The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u

Cop

yrig

ht

©20

10–2

015

All

righ

tsre

serv

ed.

Jon

ath

anB

enn

ett

[Bra

cket

s]en

clos

eed

itor

iale

xpla

nat

ion

s.S

mal

l·dot

s·en

clos

em

ater

ialt

hat

has

bee

nad

ded

,bu

tca

nbe

read

asth

ough

itw

ere

part

ofth

eor

igin

alte

xt.

Occ

asio

nal

• bu

llets

,an

dal

soin

den

tin

gof

pass

ages

that

are

not

quot

atio

ns,

are

mea

nt

asai

dsto

gras

pin

gth

est

ruct

ure

ofa

sen

ten

ceor

ath

ough

t.E

very

fou

r-po

int

ellip

sis

....

indi

cate

sth

eom

issi

onof

abr

ief

pass

age

that

seem

sto

pres

ent

mor

edi

fficu

lty

than

itis

wor

th.

Lon

ger

omis

sion

sar

ere

port

edbe

twee

nbr

acke

tsin

nor

mal

-siz

edty

pe.

Fir

stla

un

ched

:D

ecem

ber

2010

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u

Con

ten

ts

BO

OK

11

1.Th

esu

bjec

tof

the

first

book

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12.

The

first

soci

etie

s.

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13.

The

righ

tof

the

stro

nge

st.

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24.

Sla

very

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35.

We

mu

stal

way

sgo

back

toa

first

agre

emen

t.

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66.

The

soci

alco

mpa

ct.

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67.

The

sove

reig

n.

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.8

8.Th

eci

vils

tate

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99.

Rea

lest

ate

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10

BO

OK

212

1.S

over

eign

tyis

inal

ien

able

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.12

2.S

over

eign

tyis

indi

visi

ble

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.12

3.C

anth

ege

ner

alw

illbe

wro

ng?

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.14

4.Th

elim

its

ofth

eso

vere

ign

pow

er.

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145.

The

righ

tof

life

and

deat

h.

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.17

6.Th

ela

w.

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187.

The

law

-mak

er.

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208.

The

peop

le.

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.22

9.Th

epe

ople

(con

tin

ued

)..

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.23

10.

The

peop

le(fu

rth

erco

nti

nu

ed)

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2411

.D

iffe

ren

ces

amon

gsy

stem

sof

legi

slat

ion

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.26

12.

Cla

ssify

ing

law

s.

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27

BO

OK

329

1.G

over

nm

ent

inge

ner

al.

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.29

2.Th

eso

urc

eof

the

vari

ety

amon

gfo

rms

ofgo

vern

men

t.

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313.

Cla

ssify

ing

gove

rnm

ents

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.33

4.D

emoc

racy

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345.

Ari

stoc

racy

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.35

6.M

onar

chy

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36

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u

7.M

ixed

gove

rnm

ents

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398.

No

one

form

ofgo

vern

men

tsu

its

allc

oun

trie

s.

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409.

The

sign

sof

ago

odgo

vern

men

t.

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4310

.H

owgo

vern

men

tis

abu

sed.

Its

ten

den

cyto

dege

ner

ate

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4411

.Th

ede

ath

ofth

ebo

dypo

litic

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4612

.H

owth

eso

vere

ign

auth

orit

yis

mai

nta

ined

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4613

.H

owth

eso

vere

ign

auth

orit

yis

mai

nta

ined

(con

tin

ued

).

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.47

14.

How

the

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity

ism

ain

tain

ed(c

onti

nu

ed)

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.48

15.

Dep

uti

esor

repr

esen

tati

ves

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.49

16.

Wh

ates

tabl

ish

esgo

vern

men

tis

n’t

aco

ntr

act

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.51

17.

Wh

atd

oes

esta

blis

hgo

vern

men

t.

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5118

.H

owto

prot

ect

the

gove

rnm

ent

from

bein

gta

ken

over

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.52

Boo

k4

54

1.Th

ege

ner

alw

illis

inde

stru

ctib

le.

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.54

2.Vo

tin

g.

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.55

3.E

lect

ion

s.

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.57

4.Th

eco

mit

iain

anci

ent

Rom

e.

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585.

Tri

bun

es.

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636.

Dic

tato

rsh

ip.

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657.

Cen

sors

hip

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.66

8.C

ivic

relig

ion

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.67

9.C

oncl

usi

on.

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73

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u

Glo

ssar

y

agre

emen

t:Th

eit

emth

atR

ouss

eau

calls

aco

nve

nti

onis

anev

ent,

wh

erea

sw

hat

we

call

‘con

ven

tion

s’(s

etti

ng

asid

eth

eir

rele

van

t‘c

onve

nti

on’=

‘pro

fess

ion

alge

t-to

geth

er’)

are

not

even

tsbu

ten

duri

ng

stat

esof

affa

irs

like

the

con

ven

tion

sgo

vern

ing

the

mea

nin

gsof

wor

ds,t

he

stan

dard

sof

polit

enes

s,et

c.S

o‘c

onve

nti

on’i

sa

wro

ng

tran

slat

ion

;an

d‘a

gree

men

t’is

righ

t.

alie

nat

e:To

alie

nat

eso

met

hin

gth

atyo

uow

nis

tobri

ng

itab

out

that

you

no

lon

ger

own

it;

inbri

ef,

togi

veit

away

orse

llit

,

arbi

trar

y:It

mea

ns

‘bro

ugh

tin

toex

iste

nce

byth

ede

cisi

onof

som

epe

rson

(s)’.

It’s

no

part

ofth

em

ean

ing

her

e(a

sit

isto

day)

that

the

deci

sion

was

friv

olou

sor

grou

ndl

ess.

cen

sors

hip

:Th

istr

ansl

ates

Rou

ssea

u’s

cen

sure

.It

does

n’t

refe

rto

cen

sors

hip

asw

ekn

owit

toda

y;ce

nsu

redi

dn’t

hav

eth

atm

ean

ing

un

tilt

he

19th

cen

tury

.R

ouss

eau

’sto

pic

isa

role

that

cert

ain

offic

ials

had

inso

me

peri

ods

ofth

eR

oman

repu

blic

,n

amel

yas

guar

dia

ns

of,

and

spok

esm

enfo

r,th

epe

ople

’sm

œu

rs(s

eebe

low

).Th

eyco

uld

beth

ough

tof

asan

inst

itu

tion

alis

ing

ofth

e‘c

ourt

ofpu

blic

opin

ion

’.O

npa

ge67

we

see

him

stre

tch

ing

the

orig

inal

sen

se.

com

pact

,co

ntr

act:

Th

ese

tran

slat

eR

ouss

eau

’spa

cte

and

con

tra

tre

spec

tive

ly.

He

seem

sto

mea

nth

emas

syn

onym

s.

con

stit

uti

on:

Inth

isw

ork

ath

ing’

s‘c

onst

itu

tion

’is

the

sum

offa

cts

abou

th

owso

met

hin

gis

con

stit

ute

d,

how

its

part

sh

ang

toge

ther

and

wor

kto

geth

er(s

oth

eco

nst

itu

tion

ofa

stat

eis

not

hin

glik

ea

doc

um

ent)

.It

ems

cred

ited

wit

h‘c

onst

itu

tion

s’ar

eor

gan

ism

san

dpo

litic

alen

titi

es;th

em

enti

onon

pag

e66

ofth

eco

nst

itu

tion

ofa

peop

lese

ems

aber

ran

t.

mag

istr

ate:

Inth

isw

ork,

asin

gen

eral

inea

rly

mod

ern

tim

es,

a‘m

agis

trat

e’is

anyo

ne

wit

han

offic

ialr

ole

ingo

vern

-m

ent.

The

mag

istr

acy

isth

ese

tof

alls

uch

offic

ials

,th

ough

tof

asa

sin

gle

body

.

mœ

urs

:Th

em

œu

rsof

ape

ople

incl

ude

thei

rm

oral

ity,

thei

rba

sic

cust

oms,

thei

rat

titu

des

and

expe

ctat

ion

sab

out

how

peop

lew

illbe

hav

e,th

eir

idea

sab

out

wh

atis

dece

nt.

..an

dso

on.

This

wor

d—rh

ymin

gap

prox

imat

ely

wit

h‘w

orse

’—is

left

un

tran

slat

edbe

cau

seth

ere’

sn

ogo

odE

ngl

ish

equ

ival

ent

toit

.E

ngl

ish

spea

kers

som

etim

esu

seit

,fo

rth

eso

rtof

reas

onth

eyh

ave

for

som

etim

esu

sin

gS

cha

den

freu

de.

mor

alpe

rson

:S

omet

hin

gth

atis

n’t

liter

ally

per

son

bu

tis

bein

gre

gard

edas

one

for

som

eth

eore

tica

lpu

rpos

e.S

eefo

rex

ampl

epa

ges

9an

d36

.

popu

lace

:R

ouss

eau

repea

tedly

spea

ks

ofa

‘peo

ple

’in

the

sin

gula

r,an

dw

eca

ndo

that

inE

ngl

ish

(‘Th

eE

ngl

ish

—w

hat

ast

ran

gepe

ople

!’);b

ut

itm

any

case

sth

isw

ayof

usi

ng

‘peo

ple’

sou

nds

stra

ined

and

pecu

liar,

and

this

vers

ion

take

sre

fuge

in‘p

opu

lace

’.O

npa

ge4,

for

inst

ance

,th

atsa

ves

us

from

‘Inev

ery

gen

erat

ion

the

peop

lew

asth

em

aste

r...

’.

prin

ce:

As

was

com

mon

inh

isda

y,R

ouss

eau

use

s‘p

rin

ce’

tost

and

for

the

chie

fof

the

gove

rnm

ent.

Th

isn

eedn

’tbe

ape

rson

wit

hth

era

nk

ofPr

ince

;it

nee

dn’t

bea

pers

onat

all,

beca

use

itco

uld

bea

com

mit

tee.

sove

reig

n:

Th

istr

ansl

ates

sou

vera

in.

As

Rou

ssea

um

akes

clea

ron

page

7,h

eu

ses

this

term

asa

labe

lfor

the

pers

onor

grou

pof

per

son

sh

oldin

gsu

pre

me

pow

erin

ast

ate.

Ina

dem

ocra

cy,

the

wh

ole

peo

ple

con

stit

ute

aso

vere

ign

,an

din

divi

dual

citi

zen

sar

em

embe

rsof

the

sove

reig

n.

InB

ooks

3

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u

and

4‘s

over

eign

’is

use

dfo

rth

ele

gisl

ator

(or

legi

slat

ure

)as

dist

inct

from

the

gove

rnm

ent

=th

eex

ecu

tive

.

subs

iste

nce

:W

hat

isn

eeded

for

surv

ival

—a

min

imu

mof

food

,dr

ink,

shel

ter

etc.

wis

e:A

nin

evit

able

tran

slat

ion

ofsa

ge,bu

tth

em

ean

ing

inF

ren

chca

rrie

sid

eas

of‘le

arn

ed’,

‘sch

olar

ly’,

‘inte

llect

ual

ly

able

’,ra

ther

mor

est

ron

gly

than

wh

atev

erit

isth

atyo

uan

dI

mea

nby

‘wis

e’.

you,w

e:W

hen

this

vers

ion

has

Rou

ssea

usp

eaki

ng

ofw

hat

‘you

’or

‘we’

may

do,h

eh

assp

oken

ofw

hat

‘on

e’m

aydo

.It

isn

orm

alid

iom

atic

Fre

nch

tou

seon

=‘o

ne’

mu

chof

ten

erth

anw

eca

nu

se‘o

ne’

inE

ngl

ish

wit

hou

tso

un

din

gst

ilted

(Fat

sW

alle

r:‘O

ne

nev

erkn

ows,

doon

e?’).

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u12.

The

first

soci

etie

s

BO

OK

1

Th

islit

tle

trea

tise

issa

lvag

edfr

oma

mu

chlo

nge

rw

ork

that

Iab

andon

edlo

ng

ago,

hav

ing

star

ted

itw

ith

out

thin

kin

gab

out

wh

eth

erI

was

capa

ble

ofpu

llin

git

off.

Of

vari

ous

bits

that

mig

ht

bere

scu

edfr

omw

hat

Ih

adw

ritt

enof

that

lon

ger

wor

k,w

hat

Iof

fer

her

eis

the

mos

tsu

bsta

nti

alan

d,it

seem

sto

me,

the

leas

tu

nw

orth

yof

bein

gpu

blis

hed

.N

one

ofth

ere

stof

itis

.

Ipla

nto

addre

ssth

isqu

esti

on:

Wit

hm

enas

they

are

and

wit

hla

ws

asth

eyco

uld

be,

can

ther

ebe

inth

eci

vil

order

any

sure

and

legi

tim

ate

rule

ofad

min

istr

atio

n?

Inta

cklin

gth

isI

shal

ltry

alw

ays

tou

nit

e• w

hat

righ

tal

low

sw

ith

• wh

atin

tere

stdem

ands,

soth

at• j

ust

ice

and

• uti

lity

don

’tat

any

stag

epa

rtco

mpa

ny.

Ist

art

onth

isw

ith

out

show

ing

that

the

subj

ect

isim

por-

tan

t.Yo

um

ayw

ant

toch

alle

nge

me:

‘So

you

wan

tto

wri

teon

polit

ics—

are

you

then

apr

ince

[see

Glo

ssar

y]or

ale

gisl

ator

?’I

answ

erth

atI

amn

eith

er,an

dth

atis

wh

yI

wri

teon

polit

ics.

IfI

wer

ea

pri

nce

ora

legi

slat

orI

wou

ldn

’tw

aste

my

tim

esa

yin

gw

hat

shou

ldbe

don

e;I

wou

ldd

oit

,or

keep

quie

t.A

sI

was

born

aci

tize

nof

afr

eest

ate,

and

ama

mem

ber

ofit

sso

vere

ign

[see

Glo

ssar

y],

my

righ

tto

vote

mak

esit

my

duty

tost

udy

publ

icaf

fair

s,h

owev

erlit

tle

influ

ence

my

voic

eca

nh

ave

onth

em.

Hap

pily

,wh

enIt

hin

kab

out

gove

rnm

ents

Ialw

ays

find

that

my

inqu

irie

sgi

vem

en

ewre

ason

sfo

rlo

vin

gth

ego

vern

men

tof

my

own

cou

ntr

y!

1.

The

subj

ect

ofth

efi

rst

book

Man

isbor

nfr

ee,

and

ever

ywh

ere

he

isin

chai

ns.

Her

e’s

one

wh

oth

inks

he

isth

em

aste

rof

oth

ers,

yet

he

ism

ore

ensl

aved

than

they

are.

How

did

this

chan

geco

me

abou

t?I

don

’tkn

ow.

Wh

atca

nm

ake

itle

giti

mat

e?Th

at’s

aqu

esti

onth

atI

thin

kI

can

answ

er.

IfI

took

into

acco

un

tn

oth

ing

but

forc

ean

dw

hat

can

bedo

ne

byfo

rce,

Iw

ould

say:

‘As

lon

gas

apeo

ple

isco

nst

rain

edto

obey

,it

doe

sw

ell

toob

ey;

asso

onas

itca

nsh

ake

off

the

yoke,

itdo

esev

enbe

tter

tosh

ake

itof

f.·If

its

righ

tto

doso

isch

alle

nge

d,it

can

answ

erth

at·:

itge

tsit

slib

erty

back

byth

esa

me

‘rig

ht’—

·nam

ely,

forc

e·—

that

took

itaw

ayin

the

first

plac

e.A

ny

just

ifica

tion

for

taki

ng

itaw

ayeq

ual

lyju

stifi

esta

kin

git

bac

k;

and

ifth

ere

was

no

just

ifica

tion

for

its

bein

gta

ken

away

·no

just

ifica

tion

for

taki

ng

itba

ckis

calle

dfo

r·.’

