conflicts
resolution.
71 Educators teach the values of respect, tolerance and understanding. 72 Educators foster the knowledge, practical skills and attitudes about
the Social Conflicts resolution and peace.
73 Community programs about the social conflicts resolution and peacebuilding are conducted by the education department.
74 Education promotes democratic attitude in individuals. 75 Quality education builds peace in the society.
171
APPENDIX B -2
ROLE OF EDUCATION IN THE SOCIAL CONFLICTS RESOLUTION
AND PEACE BUILDING AT SECONDARY LEVEL IN KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA
Questionnaire for Teacher
Respected Sir, The researcher is going to investigate “Role of Education in the Social Conflicts Resolution and Peace Building at secondary level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa”. You are requested to fill the following questionnaire for the development of new knowledge in the field of Education. Kindly tick any one of the following options:
Agree Disagree
Name:________________________________ Designation: ____________________
Academic Qualification: _______________ Professional Qualification: ___________
Exp in Years: ________ School: ______________________Mob no: _____________
Khalid Iqbal, Ph.D. Scholar, Northern University, Nowshera
CONFLICTS
S.No Statements Agreed Disagreed
STRUCTURAL 1 Social conflicts are natural part of the life, every one experiences it. 2 In social conflicts disagreement exists between the parties. 3 Shared sources cause social conflicts. 4 Most of the Social conflicts may arise in members of the same group 5 An individualistic trend in our society creates social conflicts. 6 Social conflicts may arise due to the abuse of power. 7 Social conflicts arise with incompatibilities of needs. 8 Social conflicts arise over psychological needs. 9 Social conflict leads to violence in society.
BEHAVOURIAL 10 Misunderstanding leads to social conflicts. 11 Poor communication is the main reason of the social conflicts. 12 Differences in opinions cause social conflicts.
172
13 Discriminatory attitude leads to social conflicts. 14 Emotional aggression creates social conflicts. 15 Differences of goals among the members of the society create social
conflicts.
16 Abuse of law leads to social conflicts in society. 17 Competitive behavior causes social conflicts. 18 Lake of tolerance creates social conflicts. 19 Ignorance breads social conflicts.
VALUES 20 Social conflicts are due to cultural differences. 21 Religious extremism causes social conflicts. 22 Poor democratic structure is one of the causes of Social conflicts in our
society.
23 Lack of moral education breads social conflicts. 24 Conservative thinking creates social conflicts in our society. 25 Class system in society is the root cause of social conflicts. 26 Poverty in our society is the main cause of the social conflicts. 27 Ideological differences create social conflicts. 28 Gender discrimination is the cause of creating social conflicts. 29 Economic disparity leads to social conflicts. 30 Injustice in our society is one of the causes of social conflicts. 31 Sectarianism is the root cause of social conflicts.
CONFLICTS RESOLUTION AND PEACEBUILDING
S.No Statements Agreed Disagreed
STRUCTURAL
32 Social conflicts begin in the mind of the men, so peace should begin in the mind of child.
33 Social conflicts resolution is comprehensive social process that requires proper training.
34 Social conflict resolution requires understandings of the very nature of the social conflicts.
35 Negotiation helps to make soften the social conflicts. 36 Social conflict resolution is critical to peace building. 37 For social Conflict resolution individual has to seek mutual agreement on
the issues.
38 Observance of law leads to create peace in society.
BEHAVOURIAL
39 Improving relationships among the disputants resolve the social conflicts. 40 Compassion leads to resolving the Social conflicts. 41 Adaptation of cooperative behavior helps in the social conflict resolution
and peace building.
42 Control on the emotions helps in the Social Conflict resolution and peace building.
43 Compromising attitudes are adopted in resolving the social conflicts. 44 Self awareness plays key role in the social conflicts resolution process. 45 Reconciliation is helpful in resolving the social conflicts.
173
46 Political stability leads to the social conflicts resolution and peace building. 47 Non-violent behavior of the citizen helps in social conflict resolution and
peacebuilding process.
VALUES 48 Tolerance among the individuals controls social conflicts. 49 Cooperation is helpful in social conflicts resolution. 50 Acceptance in the society leads to resolving the social conflicts. 51 Honest relationship is helpful in social conflicts resolution. 52 Justice helps in eradicating social conflicts in societies. 53 Paying respect to the feelings of others resolve the social conflicts. 54 Religious leaders are helping in social conflicts resolving process. 55 Human rights preservation makes help in peace building.
ROLE OF EDUCATION
S.No Statements Agreed Disagreed 56 Education is the powerful behavioral change agent in the society 57 Highly educated societies are more peaceful. 58 Peace education exists formally in our education system. 59 Education provides long term solution and strategies for Social
conflicts prevention and peace building.
60 Education improves the analytical power of the individuals about the Social conflicts.
61 Education creates positive attitude towards the social conflicts resolution.
62 Education system of Pakistan provides practical skill for social conflicts resolution and peace building.
63 Educators are sensitive about the Social conflicts resolution and peace building.
64 Educators develop awareness about social conflicts and its resolution. 65 Teachers are trained in Social conflicts resolution and peace building
skills.
66 The existed curriculum contains materials for social conflicts resolution and peace building.
67 Hidden curriculum promotes environment and attitudes, which exerts influence over the transmitting of the social conflicts.
