Roman CultureRoman Culture

Religion and physical Religion and physical perfectionperfection

Nature of Roman Religion Nature of Roman Religion Central: Central: Pax Deorum - Pax Deorum - peace of the gods Welfare of the state depended on pleasing the Welfare of the state depended on pleasing the

gods gods Responsibility of communication with the gods Responsibility of communication with the gods

lay with political leaders, i.e. members of lay with political leaders, i.e. members of political elite who held public offices also held political elite who held public offices also held priestly offices (not a separate profession)priestly offices (not a separate profession)

In empire – chief priest (In empire – chief priest (pontifex maximuspontifex maximus) was ) was the emperorthe emperor

Communication with gods through prayer and Communication with gods through prayer and sacrifice; divination; initiation and purification sacrifice; divination; initiation and purification ritualsrituals

Communication with the Communication with the godsgods

Emphasis on religious activities: Emphasis on religious activities: Cultus Cultus central to central to Roman religion = the practices and rituals in worshipRoman religion = the practices and rituals in worship

Enormous range of religious practices in RomeEnormous range of religious practices in Rome Emphasis in cultus on the Emphasis in cultus on the correct repetitions of correct repetitions of

formulae. formulae. Main forms:Main forms: 1. request for benefits from gods, (in prayers, 1. request for benefits from gods, (in prayers,

sacrifices and other offerings)sacrifices and other offerings) 2. Divinations or interpretation of messages from the 2. Divinations or interpretation of messages from the

godsgods 3. rituals – such as purifications and initiations which in 3. rituals – such as purifications and initiations which in

various ways transformed a person’s situation with various ways transformed a person’s situation with respect to the divinerespect to the divine

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Range of offeringsRange of offerings flowers, cakes, incense,flowers, cakes, incense, Libations = liquids – wine most common,Libations = liquids – wine most common, Milk, oil, honey, even waterMilk, oil, honey, even water Blood sacrifice – very common: the ritual Blood sacrifice – very common: the ritual

slaughter of an animal - domestic (sheep, pig, slaughter of an animal - domestic (sheep, pig, cow) = symbol of pietycow) = symbol of piety

Neither the emperor or any other Neither the emperor or any other magistrate/priest carried out the actual slaughter magistrate/priest carried out the actual slaughter of a victim which was considered a pollution – of a victim which was considered a pollution – that was done by the that was done by the victiariusvictiarius , , normally a normally a slave – an individual who stood outside slave – an individual who stood outside societysociety. .

A contract between gods and A contract between gods and communitycommunity

Idea of reciprocity: Do ut des Do ut des -” I grant you this, so that you will give -” I grant you this, so that you will give

me that in exchange.”me that in exchange.” Quid pro quo - Quid pro quo - idea - I offer you a benefit and idea - I offer you a benefit and

ask for one in returnask for one in return Concept must be understood in the context of a Concept must be understood in the context of a

culture (Graeco-Roman) where social relationships culture (Graeco-Roman) where social relationships are based on reciprocal benefits, i.e. patron-client are based on reciprocal benefits, i.e. patron-client relationship central in Roman societyrelationship central in Roman society

Rome: when benefit given, the person who Rome: when benefit given, the person who receives the benefit owes - receives the benefit owes - gratia - gratia - and can be and can be called upon to return the benefit – i.e. patron called upon to return the benefit – i.e. patron supports his clients with legal advice, financial supports his clients with legal advice, financial support, etc., client called upon to support patron support, etc., client called upon to support patron in elections, etc.,in elections, etc.,

DivinationDivination Romans believed gods communicated with humansRomans believed gods communicated with humans Divination = interpretation of divine Divination = interpretation of divine

communicationcommunication Forms of Divination:Forms of Divination: Oracles – Romans went to Delphi, just like the Oracles – Romans went to Delphi, just like the

Greeks for interpretation of dreams;Greeks for interpretation of dreams; observation of the flight of birds;observation of the flight of birds; interpretation of prodigies (unusual events seen as interpretation of prodigies (unusual events seen as

significant) and as messages from the gods that significant) and as messages from the gods that needed to be interpreted – i.e. by needed to be interpreted – i.e. by haruspicesharuspices or or Sybilline books Sybilline books

Christians and Muslims consider practice of Christians and Muslims consider practice of divination as mere fortune tellingdivination as mere fortune telling

Divination and the Deformed in Divination and the Deformed in Roman ReligionRoman Religion

Monster – Monster – monstrummonstrum – etymologically related to Latin – etymologically related to Latin moneremonere = to warn = to warn

Deformed births – omens (signs) from the gods – Deformed births – omens (signs) from the gods – represent a ‘warning’represent a ‘warning’