Bu

tth

eso

cial

orde

r·is

n’t

tobe

un

ders

tood

inte

rms

offo

rce;

it·i

sa

sacr

edri

ght

onw

hic

hal

loth

erri

ghts

are

base

d.B

ut

itdo

esn

’tco

me

from

nat

ure

,so

itm

ust

beba

sed

onag

reem

ents

.B

efor

eco

min

gto

that

,th

ough

,I

hav

eto

esta

blis

hth

etr

uth

ofw

hat

Ih

ave

been

sayi

ng.

2.

The

firs

tso

ciet

ies

Th

em

ost

anci

ent

ofal

lso

ciet

ies,

and

the

only

na

tura

lon

e,is

the

soci

ety

ofth

efa

mily

.Ye

tth

ech

ildre

nre

mai

nat

tach

edto

the

fath

eron

lyfo

ras

lon

gas

they

nee

dh

imfo

rth

eir

pres

erva

tion

;as

soon

asth

isn

eed

ceas

es,

the

nat

ura

lbon

dis

diss

olve

d.Th

ech

ildre

n,

rele

ased

from

the

obed

ien

ceth

eyow

edto

the

fath

er,

and

the

fath

er,

rele

ased

from

the

care

he

owed

his

child

ren

,re

turn

equ

ally

toin

dep

enden

ce.

Ifth

eyre

mai

nu

nit

ed,th

isis

som

eth

ing

they

don

ot• n

atu

rally

but

1

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u13.

The

righ

tof

the

stro

nge

st

• vol

un

tari

ly,

and

the

fam

ilyit

self

isth

enm

ain

tain

edon

lyby

agre

emen

t.Th

isco

mm

onlib

erty

isan

upsh

otof

the

nat

ure

ofm

an.

His

first

law

isto

prov

ide

for

his

own

pres

erva

tion

,h

isfir

stca

res

are

thos

eh

eow

esto

him

self;

and

asso

onas

he

can

thin

kfo

rh

imse

lfh

eis

the

sole

judg

eof

the

righ

tw

ayto

take

care

ofh

imse

lf,w

hic

hm

akes

him

his

own

mas

ter.

You

cou

ldca

llth

efa

mily

the

prim

em

odel

ofpol

itic

also

ciet

ies:

the

rule

rco

rres

pon

dsto

the

fath

er,

and

the

peop

leto

the

child

ren

;an

dal

lof

them

—·r

ule

r,peo

ple

,fa

ther

,ch

ildre

n·—

beca

use

they

wer

ebo

rnfr

eean

deq

ual

don

’tgi

veu

pth

eir

liber

tyw

ith

out

gett

ing

som

eth

ing

inre

turn

.Th

ew

hol

edif

fere

nce

isth

at• i

nth

efa

mily

the

fath

er’s

care

for

his

child

ren

isre

pai

dby

his

love

for

them

,w

her

eas

• in

the

stat

eth

eru

ler’

sca

refo

rth

epe

ople

un

der

him

isre

paid

not

bylo

vefo

rth

em(w

hic

hh

edo

esn

’th

ave!

)bu

tby

the

plea

sure

ofbe

ing

inch

arge

.G

roti

us

den

ies

that

all

hu

man

pow

eris

esta

blis

hed

infa

vou

rof

the

gove

rned

,an

dci

tes

slav

ery

asa

cou

nte

rexa

mpl

e.H

isu

sual

met

hod

ofre

ason

ing

isto

esta

blis

h• r

igh

tby

• fac

t[m

ean

ing:

...‘

todr

awco

ncl

usi

ons

abou

tw

hat

shou

ldbe

the

case

from

prem

ises

abou

tw

hat

isth

eca

se’].

Not

the

mos

tlo

gica

lof

argu

men

t-pat

tern

s,bu

tit

’son

eth

atis

very

favo

ura

ble

toty

ran

ts.

....

Th

rou

ghou

th

isboo

k,

Gro

tiu

sse

ems

tofa

vou

r—as

does

Hob

bes—

the

thes

isth

atth

eh

um

ansp

ecie

sis

divi

ded

into

som

any

her

ds

ofca

ttle

,ea

chw

ith

aru

ler

wh

okee

ps

guar

dov

erth

emfo

rth

epu

rpos

eof

devo

uri

ng

them

.Ph

ilote

llsu

sth

atth

eE

mpe

ror

Cal

igu

lare

ason

edth

us:

As

ash

eph

erd

has

ah

igh

ern

atu

reth

anh

isflo

ckdo

es,

soal

soth

esh

eph

erds

ofm

en,

i.e.

thei

rru

lers

,h

ave

ah

igh

ern

atu

reth

ando

the

peop

les

un

der

them

;fr

omw

hic

hh

ein

ferr

ed,r

easo

nab

lyen

ough

,th

atei

ther

kin

gsw

ere

gods

orm

enw

ere

beas

ts.

Th

isre

ason

ing

ofC

alig

ula

’sis

ona

par

wit

hth

atof

Hob

bes

and

Gro

tiu

s.A

rist

otle

,bef

ore

any

ofth

em,

had

said

that

men

are

not

nat

ura

llyeq

ual

beca

use

som

ear

ebo

rnfo

rsl

aver

yan

dot

her

sfo

rco

mm

and.

Ari

stot

lew

asri

ght;

but

he

mis

took

the

effe

ctfo

rth

eca

use

.E

very

man

bor

nin

slav

ery

isbor

nfo

rsl

aver

y—n

oth

ing

ism

ore

cert

ain

than

that

.S

lave

slo

seev

eryt

hin

gin

thei

rch

ain

s,ev

enth

ede

sire

toes

cape

from

them

:th

eylo

veth

eir

serv

itu

de,

asU

lyss

es’c

omra

des

love

dth

eir

bru

tish

con

diti

on·w

hen

the

godd

ess

Cir

cetu

rned

them

into

pigs

·.S

oif

ther

ea

resl

aves

byn

atu

re,

that

’sbec

ause

ther

eh

ave

been

slav

esa

gain

stn

atu

re.

Forc

em

ade

the

first

slav

es,a

nd

thei

rco

war

dice

kept

them

assl

aves

.I

hav

esa

idn

oth

ing

abou

tK

ing

Ada

m;

orab

out

Em

pero

rN

oah

,th

efa

ther

ofth

ree

grea

tm

onar

chs

wh

osh

ared

out

the

un

iver

se(li

ke

Sat

urn

’sch

ildre

n,

wh

omso

me

sch

olar

sh

ave

reco

gnis

edin

them

).[In

Gen

esis

9it

issa

idth

ataf

ter

the

flood

Noa

h’s

thre

eso

ns

rule

dth

ew

orld

.]I

hop

eto

be

give

ncr

edit

for

my

mod

erat

ion

:as

adir

ect

des

cen

dan

tof

one

ofth

ese

prin

ces—

perh

aps

ofth

eel

dest

bran

ch—

Ido

n’t

know

that

ave

rifica

tion

ofti

tles

wou

ldn

’tsh

owm

eto

be

the

legi

tim

ate

kin

gof

the

hu

man

race

!A

nyw

ay,

Adam

was

un

den

iably

sove

reig

nof

the

wor

ld,a

sR

obin

son

Cru

soe

was

ofh

isis

lan

d,as

lon

gas

he

was

its

only

inh

abit

ant;

and

this

empir

eh

adth

ead

van

tage

that

the

mon

arch

,sa

feon

his

thro

ne,

had

not

hin

gto

fear

from

rebe

llion

s,w

ars,

orco

nsp

irat

ors.

3.

The

righ

tof

the

stro

nge

st

The

stro

nge

stis

nev

erst

ron

gen

ough

tobe

alw

ays

the

mas

ter

un

less

he

tran

sfor

ms

• str

engt

hin

to• r

igh

t,an

d• o

bed

ien

cein

to• d

uty

.H

ence

‘the

righ

tof

the

stro

nge

st’—

aph

rase

that

one

mig

ht

thin

kis

mea

nt

iron

ical

ly,b

ut

isac

tual

lyla

iddo

wn

2

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u14.

Sla

very

asa

bas

ictr

uth

.B

ut

will

no-

one

ever

expl

ain

this

ph

rase

?F

orce

isa

ph

ysic

alpow

er;

Idon

’tse

ew

hat

mor

alef

fect

itca

nh

ave.

Giv

ing

way

tofo

rce

isso

met

hin

gyo

uh

ave

todo,

not

som

eth

ing

you

choo

seto

do;·o

rif

you

insi

stth

atch

oice

com

esin

toit·,

itis

atm

ost

anac

tof

• pru

den

ce.

Inw

hat

sen

seca

nit

bea

• du

ty?

Su

ppos

efo

ra

mom

ent

that

this

so-c

alle

d‘r

igh

t·o

fth

est

ron

gest

·’ex

ists

.I

mai

nta

inth

atw

e’ll

get

out

ofth

isn

oth

ing

but

am

ass

ofin

expl

icab

len

onse

nse

.If

forc

em

akes

righ

t,th

enif

you

chan

geth

efo

rce

you

chan

geth

eri

ght

(eff

ects

chan

gew

hen

cau

ses

chan

ge!),

soth

atw

hen

one

forc

eov

erco

mes

anot

her

,th

ere’

sa

corr

espo

ndi

ng

chan

gein

wh

atis

righ

t.Th

em

omen

tit

bec

omes

pos

sible

todis

obey

• wit

him

pu

nit

yit

bec

omes

pos

sible

todis

obey

• leg

itim

atel

y.A

nd

beca

use

the

stro

nge

star

eal

way

sin

the

righ

t,th

eon

lyth

ing

that

mat

ters

isto

wor

kto

beco

me

the

stro

nge

st.

Now

,w

hat

sort

ofri

ght

isit

that

per

ish

esw

hen

forc

efa

ils?

Iffo

rce

ma

kes

us

obey

,w

eca

n’t

be

mor

ally

oblig

edto

obey

;an

dif

forc

edoe

sn’t

mak

eu

sob

ey,

then

·on

the

theo

ryw

ear

eex

amin

ing·

we

are

un

der

no

oblig

atio

nto

doso

.C

lear

ly,

the

wor

d‘r

igh

t’ad

dsn

oth

ing

tofo

rce:

inth

isco

nte

xtit

does

n’t

stan

dfo

ran

yth

ing.

‘Obe

yth

epo

wer

sth

atbe

.’If

this

mea

ns

subm

itto

forc

e,it

isa

good

prec

ept,

but

supe

rflu

ous:

Igu

aran

tee

that

itw

illn

ever

be

viol

ated

!A

llpow

erco

mes

from

God

,I

adm

it;

bu

tso

does

alls

ickn

ess—

are

we

then

forb

idde

nto

sen

dfo

rth

edoc

tor?

Aro

bber

con

fron

tsm

eat

the

edge

ofa

woo

d:

Iam

com

pel

led

toh

and

over

my

mon

ey,

bu

tis

itth

eca

seth

atev

enif

Ico

uld

hol

don

toit

Iam

mor

ally

oblig

edto

han

dit

over

?A

fter

all,

the

pist

olh

eh

olds

isal

soa

pow

er.

Then

let

us

agre

eth

atfo

rce

does

n’t

crea

teri

ght,

and

that

legi

tim

ate

pow

ers

are

the

only

ones

we

are

oblig

edto

obey

.W

hic

hbr

ings

us

back

tom

yor

igin

alqu

esti

on.

4.

Sla

very

Sin

cen

om

anh

asa

• nat

ura

lau

thor

ity

over

his

fello

w,an

d• f

orce

crea

tes

no

righ

t,w

ear

ele

ftw

ith

• agr

eem

ents

[see

Glo

ssar

y]as

the

basi

sfo

ral

lleg

itim

ate

auth

orit

yam

ong

men

.G

roti

us

says

:If

anin

div

idu

alca

nal

ien

ate

[see

Glo

ssar

y]h

islib

erty

and

mak

eh

imse

lfth

esl

ave

ofa

mas

ter,

wh

yco

uld

n’t

aw

hol

epeo

ple

alie

nat

eit

slib

erty

and

mak

eit

self

subj

ect

toa

kin

g?Th

isco

nta

ins

seve

ral

ambig

uou

sw

ords

that

nee

dto

be

expla

ined

,bu

tle

tu

sco

nfin

eou

rsel

ves

to‘a

lien

ate’

.To

alie

nat

eso

met

hin

gis

togi

veor

sell

it.

Now

,a

man

wh

obec

omes

the

slav

eof

anot

her

doe

sn

otgi

veh

imse

lf—

he

sells

him

self

atth

ero

ck-b

otto

mpr

ice

ofh

issu

bsis

ten

ce[s

eeG

loss

ary]

.B

ut

wh

ena

peo

ple

sells

itse

lfw

hat

pri

ceis

pai

d?

·Not

thei

rsu

bsis

ten

ce:·

Far

from

prov

idin

gh

issu

bjec

tsw

ith

thei

rsu

bsis

ten

ce,

aki

ng

gets

his

own

subs

iste

nce

only

from

them

....

Do

subje

cts

then

give

thei

rper

son

son

con

dit

ion

that

the

kin

gta

kes

thei

rgo

ods

also

?I

fail

tose

ew

hat

they

hav

ele

ftto

pres

erve

.‘T

he

desp

otgu

aran

tees

civi

cpe

ace

inth

est

ate’

,yo

um

aysa

y.G

ran

ted;

but

wh

atdo

the

peop

lega

inif

• th

ew

ars

his

ambi

tion

brin

gsdo

wn

onth

em,

• his

insa

tiab

legr

eed,

and

• har

assm

ents

byh

ism

inis

ters

brin

gth

emm

ore

mis

ery

than

they

’dh

ave

suff

ered

from

thei

row

ndis

sen

sion

s·if

no

mon

arch

yh

adbee

nes

tablis

hed

·?W

hat

doth

eyga

inif

this

pea

ceis

one

ofth

eir

mis

erie

s?Yo

uca

nliv

epea

cefu

llyin

adu

nge

on,

bu

tdoe

sth

atm

ake

ita

good

life?

The

Gre

eks

impr

ison

edin

the

cave

ofth

eC

yclo

psliv

edth

ere

peac

efu

llyw

hile

wai

tin

gfo

rth

eir

turn

tobe

eate

n.

To

say

that

am

angi

ves

him

self

·to

som

eon

eel

se,

i.e.

han

ds

him

self

over

·fr

ee,

isto

say

som

eth

ing

absu

rdan

d

3

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u14.

Sla

very

inco

nce

ivab

le;

such

anac

tis

nu

llan

dill

egit

imat

e,si

mply

beca

use

the

man

wh

odo

esit

isou

tof

his

min

d.To

say

the

sam

eof

aw

hol

epeo

ple

isto

suppos

ea

peop

leof

mad

men

;an

dm

adn

ess

does

n’t

crea

tean

yri

ght.

Eve

nif

each

man

cou

ldal

ien

ate

him

self,

he

cou

ldn

’tal

ien

ate

his

child

ren

:th

eyar

ebor

nm

en,

and

bor

nfr

ee;

thei

rlib

erty

bel

ongs

toth

em,

and

no-

one

else

has

the

righ

tto

dis

pos

eof

it.

Wh

ileth

eyar

eto

oyo

un

gto

dec

ide

for

them

selv

es,

thei

rfa

ther

can

,in

thei

rn

ame,

lay

dow

nco

ndi

tion

sfo

rth

eir

pres

erva

tion

and

wel

l-be

ing;

but

he

can

’tm

ake

anir

revo

cable

and

un

con

dit

ion

algi

ftof

them

;su

cha

gift

isco

ntr

ary

toth

een

ds

ofn

atu

re,

and

exce

eds

the

righ

tsof

pate

rnit

y.S

oan

arbi

trar

y[s

eeG

loss

ary]

gove

rnm

ent

cou

ldn

’tbe

legi

tim

ate

un

less

inev

ery

gen

erat

ion

the

popu

lace

[see

Glo

ssar

y]w

asth

em

aste

rw

ho

was

ina

posi

tion

toac

cept

orre

ject

it;

bu

tth

enth

ego

vern

men

tw

ould

no

lon

ger

be

arbi

trar

y!

