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ave you ever been to Rome, Italy? Have you ever seen a picture ofthe famous Colosseum? What do you know about the Roman

Empire? By the second century B.C., Rome had become the greatest power inthe Western world. The Romans were an energetic, practical people, andRoman art reflects these characteristics. Ancient Roman buildings and otherstructures combine function and beauty. They demonstrate the Romans’genius and skill in engineering and architecture. Roman achievements havedirectly influenced the art of modern civilization.

9Roman Art

Read to Find Out Read this chapter to find out about Roman sculp-ture, painting, and architecture. Learn about Roman public buildingsand buildings that were used for recreation.

Focus Activity The Romans admired Greek art and often copiedGreek style. Think of the Greek artwork you learned about in Chapter 8.Look closely at Figure 9.1. Notice the detail in one of the friezes fromthe Ara Pacis altar. What elements in the frieze remind you of Greeksculpture? Do you think Greek sculpture influenced the creation of thefigures in this altar frieze? Divide your paper into two columns. In thefirst column, list the Roman artworks you learn about in this chapter. Inthe second column, list the ways each artwork might be influenced byGreek artwork.

Using the Time Line Notice on the Time Line that the altar men-tioned above was dedicated in 9 B.C. during the Pax Romana. This was a time of peace and prosperity in the Roman world.

H

51 B.C.Cicero, a Roman orator and statesman,writes De republica, a work of political philosophy

44 B.C.Roman dictatorCaesar is murdered

27 B.C.–A.D. 14Reign ofAugustus

1st century B.C.Maison Carrée isbuilt in Nimes,France (detail)

9 B.C.Dedication of theAra Pacis altar(detail)

A.D. 5Roman poetOvid writesMetamorphoses

509–27 B.C.Roman Republic

27 B.C.–A.D. 476Roman Empire

500 B.C. 100 B.C. B.C. A.D.

■ FIGURE 9.1 The Ara Pacis Augustae: The First Family. Frieze from the Altar of Peace. First century B.C. Rome, Italy. Bridgeman Art Gallery.

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A.D. 89–117Roman aqueduct is built in Segovia, Spain (detail)

A.D. 72–80The Colosseum is built in Rome

A.D. 161–180Reign of MarcusAurelius

101–106Trajan’s Conquest

410–476Decline of the Roman Empire

Refer to the Time Lineon page H11 in yourArt Handbook for moreabout this period.

A.D. 118–125The Pantheon isbuilt in Rome

A.D. 100 A.D. 200 A.D. 500

Vocabulary■ mural■ barrel vault■ keystone■ aqueduct

DiscoverAfter completing this lesson,

you will be able to:■ Identify the inspiration for much

of Roman art and architecture.■ Identify the quality Romans

favored in their sculptures andtheir paintings.

■ Name the ways in which Romanartists improved on earlier build-ing processes.

nder the rule of Etruscan kings, Rome grew in size and importance.By the end of the sixth century B.C., it had become the largest and

richest city in Italy. The Romans, however, were never happy underEtruscan rule, and in 509 B.C. they drove the Etruscans from the city andestablished a republic.

The Roman RepublicRidding themselves of the Etruscans did not end Rome’s problems.

Finding themselves surrounded by enemies, the Romans were forced tofight for survival. As nearby enemies were defeated, more distant foestried to conquer the young republic. Rome managed to defend itselfagainst these threats and extended its reach and influence until all of Italywas under its control.

An early victory over Carthage, its chief rival, won Rome its first over-seas province, Sicily. Eventually, Rome controlled territory from Britain inthe west to Mesopotamia in the east (Figure 9.2).

The Greek InfluenceMuch of Roman art was copied

from the Greeks. From the verybeginning, well-born and culturedRomans exhibited a great admirationfor Greek art forms of every periodand style. They imported Greekworks by the shipload and evenbrought Greek artists to Rome towork for them. Generally, it can besaid that the Romans became theheirs of Greek art although they alsomade important contributions of theirown, especially in the developmentof architecture.

Roman Sculpture and Painting

In sculpture and painting, Romanworks reflect the tremendous influ-ence exerted by earlier Greek artists.

The Rising Power of Rome

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Gaul

Spain

AFRICA

Egypt

Pale

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SyriaGreece

Italy

Britain

ASIA MINOR

Hadrian’s Wall

N

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SW

Rome

ActiumCarthage

End of Punic Wars, 146 B.C.

At Caesar’s death, 44 B.C.