(different from Greeks )– (different from Greeks )– Romans recorded such omens in annual priestly Romans recorded such omens in annual priestly

recordsrecords Pliny the Elder (NH 7.34) hermaphrodites called Pliny the Elder (NH 7.34) hermaphrodites called

androgynoiandrogynoi = manwoman = manwoman HaruspicesHaruspices carried out the ritual to appease the gods carried out the ritual to appease the gods

again and to avert an evil omen by a sacrifice – since again and to avert an evil omen by a sacrifice – since the entire state was endangered – such sacrifice was the entire state was endangered – such sacrifice was usually a valuable one, i.e. bull (a big bribe)usually a valuable one, i.e. bull (a big bribe)

Sexual deformitySexual deformity

What does Garland suggest was the What does Garland suggest was the reason that sexual deformities reason that sexual deformities represented a particularly apt symbol represented a particularly apt symbol for disorder in the state?for disorder in the state?

Family and MarriageFamily and Marriage

Importance of the family in the Importance of the family in the Roman stateRoman state

The important role of marriage and The important role of marriage and procreation procreation

questionsquestions

Why were so many emperors Why were so many emperors obsessed with individuals who had obsessed with individuals who had exceptionally huge penises? exceptionally huge penises?

The god PriapusThe god Priapus

God of gardens, God of gardens, fertility, etc.fertility, etc.

Status often found Status often found in Roman gardens in Roman gardens of private housesof private houses

Laughing about the deformed Laughing about the deformed

Theories explaining why humans consider disabilities and Theories explaining why humans consider disabilities and deformities humorouslydeformities humorously

Most wide accepted: theory of degradation – function of Most wide accepted: theory of degradation – function of laughter is to intimidate by humiliating.laughter is to intimidate by humiliating.

““Humour at expense of disabled to large extent fuelled by Humour at expense of disabled to large extent fuelled by sadistic, sexual and scatological impulses” (Garland 74)sadistic, sexual and scatological impulses” (Garland 74)

But also performs variety of social functions: bolster group But also performs variety of social functions: bolster group cohesion at times when unity of able-bodied is threatened cohesion at times when unity of able-bodied is threatened and demoralized. 1 The disabled by drawing attention to and demoralized. 1 The disabled by drawing attention to their disabilities remind the rest what they have in their disabilities remind the rest what they have in common. 2 the deformed and disabled frighten and common. 2 the deformed and disabled frighten and embarrass us – laughter is way of exorcising fear and embarrass us – laughter is way of exorcising fear and embarrassment (Garland 75).embarrassment (Garland 75).

In Greece and Rome – without scientific explanation In Greece and Rome – without scientific explanation deformity – particularly frightening, and ordinary life was deformity – particularly frightening, and ordinary life was very harsh and unpleasant for the majority - many would very harsh and unpleasant for the majority - many would become disabled themselves at some point in their livesbecome disabled themselves at some point in their lives

Garland Chapter 9Garland Chapter 9

Why were Roman physicians unable Why were Roman physicians unable to study human deformities to any to study human deformities to any extent, especially deformed extent, especially deformed newborns?newborns?

Most birth at home in family assisted by Most birth at home in family assisted by midwives - not physiciansmidwives - not physicians

Religion required burial of deformed Religion required burial of deformed babies immediately to fend of evilbabies immediately to fend of evil

No human dissection practiced among No human dissection practiced among Romans; exception medical school in Romans; exception medical school in AlexandriaAlexandria

Ancient Egyptians had better Ancient Egyptians had better understanding of human body – because understanding of human body – because of mummification practicesof mummification practices

Roman Medicine and the Roman Medicine and the Hippocratic Corpus Hippocratic Corpus

A collection of medical writings from Greek and A collection of medical writings from Greek and Roman periodRoman period

named after Greek physician Hippocrates but most named after Greek physician Hippocrates but most written by his students and successorswritten by his students and successors

Hippocrates 4Hippocrates 4thth century B.C.,from the island of Cos century B.C.,from the island of Cos Herophilus 4Herophilus 4thth – 3 – 3rdrd centuries BC, from Alexandria centuries BC, from Alexandria

(dissected)(dissected) Soranus 1Soranus 1stst century A.D. Rome century A.D. Rome Galen 2Galen 2ndnd century A.D., Pergamum century A.D., Pergamum Aretaeus, 2Aretaeus, 2ndnd century A.D. Cappadocia century A.D. Cappadocia All of these are famous male physicians – catering All of these are famous male physicians – catering

primarily to the elite (those who can pay their fees) primarily to the elite (those who can pay their fees) and who left writings behind and who left writings behind