Tore

nou

nce

you

rlib

erty

isto

ren

oun

ce• y

our

stat

us

asa

man

,• y

our

righ

tsas

ah

um

anbe

ing,

and

even

• you

rdu

ties

asa

hu

man

bein

g.Th

ere

can

’tbe

any

way

ofco

mpe

nsa

tin

gso

meo

ne

wh

ogi

ves

up

ever

yth

ing.

Su

cha

ren

un

ciat

ion

isin

com

pat

ible

wit

hm

an’s

nat

ure

;to

rem

ove

all

free

dom

from

his

will

isto

rem

ove

all

mor

alit

yfr

omh

isac

tion

s.F

inal

ly,

an‘a

gree

men

t’to

hav

eab

solu

teau

thor

ity

onon

esi

dean

du

nlim

ited

obed

ien

ceon

the

oth

er—

wh

atan

empt

yan

dco

ntr

adic

tory

agre

emen

tth

atw

ould

hav

eto

be!

Isn

’tit

clea

rth

atif

we

are

enti

tled

tota

kean

yth

ing

and

ever

yth

ing

from

ape

rson

,we

can

’tbe

un

der

any

oblig

atio

nto

him

?A

nd

isn

’tth

atfa

ctal

one—

the

fact

that

ther

eis

no

equ

ival

ence

,n

oth

ing

tobe

exch

ange

d,

bet

wee

nth

etw

osi

des

—en

ough

ton

ulli

fyth

e‘a

gree

men

t’?W

hat

righ

tca

nm

ysl

ave

hav

eag

ain

stm

e?E

very

thin

gth

ath

eh

asis

min

e;h

isri

ght

is

min

e;an

dit

does

n’t

mak

ese

nse

tosp

eak

ofm

yri

ght

agai

nst

mys

elf.

Gro

tiu

san

dco

mpa

ny

cite

wa

ras

anot

her

sou

rce

for

the

so-c

alle

dri

ght

ofsl

aver

y.Th

ew

inn

erh

avin

g(t

hey

say)

the

righ

tto

kill

the

lose

r,th

ela

tter

can

bu

ybac

kh

islif

eat

the

pri

ceof

his

free

dom

;an

dth

isag

reem

ent

isal

lth

em

ore

legi

tim

ate

inbe

ing

toth

ead

van

tage

ofbo

thpa

rtie

s.B

ut

this

suppos

edri

ght

tokill

the

lose

ris

clea

rly

not

anu

psh

otof

the

stat

eof

war

.M

enar

en

otn

atu

rally

one

anot

her

s’en

emie

s.[T

he

nex

tse

nte

nce

isex

pan

ded

inw

ays

that

the

·sm

all

dots

·con

ven

tion

can

’tea

sily

han

dle.

]A

ny

nat

ura

lre

lati

ons

amon

gst

them

mu

stex

ist

wh

enth

eyar

eliv

ing

inth

eir

pri

mit

ive

indep

enden

cew

ith

out

any

gove

rnm

ent

orso

cial

stru

ctu

re;bu

tat

tha

tti

me

they

hav

en

oin

ter-

rela

tion

sth

atar

est

able

enou

ghto

con

stit

ute

eith

erth

est

ate

ofpea

ceor

the

stat

eof

war

.W

aris

con

stit

ute

dby

are

lati

onbet

wee

nth

ings

,n

otbet

wee

nper

son

s;an

dbec

ause

the

stat

eof

war

can

’tar

ise

out

ofsi

mple

per

son

alre

lati

ons

bu

ton

lyou

tof

thin

g-re

lati

ons,

ther

eca

n’t

be

apri

vate

war

(aw

arof

man

agai

nst

man

)in

the

stat

eof

nat

ure

,w

her

eth

ere

isn

oow

ner

ship

,or

inth

est

ate

ofso

ciet

y,w

her

eev

eryt

hin

gis

un

der

the

auth

orit

yof

the

law

s.In

divi

dual

com

bats

,du

els

and

enco

un

ters

are

acts

that

can

’tco

nst

itu

tea

stat

e.A

sfo

rth

epri

vate

war

sth

atw

ere

auth

oris

edby

Lou

isIX

ofF

ran

ce..

..,

they

wer

eab

use

sof

feu

dalg

over

nm

ent,

wh

ich

was

itse

lfan

absu

rdsy

stem

ifev

erth

ere

was

one—

con

trar

yto

the

pri

nci

ple

sof

nat

ura

lri

ght

and

toal

lgoo

dgo

vern

men

t.S

ow

aris

are

lati

onn

otbet

wee

nm

anan

dm

anbu

tbe

twee

nst

ate

and

stat

e,an

din

divi

dual

sar

een

emie

son

lyac

-ci

den

tally

,not

as• m

enn

orev

enas

• cit

izen

sbu

tas

• sol

dier

s;n

otas

belo

ngi

ng

toth

eir

cou

ntr

ybu

tas

defe

nde

rsof

it.1

An

d1

The

Rom

ans,

wh

ou

nde

rsto

odan

dre

spec

ted

the

righ

tof

war

mor

eth

anan

yot

her

nat

ion

onea

rth

wer

eso

scru

pulo

us

abou

tth

isth

ata

citi

zen

was

n’t

4

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u14.

Sla

very

the

only

enem

ies

ast

ate

can

hav

ear

eot

her

stat

es;

not

men

,be

cau

seth

ere

can

’tbe

are

alse

ttle

dre

lati

onbe

twee

nth

ings

asra

dica

llydi

ffer

ent

asst

ates

and

men

.

Th

ispri

nci

ple

squ

ares

wit

hth

ees

tablis

hed

rule

sof

all

tim

esan

dth

eco

nst

ant

pra

ctic

eof

all

civi

lised

peo

ple

s.D

ecla

rati

ons

ofw

ardon

’tgi

ven

otic

eto

• pow

ers

asm

uch

asto

• th

eir

subj

ects

.A

fore

ign

er—

wh

eth

erki

ng,

indi

vidu

al,

orw

hol

epe

ople

—w

ho

robs

,ki

llsor

deta

ins

the

subj

ects

·of

aco

un

try·

wit

hou

tfir

stde

clar

ing

war

onth

eir

prin

ceis

not

anen

emy

but

aba

ndi

t.W

hen

afu

ll-sc

ale

war

isgo

ing

on,

apri

nce

isen

titl

edto

hel

ph

imse

lfto

anyt

hin

gin

the

enem

yco

un

try

that

bel

ongs

toth

epu

blic

,bu

tif

he

isju

sth

ew

illre

spec

tth

eliv

esan

dgo

ods

ofin

div

idu

als—

he

will

resp

ect

righ

tson

wh

ich

his

own

are

base

d.Th

epu

rpos

eof

the

war

isto

dest

roy

the

enem

yst

ate,

sow

e[s

eeG

loss

ary]

hav

ea

righ

tto

kill

its

defe

nde

rsw

hile

they

are

bear

ing

arm

s;bu

tas

soon

asth

eyla

ydow

nth

eir

wea

pon

san

dsu

rren

der

,th

eyst

opbe

ing

enem

ies

orin

stru

men

tsof

the

enem

yan

dre

sum

eth

eir

stat

us

assi

mpl

ym

en,a

nd

no-

one

has

any

righ

tto

take

thei

rliv

es.

Som

etim

esit

ispo

ssib

leto

kill

ast

ate

wit

hou

tki

llin

gan

yof

its

mem

ber

s;an

da

war

doe

sn’t

give

any

righ

tth

atis

n’t

nee

ded

for

the

war

toga

init

sob

ject

ive.

Thes

epr

inci

ples

are

not

thos

eof

Gro

tiu

s:th

eyar

en’t

base

don

the

auth

orit

yof

poe

ts,bu

tar

eder

ived

from

the

nat

ure

ofth

ings

and

are

base

don

reas

on.

Wh

atab

out

the

‘rig

ht

ofco

nqu

est’?

Th

eon

lybas

isfo

rth

atis

‘the

law

ofth

est

ron

gest

’!If

war

doe

sn’t

give

the

win

ner

the

righ

tto

mas

sacr

eth

eco

nqu

ered

peo

ple

s,yo

uca

n’t

cite

tha

tri

ght—

a‘r

igh

t’th

atdoe

sn’t

exis

t—as

abas

isfo

ra

righ

tto

ensl

ave

thos

epeo

ple

s.N

o-on

eh

asa

righ

tto

kill

anen

emy

exce

ptw

hen

he

can

’tm

ake

him

asl

ave,

soth

eri

ght

toen

slav

eh

imca

n’t

be

der

ived

from

the

righ

tto

kill

him

:it

’sn

otfa

irde

alin

gto

mak

eh

imsp

end

his

free

dom

soas

toke

eph

islif

e,ov

erw

hic

hth

evi

ctor

hol

dsn

ori

ght.

Isn

’tit

clea

rth

atth

ere’

sa

vici

ous

circ

lein

basi

ng

the

righ

tof

life

and

deat

hon

the

righ

tof

slav

ery,

and

the

righ

tof

slav

ery

onth

eri

ght

oflif

ean

dde

ath

?E

ven

ifw

eas

sum

eth

iste

rrib

leri

ght

tokill

ever

ybod

y,I

mai

nta

inth

atso

meo

ne

ensl

aved

inw

aris

n’t

com

mit

ted

todo

anyt

hin

gfo

rh

ism

aste

rex

cept

wh

ath

eis

com

pelle

dto

do;

and

the

sam

ego

esfo

ra

con

quer

edpeo

ple

.[R

ouss

eau

’spo

int

her

eis

that

the

ensl

aved

indi

vidu

alor

the

con

quer

edpe

ople

does

n’t

owe

the

con

quer

oran

yth

ing.

]B

yta

kin

gan

equ

ival

ent

for

his

life,

the

win

ner

has

n’t

don

eh

ima

favo

ur;

inst

ead

ofki

llin

gh

imw

ith

out

pro

fit,

he

has

kill

edh

imu

sefu

lly.

He

isin

dee

dso

far

from

gett

ing

any

• au

thor

ity

over

the

slav

ein

addi

tion

toh

is• p

ower

over

him

,th

atth

etw

oar

est

illin

ast

ate

ofw

arto

war

dson

ean

oth

er:

thei

rm

aste

r/sl

ave

rela

tion

com

esfr

omth

at,

and

this

enfo

rcem

ent

ofa

righ

tof

war

doe

sn’t

imply

that

ther

eh

asbee

na

pea

ce-t

reat

y!Th

eyh

ave

reac

hed

anag

reem

ent;

but

this

agre

emen

t,fa

rfr

omen

din

gth

est

ate

ofw

ar,pr

esu

ppos

esit

sco

nti

nu

ance

.W

hat

ever

angl

ew

elo

okat

itfr

om,

ther

efor

e,th

e‘r

igh

tof

slav

ery’

isn

ull

and

void

—n

oton

lyas

illeg

itim

ate

but

also

asab

surd

and

mea

nin

gles

s.Th

ew

ords

‘sla

ve’an

d‘r

igh

t’co

ntr

adic

tea

chot

her

,an

dar

em

utu

ally

excl

usi

ve.

Itw

illal

way

sbe

craz

yto

say

toa

man

,or

toa

peo

ple

:‘I

mak

ean

agre

emen

tw

ith

you

wh

olly

atyo

ur

expen

sean

dw

hol

lyto

my

adva

nta

ge;I

shal

lkee

pit

aslo

ng

asI

like,

and

you

will

keep

itas

lon

gas

Ilik

e.’

allo

wed

tose

rve

asa

volu

nte

erw

ith

out

expl

icit

lyag

reei

ng

tose

rve

agai

nst

such

-an

d-su

cha

nam

eden

emy.

[Rou

ssea

uth

row

sin

anan

ecdo

teab

out

aso

ldie

rw

hos

em

ilita

ryoa

thh

adto

bere

new

edbe

cau

seet

c.H

eco

nti

nu

es:]

Ikn

owth

atth

esi

ege

ofC

lusi

um

and

oth

eris

olat

edev

ents

can

beci

ted

agai

nst

me;

but

I’mta

lkin

g·n

otab

out

indi

vidu

alep

isod

es,b

ut·

abou

tla

ws

and

cust

oms.

The

Rom

ans

obey

edth

eir

law

sm

ore

than

any

oth

erpe

ople

,an

dth

eyh

adbe

tter

law

sth

anan

yot

her

peop

le.

5

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u16.

The

soci

alco

mpa

ct

5.

We

must

alw

ays

goba

ckto

afi

rst

agre

emen

t

[For

‘agr

eem

ent’

see

Glo

ssar

y.]

Eve

nif

Igr

ante

dev

eryt

hin

gth

atI

hav

ere

fute

du

pto

her

e,th

esu

ppor

ters

ofde

spot

ism

wou

ldbe

no

bet

ter

off.

Ru

ling

aso

ciet

yw

illal

way

sbe

aqu

ite

diff

eren

tth

ing

from

subd

uin

ga

mu

ltit

ude

.If

any

nu

mbe

rof

scat

tere

din

divi

dual

sw

ere

succ

essi

vely

ensl

aved

byon

em

an,

allI

can

see

ther

eis

am

aste

ran

dh

issl

aves

,an

dce

rtai

nly

not

apeo

ple

and

its

rule

r.It

’sa

• clu

ster

,if

you

will

,bu

tn

otan

• ass

ocia

tion

;th

ere’

sn

opu

blic

good

ther

e,an

dn

obod

ypol

itic

.Th

ism

anm

ayh

ave

ensl

aved

hal

fth

ew

orld

bu

th

eis

still

only

anin

div

idu

al;

his

inte

rest

,ap

art

from

that

ofot

her

s,is

nev

eran

yth

ing

but

apu

rely

priv

ate

inte

rest

.W

hen

this

man

die

s,th

eem

pir

eh

ele

aves

beh

ind

him

will

rem

ain

ssc

atte

red

and

wit

hou

tu

nit

y,lik

ean

oak

that

falls

into

afire

and

dis

solv

esin

toa

hea

pof

ash

esw

hen

the

fire

has

con

sum

edit

.

Apeo

ple

,sa

ysG

roti

us,

can

give

itse

lfto

akin

g;so

he

mu

sth

old

that

ape

ople

isa

peop

lebe

fore

itgi

ves

itse

lfto

akin

g.Th

isgi

ftis

itse

lfa

civi

cac

t,w

hic

hh

asto

aris

efr

ompu

blic

delib

erat

ion

.B

efor

ew

eex

amin

e(2

)th

eac

tby

wh

ich

apeo

ple

give

sit

self

toa

kin

g,le

t’sex

amin

e(1

)th

eac

tby

wh

ich

the

peop

lebe

cam

ea

peop

le;

for

(1)m

ust

occu

rbe

fore

(2),

soth

at(1

)is

the

tru

efo

un

dati

onof

soci

ety.

Inde

ed,i

fth

ere

wer

en

opr

ior

agre

emen

t,w

hat

wou

ldgi

veth

em

inor

ity

any

oblig

atio

nto

subm

itto

the

choi

ceof

the

maj

orit

y(u

nle

ssth

eel

ecti

onw

asu

nan

imou

s)?

Ah

un

dre

dm

enw

ant

toh

ave

am

aste

r;w

hat

give

sth

emth

eri

ght

tovo

teon

beh

alfo

ften

wh

odo

n’t?

The

law

ofm

ajor

ity

voti

ng

isit

self

som

eth

ing

esta

blis

hed

by

agre

emen

t,an

dit

pre

suppos

esth

aton

atle

ast

one

occa

sion

ther

ew

asa

un

anim

ous

vote

.

6.

The

soci

alco

mpa

ct

Let

us

take

itth

atm

enh

ave

reac

hed

the

poin

tat

wh

ich

the

obst

acle

sto

thei

rsu

rviv

alin

the

stat

eof

nat

ure

over

pow

erea

chin

div

idu

al’s

reso

urc

esfo

rm

ain

tain

ing

him

self

inth

atst

ate.