At Augustus’s death, A.D. 14Greatest extent of empire, A.D. 130Battle site

0° 15°E 30°E 45°E15°W55°N

45°N

35°N

RhineR

iver

Danub e River

Nile

River

NorthSea

ATLANTICOCEAN

Black Sea

Mediterranean Sea

Adriatic Sea

Roman Empire

MAP SKILLS■ FIGURE 9.2 Notice the wide area influenced by ancient Rome.From this map, what can you conclude about the power and theorganization of the Roman Empire?

LESSON ONE

U

Portrait SculptureA desire for lifelike portraits can be traced

back to the earliest period of Rome’s history.At that time, wax masks of deceased familymembers were made to be carried in funeralprocessions and displayed in small shrines inthe home. Masks made of wax were not per-manent, though, and a more durable materialwas sought. Marble and other kinds of stonewere found especially suitable. Soon artistswho could carve portraits from these materi-als were in great demand.

Differences Between Greek and Roman Sculpture

Many of the sculptors who worked in Romecame from Greece. These artists worked in theGreek tradition but adapted that tradition tomeet Roman demands. The Greeks preferredidealistic portraits; the Romans wanted theirsto look more realistic. Perhaps this wasbecause most Greek portraits were designed forpublic monuments, whereas Roman portraitswere meant to serve private needs.

The Romans wanted their sculptures toremind viewers of specific individuals. Thisexplains why most Roman portraits seem sonatural and lifelike. The Romans felt that aperson’s character could best be shownthrough facial features and expressions.Therefore, they often commissioned portraitheads rather than sculptures of the entirefigure. The Greeks, in contrast, considereda sculpture of a head or bust (head andshoulders) incomplete.

Double Portrait■ FIGURE 9.3

A Roman portrait sculpture creates thefeeling that the viewer is looking at a realperson. So much so, in fact, that the figureportrayed may even look familiar. If you sawthe couple in Figure 9.3 on the street andthey were wearing modern clothing, youmight walk right past them without noticing.Like all Roman portrait sculptures, this workis an exact duplicate of real people withall their wrinkles and imperfections and

expressions, which suggest their personali-ties and character.

Mural PaintingWealthy Roman families lived in luxurious

homes with courtyards, gardens with elabo-rate fountains, rooms with marble walls andmosaics on the floors, and numerous worksof art. They did not, however, like to hangpaintings on the walls of their homes.Instead, they hired artists to paint murals.(See Figure 9.1, page 190.) A mural is a largepicture painted directly on the wall. Theartists who painted these murals tried toreproduce the world around them as accu-rately as possible. They painted landscapesand pictures of buildings that suggested aworld that lay beyond the walls of the room.These scenes often create the impressionthat you are gazing out a window overlook-ing a city (Figure 9.4).

Of course, not all Roman paintings werenoteworthy. This is evident in many paintingsfound in houses in Pompeii and neighboring

Chapter 9 Roman Art 193

■ FIGURE 9.3 This double portrait of a husband and wife shows eachas they must have looked in life, complete with all their imperfections.The man is older, with deep creases in his face. His younger wife has aface marked less by age and experience. How do these details demon-strate the differences between Roman and Greek styles?

Bust of Cato and Portia. Roman. Late First century. White marble with traces of color.Museo Pio Clementino, Vatican Museum, Rome, Italy. Scala/Art Resource, NY.

cities, which were covered by ashes when thevolcano Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79. Whenthe well-preserved ruins of these cities werediscovered and excavations began, it wasfound that almost every house was decoratedwith murals. Many are quite ordinary, createdby painters of limited ability.

Maiden Gathering Flowers■ FIGURE 9.5

A surprising number of fine works werealso found in the area surrounding Pompeii.Among these is a painting of a maiden paus-ing in midstride to pluck a flower for her bou-quet (Figure 9.5). A breeze stirs her garmentsas she turns her head and daintily removes ablossom from the tip of a tall bush. Charmingand beautiful, this work hints at the level ofskill and sensitivity that must have beenreached by many Roman painters.

Roman ArchitectureWhereas few Roman paintings and murals

remain today, many examples of Roman archi-tecture, bridges, and monuments have survived.

Rome ruled an area that extended frompresent-day Great Britain to the Near East. TheRomans built roads, sea routes, and harbors tolink their far-flung cities. They designed andconstructed city services such as aqueducts andsewer systems, and they erected public build-ings for business and leisure-time activities.Because they were excellent planners and engi-neers, the Romans were destined to make theirmark as the first great builders of the world.