68 Education department arrange workshops about the conflicts and social Conflicts resolution.
69 Educators conduct dialogues among the students about the Social conflicts resolution and peace building.
70 Education develops analytical skills which help in social conflicts resolution.
71 Educators teach the values of respect, tolerance and understanding. 72 Educators foster the knowledge, practical skills and attitudes about the
Social Conflicts resolution and peace.
73 Community programs about the social conflicts resolution and peacebuilding are conducted by the education department.
74 Education promotes democratic attitude in individuals. 75 Quality education builds peace in the society.
174
APPENDIX C
LIST OF VISITED SCHOOLS
Listed of Visited Schools District Abbottabad
1. GHS Bagan Abbottabad (R)
2. GHS Sheikh ul Bandi Abbottabad (U)
3. GHS Chando Maira Abbottabad (R)
4. GHS Jhangra Abbottabad (U)
5. GHS Ziarat Abbottabad (R)
6. GHS Kokal Barsin Abbottabad (R)
7. GHS Samundar Khata Abbottabad (U)
8. GHS Havelian Abbottabad (U)
9. GHSS Biroto Abbottabad (R)
10. GHSS Nagri Bala Abbottabad (U)
Listed of Visited Schools District Mardan
1. GHS Gaddar Mardan (R)
2. GHS Bickt Gunj Mardan (U)
3. GHS Shamoozai Mardan (R)
4. GHS Jamal Garhi Mardan (R)
5. GHS Sawel Dher Mardan (R)
6. GHS No.2 Mardan (U)
7. GCMS Bank road Mardan (U)
8. GCMS No. 3 Mardan (U)
9. GHSS No.1 Mardan (U)
10. GHSS Fatima Mardan (R)
175
Listed of Visited Schools District Peshawar
1. GHS Bada Bara Peshawar (R)
2. GHS Civil Quarter Peshawar (U)
3. GHS Landi Arbab Peshawar (U)
4. GHS Nanak Pura Peshawar (U)
5. GHS Rashid Ghari Peshawar (R)
6. GHSS Daag Peshawar (R)
7. GHSS No.4 Kakshal Peshawar (U)
8. GHSS Sama Badabera Peshawar (R)
9. GHSS Wazir Bagh Peshawar (R)
10. GSHSHSS No. 1 Peshawar city (U)
Listed of Visited Schools District Swat
1. GHS Chitor Swat (R)
2. GHS Ghaligay Swat (R)
3. GHS Kabal Swat (U)
4. GHS Kokarai Swat (R)
5. GHS Udigram Swat (R)
6. GHS Jambil Swat (R)
7. GHS Mangora No.2 Swat (U)
8. GHS Shagai Swat (U)
9. GHSS Balogram Swat (U)
10. GHSS Mangora No.3 Swat (U)
Listed of Visited Schools District Kohat
1. GHS No. 2 Kohat (U)
2. GHS No. 3 Kohat (U)
176
3. GHS Lal Gari Kohat (R)
4. GHS Naknand Kohat (R)
5. GHS Kharmato Kohat (R)
6. GHS Ghurazai Kohat (U)
7. GHS Sheikhan Kohat (R)
8. GHSS No. 1 Kohat (U)
9. GHSS Bilitong Kohat (R)
10. GCHS Kohat Kohat (U)
Listed of Visited Schools District Swabi
1. GHS Beesak Swabi (R)
2. GHS Topi Swabi (U)
3. GHS Kotta Swabi (U)
4. GHS Kalabat Swabi (U)
5. GHS Mani Swabi (U)
6. GHS Golo Dheri Swabi (R)
7. GHS Pehur Hamlit Swabi (R)
8. GHS Sher dara Swabi (R)
9. GHS Panjpir Swabi (U)
10. GHS Malik Abad Swabi (R)
Listed of Visited Schools District Nowshera
1. GHS Aman Garh Nowshera (R)
2. GHS AC Center Nowshera (U)
3. GHS Daag Besoud Nowshera (R)
4. GHS No.2 Nowshera (U)
5. GHS Khat Killi Nowshera (U)
177
6. GHS Labour colony Nowshera (U)
7. GHS Mughlki Nowshera (R)
8. GHS Pabbi Nowshera (U)
9. GHS Pirpiai Nowshera (R)
10. GHS Wazir Ghari Nowshera (R)
Listed of Visited D I Khan
1. GHS Jatta D I Khan (R)
2. GHS Baber kacha D I Khan (R)
3. GHS Gara Rashid D I Khan (R)
4. GHS Naivela D I Khan (R)
5. GHS No.5 D I Khan (U)
6. GHS No.6 D I Khan (U)
7. GHS Prowa D I Khan (R)
8. GHSS Muryali D I Khan (U)
9. GHSS No.2 D I Khan (U)
10. GHSS No.3 D I Khan (U)
178
APPENDIX D
CRITICAL VALUES OF THE X 2 DISTRIBUTION
Probability of the Chi-Square [P (X 2)]
df 0.995 0.975 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.005
1 0.000 0.000 0.016 0.455 2.706 3.841 5.024 6.635 7.879
2 0.010 0.051 0.211 1.386 4.605 5.991 7.378 9.210 10.597
3 0.072 0.216 0.584 2.366 6.251 7.815 9.348 11.345 12.838
4 0.207 0.484 1.064 3.357 7.779 9.488 11.143 13.277 14.860
5 0.412 0.831 1.610 4.351 0.236 11.070 12.832 15.086 16.750
6 0.676 1.237 2.402 5.348 10.645 12.592 14.449 16.812 18.548
7 0.989 1.690 2.833 6.346 12.017 14.067 16.013 18.475 20.278
8 1.344 2.180 3.490 7.344 13.362 15.507 17.535 20.090 21.955
9 1.735 2.700 4.168 8.343 14.684 16.919 19.023 21.666 23.589
10 2.156 3.247 4.865 9.342 15.987 18.307 20.483 23.209 25.188
179
APPENDIX E
VALUES OF THE T-DISTRIBUTION (TWO-TAILED)
DF A P
0.80 0.20
0.90 0.10
0.95 0.05
0.98 0.02
0.99 0.01
0.995 0.005
0.998 0.002
0.999 0.001
1 3.078 6.314 12.706 31.820 63.657 127.321 318.309 636.619 2 1.886 2.920 4.303 6.965 9.925 14.089 22.327 31.599 3 1.638 2.353 3.182 4.541 5.841 7.453 10.215 12.924 4 1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604 5.598 7.173 8.610 5 1.476 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032 4.773 5.893 6.869 6 1.440 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707 4.317 5.208 5.959 7 1.415 1.895 2.365 2.998 3.499 4.029 4.785 5.408 8 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.897 3.355 3.833 4.501 5.041 9 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.250 3.690 4.297 4.781