So

this

pri

mit

ive

con

dit

ion

can

’tgo

on;

the

hu

man

race

will

peri

shu

nle

ssit

chan

ges

its

man

ner

ofex

iste

nce

.N

ow,

men

can

’tcr

eate

new

forc

es;

they

can

only

• bri

ng

toge

ther

ones

that

alre

ady

exis

t,an

d• s

teer

them

.S

oth

eir

only

way

topre

serv

eth

emse

lves

isto

un

ite

an

um

ber

offo

rces

soth

atth

eyar

ejo

intl

ypo

wer

fule

nou

ghto

deal

wit

hth

eob

stac

les.

Th

eyh

ave

tobri

ng

thes

efo

rces

into

pla

yin

such

aw

ayth

atth

eyac

tto

geth

erin

asi

ngl

eth

rust

.F

orfo

rces

toa

dd

up

inth

isw

ay,

man

ypeo

ple

hav

eto

wor

kto

geth

er.

Bu

tea

chm

an’s

forc

ean

dlib

erty

are

wh

ath

ech

iefly

nee

dsfo

rh

isow

nsu

rviv

al;so

how

can

he

put

them

into

this

colle

ctiv

eef

fort

wit

hou

th

arm

ing

his

own

inte

rest

san

dn

egle

ctin

gth

eca

reh

eow

esto

him

self?

Th

isdif

ficu

lty,

inth

eve

rsio

nof

itth

atar

ises

for

my

pres

ent

subj

ect,

can

bepu

tlik

eth

is:

Fin

da

form

ofas

soci

atio

nth

atw

illbri

ng

the

wh

ole

com

mon

forc

eto

bea

ron

def

endin

gan

dpro

tect

ing

each

asso

ciat

e’s

pers

onan

dgo

ods,

doin

gth

isin

such

aw

ayth

atea

chof

them

,w

hile

un

itin

gh

imse

lfw

ith

all,

still

obey

son

lyh

imse

lfan

dre

mai

ns

asfr

eeas

befo

re.’

Ther

e’s

the

basi

cpr

oble

mth

atis

solv

edby

the

soci

alco

ntr

act.

[Th

isis

the

wor

k’s

first

occu

rren

ceof

that

phra

se.]

The

clau

ses

ofth

isco

ntr

act

are

sose

ttle

dby

the

nat

ure

ofth

eac

tth

atth

esl

igh

test

chan

gew

ould

mak

eth

emn

ull

and

void

;so

that

alth

ough

they

may

nev

erh

ave

been

expl

ic-

itly

stat

ed,

they

are

ever

ywh

ere

the

sam

ean

dev

eryw

her

eta

citl

yac

cept

edan

dre

cogn

ised

,u

nti

lth

eso

cial

com

pact

[see

Glo

ssar

y]is

viol

ated

and

each

indi

vidu

alre

gain

sh

is• o

rigi

nal

6

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u16.

The

soci

alco

mpa

ct

righ

tsan

dre

sum

esh

is• n

atu

ral

liber

ty,

wh

ilelo

sin

gth

elib

erty

-by-

agre

emen

tw

hic

hh

adbe

enh

isre

ason

for

ren

oun

c-in

g• t

hem

.Pro

per

lyu

nder

stoo

d,th

ese

clau

ses

com

edow

nto

one—

the

tota

lal

ien

atio

n[s

eeG

loss

ary]

ofea

chas

soci

ate,

toge

ther

wit

hal

lh

isri

ghts

,to

the

wh

ole

com

mu

nit

y.·T

his

may

seem

dra

stic

,bu

tth

ree

feat

ure

sof

itm

ake

itre

ason

able

·.(i)

Bec

ause

each

indiv

idu

algi

ves

him

self

enti

rely

,w

hat

ish

appe

nin

gh

ere

for

any

one

indi

vidu

alis

the

sam

eas

wh

atis

hap

pen

ing

for

each

ofth

eot

her

s,an

d,

bec

ause

this

isso

,n

o-on

eh

asan

yin

tere

stin

mak

ing

thin

gsto

ugh

erfo

rev

eryo

ne

but

him

self.

(ii)

Bec

ause

the

alie

nat

ion

ism

ade

wit

hou

tre

serv

e,·i.

e.w

ith

out

anyt

hin

gbe

ing

hel

dba

ck·,

the

un

ion

isas

com

plet

eas

itca

nbe

,an

dn

oas

soci

ate

has

anyt

hin

gm

ore

tode

man

d.·T

ose

ew

hy

the

asso

ciat

ion

ha

sto

be

don

ein

this

way

,co

nsi

der

·w

hat

the

situ

atio

nw

ould

be

ifth

ein

div

idu

als

reta

ined

cert

ain

righ

ts.

Inth

eab

sen

ceof

any

super

ior

tode

cide

issu

esab

out

this

,ea

chin

divi

dual

wou

ldbe

his

own

judge

inth

efirs

tca

seth

atca

me

up,

and

this

wou

ldle

adh

imto

ask

tobe

his

own

judg

eac

ross

the

boar

d;th

isw

ould

con

tin

ue

the

stat

eof

nat

ure

,an

dth

eas

soci

atio

nw

ould

nec

essa

rily

beco

me

inop

erat

ive

orty

ran

nic

al.

(iii

)E

ach

man

ingi

vin

gh

imse

lfto

ever

yon

egi

ves

him

self

ton

o-on

e;an

d• t

he

righ

tov

erh

imse

lfth

atth

eot

her

sge

tis

mat

ched

by• t

he

righ

tth

ath

ege

tsov

erea

chof

them

.S

oh

ega

ins

asm

uch

ash

elo

ses,

and

als

oga

ins

extr

afo

rce

for

the

pres

erva

tion

ofw

hat

he

has

.F

ilter

ing

out

the

ines

sen

tial

s,w

e’ll

fin

dth

atth

eso

cial

com

pact

com

esdo

wn

toth

is:

’Eac

hof

us

pu

tsh

isper

son

and

all

his

pow

erin

com

mon

un

der

the

supr

eme

dire

ctio

nof

the

gen

eral

will

,an

d,

inou

rco

rpor

ate

capac

ity,

we

rece

ive

each

mem

ber

asan

indi

visi

ble

part

ofth

ew

hol

e.’

[Th

isis

the

first

occu

rren

cein

this

wor

kof

the

phra

se‘th

ege

ner

alw

ill’.]

Th

isac

tof

asso

ciat

ion

inst

antl

yre

pla

ces

• th

ein

div

idu

al-

per

son

stat

us

ofea

chco

ntr

acti

ng

par

tyby

• am

oral

and

colle

ctiv

ebod

y,co

mpos

edof

asm

any

mem

ber

sas

the

asse

mbl

yh

asvo

ix[=

‘voi

ces’

or‘v

otes

’];an

dre

ceiv

ing

from

this

act

its

un

ity,

its

com

mon

iden

tity

,it

slif

ean

dit

sw

ill.

Th

ispu

blic

per

son

that

isfo

rmed

by

the

un

ion

ofal

lth

eot

her

pers

ons

use

dto

beca

lled

a‘c

ity’

,2an

dth

ese

days

isca

lled

a‘r

epu

blic

’or

a‘b

ody

polit

ic’.

Its

mem

bers

call

it• a

‘sta

te’w

hen

thin

kin

gof

itas

pass

ive,

• a‘s

over

eign

’wh

enth

inki

ng

ofit

asac

tive

,an

d• a

‘pow

er’w

hen

sett

ing

ital

ongs

ide

oth

ers

ofth

esa

me

kin

d.Th

ose

wh

oar

eas

soci

ated

init

are

colle

ctiv

ely

calle

d‘a

peop

le’,

and

are

sepa

rate

lyca

lled

‘cit

izen

s’(a

ssh

arin

gin

the

sove

reig

npow

er)an

d‘s

ubje

cts’

(as

bei

ng

un

der

the

stat

e’s

law

s.B

ut

thes

ete

rms

are

ofte

nm

udd

led

and

con

fuse

dw

ith

one

anot

her

:it

isen

ough

tokn

owh

owto

dist

ingu

ish

them

wh

enth

eyar

ebe

ing

use

dw

ith

prec

isio

n.

2Th

ere

alm

ean

ing

of‘c

ity’

has

been

alm

ost

wh

olly

lost

inm

oder

nti

mes

;m

ost

peop

lem

ista

kea

tow

nfo

ra

city

,an

da

tow

nsm

anfo

ra

citi

zen

.Th

eydo

n’t

know

that

hou

ses

mak

ea

tow

n,

but

citi

zen

sa

city

....

Ih

ave

nev

erre

adof

the

titl

e‘c

itiz

ens’

bein

ggi

ven

toth

esu

bjec

tsof

any

prin

ce,

not

even

the

anci

ent

Mac

edon

ian

sor

the

En

glis

hof

toda

y,th

ough

they

are

nea

rer

liber

tyth

anan

yon

eel

se.

On

lyth

eF

ren

chca

sual

lyad

opt

the

labe

l‘ci

tize

ns’

;th

at’s

beca

use

they

hav

en

oid

eaof

its

real

mea

nin

g(y

ouca

nse

eth

atfr

omth

eir

dict

ion

arie

s!).

...

They

thin

kof

the

nam

eas

expr

essi

ng

• avi

rtu

era

ther

than

• ari

ght.

Wh

enB

odin

was

tryi

ng

tota

lkab

out

our

citi

zen

san

dou

rto

wn

smen

,h

ebl

un

dere

dba

dly

byco

nfu

sin

gth

ese

two

clas

ses

wit

hon

ean

oth

er.

M.

d’A

lem

bert

avoi

ded

that

erro

rin

his

arti

cle

onG

enev

a,cl

earl

ydi

stin

guis

hin

gth

efo

ur

orde

rsof

men

(or

even

five,

cou

nti

ng

mer

efo

reig

ner

s)w

ho

dwel

lin

our

tow

n,

ofw

hic

hon

lytw

om

ake

up

the

repu

blic

.I

don

’tkn

owof

any

oth

erF

ren

chw

rite

rw

ho

has

un

ders

tood

the

real

mea

nin

gof

the

wor

d‘c

itiz

en’.

7

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u17.

The

sove

reig

n

7.

The

sove

reig

n

This

form

ula

show

su

sth

at• t

he

act

ofas

soci

atio

nin

volv

esa

two-

way

com

mit

men

tbe

twee

nth

epu

blic

and

the

indi

vidu

als

·bel

ongi

ng

toit·,

and

• th

atea

chin

divi

dual

,in

mak

ing

aco

n-

trac

tw

ith

him

self

(so

tosp

eak)

,ac

quir

estw

oco

mm

itm

ents

:(a

)as

am

ember

ofth

est

ate

he

has

aco

mm

itm

ent

toth

eso

vere

ign

,an

d(b

)as

am

embe

rof

the

sove

reig

n[s

eeG

loss

ary]

he

has

aco

mm

itm

ent

toea

chof

the

indiv

idu

als,

he

bei

ng

one

ofth

em.

Th

ere

isa

max

imof

civi

lla

wth

atn

o-on

eis

bou

nd

by

un

der

takin

gsh

eh

asm

ade

toh

imse

lf,

bu

tth

atdo

esn

’tap

ply

her

e,be

cau

seth

epr

esen

tto

pic

isin

curr

ing

anob

ligat

ion

to• a

wh

ole

ofw

hic

hon

eis

apa

rt,a

nd

that

isve

rydi

ffer

ent

from

incu

rrin

gan

oblig

atio

nto

• on

esel

f.Th

epro

ceed

ing

Ih

ave

bee

ndes

crib

ing

can

’tgi

veth

eso

vere

ign

aco

mm

itm

ent

toit

self.

As

Ih

ave

just

poi

nte

dou

t,an

indi

vidu

alsu

bjec

tca

nh

ave

aco

mm

itm

ent

toh

imse

lfin

this

sen

se:

asan

indiv

idu

alh

eh

asa

com

mit

men

tto

the

sove

reig

n,

and

asa

mem

ber

ofth

eso

vere

ign

he

has

aco

mm

itm

ent

toh

imse

lf.

Bu

tth

eso

vere

ign

can

’th

ave

aco

mm

itm

ent

toit

self;

itdo

esn

’th

ave

two

dist

inct

role

s·s

uch

that

aco

mm

itm

ent

cou

ldgo

from

itin

one

role

and

tow

ards

itin

the

oth

er·.

For

the

sove

reig

nto

hav

ea

com

mit

men

tto

itse

lfw

ould

belik

ean

indi

vidu

alpe

rson

hav

ing

aco

mm

itm

ent

toh

imse

lf;it

just

isn

’tpo

ssib

le.

An

dso

itis

agai

nst

the

nat

ure

ofth

ebo

dypo

litic

for

the

sove

reig

nto

impo

seon

itse

lfa

law

that

itca

n’t

infr

inge

:th

ere

isn

’tan

dca

n’t

be

any

kin

dof

bas

icla

wth

atis

bin

din

gon

the

bod

yof

the

peo

ple

—ev

enth

eso

cial

con

trac

tit

self

can

’tdo

that

.Th

isdoe

sn’t

mea

nth

atth

ebod

ypol

itic

can

’ten

ter

into

com

mit

men

tsw

ith

oth

ers

[i.e.

wit

hot

her

stat

es].

...

Itca

ndo

that

,bec

ause

inre

lati

onto

wh

atis

exte

rnal

toit

—·i.

e.in

rela

tion

toot

her

stat

esor

sove

reig

ns·

—th

eso

vere

ign

isju

sta

sim

ple

bei

ng,

anin

divi

dual

.

Bu

tth

ebod

ypol

itic

,i.e.

the

sove

reig

n,

owes

its

very

exis

ten

ceto

the

san

ctit

yof

• th

eco

ntr

act;

soit

can

nev

erco

mm

itit

self,

even

toan

oth

erst

ate,

todo

anyt

hin

gth

atco

nfli

cts

wit

h• t

hat

orig

inal

act—

e.g.

toal

ien

ate

any

part

ofit

self,

orto

subm

itto

anot

her

sove

reig

n.

·I’m

sayi

ng

not

that

the

sove

reig

nou

ght

not

todo

such

ath

ing,

but

that

itca

n’t

doso

·:vi

olat

ion

ofth

eac

t·o

fco

ntr

act-

mak

ing·

byw

hic

hit

exis

tsw

ould

bese

lf-an

nih

ilati

on;a

nd

not

hin

gca

nbe

crea

ted

byso

met

hin

gth

ath

asgo

ne

out

ofex

iste

nce

!A

sso

onas

this

mu

ltit

ude

isu

nit

edin

toon

ebo

dyin

this

way

,an

yof

fen

ceag

ain

ston

eof

the

mem

bers

isan

atta

ckon

the

body

,an

dan

yof

fen

ceag

ain

stth

ebo

dyw

illbe

rese

nte

dby

the

mem

ber

s.Th

us,

the

two

con

trac

tin

gpar

ties

—th

ein

divi

dual

mem

ber

and

the

body

polit

ic—

are

oblig

edby

duty

and

byse

lf-in

tere

stto

give

each

oth

erh

elp.

...

Now

,bec

ause

the

sove

reig

nis

mad

eou

tof

not

hin

gbu

tit

sco

nst

itu

ent

indi

vidu

als,

itdo

esn

’tan

dca

n’t

hav

ean

yin

tere

stco

ntr

ary

toth

eirs

;so

ther

e’s

no

nee

dfo

rit

topro

vide

its

subj

ects

wit

hgu

aran

tee

·oft

reat

ing

them

wel

l·,be

cau

se• t

he

bod

yca

n’t

pos

sibly

wis

hto

hu

rtal

lit

sm

ember

s,an

d—

asw

e’ll

see

late

ron

—• i

tca

n’t

hu

rtan

yin

divi

dual

one

ofth

emei

ther

.Th

eso

vere

ign

,mer

ely

byvi

rtu

eof

wh

atit

is,i

sal

way

sw

hat

itou

ght

tobe

.B

ut

the

situ

atio

nis

diff

eren

tw

ith

resp

ect

toth

ere

lati

onof

the

subj

ects

toth

eso

vere

ign

:de

spit

eth

eir

com

mon

inte

rest

,th

eso

vere

ign

wou

ldh

ave

no

secu

rity

that

the

subj

ects

wou

ldbeh

ave

asth

eyh

ave

com

mit

ted

them

selv

esto

beh

avin

gu

nle

ssit

fou

nd

som

ew

ayto

beas

sure

dof

thei

rfid

elit

y.Th

efa

ctis

that

each

indiv

idu

al• a

sa

man

can

hav

ea

par

ticu

lar

will

that

doe

sn’t

fit,

and

even

con

flic

tsw

ith

,th

ege

ner

alw

illth

ath

eh

as• a

sa

citi

zen

.H

isin

div

idu

alse

lf-in

tere

stm

aysp

eak

toh

imqu

ite

diff

eren

tly

from

how

the

com

mon

inte

rest

does

.H

elo

oks

atth

esi

tuat

ion

inth

isw

ay:

8

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u18.