The TemplesMany early Roman temples made use of fea-

tures developed by earlier architects, especiallythe Greeks. These features, however, were usedby Romans to satisfy their own needs andtastes. For example, whereas the Greeks usedcolumns as structural supports, the Romansadded columns to their buildings as decorationand not necessarily for structural purposes.

194 Unit Three Art of Rising Civilizations

■ FIGURE 9.4 This room, with its patterned mosaic floor and murals,was preserved by the eruption of the volcano Vesuvius. How is thisroom similar to and different from a modern bedroom?

Bedroom from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor. Pompeian, Boscoreale. First century B.C.Fresco on lime plaster. Mosaic floor, couch, and footstool come from Roman villas of laterdate. 2.6 � 5.8 � 3.3 m (8�81⁄2� � 19�17⁄8� � 10� 111⁄2�). The Metropolitan Museum of Art,New York, New York. Rogers Fund, 1903. 03.14.13.

■ FIGURE 9.5 This figure has a realistic, graceful appearance. Name the elements and principles of art used by the artist to achieve this effect.

Flora, or Spring. Wall painting from Stabiae, a Roman resort on the Bay ofNaples, Italy. First century A.D. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy.

ARMOR. Footsoldiers, called legion-naires, wore protective helmets andmetal leg guards. Legionnaires weretrained volunteers, marching to distantRoman territory to build forts, camps,and walls to defend conquered lands.

Maison Carrée■ FIGURE 9.6

The Greek influence can be seen in a tem-ple built by the Romans in France during thefirst century B.C (Figure 9.6). At first glance,the rectangular shape and Ionic columnsmake this building look like a Greek temple.

A closer look reveals that the freestandingcolumns do not surround the entire buildingas they do in Greek temples such as theParthenon. Instead, they are used only for theporch at the front. Along the sides and back ofthe building, half-columns are attached to thesolid walls to create a decorative pattern.

■ FIGURE 9.6 Notice the similarities between thisRoman temple and the GreekParthenon, Figure 8.1, page166. Why do you think theRomans did not copy theGreek temple exactly?

Maison Carrée, Nimes, France. First century B.C.

Identifying Artifacts.Both of these artifacts from Roman timesgive us a glimpse into the expanse andsuccess of the Roman Empire. Identifytwo artifacts from our society today thatreveal aspects of contemporary times.

Activity

Roman EmpireSee more Time & Place events on theTime Line, page H11 in your Art Handbook

c. 509 B.C. A.D. 410


ROMAN COINS. Roman coins were usedin trade and commerce throughout theRoman Empire. Imprinted with images ofemperors, nobles, and important events,they provide information to researchersabout the Roman way of life.

The Temple Complex in PalestrinaAnother early Roman temple that made use

of Greek features is found in the foothills ofthe Apennines, a short distance from Rome.The route to this temple is along an ancientRoman road called the Appian Way. This roadwas once lined with the grand villas andtombs of wealthy Roman citizens.

The town of Praeneste (now the moderncity of Palestrina) was said to have originatedwhen a peasant found a mysterious tablet inthe woods nearby. According to legend, thehistory of the town was recorded on this tablet,even though the town itself had not yet beenbuilt. The people in the area were so impressedthat they erected a temple (Figure 9.7) to housea statue of Fortuna, the goddess of good for-tune; the mysterious tablet was placed withinthis statue. This temple—the Temple of FortunaPrimigenia—became the home of a famous oracle, and people came from great distances to have their futures revealed.

After Rome became Christianized, the ora-cle at Praeneste was banished and the templedestroyed. Eventually the temple was forgot-ten and, after the fall of Rome, a town wasbuilt on the site. It was not until a bombingraid in World War II destroyed most of thehouses that the ruins of the huge temple werediscovered.

Design of the Temple ComplexThe Temple of Fortuna Primigenia became

part of a large complex, which included circular and semicircular temples, terraces,colonnades, arches, and staircases. To spanopenings, the builders constructed arches. Toroof large areas, they created a barrel vault, aseries of round arches from front to back thatform a tunnel (Figure 9.8). This made it pos-sible to cover huge rooms and halls with half-round stone ceilings. Because these ceilingswere so heavy, thick, windowless walls wereneeded to support them.


■ FIGURE 9.7 Here Roman builders constructed staircases leading to a series of seven terraces built intoa hillside. How does this technique differ from the way Greek builders used a hill site for the Acropolis?

Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, Palestrina, Italy. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Palestrina, Italy. c. 120–180 B.C.