10 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169 3.581 4.144 4.587 11 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106 3.497 4.025 4.437 12 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055 3.428 3.930 4.318 13 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012 3.372 3.852 4.221 14 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.625 2.977 3.326 3.787 4.140 15 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947 3.286 3.733 4.073 16 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.584 2.921 3.252 3.686 4.015 17 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.567 2.898 3.222 3.646 3.965 18 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878 3.197 3.610 3.922 19 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861 3.174 3.579 3.883 20 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845 3.153 3.552 3.850 21 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.518 2.831 3.135 3.527 3.819 22 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.819 3.119 3.505 3.792 23 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.500 2.807 3.104 3.485 3.768 24 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.492 2.797 3.090 3.467 3.745 25 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787 3.078 3.450 3.725 26 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.479 2.779 3.067 3.435 3.707 27 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.473 2.771 3.057 3.421 3.690 28 1.313 1.701 2.048 2.467 2.763 3.047 3.408 3.674 29 1.311 1.699 2.045 2.462 2.756 3.038 3.396 3.659 30 1.310 1.697 2.042 2.457 2.750 3.030 3.385 3.646 31 1.309 1.695 2.040 2.453 2.744 3.022 3.375 3.633 32 1.309 1.694 2.037 2.449 2.738 3.015 3.365 3.622 33 1.308 1.692 2.035 2.445 2.733 3.008 3.356 3.611 34 1.307 1.691 2.032 2.441 2.728 3.002 3.348 3.601 35 1.306 1.690 2.030 2.438 2.724 2.996 3.340 3.591 36 1.306 1.688 2.028 2.434 2.719 2.991 3.333 3.582 37 1.305 1.687 2.026 2.431 2.715 2.985 3.326 3.574 38 1.304 1.686 2.024 2.429 2.712 2.980 3.319 3.566 39 1.304 1.685 2.023 2.426 2.708 2.976 3.313 3.558 40 1.303 1.684 2.021 2.423 2.704 2.971 3.307 3.551 42 1.302 1.682 2.018 2.418 2.698 2.963 3.296 3.538
180
44 1.301 1.680 2.015 2.414 2.692 2.956 3.286 3.526 46 1.300 1.679 2.013 2.410 2.687 2.949 3.277 3.515 48 1.299 1.677 2.011 2.407 2.682 2.943 3.269 3.505 50 1.299 1.676 2.009 2.403 2.678 2.937 3.261 3.496 60 1.296 1.671 2.000 2.390 2.660 2.915 3.232 3.460 70 1.294 1.667 1.994 2.381 2.648 2.899 3.211 3.435
80 1.292 1.664 1.990 2.374 2.639 2.887 3.195 3.416
90 1.291 1.662 1.987 2.369 2.632 2.878 3.183 3.402
100 1.290 1.660 1.984 2.364 2.626 2.871 3.174 3.391
120 1.289 1.658 1.980 2.358 2.617 2.860 3.160 3.373
150 1.287 1.655 1.976 2.351 2.609 2.849 3.145 3.357
200 1.286 1.652 1.972 2.345 2.601 2.839 3.131 3.340
300 1.284 1.650 1.968 2.339 2.592 2.828 3.118 3.323
500 1.283 1.648 1.965 2.334 2.586 2.820 3.107 3.310
1.282 1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576 2.807 3.090 3.291
181
APPENDIX F
SPSS SPREAD SHEET OF CALCULATING COMPARISON
Group Statistics
Respondents N Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
Social conflicts are natural part of the life, every one experiences it. HEADS 80 1.02 .157 .018
TEACHERS 560 1.03 .167 .007
In social conflicts disagreement exists between the parties. HEADS 80 1.08 .265 .030
TEACHERS 560 1.11 .307 .013
Shared sources cause social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.15 .359 .040
TEACHERS 560 1.17 .377 .016
Most of the Social conflicts may arise in members of the same group HEADS 80 1.30 .461 .052
TEACHERS 560 1.27 .446 .019
An individualistic trend in our society creates social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.11 .318 .036
TEACHERS 560 1.13 .339 .014
Social conflicts may arise due to the abuse of power. HEADS 80 1.10 .302 .034
TEACHERS 560 1.12 .321 .014
Social conflicts arise with incompatibilities of needs. HEADS 80 1.08 .265 .030
TEACHERS 560 1.19 .389 .016
Social conflicts arise over psychological needs. HEADS 80 1.35 .480 .054
TEACHERS 560 1.22 .416 .018
Social conflict leads to violence in society. HEADS 80 1.04 .191 .021
TEACHERS 560 1.06 .236 .010
Misunderstanding leads to social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.25 .436 .049
TEACHERS 560 1.16 .371 .016
Poor communication is the main reason of the social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.31 .466 .052
TEACHERS 560 1.27 .446 .019
Differences in opinions cause social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.08 .265 .030
TEACHERS 560 1.16 .363 .015
Discriminatory attitude leads to social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.08 .265 .030
TEACHERS 560 1.07 .255 .011
Emotional aggression creates social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.15 .359 .040
TEACHERS 560 1.13 .335 .014
182
Differences of goals among the members of the society create social
conflicts.