The

civi

lsta

te

’Ih

ave

anab

solu

tean

dn

atu

rally

indep

enden

tex

is-

ten

ce;

·I’m

not

som

eth

ing

that

exis

tson

lybec

ause

cert

ain

item

sh

ave

com

eto

geth

erin

anas

soci

atio

n·.

So

wh

atI

amsa

idto

‘ow

e’to

the

com

mon

cau

se—

·i.e.

toth

ebo

dypo

litic

orso

vere

ign

wh

ose

exis

ten

ceis

inth

atw

ayde

pen

den

ton

the

con

duct

ofit

sm

embe

rs·—

isre

ally

agi

ft,a

han

d-ou

t;if

Iw

ith

hol

dit

,th

atw

on’t

har

man

yon

eel

seas

mu

chas

itw

illben

efit

me.

As

for

the

‘mor

alpe

rson

’th

atco

nst

itu

tes

the

stat

e,th

at’s

not

am

anbu

ta

mer

em

enta

lcon

stru

ct.’

So

he

may

wis

hto

enjo

yth

eri

ghts

ofci

tize

nsh

ipw

ith

out

bein

gre

ady

tofu

lfill

the

duti

esof

asu

bjec

t;an

dif

that

wen

ton

for

lon

gen

ough

itw

ould

dest

roy

the

body

polit

ic.

To

pro

tect

the

soci

alco

mpac

tfr

ombei

ng

am

ere

empty

form

ula

,th

eref

ore,

itsi

len

tly

incl

ude

sth

eu

nde

rtak

ing

that

anyo

ne

wh

ore

fuse

sto

obey

the

gen

eral

will

isto

beco

mpe

lled

todo

soby

the

wh

ole

body

.Th

issi

ngl

eit

emin

the

com

pact

can

give

pow

erto

allt

he

oth

erit

ems.

Itm

ean

sn

oth

ing

less

than

that

each

indiv

idu

alw

ill

befo

rced

tobe

free

.·I

t’sob

viou

sh

owfo

rcin

gco

mes

into

this

,bu

t...

tobe

free

?Ye

s·,

bec

ause

this

isth

eco

ndit

ion

wh

ich

,by

givi

ng

each

citi

zen

toh

isco

un

try,

secu

res

him

agai

nst

allp

erso

nal

depe

nde

nce

,·i.

e.se

cure

sh

imag

ain

stbe

ing

taken

byan

yon

eor

anyt

hin

gel

se·.

This

isth

eke

yto

the

wor

kin

gof

the

polit

ical

mac

hin

e;it

alon

ele

giti

mis

esci

vilc

omm

itm

ents

wh

ich

wou

ldot

her

wis

ebe

absu

rd,ty

ran

nic

al,an

dlia

ble

tofr

igh

tfu

labu

ses.

8.

The

civi

lst

ate

Th

ispas

sage

from

• th

est

ate

ofn

atu

reto

• th

eci

vil

stat

epro

du

ces

ave

ryre

mar

kab

lech

ange

inm

an:

the

role

that

inst

inct

use

dto

play

inh

isco

ndu

ctis

now

take

nov

erby

·ase

nse

of·j

ust

ice,

and

his

acti

ons

now

hav

ea

mor

alas

pec

t

that

they

form

erly

lack

ed.

The

voic

eof

duty

has

take

nov

erfr

omph

ysic

alim

pu

lses

and

·ase

nse

ofw

hat

is·

righ

th

asta

keov

erfr

omap

peti

te;an

dn

ow—

only

now

—th

em

anw

ho

has

un

tiln

owco

nsi

dere

don

lyh

imse

lffin

dsh

imse

lffo

rced

toac

ton

diff

eren

tpr

inci

ples

and

toco

nsu

lth

isre

ason

befo

relis

ten

ing

toh

isin

clin

atio

ns.

Inth

is·c

ivil·

stat

eh

eis

depr

ived

ofm

any

adva

nta

ges

that

he

got

from

nat

ure

,bu

th

ege

tsen

orm

ous

ben

efits

inre

turn

—h

isfa

cult

ies

are

sost

imu

late

dan

dde

velo

ped,

his

idea

sar

eex

ten

ded,

his

feel

ings

enn

oble

d,an

dh

isw

hol

eso

ul

uplif

ted.

All

this

hap

pen

sto

such

anex

ten

tth

atif

the

abu

ses

ofth

isn

ewco

ndit

ion

did

n’t

ofte

npu

llh

imdo

wn

toso

met

hin

glo

wer

than

he

was

in• t

he

stat

eof

nat

ure

,h

ew

ould

bebo

un

dto

bles

sco

nti

nu

ally

the

hap

pym

omen

tth

atto

okh

imfr

om• i

tfo

rev

er,a

nd

out

ofa

dull

and

limit

edan

imal

mad

ea

thin

kin

gbe

ing,

am

an.

Let

us

get

ast

atem

ent

ofpro

fit

and

loss

inte

rms

that

mak

eit

easy

toco

mpar

eth

etw

osi

des

.W

hat

man

lose

sby

the

soci

alco

ntr

act

is• h

isn

atu

rall

iber

tyan

d• a

nu

nre

stri

cted

righ

tto

anyt

hin

gh

ew

ants

and

can

get.

Wh

ath

ega

ins

• civ

illib

erty

and

• th

eow

ner

ship

ofev

eryt

hin

gh

epo

sses

ses.

Ifw

e’re

tow

eigh

thes

eu

pac

cura

tely

,w

em

ust

dist

ingu

ish

• nat

ura

llib

erty

,w

hic

his

limit

edon

lyby

the

indiv

id-

ual

’spo

wer

s,fr

om• c

ivil

liber

ty,w

hic

his

limit

edby

the

gen

eral

will

.A

nd

we

mu

stdi

stin

guis

h• p

osse

ssio

n,w

hic

his

mer

ely

the

effe

ctof

forc

eor

the

prin

cipl

eof

‘firs

tco

me,

first

serv

ed’,

from

• pro

pert

y,w

hic

hca

non

lybe

base

don

apo

siti

veti

tle.

We

cou

ldad

don

the

‘pro

fit’s

ide

the

fact

that

inth

eci

vils

tate

am

anac

quir

esm

oral

liber

ty,w

hic

hal

one

mak

esh

imtr

uly

9

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u19.

Rea

lest

ate

mas

ter

ofh

imse

lf;fo

rth

edr

ive

ofsh

eer

appe

tite

is• s

lave

ry,

wh

ileob

edie

nce

toa

law

that

we

pre

scri

be

toou

rsel

ves

is• l

iber

ty.

Bu

tI

hav

esa

idto

om

uch

abou

tth

isin

oth

erpl

aces

;an

dth

eph

iloso

ph

ical

mea

nin

gof

the

wor

d‘li

ber

ty’d

oesn

’tco

nce

rnu

sh

ere.

9.

Rea

les

tate

At

the

mom

ent

wh

enth

eco

mm

un

ity

com

esin

toex

iste

nce

,ea

chof

its

mem

bers

give

sh

imse

lfto

it—

him

self

just

ash

eis

,w

ith

any

pow

ers

that

he

has

,in

clu

din

gal

lhis

pos

sess

ion

s.It

isn

otth

eca

seth

atth

istr

ansf

erof

allh

isgo

ods

chan

ges

them

from

bein

g• p

osse

ssio

ns

inh

ish

ands

tobe

ing

• pro

pert

yin

the

han

ds

ofth

eso

vere

ign

;bu

tbec

ause

the

city

’spow

-er

sar

ein

com

par

ably

grea

ter

than

any

indiv

idu

al’s

,pu

blic

poss

essi

onis

stro

nge

ran

dm

ore

irre

voca

ble,

wit

hou

tbe

ing

any

mor

ele

giti

mat

e.[T

he

rest

ofth

ispa

ragr

aph

isex

pan

ded

inw

ays

that

the

·sm

all

dots

·con

ven

tion

can

’tea

sily

sign

ify.]

Act

ual

ly,

from

the

poin

tof

view

ofth

em

embe

rsof

this

stat

eit

spo

sses

sion

ofea

chm

ember

’sgo

ods

[isle

giti

mat

e,bec

ause

the

stat

eis

the

mas

ter

ofal

lth

eir

good

sby

the

soci

alco

ntr

act

wh

ich

isth

eba

sis

ofal

lrig

hts

wit

hin

the

sta

te.

Bu

tit

’sn

otle

giti

mat

efr

omth

epo

int

ofvi

ewof

afo

reig

ner

,bec

ause

from

that

poin

tof

view

this

stat

eh

asit

spo

sses

sion

son

lyth

rou

ghth

e‘fi

rst

com

e,firs

tse

rved

’pri

nci

ple

asap

plie

dto

its

mem

ber

san

dth

enpa

ssed

onfr

omth

emto

the

stat

e.O

fth

etw

ow

ays

ofge

ttin

ga

righ

tto

som

eth

ing

inth

est

ate

ofn

atu

re,n

amel

y(i)be

ing

the

first

occu

pier

ofit

,an

d(ii)

bein

gth

est

ron

gest

,(i)pr

ovid

esa

righ

t—‘·fi

rst

com

e,fir

stse

rved

·’—th

atis

mor

ere

alth

an(ii)

doe

s;bu

tit

doe

sn’t

bec

ome

atr

ue

righ

tu

nti

lpr

oper

ty-r

igh

tsar

ees

tabl

ish

ed.

Eve

rym

anh

asn

atu

rally

ari

ght

toev

eryt

hin

gh

en

eeds

;bu

tth

epo

siti

veac

tth

atm

akes

som

eth

ing

his

prop

erty

excl

udes

him

from

ever

yth

ing

else

.H

avin

gac

quir

edsh

are,

he

ough

tto

limit

him

self

toth

at,

and

can

’th

ave

any

furt

her

clai

mon

the

com

mu

nit

y.Th

at’s

wh

yth

efir

st-o

ccu

pier

righ

t,w

hic

his

sow

eak

inth

est

ate

ofn

atu

re,c

laim

sth

ere

spec

tof

ever

ym

anin

civi

lsoc

iety

.W

hat

am

anre

spec

tsin

this

righ

tis

not

som

uch

• wh

atbe

lon

gsto

som

eon

eel

seas

• wh

atdo

esn

’tbe

lon

gto

him

.In

gen

eral

,to

auth

oriz

ea

firs

toc

cupie

r’s

righ

tov

eran

ybi

tof

grou

nd

thre

eco

ndi

tion

sm

ust

besa

tisfi

ed:

• th

egr

oun

dw

asn

’tal

read

yoc

cupi

edby

som

eon

eel

se;

• he

occu

pies

only

asm

uch

ash

en

eeds

for

his

subs

is-

ten

ce;

• he

takes

pos

sess

ion

ofth

isgr

oun

dn

otby

anem

pty

cere

mon

ybu

tby

labo

ur

and

cult

ivat

ion

.H

isw

ork

onth

ela

nd

isth

eon

lysi

gnof

own

ersh

ipth

atot

her

ssh

ould

resp

ect

ifh

edo

esn

’th

ave

ale

galt

itle

.In

allo

win

gth

eri

ght

offir

stoc

cupa

ncy

onco

ndi

tion

that

the

lan

dw

asn

eede

dan

dw

asw

orke

don

,are

n’t

we

stre

tch

ing

that

righ

tas

far

asit

can

go?

Cou

ldsu

cha

righ

tbe

left

wit

hn

olim

its

orre

stri

ctio

ns?

To

clai

mto

beth

em

aste

rof

apl

otof

com

mon

grou

nd

will

itbe

enou

ghm

erel

yto

set

foot

onit

?If

am

anh

asth

est

ren

gth

toex

pel

oth

ers

for

am

omen

t,doe

sth

atdep

rive

them

ofan

yri

ght

tore

turn

?If

am

anor

apeo

ple

seiz

ean

imm

ense

terr

itor

yan

dsh

ut

out

the

rest

ofth

ew

orld

,w

on’t

this

be

mer

ely

agr

ab

that

ough

tto

be

pun

ish

ed?

·Th

ean

swer

issu

rely

‘yes

’·,be

cau

sesu

chan

act

stea

lsfr

omot

her

sth

eliv

ing-

spac

ean

dm

ean

sof

subs

iste

nce

that

nat

ure

gave

them

inco

mm

on.

Wh

enB

alboa

stoo

don

the

sea-

shor

ean

dto

okpo

sses

sion

ofth

eso

uth

seas

and

the

wh

ole

ofS

outh

Am

eric

ain

the

nam

eof

the

Span

ish

crow

n,

was

that

enou

ghto

dis

pos

sess

all

thei

rac

tual

inh

abit

ants

and

tosh

ut

out

from

thos

ete

rrit

orie

sal

lth

epri

nce

sof

the

wor

ld?

Ifso

,th

ere’

sn

on

eed

for

all

thes

ece

rem

onie

s;th

eC

ath

olic

Kin

gca

nta

kepo

sses

sion

ofth

ew

hol

eu

niv

erse

all

10

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u19.

Rea

lest

ate

aton

ce,

tack

ing

ona

rider

excl

udin

gfr

omh

iscl

aim

any

terr

itor

ies

that

wer

eal

read

ypo

sses

sed

byot

her

prin

ces!

We

can

imag

ine

• how

adja

cen

tpie

ces

ofla

nd

bel

ongi

ng

toin

div

idu

als

bec

ome,

wh

enth

eyar

eco

mbin

ed,

pu

blic

terr

itor

y,an

d• h

owth

eri

ght

ofso

vere

ign

tyov

erth

esu

b-

ject

sco

mes

tobe

exte

nded

tobei

ng

ari

ght

over

thei

rre

ales

tate

.Th

ism

akes

the

lan

d-o

wn

ers

even

mor

edep

enden

t·o

nth

eso

vere

ign·;

·th

eyh

ave

mor

eto

lose

ifth

ings

gow

ron

gbet

wee

nth

eman

dth

eso

vere

ign

;an

d·

this

isa

guar

ante

eof

thei

rfid

elit

y.Th

ead

van

tage

ofth

isap

pare

ntl

yw

asn

’tfe

ltby

anci

ent

mon

arch

s,w

ho

calle

dth

emse

lves

kin

gsof

the

Per

sian

s,th

eScy

thia

ns,

orth

eM

aced

onia

ns,

appar

entl

yre

gard

ing

them

selv

esas

rule

rsof

men

rath

erth

anas

mas

ters

ofa

cou

ntr

y.To

day’

ski

ngs

are

clev

erer

:th

eyca

llth

emse

lves

kin

gsof

Fra

nce

,of

Spa

in,

ofE

ngl

and

and

soon

.H

oldin

gth

ela

nd

inth

isw

ay,

they

are

quit

eco

nfid

ent

ofh

oldi

ng

the

inh

abit

ants

.Th

isal

ien

atio

nin

wh

ich

indi

vidu

als

tran

sfer

thei

rgo

ods

toth

eco

mm

un

ity

has

asp

ecia

lfea

ture

,nam

ely

that

far

from

• dep

rivi

ng

the

indi

vidu

als

ofth

eir

good

sit

• ass

ure

sth

emof

legi

tim

ate

poss

essi

on,ch

angi

ng

• ‘Ih

ave

take

npo

sses

sion

ofth

is(s

omeh

ow)’

into

‘Ih

ave

age

nu

ine

righ

tto

this

’,an

d• ’

Ih

ave

the

enjo

ymen

tof

this

’in

to‘I

own

this

’.Th

us

the

pos

sess

ors,

• in

thei

rro

leas

thos

eto

wh

omth

e

pu

blic

good

has

bee

nen

tru

sted

,an

d• h

avin

gth

eir

righ

tsre

spec

ted

byal

lth

est

ate’

sm

embe

rsan

dm

ain

tain

edag

ain

stfo

reig

nag

gres

sion

byal

lits

forc

es,h

ave

mad

ea

tran

sfer

that

ben

efits

both

the

publ

ican

dst

illm

ore

them

selv

es,th

ereb

yac

quir

ing

(as

itw

ere)

ever

yth

ing

that

they

gave

up.