Innovations in Structure andMaterials

The round arch improved on the post-and-lintel system that the Greeks used. The postand lintel limited the space builders couldbridge. A stone lintel could not be used tospan a wide space because it would break.

Unlike a lintel, an arch (Figure 9.8) is madeof a number of bricks or cut stones. Duringthe construction of the amphitheater at Arles,France, Roman builders constructed arches byholding the stones in place with a woodenform until a keystone, or top stone of the arch,could be placed in position. The space thatcan be spanned in this manner is muchgreater than the space bridged by a lintel. Anarch, however, needs the support of anotherarch or a wall. Without that support, the out-ward force of the arch will cause it to collapse.For this reason, the Romans created a series ofsmaller arches to replace the single large arch.

Concrete, one of the most versatile of build-ing materials, was used in the Temple ofFortuna Primigenia. Although concrete hadbeen used in the Near East for some time, theRomans were the first to make extensive use ofthis material. Coupled with their knowledge ofthe arch, concrete enabled the Romans to con-struct buildings on a large scale.

The Spread of Roman ArchitectureWherever the Roman legions went, they

introduced the arch and the use of concrete inarchitecture. With these they constructed greatdomes and vaults over their buildings. Usually,they covered their concrete structures withmarble slabs or ornamental bricks. Even today, the remains of baths, amphitheaters(Figure 9.8), theaters (Figure 9.9, page 198),triumphal arches, and bridges (Figure 9.10,page 198) are found throughout countries thatwere once part of the Roman Empire.


STRUCTURE AND DESIGN

The design of this Roman structure, which has beenstanding for almost 2000 years, demonstrates how use ofthe arch and barrel vault creates stability and strengtheven in large buildings.

• Round Arch. A wall oranother arch is needed tocounter the outward force ofthe arch. You can see thearch outlined in the picture.

• Keystone. The top stone ofthe arch holds other stonesin place. The keystone forone of the arches is outlinedat the top of the arch.

• Barrel Vault. A half-roundstone ceiling is made byplacing a series of roundarches from front to back.The barrel vault is formed in the dark area under the outlined arch.

LOOKING Closely ➤

■ FIGURE 9.8 Roman Amphitheater, Arles, France. End offirst century A.D.


■ FIGURE 9.9 This theater provided seating and entertainment for many during the time Rome ruledover its vast empire. It was built by Agrippa in 24 B.C. What does the location of this theater tell about theextent of the Roman Empire?

Roman theater, Merida, Spain. 24 B.C.

■ FIGURE 9.10 This bridge near Alcantara, in Spain, was built about A.D. 105. It still stands today, provid-ing a way for traffic to cross the river, in the same way it stood nearly 2,000 years ago. What can you con-clude about the Romans’ introduction of the arch and their use of concrete?

Roman bridge, Alcantara, Spain. A.D. 105–6.

Roman AqueductsAqueducts demonstrate the

Romans’ ability to combine engi-neering skills with a knowledge ofarchitectural form. An aqueduct, asystem that carried water frommountain streams into cities byusing gravitational flow, was con-structed by placing a series ofarches next to each other so theywould support each other.

Although attractive, theseaqueducts were designed for effi-ciency rather than beauty. Elevenwere built in and around Romealone. These ranged in lengthfrom 10 miles to 60 miles. Theycarried about 270 million gallons(1 billion liters) of water into thecity every day.

One of the best-known aque-ducts is found in Segovia, Spain(Figure 9.11). It brought water tothe city from a stream 10 milesaway. Constructed of graniteblocks laid without mortar orcement, the aqueduct consisted ofmany angles to break the force ofthe rushing water.

Chapter 9 199

■ FIGURE 9.11 Many people consider this aqueduct the most important Romanconstruction in Spain. Why were aqueducts so important? Why were they con-structed as a series of arches?

Roman aqueduct, Segovia, Spain. A.D. 89–117.

Reviewing Art Facts1. Identify From which culture did the

Romans copy much of their art andarchitecture?

2. Describe What purpose did Romanswant their sculptures and paintings toserve?

3. Recall What did wealthy Romans useto decorate the walls of their homes?

4. Explain How did the Romans adaptcolumns in temple construction?

Comparing Styles The Romans admired the architectureof the Greeks, but they used the Greek architectural stylesfor very different purposes. The Greeks created structuresfor beauty and harmony. The Romans often created theirsto show the power of the Roman Empire.

Activity Collect visual examples of the architecture ofGreece and Rome. In your group, study the examples care-fully and try to determine similarities and differences in theexamples. Do the buildings have the same uses? Are theconstruction methods alike? How were the buildingsnamed? Create a presentation of your findings for the class.