HEADS 80 1.25 .436 .049
TEACHERS 560 1.27 .446 .019
Abuse of law leads to social conflicts in society. HEADS 80 1.06 .244 .027
TEACHERS 560 1.08 .272 .011
Competitive behavior causes social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.29 .455 .051
TEACHERS 560 1.29 .455 .019
Lack of tolerance creates social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.11 .318 .036
TEACHERS 560 1.10 .298 .013
Ignorance breads social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.09 .284 .032
TEACHERS 560 1.09 .293 .012
Social conflicts are due to cultural differences. HEADS 80 1.25 .436 .049
TEACHERS 560 1.27 .446 .019
Religious extremism causes social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.14 .347 .039
TEACHERS 560 1.15 .359 .015
Poor democratic structure is one of the causes of Social conflicts in
our society.
HEADS 80 1.16 .371 .042
TEACHERS 560 1.18 .388 .016
Lack of moral education breads social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.04 .191 .021
TEACHERS 560 1.06 .239 .010
Conservative thinking creates social conflicts in our society. HEADS 80 1.26 .443 .050
TEACHERS 560 1.22 .413 .017
Class system in society is the root cause of social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.11 .318 .036
TEACHERS 560 1.13 .341 .014
Poverty in our society is the main cause of the social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.20 .403 .045
TEACHERS 560 1.22 .413 .017
Ideological differences create social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.18 .382 .043
TEACHERS 560 1.21 .404 .017
Gender discrimination is the cause of creating social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.25 .436 .049
TEACHERS 560 1.22 .416 .018
Economic disparity leads to social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.06 .244 .027
TEACHERS 560 1.12 .321 .014
Injustice in our society is one of the causes of social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.02 .157 .018
TEACHERS 560 1.03 .167 .007
Sectarianism is the root cause of social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.19 .393 .044
TEACHERS 560 1.15 .357 .015
183
Social conflicts begin in the mind of the men, so peace should begin
in the mind of child.
HEADS 80 1.09 .284 .032
TEACHERS 560 1.10 .295 .012
Social conflicts resolution is comprehensive social process that
requires proper training.
HEADS 80 1.16 .371 .042
TEACHERS 560 1.19 .393 .017
Social conflict resolution requires understandings of the very nature
of the social conflicts.
HEADS 80 1.15 .359 .040
TEACHERS 560 1.12 .323 .014
Negotiation helps to make soften the social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.08 .265 .030
TEACHERS 560 1.10 .295 .012
Social conflict resolution is critical to peace building. HEADS 80 1.11 .318 .036
TEACHERS 560 1.12 .321 .014
For social Conflict resolution individual has to seek mutual
agreement on the issues.
HEADS 80 1.09 .284 .032
TEACHERS 560 1.11 .318 .013
Observance of law leads to create peace in society. HEADS 80 1.04 .191 .021
TEACHERS 560 1.06 .242 .010
Improving relationships among the disputants resolve the social
conflicts.
HEADS 80 1.08 .265 .030
TEACHERS 560 1.07 .252 .011
Compassion leads to resolving the Social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.11 .318 .036
TEACHERS 560 1.10 .300 .013
Adaptation of cooperative behavior helps in the social conflict
resolution and peace building.
HEADS 80 1.04 .191 .021
TEACHERS 560 1.06 .242 .010
Control on the emotions helps in the Social Conflict resolution and
peace building.
HEADS 80 1.02 .157 .018
TEACHERS 560 1.07 .252 .011
Compromising attitudes are adopted in resolving the social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.10 .302 .034
TEACHERS 560 1.13 .335 .014
Self awareness plays key role in the social conflicts resolution
process.