Th

ispa

rado

xis

easi

lyex

plai

ned

bydi

stin

guis

hin

gth

eso

vere

ign

’sri

ght

from

the

own

er’s

righ

tsov

erth

esa

me

esta

te—

asw

esh

alls

eela

ter

on.

Itca

nal

soh

appen

that

men

• beg

into

un

ite

bef

ore

they

poss

ess

anyt

hin

g,• s

ubs

equ

entl

yoc

cupy

atr

act

ofla

nd

that

isen

ough

for

them

all,

and

then

• en

joy

itin

com

mon

,or

shar

eit

out

amon

gth

emse

lves

(eit

her

equ

ally

orin

prop

or-

tion

sfixe

dby

the

sove

reig

n).

Bu

th

owev

erth

eac

quis

itio

nis

mad

e,ea

chin

divi

dual

’sri

ght

toh

isow

nes

tate

isal

way

ssu

bord

inat

eto

the

com

mu

nit

y’s

righ

tov

erev

eryo

ne’

ses

tate

;w

ith

out

this

,th

eso

cial

tie

wou

ldbe

frag

ilean

dth

eex

erci

seof

sove

reig

nty

wou

ldbe

feeb

le.

Tobr

ing

this

chap

ter

and

this

book

toan

end,

I’llr

emar

kon

afa

ctth

atsh

ould

be

the

bas

isfo

ran

yso

cial

syst

em,

nam

ely:

The

basi

cco

mpa

ctdo

esn

’tde

stro

yn

atu

rali

neq

ual

-it

y;ra

ther

,it

repl

aces

• su

chph

ysic

alin

equ

alit

ies

asn

atu

rem

ayh

ave

set

up

betw

een

men

by• a

neq

ual

ity

that

ism

oral

and

legi

tim

ate,

soth

atm

enw

ho

may

beu

neq

ual

inst

ren

gth

orin

telli

gen

cebe

com

eeq

ual

byag

reem

ent

and

lega

lrig

ht.

3

3U

nde

rba

dgo

vern

men

ts,

this

equ

alit

yis

only

appa

ren

tan

dill

uso

ry:

allit

does

isto

keep

the

pau

per

inh

ispo

vert

yan

dth

eri

chm

anin

the

posi

tion

he

has

usu

rped

.La

ws

infa

ctar

eal

way

su

sefu

lto

thos

ew

ho

hav

epo

sses

sion

san

dh

arm

fult

oth

ose

wh

odo

n’t;

from

wh

ich

itfo

llow

sth

atth

eso

cial

stat

eis

adva

nta

geou

sto

men

only

wh

enev

eryo

ne

has

som

eth

ing

and

no-

one

has

too

mu

ch.

11

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u22.

Sov

erei

gnty

isin

divi

sibl

e

BO

OK

2

1.

Sov

erei

gnty

isin

alie

nab

le

The

first

and

mos

tim

port

ant

con

sequ

ence

ofth

epr

inci

ples

Ih

ave

laid

dow

nis

that

the

dire

ctin

gof

the

stat

ein

the

ligh

tof

the

obje

ctfo

rw

hic

hit

was

inst

itu

ted,

i.e.

the

com

mon

good

,m

ust

bedo

ne

byth

ege

ner

alw

ill.

The

• cla

shin

gof

part

icu

lar

inte

rest

sm

ade

it• n

eces

sary

toes

tabl

ish

aso

ciet

y,an

dth

e• a

gree

men

tof

thos

esa

me

inte

rest

sm

ade

it• p

ossi

ble

todo

so.

It’s

the

com

mon

elem

ent

inth

ese

diff

eren

tin

tere

sts

that

form

sth

eso

cial

tie;

and

ifth

ere

wer

eth

ere

not

hin

gth

atth

eyal

lhad

inco

mm

on,

no

soci

ety

cou

ldex

ist.

Itis

sole

lyby

this

com

mon

inte

rest

that

ever

yso

ciet

ysh

ould

bego

vern

ed.

Ih

old

then

that

sove

reig

nty

,bei

ng

not

hin

gle

ssth

anth

eex

erci

seof

the

gen

eral

will

,ca

nn

ever

be

alie

nat

ed[s

eeG

loss

ary]

,an

dth

atth

eso

vere

ign

,w

hic

his

not

hin

gbu

ta

colle

ctiv

ebei

ng,

can

’tbe

repre

sen

ted

exce

pt

by

itse

lf:

the

pow

erin

deed

may

betr

ansm

itte

d,bu

tn

otth

ew

ill.

Perh

aps

apa

rtic

ula

rw

illco

uld

agre

eon

som

epo

int

wit

hth

ege

ner

alw

ill,

bu

tat

leas

tit

’sim

pos

sible

for

such

anag

reem

ent

tobe

last

ing

and

con

stan

t.W

hy?

Bec

ause

it’s

ofth

eve

ryn

atu

reof

apar

ticu

lar

will

tote

nd

tow

ards

• fav

ouri

tism

,be

• par

tial

[i.e.

tofa

vou

rso

me

peop

leov

erot

her

s],

wh

erea

sth

ege

ner

alw

illte

nds

tow

ards

• equ

alit

y.It

isev

enm

ore

impos

sible

toh

ave

any

guar

ante

eof

this

agre

emen

t;fo

rev

enif

itdi

dal

way

sex

ist

that

wou

ldbe

the

effe

ctn

otof

skill

but

ofch

ance

.Th

eso

vere

ign

may

inde

edsa

y:‘R

igh

tn

owI

will

wh

atth

atm

anw

ills

(or

atle

ast

wh

ath

esa

ysh

ew

ills)

’,bu

tit

can

’tsa

y’W

hat

that

man

will

sto

mor

row

,I

too

shal

lwill

’,

bec

ause

it’s

absu

rdfo

rth

ew

illto

bin

dit

self

for

the

futu

re,

and

no

will

isob

liged

toco

nse

nt

toan

yth

ing

that

isn

’tfo

rth

ego

odof

the

bei

ng

wh

ose

will

itis

.If

then

the

pop

ula

cepro

mis

essi

mply

toob

ey,

by

that

very

act

itdis

solv

esit

self

and

lose

sw

hat

mak

esit

ape

ople

;th

em

omen

ta

mas

ter

exis

ts,

ther

eis

no

lon

ger

aso

vere

ign

,an

dfr

omth

atm

omen

tth

ebo

dypo

litic

has

ceas

edto

exis

t.Th

isis

n’t

toden

yth

atru

lers

’com

man

ds

can

cou

nt

asge

ner

alw

ills,

ifth

eso

vere

ign

isfr

eeto

oppos

eth

eman

ddoe

sn’t

do

so.

Insu

cha

case

,u

niv

ersa

lsi

len

cesh

ould

be

take

nto

show

the

peop

le’s

con

sen

t.I’l

lexp

lain

this

fully

late

ron

.

2.

Sov

erei

gnty

isin

divi

sibl

e

For

the

sam

ere

ason

that

mak

esit

inal

ien

able

,so

vere

ign

tyis

indi

visi

ble.

Her

eis

wh

y.E

ith

erw

ill(a

)is

gen

eral

4or

it(b

)is

n’t;

itis

the

will

eith

erof

(a)th

ebo

dyof

the

peop

leor

of(b

)on

lya

part

ofit

.W

hen

itis

decl

ared

,th

en,

eith

er(a

)it

isan

act

ofso

vere

ign

tyan

dco

nst

itu

tes

law

,or

(b)

itis

mer

ely

apa

rtic

ula

rw

illor

the

rest

ofth

ese

nte

nce

:u

na

cte

de

ma

gist

ratu

re;

c’es

tu

nd

écre

tto

ut

au

plu

s.

whic

hli

tera

lly

mea

ns:

anac

tof

mag

istr

acy—

atth

em

ost

ade

cree

.

what

Rou

ssea

uw

asge

ttin

gat

:re

gula

tion

sla

iddow

nby

hig

h-l

evel

bu

reau

crat

s,n

otbas

icla

ws

issu

ing

from

the

legi

slat

ure

,th

eso

vere

ign

.[R

e‘m

agis

trac

y’,

see

Glo

ssar

y.]

Bu

tou

rpol

itic

alth

eori

sts,

un

able

todiv

ide

sove

reig

nty

on4

To

bege

ner

al,

aw

illn

eed

not

alw

ays

beu

nan

imou

s;bu

tev

ery

vote

mu

stbe

cou

nte

d:an

yex

clu

sion

isa

brea

chof

gen

eral

ity.

12

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u22.

Sov

erei

gnty

isin

divi

sibl

e

the

bas

isof

its

• sou

rce,

div

ide

itac

cord

ing

toit

s• o

bje

ct.

They

divi

deit

into

• for

cean

dw

ill,

• leg

isla

tive

pow

eran

dex

ecu

tive

pow

er,

• rig

hts

ofta

xati

on,ju

stic

ean

dw

ar,

• in

tern

alaf

fair

san

dfo

reig

nre

lati

ons.

Som

etim

esth

eyru

nth

ese

sect

ion

sto

geth

eran

dso

met

imes

they

sepa

rate

them

;th

eytu

rnth

eso

vere

ign

into

afa

nta

stic

bei

ng

com

pos

edof

seve

ralc

onn

ecte

dpie

ces:

itis

asif

they

wer

em

akin

gm

anof

seve

ralb

odie

s,on

ew

ith

eyes

,on

ew

ith

arm

s,an

oth

erw

ith

feet

,an

dea

chw

ith

not

hin

gel

se!

We’

reto

ldth

atth

eju

ggle

rsof

Japan

dis

mem

ber

ach

ildbef

ore

the

eyes

ofth

esp

ecta

tors

;th

enth

eyth

row

the

pie

ces

into

the

air

one

afte

ran

oth

er,an

dth

ech

ildfa

llsdo

wn

aliv

ean

dw

hol

e.Th

eco

nju

rin

gtr

icks

ofou

rpol

itic

alth

eori

sts

are

pret

tym

uch

like

that

:h

avin

gdi

smem

bere

dth

ebo

dypo

litic

bya

hu

ckst

er’s

tric

kth

eyth

enre

-ass

sem

ble

it..

.som

ehow

!Th

iser

ror

com

esfr

oma

failu

reto

thin

kpre

cise

lyab

out

the

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity,

rega

rdin

gas

dif

fere

nt

• par

tsof

itw

hat

are

real

lyju

stdi

ffer

ent

• em

anat

ion

sfr

omit

.[R

ouss

eau

seem

sto

mea

nth

atth

eyar

eju

stdi

ffer

entac

tion

sth

atar

epe

r-fo

rmed

un

der

the

auth

orit

yof

the

sove

reig

n.

Indi

stin

guis

hin

g(a

)par

tsof

the

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity

from

(b)

acti

ons

perf

orm

edn

otby

the

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity

but

bysu

bord

inat

ego

vern

men

tala

gen

cies

,h

em

aybe

dist

ingu

ish

ing

part

sof

xfr

omac

tion

sof

x,or

dist

ingu

ish

ing

the

sove

reig

n’s

acti

ons

from

thos

eof

subo

rdin

ate

agen

cies

.

Infa

cth

ese

ems

tobe

thin

kin

gon

lyof

the

seco

nd

ofth

ese

dist

inct

ion

s.R

ead

on.]

Th

us,

for

exam

ple

,th

eac

tsof

dec

lari

ng

war

and

mak

ing

peac

eh

ave

been

rega

rded

asac

tsof

sove

reig

nty

,bu

tth

eyar

en’t.

Non

eof

them

are

law

s;ea

chof

them

sim

ply

applie

sa

law

toa

par

ticu

lar

case

,in

volv

ing

adec

isio

n·n

otab

out

wh

atth

ela

wis

tobe,

bu

ton

ly·

abou

th

owth

ela

wap

plie

sin

this

case

.Th

isw

illbe

clea

rw

hen

the

idea

atta

ched

toth

ew

ord

‘law

’has

been

fixed

.

Ifw

etr

ack

the

oth

erdiv

isio

ns

inth

esa

me

way

,w

ew

ould

fin

dth

atw

hen

ever

anyo

ne

takes

sove

reig

nty

tobe

divi

ded

ther

eis

am

ista

ke:

the

righ

tsth

atar

eta

ken

asbe

ing

par

tof

sove

reig

nty

are

real

lyal

lsu

bor

din

ate,

and

alw

ays

pre

suppos

eth

eex

iste

nce

ofsu

pre

me

will

sth

atth

eyar

em

erel

yap

plyi

ng.

Th

isla

ckof

exac

tnes

sh

asth

row

na

clou

dof

obsc

uri

tyov

erth

eco

ncl

usi

ons

ofw

rite

rson

pol

itic

alri

ght

wh

oh

ave

laid

dow

npr

inci

ples

onth

eba

sis

ofw

hic

hto

pass

judg

men

ton

the

resp

ecti

veri

ghts

ofki

ngs

and

peop

les.

Wh

enI

try

tosa

yh

owm

uch

obsc

uri

ty,

wor

dsfa

ilm

e!E

very

one

can

see

inG

roti

us’

sw

ork

(Boo

k1

chap

ters

3an

d4)

how

the

lear

ned

man

and

his

tran

slat

or,

Bar

bey

rac,

enta

ngl

ean

dco

nfu

seth

emse

lves

wit

hin

thei

row

nso

ph

istr

ies,

for

fear

ofsa

yin

gto

olit

tle

orto

om

uch

ofw

hat

they

thin

k,

and

soof

fen

din

gth

ein

tere

sts

they

hav

eto

pla

cate

.G

roti

us,

are

fuge

ein

Fra

nce

,dis

con

ten

ted

wit

hh

isow

nco

un

try

[Hol

lan

d],

and

wan

tin

gto

pay

cou

rtto

Lou

isX

III,

tow

hom

his

boo

kis

ded

icat

ed,

will

goto

any

len

gth

sto

stri

pth

epeo

ple

sof

all

thei

rri

ghts

and

clot

he

kin

gsin

them

wit

hev

ery

con

ceiv

able

dec

orat

ion

.Th

isw

ould

also

hav

ebee

nm

uch

toth

eta

ste

ofB

arbey

rac,

wh

oded

icat

edh

istr

ansl

atio

nto

Geo

rge

Iof

En

glan

d.B

ut

un

fort

un

atel

y·fo

rh

im·t

he

expu

lsio

nof

Jam

esII

,w

hic

hB

arbey

rac

calle

dh

is‘a

bdic

atio

n’,

com

pel

led

him

tobe

onh

isgu

ard,

tosh

uffl

ean

dsw

itch

posi

tion

s,in

orde

rto

avoi

dm

akin

gW

illia

m·o

fO

ran

ge,w

ho

succ

eede

dJa

mes

onth

eth

ron

e·a

usu

rper

.If

thes

etw

ow

rite

rsh

adad

opte

dth

etr

ue

pri

nci

ple

s,al

l·t

hei

r·dif

ficu

ltie

sw

ould

hav

ebee

nre

mov

ed,an

dth

eyw

ould

hav

ebe

enal

way

sco

nsi

sten

t;bu

tth

ey’d

hav

eto

ldth

etr

uth

sad

ly,

and

they

wou

ldn

’th

ave

bee

npay

ing

cou

rtto

anyo

ne

exce

pt

the

peo

ple

.W

ell,

the

tru

this

no

road

tofo

rtu

ne,

and

the

pop

ula

cedoe

sn’t

give

out

amba

ssad

orsh

ips,

un

iver

sity

chai

rs,or

pen

sion

s.