LESSON ONE REVIEW

Visit art.glencoe.com for study tools and review activities.

http://www.art.glencoe.com

Vocabulary■ baths■ groin vault■ pilasters■ niches■ coffers■ basilica■ nave■ apse■ triumphal arch

DiscoverAfter completing this lesson,

you will be able to:■ Describe a Roman bath and

explain why this kind of struc-ture was so important to theRomans.

■ Describe the characteristics ofRoman public buildings.

oman emperors were constantly building and rebuilding the citiesof their empire. The emperor Augustus boasted that he had found

Rome a city of brick and stone and left it a city of marble.

As long as there was money to do so, the emperors had baths, circuses,forums, and amphitheaters constructed for the enjoyment of the people.By providing beautiful monuments and places for public recreation, theemperors hoped to maintain their own popularity.

The BathsRoman monuments and public buildings were numerous and impres-

sive. Among the most popular of these public buildings were the baths.These were much more than just municipal swimming pools. Baths werevast enclosed structures that contained libraries, lecture rooms, gymnasi-ums, shops, restaurants, and pleasant walkways. These made the baths asocial and cultural center as well as a place for hygiene. In many ways,they were like the shopping malls of today.

Roman Buildings and Monuments

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■ FIGURE 9.12 The Roman bathsat Bath, England, provided recre-ation and a choice of water temper-atures in their pools. This pictureshows one of the pools and part ofthe building as they look today. Inwhat ways were Roman baths likemodern shopping malls? What arethe most important differences?

Roman Baths. Bath, England. First century A.D.

LESSON TWO

R

Design of the BathsEvery large Roman city had its baths.

Although they differed in ground plan anddetails, these baths had certain features incommon. They all contained a series of roomswith pools of progressively cooler water(Figure 9.12). The calidarium, with its hotwater pool, was entered first. From there onewalked to the tepidarium, where a warm bathawaited. The last room entered was called thefrigidarium, and there a cool bath was pro-vided. The different water and room tempera-tures were made possible by furnaces inrooms beneath the building. These weretended by scores of workers and slaves.

The Baths of Caracalla■ FIGURE 9.13

One of the most famous baths was built by the emperor Caracalla in the early part of the third century A.D. It sprawled out over 30 acres and had a bathhouse that measured750 feet by 380 feet. A huge central hall over180 feet long and 77 feet wide was spannedwith concrete groin vaults (Figure 9.13). Agroin vault is formed when two barrel vaultsmeet at right angles.

In the Baths of Caracalla, a barrel vault ranthe length of the central hall and was inter-sected at right angles by three shorter barrelvaults, creating the groin vaults. The use ofthese groin vaults enabled the builders to covera very large area. It also allowed the placementof windows, which was not possible with barrelvaults requiring thick, solid walls.

Buildings for Sports Events

Although the Romans enjoyed many differ-ent athletic events, the chariot races were easily their favorite spectator sport. As manyas 150,000 Romans would gather at the Circus Maximus to cheer on their favoriteteams. These races became so popular thateventually they were scheduled sixty-fourdays a year.


■ FIGURE 9.13 A long barrel vault was intersected by three shorterbarrel vaults to make groin vaults, as shown by the white outline.How did the use of barrel and groin vaults make it possible forRoman architects to build such a large hall?

Central hall of the Baths of Caracalla. Rome, Italy. A.D. 215. Restoration drawing by G. Abel Blonet.

For more examples of Roman art and architecture, visitRoman artifacts in museum links at art.glencoe.com.


The Colosseum■ FIGURE 9.14

Almost as popular as the chariot races were the armed contests. These were held inlarge arenas or amphitheaters such as theColosseum (Figure 9.14). The Colosseumwas built in the second half of the first cen-tury A.D. It owes its name to a colossal statueof the Roman emperor Nero that once stoodnearby. The huge structure covers 6 acres. Itforms a complete oval measuring 615 feet by

510 feet. The structure is so large that duringthe Middle Ages people moved within its protective walls and erected a small city.

Over the centuries, rulers, popes, andnobility carried off large masses of stone fromthe Colosseum to construct new buildings.Only after many of the stones had beenremoved did Pope Benedict XIV put a stop to this destruction, but it was too late. Todaythe great amphitheater is little more than abroken shell.


InfluencingStyles Styles

Corinthiancolumns areused on thethird level.These showthe most dec-orative style.

On thelowest level,the columnsare Doric,the heaviestand sturdiestof the col-umn orders.