HEADS 80 1.14 .347 .039
TEACHERS 560 1.13 .341 .014
Reconciliation is helpful in resolving the social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.08 .265 .030
TEACHERS 560 1.11 .310 .013
Political stability leads to the social conflicts resolution and peace
building.
HEADS 80 1.22 .420 .047
TEACHERS 560 1.12 .325 .014
Non-violent behavior of the citizen helps in social conflict resolution
and peacebuilding process.
HEADS 80 1.02 .157 .018
TEACHERS 560 1.08 .272 .011
Tolerance among the individuals controls social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.06 .244 .027
TEACHERS 560 1.04 .199 .008
184
Cooperation is helpful in social conflicts resolution. HEADS 80 1.04 .191 .021
TEACHERS 560 1.04 .190 .008
Acceptance in the society leads to resolving the social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.18 .382 .043
TEACHERS 560 1.11 .310 .013
Honest relationship is helpful in social conflicts resolution. HEADS 80 1.06 .244 .027
TEACHERS 560 1.06 .245 .010
Justice helps in eradicating social conflicts in societies. HEADS 80 1.05 .219 .025
TEACHERS 560 1.04 .199 .008
Paying respect to the feelings of others resolve the social conflicts. HEADS 80 1.11 .318 .036
TEACHERS 560 1.12 .329 .014
Religious leaders are helping in social conflicts resolving process. HEADS 80 1.44 .499 .056
TEACHERS 560 1.40 .491 .021
Human rights preservation makes help in peace building. HEADS 80 1.11 .318 .036
TEACHERS 560 1.12 .321 .014
Education is the powerful behavioral change agent in the society HEADS 80 1.09 .284 .032
TEACHERS 560 1.08 .278 .012
Highly educated societies are more peaceful. HEADS 80 1.19 .393 .044
TEACHERS 560 1.17 .377 .016
Peace education exists formally in our education system. HEADS 80 1.56 .499 .056
TEACHERS 560 1.52 .500 .021
Education provides long term solution and strategies for Social
conflicts prevention and peace building.
HEADS 80 1.16 .371 .042
TEACHERS 560 1.13 .335 .014
Education improves the analytical power of the individuals about the
Social conflicts.
HEADS 80 1.04 .191 .021
TEACHERS 560 1.06 .236 .010
Education creates positive attitude towards the social conflicts
resolution.
HEADS 80 1.05 .219 .025
TEACHERS 560 1.06 .236 .010
Education system of Pakistan provides practical skill for social
conflicts resolution and peace building.
HEADS 80 1.86 .347 .039
TEACHERS 560 1.79 .411 .017
Educators are sensitive about the Social conflicts resolution and
peace building.
HEADS 80 1.46 .502 .056
TEACHERS 560 1.42 .494 .021
Educators develop awareness about social conflicts and its
resolution.
HEADS 80 1.39 .490 .055
TEACHERS 560 1.37 .482 .020
Teachers are trained in Social conflicts resolution and peace
building skills.
HEADS 80 1.86 .347 .039
TEACHERS 560 1.81 .395 .017
185
The existed curriculum contains materials for social conflicts
resolution and peace building.
HEADS 80 1.86 .347 .039
TEACHERS 560 1.70 .458 .019
Hidden curriculum promotes environment and attitudes, which
exerts influence over the transmitting of the social conflicts.
HEADS 80 1.39 .490 .055
TEACHERS 558 1.42 .494 .021
Education department arrange workshops about the conflicts and
social Conflicts resolution.
HEADS 80 1.84 .371 .042
TEACHERS 560 1.82 .382 .016
Educators conduct dialogues among the students about the Social
conflicts resolution and peace building.
HEADS 80 1.76 .428 .048
TEACHERS 560 1.80 .400 .017
Education develops analytical skills which help in social conflicts
resolution.
HEADS 80 1.18 .382 .043
TEACHERS 560 1.22 .414 .018
Educators teach the values of respect, tolerance and understanding. HEADS 80 1.16 .371 .042
TEACHERS 560 1.14 .345 .015
Educators foster the knowledge, practical skills and attitudes about
the Social Conflicts resolution and peace.
HEADS 80 1.55 .501 .056
TEACHERS 560 1.43 .496 .021
Community programs about the social conflicts resolution and
peacebuilding are conducted by the education department.
HEADS 80 1.81 .393 .044
TEACHERS 560 1.78 .413 .017
Education promotes democratic attitude in individuals. HEADS 80 1.12 .333 .037
TEACHERS 560 1.14 .347 .015
Quality education builds peace in the society. HEADS 80 1.02 .157 .018
TEACHERS 558 1.03 .157 .007
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean Difference
Std. Error Difference
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
Social conflicts are natural part of the life, every one experiences it.
Equal variances assumed .131 .717 -.180 638 .857 -.004 .020 -.042 .035
Equal variances not assumed -.189 106.083 .851 -.004 .019 -.041 .034
In social conflicts disagreement exists between the parties.