13

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u24.

The

limit

sof

the

sove

reig

npo

wer

3.

Can

the

gener

alw

illbe

wro

ng?

Itfo

llow

sfr

omal

lth

isth

atth

ege

ner

alw

illis

alw

ays

inth

eri

ght

and

alw

ays

wor

ks

for

the

pu

blic

good

;bu

tit

doe

sn’t

follo

wth

atth

epeo

ple

’sdel

iber

atio

ns

are

alw

ays

equ

ally

corr

ect.

Ou

rw

illis

alw

ays

for

our

own

good

,bu

tw

edon

’tal

way

sse

ew

hat

that

is;

the

pop

ula

ceis

nev

erco

rru

pte

d,

but

itis

ofte

nde

ceiv

ed,an

dth

en—

but

only

then

—it

seem

sto

will

som

eth

ing

bad

.[T

he

Fre

nch

for

Rou

ssea

u’s

endo

rsem

ent

ofth

ege

ner

alw

illis

tou

jou

rsd

roit

e,w

hic

hh

asbe

entr

ansl

ated

as‘a

lway

sri

ght’

and

also

as‘a

lway

sw

ith

init

sri

ghts

’;th

em

atte

ris

con

trov

ersi

al.

The

ren

deri

ng

‘inth

eri

ght’—

her

ean

dtw

ice

mor

e—is

aco

war

dly

com

pro-

mis

e.] Th

e• w

illof

alli

sve

rydi

ffer

ent

from

the

• gen

eral

will

;th

ela

tter

look

son

lyto

the

com

mon

inte

rest

,w

hile

the

form

erlo

oks

topri

vate

inte

rest

and

isn

om

ore

than

asu

mof

part

icu

lar

will

s:bu

tre

mov

efr

omth

ese

sam

ew

ills

the

plu

ses

and

min

use

sth

atca

nce

lon

ean

oth

er5

and

wh

atis

left

ofth

epa

rtic

ula

rw

ills

adds

up

toco

nst

itu

teth

ege

ner

alw

ill.

[Inth

atse

nte

nce

,an

dfo

ur

tim

esin

the

nex

tpa

ragr

aph

,‘p

arti

cula

rw

ill(s

)’tr

ansl

ates

Rou

ssea

u’s

diff

éren

ce(s

)’,w

hic

hin

this

one

con

text

he

use

sin

anod

dly

non

-rel

atio

nal

way

.]If

the

pop

ula

ceh

eld

its

del

iber

atio

ns

(on

the

bas

isof

adeq

uat

ein

form

atio

n)w

ith

out

the

citi

zen

sco

mm

un

icat

ing

wit

hon

ean

oth

er,

wh

atem

erge

dfr

omal

lth

elit

tle

part

icu

lar

will

sw

ould

alw

ays

be

the

gen

eral

will

,an

dth

edec

isio

nw

ould

alw

ays

be

good

.B

ut

wh

enplo

tsan

ddea

lsle

adto

the

form

atio

nof

• par

tial

asso

ciat

ion

sat

the

expe

nse

of• t

he

big

asso

ciat

ion

,th

ew

illof

each

ofth

ese

asso

ciat

ion

s—th

e

gen

eral

will

ofit

sm

ember

s—is

still

apar

ticu

lar

[pa

rtic

uliè

re]

will

sofa

ras

the

stat

eis

con

cern

ed;

soth

atit

can

then

be

said

that

as

ma

ny

vote

sa

sth

ere

are

men

isre

pla

ced

by

as

ma

ny

vote

sa

sth

ere

are

ass

ocia

tion

s.Th

epar

ticu

lar

will

sbec

ome

less

nu

mer

ous

and

give

ale

ssge

ner

alre

sult

.A

nd

wh

enon

eof

thes

eas

soci

atio

ns

isso

grea

tas

topr

evai

love

ral

lth

ere

st,

the

resu

ltis

no

lon

ger

asu

mof

smal

lpar

ticu

lar

will

sbu

ta

sin

gle

part

icu

lar

will

;an

dth

enth

ere

isn

olo

nge

ra

gen

eral

will

,an

dth

eop

inio

nth

atpr

evai

lsis

pure

lypa

rtic

ula

r[p

art

icu

lier]

.If

the

gen

eral

will

isto

emer

gecl

earl

yit

’sim

port

ant

that

ther

esh

ould

ben

opa

rtia

lsoc

iety

wit

hin

the

stat

e,an

dth

atea

chci

tize

nsh

ould

thin

kon

lyh

isow

nth

ough

ts:6

wh

ich

was

indee

dth

esu

blim

ean

du

niq

ue

syst

emes

tablis

hed

by

the

grea

tL

ycu

rgu

s.A

nd

ifth

ere

are

par

tial

soci

etie

s,it

’sbe

stto

hav

eas

man

yas

poss

ible

and

topr

even

tth

emfr

ombe

com

ing

un

equ

al,a

sw

asdo

ne

byS

olon

,Nu

ma

and

Ser

viu

s.Th

ese

pre

cau

tion

sar

eth

eon

lyon

esth

atca

nen

sure

that

the

gen

eral

will

isal

way

sen

ligh

ten

edan

dth

atth

epo

pula

ceis

nev

erin

erro

r.

4.

The

lim

its

ofth

eso

vere

ign

pow

er

Ifth

est

ate

orci

tyis

not

hin

gbu

ta

mor

alper

son

wh

ose

life

con

sist

sin

the

un

ion

ofit

spa

rts,

and

ifit

sm

ost

impo

rtan

tco

nce

rnis

for

its

own

pres

erva

tion

,it

mu

sth

ave

au

niv

ersa

lfo

rce

tom

ove

and

pla

ceea

chpar

tin

the

way

that

ism

ost

adva

nta

geou

sto

the

wh

ole.

Just

asn

atu

regi

ves

each

man

abso

lute

pow

erov

eral

lh

ism

ember

s,th

eso

cial

com

pac

t5

‘Eve

ryin

tere

st’,

says

the

Mar

quis

d’A

rgen

son

,‘h

asdi

ffer

ent

prin

cipl

es.

Wh

atbr

ings

two

part

icu

lar

inte

rest

sin

toag

reem

ent

isth

eir

·sh

ared

·op

posi

tion

toa

thir

d.’H

eco

uld

hav

ead

ded

that

wh

atbr

ings

all

inte

rest

sin

toag

reem

ent

isth

eir·s

har

ed·o

ppos

itio

nto

each

.If

indi

vidu

alin

tere

sts

didn

’tdi

ffer

from

one

anot

her

,th

eco

mm

onin

tere

stw

ould

hav

en

oth

ing

tobu

mp

up

agai

nst

,an

dso

itw

ould

har

dly

befe

lt..

..6

‘Infa

ct,’

says

Mac

hia

velli

,‘s

ome

divi

sion

sar

eh

arm

ful

toa

repu

blic

and

som

ear

ead

van

tage

ous.

Thos

eth

atst

iru

pse

cts

and

part

ies

are

har

mfu

l;th

ose

atte

nde

dby

nei

ther

are

adva

nta

geou

s.S

o,si

nce

the

fou

nde

rof

aR

epu

blic

can

’th

elp

enm

itie

sar

isin

g,h

eou

ght

atle

ast

topr

even

tth

emfr

omgr

owin

gin

tose

cts’

(His

tory

ofF

lore

nce

,B

ook

7).

14

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u24.

The

limit

sof

the

sove

reig

npo

wer

give

sth

ebod

ypol

itic

abso

lute

pow

erov

eral

lit

sm

ember

s;an

dI

repe

atth

atit

isth

ispo

wer

wh

ich

,u

nde

rth

edi

rect

ion

ofth

ege

ner

alw

ill,is

calle

d‘s

over

eign

ty’.

Bu

tas

wel

las

the

publ

icpe

rson

,w

eh

ave

toco

nsi

der

the

pri

vate

per

son

sw

ho

com

pos

eit

,an

dw

hos

elif

ean

dlib

erty

are

nat

ura

llyin

depe

nde

nt

ofit

.S

on

owth

ere’

sth

em

atte

rof

clea

rly

dist

ingu

ish

ing

• th

eci

tize

ns’

righ

tsfr

omth

eso

vere

ign

’s,7

and

• th

eci

tize

ns’

du

ties

assu

bje

cts

from

thei

rn

atu

ral

righ

tsas

men

.A

gree

d:

each

man

alie

nat

esby

the

soci

alco

mpac

ton

lyth

epa

rtof

his

pow

ers,

good

san

dlib

erty

that

itis

impo

rtan

tfo

rth

eco

mm

un

ity

toco

ntr

ol.

Bu

tso

met

hin

gel

sesh

ould

also

beag

reed

:th

eso

vere

ign

isso

leju

dge

ofw

hat

isim

port

ant.

An

yse

rvic

ea

citi

zen

can

give

toth

est

ate

shou

ldbe

per

form

edas

soon

asth

eso

vere

ign

dem

ands

it;

bu

tth

eso

vere

ign

onit

ssi

de

can

’tim

pos

eu

pon

its

subje

cts

any

fett

ers

that

are

use

less

toth

eco

mm

un

ity.

Indee

dit

can

’tev

enw

an

tto

doso

,be

cau

se·t

her

e’s

no

reas

onfo

rit

tow

ant

to,

and·

‘Not

hin

gca

nh

appe

nw

ith

out

aca

use

’app

lies

un

der

the

law

ofre

ason

asm

uch

asit

does

un

der

the

law

ofn

atu

re.

Th

eu

nder

takin

gsth

atbin

du

sto

the

soci

albod

yar

eob

ligat

ory

only

beca

use

they

gobo

thw

ays;

and

thei

rn

atu

reis

such

that

infu

lfilli

ng

them

we

can

’tw

ork

for

oth

ers

wit

hou

tw

orki

ng

for

ours

elve

s.W

hy

isth

ege

ner

alw

illal

way

sin

the

righ

t,an

dw

hy

do• a

llco

nti

nu

ally

will

the

hap

pin

ess

of• e

ach

?It

can

only

bebe

cau

seth

ere’

sn

ota

man

wh

odo

esn

’tth

ink

of‘e

ach

’as

mea

nin

gh

im,

and

con

side

rsh

imse

lfin

voti

ng

for

all?

This

show

sth

ateq

ual

ity

ofri

ghts

,an

dth

eid

eaof

just

ice

aris

ing

from

it,o

rigi

nat

ein

• th

epr

efer

ence

each

man

give

sto

him

self,an

dac

cord

ingl

y• i

nh

um

ann

atu

re.

Itsh

ows

• th

atth

ege

ner

alw

ill,to

bere

ally

gen

eral

,m

ust

be

gen

eral

init

sob

ject

asw

ella

sit

ses

sen

ce;i.e

.m

ust

com

efr

omal

lan

dap

ply

toal

l;an

d• t

hat

wh

enit

isdi

rect

edto

som

epa

rtic

ula

ran

dde

term

i-n

ate

obje

ctit

lose

sit

sn

atu

ralr

igh

tnes

s,be

cau

sein

such

aca

sew

e—·t

he

join

tow

ner

sof

the

gen

eral

will

·—ar

eju

dgin

gof

som

eth

ing

fore

ign

tou

s,so

that

we

don

’th

ave

any

gen

uin

est

anda

rds

togu

ide

us.

Indee

d,

asso

onas

aqu

esti

onof

par

ticu

lar

fact

orri

ght

aris

esin

som

eco

nte

xtth

ath

asn

’tal

read

ybee

nre

gula

ted

by

age

ner

alag

reem

ent,

the

mat

ter

bec

omes

con

ten

tiou

s.It

isa

case

—·li

ke

atr

ial

ina

cou

rtof

law

·—w

her

eth

ein

div

idu

als

con

cern

edar

eon

one

side

and

the

pu

blic

are

onth

eot

her

;bu

tI

can

’tse

ew

hat

law

shou

ldbe

follo

wed

orw

hat

judg

esh

ould

deci

de.

Cou

ldn

’tw

eas

kth

ege

ner

alw

illfo

ran

explic

itdec

isio

non

this

mat

ter?

Th

atis

anab

surd

prop

osal

:th

ede

liver

ance

ofth

ege

ner

alw

illca

non

lybe

the

con

clu

sion

ofon

eof

the

side

san

dw

illth

eref

ore

bese

enby

the

oth

eras

mer

ely

anex

tern

alan

dpar

ticu

lar

will

that

issu

bjec

tto

erro

ran

dh

ason

this

occa

sion

falle

nin

toin

just

ice.

Th

us,

just

asa

par

ticu

lar

will

can

’tre

pre

sen

tth

ege

ner

alw

ill,

the

gen

eral

will

....

—ju

stbec

ause

itis

gen

eral

—ca

n’t

pro

nou

nce

ona

par

ticu

lar

man

orfa

ct.

Wh

enfo

rin

stan

ceth

eA

then

ian

pop

ula

cen

omin

ated

ordis

pla

ced

its

rule

rs,

dec

reei

ng

hon

ours

for

one

and

pen

alti

esfo

ran

oth

er,

and

byh

osts

ofpa

rtic

ula

rde

cree

sex

erci

sed

allt

he

fun

ctio

ns

ofgo

vern

men

tin

disc

rim

inat

ely,

itn

olo

nge

rh

ada

gen

eral

will

inth

est

rict

sen

se;

itw

asac

tin

gn

olo

nge

ras

sove

reig

n,

but

asm

agis

trat

e[s

eeG

loss

ary]

.Th

isw

illse

emco

ntr

ary

tocu

rren

tvi

ews;

but

you

shou

ldgi

vem

eti

me

toex

pou

nd

my

own

.S

oyo

uca

nse

eth

atw

hat

mak

esth

ew

illge

ner

al

isle

ssth

en

um

ber

ofvo

ices

than

the

com

mon

inte

rest

un

itin

gth

em;

for

un

der

this

syst

emea

chper

son

nec

essa

rily

subm

its

to7

Att

enti

vere

ader

s,pl

ease

don

’tru

shin

wit

hth

ech

arge

that

Iam

con

trad

icti

ng

mys

elf.

The

pove

rty

ofth

ela

ngu

age

has

forc

edth

ison

me;

but

wai

tan

dse

e.

15

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u24.

The

limit

sof

the

sove

reig

npo

wer

the

con

dit

ion

sh

eim

pos

eson

oth

ers;

and

this

adm

irab

leal

ign

men

tof

• in

tere

stw

ith

• ju

stic

egi

ves

toth

eco

mm

ondel

iber

atio

ns

aqu

alit

yof

fair

nes

s,ev

enn

ess

ofbal

ance

,w

hic

his

visi

bly

abse

nt

from

the

disc

uss

ion

ofan

ypa

rtic

ula

ris

sue,

inth

eab

sen

ceof

aco

mm

onin

tere

stth

atw

ould

brin

gu

nit

y...

.F

rom

wh

atev

erdir

ecti

onw

eap

pro

ach

our

pri

nci

ple

,w

eal

way

sre

ach

the

sam

eco

ncl

usi

on:

the

soci

alco

mpac

tcr

e-at

esan

equ

alit

yam

ong

the

citi

zen

sso

that

they

allc

omm

itth

emse

lves

toob

serv

eth

esa

me

con

dit

ion

san

dsh

ould

all

hav

eth

esa

me

righ

ts.