GREEK TO ROMAN The exterior of the Colosseum consistsof four stories constructed of stone, brick, and concrete.

On the top level are Corinthian pilasters, flat, rectangularcolumns attached to a wall. Between these pilasters are smallholes. Poles were placed in these holes to support a canvasawning that protected spectators from the sun and rain.

Ioniccolumns areused on thesecond level.The capitalsare distin-guished bytheir doublescroll design.

■ FIGURE 9.14 Colosseum, Rome, Italy. A.D. 72–80.

The Colosseum’s InteriorAt ground level, 80 arched openings

enabled spectators to enter and leave theColosseum so efficiently that it could be emp-tied in minutes. Of these openings, 76 wereused by the general public. One was reservedfor the emperor, and another was used bypriestesses. Another, the “Door of Life,” wasreserved for victorious gladiators. The bodiesof the slain gladiators were carried throughthe “Door of Death.”

From inside the Colosseum (Figure 9.15),you can see clearly how it was built. Thearches are the openings of barrel vaults thatring the amphitheater at each level. Thesevaults supported the sloped tiers of seats. The

seats are gone now, but once there wereenough to accommodate 50,000 people.

The best seats in the Colosseum—those inthe first tier—were reserved for the emperorand state officials. Members of the upperclasses sat in the second tier, while the gen-eral public crowded into the upper tiers. Ahigh stone wall separated the spectators fromthe gladiators and the wild animals fighting inthe arena.

Beneath the floor of the Colosseum werecompartments and passages serving a numberof purposes. There were places to hold cagedanimals, barracks for gladiators, and rooms tohouse the machinery needed to raise andlower stage sets and performers.


■ FIGURE 9.15 The floor is gone now, but you can still see the passageways and rooms. Howdid Roman architects take intoaccount the specific uses of theColosseum?

Colosseum, interior. Rome, Italy. A.D. 72–80.

Gladiator ContestsIn the third century B.C., the Romans

revived an Etruscan spectacle in which slaveswere pitted against each other in battles to thedeath. These battles became so popular thatregular contests between hundreds of gladia-tors were staged in the Colosseum beforethousands of spectators.

Not all Romans approved of these brutalcontests, but they were so popular with themasses that most objectors were afraid toexpress their opinions. The amphitheater wasalways filled to capacity for events in whichas many as 5,000 pairs of gladiators fought tothe death and 11,000 animals were killed in asingle day.

Public Buildings andStructures

The Roman emperors had great civic pride,and in addition to the buildings provided forpublic entertainment, they commissionedpublic squares and civic centers. Magnificent

structures were built: meeting halls, templesto Roman gods, markets, and basilicas.Architects and engineers combined their talents to erect huge buildings that were notonly structurally sound but also beautifullydesigned.

The Pantheon■ FIGURE 9.16

One of the marvels of Roman architecture isthe Pantheon (Figure 9.16). Designed as atemple dedicated to all the Roman gods, it waslater converted into a Christian church. Thebuilding has been in near-continuous use;therefore, it is in excellent condition today.

From the exterior, the Pantheon looks like a low, gently curving dome resting on a cylinder. From street level the building can no longer be viewed as it was originallyintended. The level of the surrounding streetsis much higher now, and the steps that onceled up to the entry porch are gone. The build-ing loses much of its original impact todaybecause you are forced to look straight at itrather than lifting your eyes up to it.


■ FIGURE 9.16Notice the proportionof the large cylindercapped by a low dome. What impres-sion do you think the Pantheon wasintended to create? Do you think it suc-ceeds in creating thatimpression today?Why or why not?

The Pantheon, Rome, Italy. A.D. 118–25.

The interior of the Pantheon is certain tohave an impact. Passing through the entrancehall, you step suddenly into the great domedspace of the interior (Figure 9.17). Lookingupward, you discover that the dome, whichlooked so shallow from the outside, is actuallya true hemisphere. Made of brick and con-crete, this huge dome soars to a height of144 feet above the floor. The diameter of thedome is also exactly 144 feet.

The inside of the Pantheon is divided intothree zones. The lowest zone has sevenniches, recesses in the wall. These may havecontained statues or altars dedicated to theRoman gods of the heavens: Sol (sun), Luna(moon), and gods of the five known planets.Above this, another zone contains the 12signs of the zodiac. Finally, rising above all,the magnificent dome represents the heavens.The surface of the dome is covered with

coffers, or indented panels. These coffers aremore than just a decorative touch; they alsoreduce the weight of the dome.