Equal variances assumed 2.998 .084 -.840 638 .401 -.030 .036 -.101 .041
Equal variances not assumed -.938 111.668 .350 -.030 .032 -.094 .034
Shared sources cause social conflicts. Equal variances assumed .960 .328 -.478 638 .633 -.021 .045 -.109 .067
Equal variances not assumed -.496 105.464 .621 -.021 .043 -.107 .064
Most of the Social conflicts may arise in members of the same group
Equal variances assumed .913 .340 .500 638 .617 .027 .054 -.078 .132
Equal variances not assumed .488 101.269 .627 .027 .055 -.082 .136
An individualistic trend in our society creates social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed .994 .319 -.489 638 .625 -.020 .040 -.099 .059
Equal variances not assumed -.513 106.333 .609 -.020 .038 -.096 .056
186
Social conflicts may arise due to the abuse of power.
Equal variances assumed .737 .391 -.422 638 .673 -.016 .038 -.091 .059
Equal variances not assumed -.442 106.116 .659 -.016 .036 -.088 .056
Social conflicts arise with incompatibilities of needs.
Equal variances assumed 31.940 .000 -2.46 638 .014 -.111 .045 -.199 -.022
Equal variances not assumed -3.26 133.382 .001 -.111 .034 -.178 -.044
Social conflicts arise over psychological needs.
Equal variances assumed 17.161 .000 2.537 638 .011 .129 .051 .029 .228
Equal variances not assumed 2.277 96.670 .025 .129 .056 .017 .241
Social conflict leads to violence in society.
Equal variances assumed 2.514 .113 -.777 638 .437 -.021 .028 -.076 .033
Equal variances not assumed -.909 116.258 .365 -.021 .024 -.068 .025
Misunderstanding leads to social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 11.722 .001 1.890 638 .059 .086 .045 -.003 .175
Equal variances not assumed 1.675 96.051 .097 .086 .051 -.016 .187
Poor communication is the main reason of the social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 1.871 .172 .733 638 .464 .039 .054 -.066 .145
Equal variances not assumed .708 100.743 .480 .039 .055 -.071 .149
Differences in opinions cause social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 17.555 .000 -1.91 638 .057 -.080 .042 -.163 .002
Equal variances not assumed -2.40 125.612 .017 -.080 .033 -.146 -.014
Discriminatory attitude leads to social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed .121 .728 .175 638 .861 .005 .031 -.055 .065
Equal variances not assumed .170 100.982 .865 .005 .032 -.057 .068
Emotional aggression creates social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 1.078 .300 .530 638 .596 .021 .040 -.058 .101
Equal variances not assumed .503 99.623 .616 .021 .043 -.063 .106
Differences of goals among the members of the society create social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed .822 .365 -.437 638 .662 -.023 .053 -.128 .081
Equal variances not assumed -.444 104.087 .658 -.023 .052 -.127 .080
Abuse of law leads to social conflicts in society.
Equal variances assumed 1.278 .259 -.556 638 .578 -.018 .032 -.081 .045
Equal variances not assumed -.604 109.182 .547 -.018 .030 -.076 .041
Competitive behavior causes social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed .017 .895 -.066 638 .948 -.004 .054 -.110 .103
Equal variances not assumed -.066 102.800 .948 -.004 .054 -.112 .104
Lack of tolerance creates social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed .617 .433 .398 638 .691 .014 .036 -.056 .085
Equal variances not assumed .379 99.827 .706 .014 .038 -.061 .089
Ignorance breads social conflicts. Equal variances assumed .170 .680 -.205 638 .838 -.007 .035 -.076 .061
Equal variances not assumed -.209 104.441 .835 -.007 .034 -.075 .061
Social conflicts are due to cultural differences.
Equal variances assumed .822 .365 -.437 638 .662 -.023 .053 -.128 .081
Equal variances not assumed -.444 104.087 .658 -.023 .052 -.127 .080
Religious extremism causes social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed .461 .497 -.334 638 .738 -.014 .043 -.098 .070
Equal variances not assumed -.343 104.752 .732 -.014 .042 -.097 .068
Poor democratic structure is one of the causes of Social conflicts in our society.
Equal variances assumed .909 .341 -.465 638 .642 -.021 .046 -.112 .069
Equal variances not assumed -.480 105.185 .632 -.021 .045 -.110 .067
Lack of moral education breads social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 2.887 .090 -.831 638 .406 -.023 .028 -.078 .032
Equal variances not assumed -.982 117.392 .328 -.023 .024 -.070 .024
Conservative thinking creates social conflicts in our society.
Equal variances assumed 2.838 .093 .896 638 .371 .045 .050 -.053 .143
Equal variances not assumed .850 99.658 .397 .045 .052 -.060 .149
Class system in society is the root cause of social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 1.176 .279 -.530 638 .596 -.021 .040 -.101 .058
Equal variances not assumed -.559 106.664 .578 -.021 .038 -.097 .055
Poverty in our society is the main cause of the social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed .552 .458 -.363 638 .717 -.018 .049 -.115 .079
Equal variances not assumed -.370 104.236 .712 -.018 .048 -.114 .078
187
Ideological differences create social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 1.726 .189 -.632 638 .527 -.030 .048 -.125 .064
Equal variances not assumed -.659 105.872 .511 -.030 .046 -.122 .061
Gender discrimination is the cause of creating social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 1.208 .272 .572 638 .568 .029 .050 -.070 .127
Equal variances not assumed .552 100.624 .582 .029 .052 -.074 .131
Economic disparity leads to social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 9.233 .002 -1.43 638 .151 -.054 .037 -.127 .020
Equal variances not assumed -1.76 121.882 .081 -.054 .030 -.114 .007
Injustice in our society is one of the causes of social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed .131 .717 -.180 638 .857 -.004 .020 -.042 .035
Equal variances not assumed -.189 106.083 .851 -.004 .019 -.041 .034
Sectarianism is the root cause of social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 2.774 .096 .867 638 .386 .038 .043 -.047 .122
Equal variances not assumed .808 98.598 .421 .038 .046 -.055 .130
Social conflicts begin in the mind of the men, so peace should begin in the mind of child.
Equal variances assumed .262 .609 -.254 638 .800 -.009 .035 -.078 .060
Equal variances not assumed -.261 104.893 .794 -.009 .034 -.077 .059
Social conflicts resolution is comprehensive social process that requires proper training.
Equal variances assumed 1.603 .206 -.612 638 .541 -.029 .047 -.120 .063
Equal variances not assumed -.639 106.009 .524 -.029 .045 -.117 .060
Social conflict resolution requires understandings of the very nature of the social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 2.536 .112 .821 638 .412 .032 .039 -.045 .109
Equal variances not assumed .758 98.073 .450 .032 .042 -.052 .116
Negotiation helps to make soften the social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 1.573 .210 -.614 638 .539 -.021 .035 -.090 .047
Equal variances not assumed -.666 109.047 .507 -.021 .032 -.085 .042
Social conflict resolution is critical to peace building.
Equal variances assumed .035 .852 -.093 638 .926 -.004 .038 -.079 .072
Equal variances not assumed -.094 103.304 .925 -.004 .038 -.079 .072
For social Conflict resolution individual has to seek mutual agreement on the issues.
Equal variances assumed 2.144 .144 -.713 638 .476 -.027 .038 -.101 .047
Equal variances not assumed -.776 109.348 .439 -.027 .035 -.095 .042
Observance of law leads to create peace in society.
Equal variances assumed 3.278 .071 -.884 638 .377 -.025 .028 -.081 .031
Equal variances not assumed -1.05 118.525 .294 -.025 .024 -.072 .022
Improving relationships among the disputants resolve the social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed .220 .639 .236 638 .814 .007 .030 -.052 .067
Equal variances not assumed .227 100.435 .821 .007 .031 -.055 .070
Compassion leads to resolving the Social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed .467 .495 .346 638 .730 .012 .036 -.059 .084
Equal variances not assumed .331 100.180 .741 .012 .038 -.062 .087
Adaptation of cooperative behavior helps in the social conflict resolution and peace building.
Equal variances assumed 3.278 .071 -.884 638 .377 -.025 .028 -.081 .031
Equal variances not assumed -1.05 118.525 .294 -.025 .024 -.072 .022
Control on the emotions helps in the Social Conflict resolution and peace building.
Equal variances assumed 9.568 .002 -1.48 638 .139 -.043 .029 -.100 .014
Equal variances not assumed -2.08 144.816 .039 -.043 .021 -.083 -.002
Compromising attitudes are adopted in resolving the social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 2.212 .137 -.722 638 .471 -.029 .040 -.106 .049
Equal variances not assumed -.781 108.767 .437 -.029 .037 -.101 .044
Self awareness plays key role in the social conflicts resolution process.
Equal variances assumed .030 .862 .087 638 .930 .004 .041 -.077 .084
Equal variances not assumed .086 102.073 .931 .004 .041 -.078 .086
Reconciliation is helpful in resolving the social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 3.329 .069 -.883 638 .377 -.032 .036 -.104 .039
Equal variances not assumed -.992 112.188 .323 -.032 .032 -.096 .032
Political stability leads to the social conflicts resolution and peace building.
Equal variances assumed 22.206 .000 2.607 638 .009 .105 .040 .026 .185
Equal variances not assumed 2.153 92.968 .034 .105 .049 .008 .203
188
Non-violent behavior of the citizen helps in social conflict resolution and peace-building process.
Equal variances assumed 14.175 .000 -1.77 638 .076 -.055 .031 -.117 .006
Equal variances not assumed -2.63 157.124 .009 -.055 .021 -.097 -.014
Tolerance among the individuals controls social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 2.973 .085 .876 638 .382 .021 .024 -.027 .069
Equal variances not assumed .752 94.601 .454 .021 .028 -.035 .078
Cooperation is helpful in social conflicts resolution.
Equal variances assumed .000 1.000 .000 638 1.000 .000 .023 -.045 .045
Equal variances not assumed .000 102.617 1.000 .000 .023 -.045 .045
Acceptance in the society leads to resolving the social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 11.169 .001 1.777 638 .076 .068 .038 -.007 .143
Equal variances not assumed 1.518 94.371 .132 .068 .045 -.021 .157
Honest relationship is helpful in social conflicts resolution.
Equal variances assumed .015 .903 -.061 638 .951 -.002 .029 -.059 .056
Equal variances not assumed -.061 103.279 .951 -.002 .029 -.060 .056
Justice helps in eradicating social conflicts in societies.
Equal variances assumed .543 .461 .371 638 .711 .009 .024 -.038 .056
Equal variances not assumed .344 98.408 .731 .009 .026 -.043 .060
Paying respect to the feelings of others resolve the social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed .306 .580 -.274 638 .784 -.011 .039 -.088 .066
Equal variances not assumed -.281 104.662 .780 -.011 .038 -.086 .065
Religious leaders are helping in social conflicts resolving process.