Illuminating the Pantheon’s InteriorThe interior of the Pantheon is well illumi-

nated, although there are no windows. Wallsup to 20 feet thick were needed to support thedome, and windows would have weakenedthese walls. In addition to the door, the onlysource of light is a round opening almost30 feet across at the top of the dome. It fills theinterior with a bright, clear light and lets yousee a section of sky through the top of thedome. To solve the problem posed by rain, theRomans built the floor so that it was raisedslightly in the center, formed a shallow depres-sion directly under the opening, and created adrainage system to carry away the water.


■ FIGURE 9.17 The large, round openingat the top of the dome allows light into the interior of the Pantheon. What is themost surprising feature of this interior? Is this feature suggested by its exteriorappearance?

Giovanni Paolo Panini. Interior of the Pantheon, Rome.c. 1734. Oil on canvas. 1.3 � .99 m (501⁄2 � 39�). NationalGallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Board of Trustees,Samuel H. Kress Collection.

BasilicasThe Romans also constructed spacious rec-

tangular buildings called basilicas. The basil-ica was a functional building made to holdlarge numbers of people. Designed as a courtof law and public meeting hall, it was often apart of the forum, or public square. Basilicascombined in one structure many of the archi-tectural advances made by the Romans, butthey are important for another reason: Theyserved as models for generations of Christianchurch builders.

Plan of BasilicasInside a basilica, rows of slender columns

divided the space into what was later calledthe nave, a long, wide center aisle, and two or more narrower side aisles (Figure 9.18).The roof over the center aisle was usuallyhigher than the roofs over the side aisles. This allowed the builders to install windowsto let sunlight in. The Roman basilica had a side entrance and at least one area latercalled an apse, a semicircular area at the end of the nave.

Wooden roofs were used for most basilicas.The roof over the center aisle was peaked,whereas roofs over the side aisles slopedgently downward.

Triumphal ArchesRomans loved celebrations and often

marked their successful military campaignsby building a monument to the victory: a triumphal arch or heavily decorated arch.After an important victory, the general and his troops would pass under the tri-umphal arch while thousands of onlookerscheered. Triumphal arches often consisted of a large central opening and two smalleropenings on each side. The general and hisofficers rode chariots and horses through the central opening, and unmounted troopsmarched through the smaller ones. It was not unusual for the troops to carry postersshowing the major events of the campaign.

The Arch of Constantine■ FIGURE 9.19

The Arch of Constantine (Figure 9.19)was the largest and most elaborate of thesetriumphal arches. It was decorated for themost part with sculptures and reliefs takenfrom earlier monuments dedicated to otheremperors. Of course, this meant that thesculptures showing the emperor had to bechanged to look more like Constantine.

The Declining Power of Rome

It is difficult to pinpoint exactly whatbrought about the decline of the great Roman Empire. One important factor was the transfer of the capitol of the RomanEmpire from Rome in the west to the site ofthe ancient Greek city of Byzantium in theeastern provinces.

In A.D. 330 the emperor Constantine I dedicated his new capital, which was renamedConstantinople, in the Eastern Roman Empire.This move marked the beginning of the longhistory of the Byzantine Empire. From then


■ FIGURE 9.18 Plan of a Roman Basilica.

on, the Western section of the Roman Empirewas marked by weakness and decline.

Eventually, invaders from the north camedown to overrun the once-powerful WesternRoman Empire. In 410, Alaric, king of the

Visigoths, took Rome, and wave after wave ofbarbarian invasions followed. By the end of thefifth century A.D., the Western Roman Empirehad come to an end, and the barbarian king-doms of the Middle Ages took its place.

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■ FIGURE 9.19 The successful general andhis mounted officerswould have paradedthrough the large centralarch. The foot soldierswould have marchedthrough the smallerarches on each side.What does this kind of structure indicateabout the importance of the army in theRoman Empire?

Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy.A.D. 312–15.

Reviewing Art Facts1. Describe What is a Roman bath? Why

were these structures so popular?2. Explain What was the Colosseum,

and what kinds of events were heldthere?

3. Recall What are coffers? What twopurposes do the coffers in the dome ofthe Pantheon serve?

4. Identify What were triumphal arches,and how were they used?

Writing about Art Roman public buildings survive to thisday, demonstrating the skills of Roman architects. In addition,these structures provide us with evidence of the importanceplaced on community events, ceremonies, and civic pridethat existed during the Roman Empire.