Equal variances assumed .976 .324 .577 638 .564 .034 .059 -.082 .149
Equal variances not assumed .570 102.074 .570 .034 .060 -.084 .152
Human rights preservation makes help in peace building.
Equal variances assumed .035 .852 -.093 638 .926 -.004 .038 -.079 .072
Equal variances not assumed -.094 103.304 .925 -.004 .038 -.079 .072
Education is the powerful behavioral change agent in the society
Equal variances assumed .046 .831 .107 638 .915 .004 .033 -.062 .069
Equal variances not assumed .105 101.698 .916 .004 .034 -.064 .071
Highly educated societies are more peaceful.
Equal variances assumed .485 .486 .355 638 .723 .016 .045 -.073 .105
Equal variances not assumed .344 100.943 .732 .016 .047 -.077 .109
Peace education exists formally in our education system.
Equal variances assumed 4.731 .030 .747 638 .455 .045 .060 -.073 .162
Equal variances not assumed .748 102.980 .456 .045 .060 -.074 .163
Education provides long term solution and strategies for Social conflicts prevention and peace building.
Equal variances assumed 2.611 .107 .836 638 .404 .034 .041 -.046 .114
Equal variances not assumed .774 98.264 .441 .034 .044 -.053 .121
Education improves the analytical power of the individuals about the Social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 2.514 .113 -.777 638 .437 -.021 .028 -.076 .033
Equal variances not assumed -.909 116.258 .365 -.021 .024 -.068 .025
Education creates positive attitude towards the social conflicts resolution.
Equal variances assumed .415 .520 -.320 638 .749 -.009 .028 -.064 .046
Equal variances not assumed -.337 106.809 .737 -.009 .026 -.061 .044
Education system of Pakistan provides practical skill for social conflicts resolution and peace building.
Equal variances assumed 12.371 .000 1.593 638 .112 .077 .048 -.018 .171
Equal variances not assumed 1.809 113.237 .073 .077 .042 -.007 .161
Educators are sensitive about the Social conflicts resolution and peace building.
Equal variances assumed 1.165 .281 .694 638 .488 .041 .059 -.075 .157
Equal variances not assumed .686 102.141 .494 .041 .060 -.078 .160
Educators develop awareness about social conflicts and its resolution.
Equal variances assumed .484 .487 .371 638 .711 .021 .058 -.092 .135
Equal variances not assumed .366 102.065 .715 .021 .058 -.095 .137
Teachers are trained in Social conflicts resolution and peace building skills.
Equal variances assumed 6.480 .011 1.190 638 .235 .055 .047 -.036 .147
Equal variances not assumed 1.312 110.490 .192 .055 .042 -.028 .139
The existed curriculum contains materials for social conflicts resolution and peace building.
Equal variances assumed 61.027 .000 3.018 638 .003 .161 .053 .056 .265
Equal variances not assumed 3.711 122.243 .000 .161 .043 .075 .246
189
Hidden curriculum promotes environment and attitudes, which exerts influence over the transmitting of the social conflicts.
Equal variances assumed 1.698 .193 -.570 636 .569 -.034 .059 -.150 .082
Equal variances not assumed -.574 103.383 .568 -.034 .059 -.150 .083
Education department arrange workshops about the conflicts and social Conflicts resolution.
Equal variances assumed .408 .523 .314 638 .754 .014 .045 -.075 .104
Equal variances not assumed .321 104.345 .749 .014 .045 -.074 .103
Educators conduct dialogues among the students about the Social conflicts resolution and peace building.
Equal variances assumed 2.193 .139 -.777 638 .438 -.038 .048 -.132 .057
Equal variances not assumed -.738 99.740 .462 -.038 .051 -.138 .063
Education develops analytical skills which help in social conflicts resolution.
Equal variances assumed 3.722 .054 -.910 638 .363 -.045 .049 -.141 .052
Equal variances not assumed -.966 107.306 .336 -.045 .046 -.136 .047
Educators teach the values of respect, tolerance and understanding.
Equal variances assumed 1.372 .242 .601 638 .548 .025 .042 -.057 .107
Equal variances not assumed .568 99.443 .571 .025 .044 -.062 .112
Educators foster the knowledge, practical skills and attitudes about the Social Conflicts resolution and peace.
Equal variances assumed .345 .557 2.017 638 .044 .120 .059 .003 .236
Equal variances not assumed 2.002 102.382 .048 .120 .060 .001 .238
Community programs about the social conflicts resolution and peacebuilding are conducted by the education department.
Equal variances assumed 1.656 .199 .618 638 .537 .030 .049 -.066 .127
Equal variances not assumed .642 105.576 .522 .030 .047 -.063 .124
Education promotes democratic attitude in individuals.
Equal variances assumed .495 .482 -.347 638 .729 -.014 .041 -.095 .067
Equal variances not assumed -.357 105.014 .722 -.014 .040 -.094 .065
Quality education builds peace in the society.
Equal variances assumed .000 .992 -.005 636 .996 .000 .019 -.037 .037
Equal variances not assumed -.005 102.793 .996 .000 .019 -.037 .037