Activity In your Visual Arts Journal, record ways peoplecelebrate important community events today. Think abouthow the design of public places and structures mightencourage people to come together. Write a brief paragraphcomparing the design and use of community structurestoday with Roman structures. Consider how the design anduse of buildings from the Roman Empire may influence thecreation of today’s public places.

LESSON TWO REVIEW

Visit art.glencoe.com for study tools and review activities.


Etruscan artists reveal a fascinating civilization.

The Etruscans were an ancient people who settled in the northwest of Italy in the eighth

century B.C. Great sailors and traders, the Etruscansbecame rich and powerful, dominating most ofItaly until the first century B.C., when the upstartRomans absorbed their civilization. Although thereare few written clues to Etruscan history, their artwork offers a glimpse into this ancient culture.Portraits on tombs display the Etruscans’ love ofathletics, music, dancing, and fine clothes. Themen wore elaborate cloaks, while the womenwore luxurious clothes and finely worked goldjewelry, such as necklaces and loop earrings.

Etruscan artwork suggests that women held ahigher social position than did Greek and Romanwomen. Some images show women taking theplace of honor at Etruscan burials. Tomb paintings

and reliefs depict women sitting next to their husbands at banquets.

The Etruscans did not mind laugh-ing at themselves. The Greeks, whoconsidered Etruscan sailors plunder-

ing pirates, created a story abouthow the Greek god Dionysus

turned Etruscans into dol-phins. Far from being insulted,an Etruscan artist illustrated

the story on a water jug, showing dolphin-headed Etr-

uscan sailors diving into the sea. As Etruscan power

diminished, their artbecame less lighthearted.Tomb paintings began to show bloody scenes, as well as cruel gods.Through their art wehave a snapshot of the Etruscans’ history.c

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ABOVE:This brightly colored fresco of a banquet scenewith musicians was found in a tomb. BELOW: Made ofterra cotta, the sarcophagus of a married couple on afunereal bed dates from the sixth century B.C.

TIME to Connect

We can learn about a civilization through the art it produces. Study the art of ancient Greece, Rome, Mesopotamia, Asia, or elsewhere. Use art books or your school’s media center to do your research.

• What clues can you discover about a particular culture based on its art? If the art changes over time, can you make conclusions about historicalchanges? Cite specific examples and share your findings with the class.

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Standardized Test PracticeStandardized Test Practice

Read the paragraph below and then answer the questions.

9 REVIEW

Reviewing the FactsLesson One1. What people lived in Italy before 509 B.C.?2. How did Roman sculpture and painting differ in

style from Greek sculpture and painting?3. How did the Roman arch improve on the post-

and-lintel system used by the Greeks?4. How did Etruscan architecture influence Roman

temples?5. What did the Romans build to transport water to

their cities? How did these structures work?Lesson Two6. What motivated Roman emperors to construct

baths, circuses, forums, and amphitheaters?7. What features did all the Roman baths have in

common?8. What is a groin vault? How is it made? What

special advantage does it offer?9. Name two unusual aspects of the interior or

exterior of the Pantheon’s dome.10. What purpose did Roman basilicas serve? How

did they influence later architecture?

Thinking Critically1. COMPARE AND CONTRAST. Using the Erectheum

(Figure 8.1, page 166) and the Pantheon (Figure9.16, page 204) as models, discuss the similaritiesand differences between Greek and Roman temples.

2. ANALYZE. Look closely at the scenes shown inthe mural from the Villa at Boscoreale (Figure 9.4,page 194). Then refer to the list of ways to createthe illusion of depth on page 38 in Chapter 2.Which techniques did the Roman artist use?

Create an artwork for your portfolio thatrepresents the influence of Roman art.Exchange your finished work with a classmateand ask for a peer evaluation. Peers can tellyou what they like about your work and offersuggestions for revision. Decide whether youwish to revise or change your artwork basedon the peer review. Then store the peerevaluation, your preliminary sketches, and thefinal artwork in your portfolio.

Roman engineers knew that the slope, orangle, of aqueducts was important. TheRomans had a formula that enabled them tomake the aqueducts the exact height necessaryto deliver water over the required distance:

where m � slope, y1 � y2 � height, and x1 � x2 � distance.

1. If point A represents (x1, y1) and C repre-sents (x2, y2), then the slope (m) of AC is

0.6. �0.6.

�0.4. 0.4.

2. If BC is a right triangle, then the length ofAC is

less than 5.

less than 6 but greater than 5.

greater than 6.

exactly 6.

Chapter 9 Review 209

m �y1 � y2x1 � x2

roman art - west jefferson local schools home · vocabulary mural barrel vault keystone aqueduct...

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