Th

us,

from

the

very

nat

ure

ofth

eco

mpa

ct,

ever

yac

tof

sove

reig

nty

—i.e

.ev

ery

auth

enti

cac

tof

the

gen

eral

will

—ob

liges

orfa

vou

rsal

lth

eci

tize

ns

equ

ally

;so

that

the

sove

reig

nre

cogn

ises

only

the

body

ofth

en

atio

nan

ddo

esn

’tdi

stin

guis

ham

ong

the

indi

vidu

als

ofw

hom

itis

mad

eu

p.Th

enw

hat

stri

ctly

spea

kin

gis

anac

tof

sove

reig

nty

?It

’sn

otan

agre

emen

tbe

twee

na

supe

rior

and

anin

feri

or,

but

anag

reem

ent

bet

wee

nth

ebod

yan

dea

chof

its

mem

ber

s—an

agre

emen

tth

atis

• leg

itim

ate,

beca

use

itis

base

don

the

soci

alco

ntr

act,

• equ

itab

le,be

cau

seev

eryo

ne

take

spa

rtin

it,

• use

ful,

bec

ause

the

only

obje

ctit

can

hav

eis

the

gen

eral

good

,an

d•

stab

le,

bec

ause

guar

ante

edby

the

pu

blic

forc

ean

dth

esu

prem

epo

wer

.S

olo

ng

asth

esu

bje

cts

hav

eto

subm

iton

lyto

agre

emen

tsof

this

sort

,th

eydon

’tob

eyan

yon

e—on

lyth

eir

own

will

;an

dto

ask

how

far

the

resp

ecti

veri

ghts

ofth

eso

vere

ign

and

the

citi

zen

sex

ten

dis

toas

k·n

ottw

oqu

esti

ons

bu

ton

lyon

e,n

amel

y·:

Up

tow

hat

poi

nt

can

the

citi

zen

sm

ake

com

mit

men

tsto

them

selv

es,ea

chto

alla

nd

allt

oea

ch?

This

show

s• t

hat

the

sove

reig

npo

wer

—u

tter

lyab

solu

te,

sacr

edan

din

viol

able

asit

is—

doe

sn’t

and

can

’tcr

oss

the

bou

nda

ries

set

byge

ner

alag

reem

ents

,an

d• t

hat

ever

ym

an

can

do

wh

ath

elik

esw

ith

any

good

san

dlib

erty

that

thes

eag

reem

ents

leav

eh

im;

soth

atit

isn

ever

righ

tfo

rth

eso

vere

ign

tobu

rden

one

subj

ect

mor

eh

eavi

lyth

anan

oth

er,

bec

ause

that

invo

lves

apar

ticu

lar

dec

isio

nan

d·t

her

efor

e·is

n’t

wit

hin

the

ran

geof

the

sove

reig

n’s

legi

tim

ate

acti

vity

.O

nce

thes

edis

tin

ctio

ns

are

adm

itte

d,

itis

·see

nto

be·

fals

eth

atth

eso

cial

con

trac

tin

volv

esan

yre

alre

nu

nci

atio

non

the

part

ofth

ein

divi

dual

s;so

fals

eth

atth

esi

tuat

ion

that

the

con

trac

tpu

tsth

emin

tois

real

lypre

fera

ble

toth

eon

eth

eyw

ere

inbef

ore.

Inst

ead

ofan

alie

nat

ion

[see

Glo

ssar

y],

they

hav

em

ade

anad

van

tage

ous

exch

ange

,tr

adin

gin

• an

un

cert

ain

and

pre

cari

ous

way

ofliv

ing

for

• on

eth

atis

bett

eran

dm

ore

secu

re;

• nat

ura

lin

depe

nde

nce

for

• lib

erty

,• t

he

pow

erto

har

mot

her

sfo

r• s

ecu

rity

for

them

selv

es,

and

• th

eir

stre

ngt

h,

wh

ich

oth

ers

mig

ht

over

com

e,fo

r• a

righ

tth

atso

cial

un

ion

mak

esin

vin

cibl

e.E

ven

thei

rlif

e,w

hic

hth

eyh

ave

ded

icat

edto

the

stat

e,is

con

stan

tly

prot

ecte

dby

it;a

nd

wh

enth

eyri

skit

inth

est

ate’

sde

fen

ce,

aren

’tth

eyju

stgi

vin

gba

ckw

hat

they

hav

ere

ceiv

edfr

omit

?W

hat

are

they

doi

ng

that

they

wou

ldn

’tdo

ofte

ner

and

mor

eda

nge

rou

sly

inth

est

ate

ofn

atu

re,in

wh

ich

they

wou

ldin

evit

ably

hav

eto

risk

thei

rliv

esin

batt

les

inde

fen

ceof

thei

rm

ean

sof

surv

ival

?E

very

one

doe

sin

dee

dh

ave

tofig

ht

wh

enh

isco

un

try

nee

dsh

im;

but

then

no-

one

ever

has

tofigh

tfo

rh

imse

lf.

We

may

hav

eto

run

cert

ain

risk

son

beh

alf

ofth

eso

urc

eof

our

secu

rity

;th

eal

tern

ativ

eis

tolo

seou

rse

curi

tyan

dru

ngr

eate

rri

sks

onbeh

alf

ofou

rsel

ves;

hav

en’t

we

profi

ted

byth

isex

chan

ge?

16

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u25.

The

righ

tof

life

and

deat

h

5.

The

righ

tof

life

and

deat

h

This

ques

tion

has

been

rais

ed:

‘Giv

enth

atin

divi

dual

sh

ave

no

righ

tto

dis

pos

eof

thei

row

nliv

es,

how

can

they

give

that

righ

tto

the

sove

reig

n,

tran

sfer

rin

gso

met

hin

gth

atth

eydo

n’t

poss

ess?

’Th

islo

oks

har

dto

answ

eron

lybe

cau

seit

isw

ron

gly

stat

ed.

Eve

rym

anh

asa

righ

tto

risk

his

own

life

inor

der

topr

eser

veit

.A

man

wh

oju

mps

from

ah

igh

win

dow

toes

cape

from

afir

e—is

he

ever

said

tobe

guilt

yof

suic

ide?

Has

that

crim

ebee

nal

lege

dag

ain

stan

yon

eper

ish

esin

ast

orm

that

he

kn

ew,

wh

enh

ew

ent

onboa

rd,

had

som

epr

obab

ility

ofoc

curr

ing?

The

soci

altr

eaty

aim

sfo

rth

epr

eser

vati

onof

the

con

trac

t-in

gpa

rtie

s.H

ew

ho

will

s• t

he

end

also

will

s• t

he

mea

ns,

and

the

mea

ns

mu

stin

volv

eso

me

risk

s,an

dev

enso

me

loss

es.

Som

eon

ew

ho

isw

illin

gto

save

• his

life

atot

her

s’ex

pen

sesh

ould

also

bere

ady

togi

ve• i

tu

pfo

rth

eir

sake

,w

hen

ther

eis

an

eed

for

this

.N

ow,th

eci

tize

nis

no

lon

ger

the

judg

eof

the

risk

sth

atth

ela

ww

ants

him

toru

n,a

nd

wh

enth

epr

ince

says

toh

im:

‘Itis

expe

dien

tfo

rth

est

ate

that

you

shou

lddi

e’,

he

ough

tto

die

.W

hy?

Bec

ause

his

life

isn

olo

nge

rm

erel

ya

nat

ura

lgo

od,

bu

tis

agi

ftm

ade

con

dit

ion

ally

by

the

stat

e;·it

isco

ndi

tion

alon

his

alw

ays

mee

tin

gth

est

ate’

sde

man

ds,

and·

it’s

only

onth

atco

ndit

ion

that

he

has

bee

nliv

ing

inse

curi

tyu

pto

the

pres

ent.

The

deat

h-p

enal

tyfo

rcr

imin

als

can

bese

enin

mu

chth

esa

me

ligh

t:it

isin

orde

rto

save

ours

elve

sfr

omas

sass

ins

that

we

con

sen

tto

die

ifw

ebe

com

eas

sass

ins.

Inth

istr

eaty

—·t

his

soci

alco

ntr

act·

—so

far

from

disp

osin

gof

our

own

lives

,w

eth

ink

only

ofse

curi

ng

them

;an

dit

isn

’tto

beas

sum

edth

atan

yof

the

part

ies

then

expe

cts

toge

th

imse

lfh

ange

d!E

very

crim

inal

byat

tack

ing

soci

alri

ghts

beco

mes

are

bel

and

atr

aito

rto

his

cou

ntr

y;by

viol

atin

git

sla

ws

he

stop

sbe

ing

am

embe

rof

it—

he

even

ma

kes

wa

ron

it.

The

stat

e’s

surv

ival

isin

con

sist

ent

wit

hh

issu

rviv

al,

and

one

ofth

etw

om

ust

die;

wh

enw

epu

tth

egu

ilty

tode

ath

,w

e’re

doin

gth

isn

otso

mu

chto

aci

tize

nas

toan

enem

y.H

eh

asbr

oken

the

soci

altr

eaty

—th

ein

vest

igat

ion

and

tria

lsh

owth

is,an

dth

eju

dgm

ent

dec

lare

sit

—so

he

isn

olo

nge

ra

mem

ber

ofth

est

ate.

Bu

th

eh

asre

cogn

ised

him

self

asa

mem

ber

ifon

lyby

livin

gth

ere;

soh

em

ust

belo

pped

off

byex

ile,as

avi

olat

orof

the

com

pact

,or

byde

ath

,as

apu

blic

enem

y.S

uch

anen

emy

isn

’ta

• mor

alper

son

[see

Glo

ssar

y],

he’

sa

• man

;an

din

such

aca

seth

eri

ght

ofw

aris

tokill

the

van

quis

hed

.Yo

u’ll

say

‘Bu

tth

eco

nde

mn

atio

nof

acr

imin

alis

apa

rtic

-u

lar

act·a

nd

isth

eref

ore,

acco

rdin

gto

you

rch

apte

r4

ofth

isPar

t,n

otso

met

hin

gth

atth

eso

vere

ign

can

do·

.R

igh

t!B

ut

this

con

dem

nat

ion

isn

otso

met

hin

gth

eso

vere

ign

does

;it

’sa

righ

tth

eso

vere

ign

that

can

con

fer

wit

hou

tbe

ing

able

itse

lfto

exer

tit

.A

llm

yid

eas

han

gto

geth

er,bu

tI

can

’tex

pou

nd

them

alla

ton

ce.

We

may

add

that

freq

uen

tpu

nis

hm

ents

[su

pplic

es=

‘pu

n-

ish

men

tsin

volv

ing

deat

hor

tort

ure

’]ar

eal

way

sa

sign

that

the

gove

rnm

ent

isw

eak

orla

zy.

Eve

ryw

ron

g-doe

rco

uld

be

turn

edto

som

ego

od.

Ther

e’s

no

righ

tto

put

tode

ath

,ev

enfo

rth

esa

keof

mak

ing

anex

ampl

e,an

yon

ew

ho

cou

ldsa

fely

bele

ftal

ive.

Th

eri

ght

ofpar

don

ing

agu

ilty

man

,or

lett

ing

him

off

from

apen

alty

impos

edby

the

law

and

pro

nou

nce

dby

the

judg

e,be

lon

gson

lyto

the

auth

orit

yth

atis

abov

eth

eju

dge

and

the

law

,i.e.

the

sove

reig

n;

and

even

its

righ

tin

this

mat

ter

isfa

rfr

omcl

ear,

and

it’s

har

dly

ever

calle

dfo

r.A

wel

l-go

vern

edst

ate

has

few

pun

ish

men

ts,

not

beca

use

ther

ear

em

any

pard

ons,

but

beca

use

crim

inal

sar

era

re:

it’s

easi

erto

get

away

wit

hcr

imes

wh

enth

ere

are

agr

eat

man

yof

them

and

the

stat

eis

term

inal

lyill

.In

the

Rom

anre

pu

blic

17

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u26.

The

law

nei

ther

the

sen

ate

nor

the

con

suls

ever

offe

red

topar

don

·an

yon

e·;n

ordi

dth

epo

pula

ce,t

hou

ghit

som

etim

esre

voke

dit

sow

ndec

isio

n.

Fre

quen

tpar

don

sar

ean

ann

oun

cem

ent

that

bef

ore

lon

gcr

ime

will

pay

,an

dan

yon

eca

nse

ew

her

eth

atle

ads.

Bu

tI

feel

my

hea

rtpro

test

ing

and

rest

rain

ing

my

pen

;le

tu

sle

ave

thes

equ

esti

ons

toth

eju

stm

anw

ho

has

nev

erof

fen

ded

and

wou

ldh

imse

lfn

ever

stan

din

nee

dof

pard

on!

6.

The

law

By

the

soci

alco

mpac

tw

eh

ave

give

nth

ebod

ypol

itic

• exi

sten

cean

d• l

ife;

now

itis

up

tole

gisl

atio

nto

give

it• m

ovem

ent

and

• will

.Th

eba

sic

act

that

form

sth

ebo

dyan

dpu

llsit

toge

ther

doe

sn

oth

ing

tose

ttle

wh

atit

mu

stdo

inor

der

tosu

rviv

e.It

’sth

en

atu

reof

thin

gsth

atm

akes

anit

emgo

odan

din

con

form

ity

wit

hor

der—

hu

man

agre

emen

tsdo

n’t

com

ein

toit

.A

llju

stic

eco

mes

from

God

,w

ho

isit

sso

leso

urc

e;bu

tif

we

kn

ewh

owto

dra

wit

from

that

hig

hso

urc

ew

ew

ould

n’t

nee

dgo

vern

men

tor

law

s!N

odou

bt

ther

eis

au

niv

ersa

lju

stic

eem

anat

ing

from

reas

onal

one,

bu

tth

isju

stic

eca

nbe

adm

itte

dam

ong

us

only

ifit

ism

utu

al.

Inth

eab

sen

ceof

nat

ura

lsa

nct

ion

s...

.th

ela

ws

ofju

stic

ear

ein

effe

ctiv

eam

ong

men

....

Agr

eem

ents

and

law

sar

en

eeded

tojo

inri

ghts

todu

ties

and

rela

teju

stic

eto

its

obje

ct.

Inth

est

ate

ofn

atu

rew

her

eev

eryt

hin

gis

com

mon

,I

don

’tow

ean

yth

ing

toso

meo

ne

tow

hom

Ih

aven

’tpr

omis

edan

yth

ing;

Ire

cogn

ise

asbe

lon

gin

gto

oth

ers

only

wh

atis

ofn

ou

seto

me.

It’s

not

like

that

inth

est

ate

ofso

ciet

y,w

her

eal

lrig

hts

are

fixed

byla

w. Bu

tw

hat

,w

hen

we

com

edo

wn

toit

,is

ala

w?

As

lon

gas

we

sett

lefo

rat

tach

ing

only

met

aph

ysic

alid

eas

toth

ew

ord,

we’

llgo

onar

guin

gw

ith

out

un

der

stan

din

gon

ean

oth

er.

If

som

eon

ete

llsu

sw

hat

ala

wof

nat

ure

is,

that

won

’tbr

ing

us

any

nea

rer

tokn

owin

gw

hat

ala

wof

the

stat

eis

.I

hav

eal

read

ysa

id[p

age

15]

that

ther

eis

no

gen

eral

will

dir

ecte

dto

apar

ticu

lar

obje

ct.

[Rou

ssea

u’s

proo

fof

that

,w

hic

hfo

llow

s,is

seve

rely

com

pres

sed.

The

pres

ent

vers

ion

ease

sit

out

inw

ays

that

the

·sm

all

dots

·con

ven

tion

can

’tea

sily

sign

ify.]

We

are

tosu

ppos

eth

atth

ege

ner

alw

illof

pop

ula

cex

dic

tate

sth

at(for

exam

ple

)in

div

idu

alper

son

yis

tobe

give

na

pen

sion

.E

ith

ery

isa

mem

ber

ofx

orh

eis

n’t.

(i)

Ifh

eis

n’t,

then

x’s

will

does

n’t

cou

nt

asa

gen

eral

will

inre

lati

onto

him

—it

may

hav

eab

solu

tely

not

hin

gto

do

wit

hy’

sow

nw

ill.

(ii)

Ify

isa

mem

ber

ofx,

i.e.

apar

tof

x,th

enx’

sw

illth

aty

rece

ive

ape

nsi

onis

are

lati

onbe

twee

nw

hol

ean

dpa

rtth

atm

akes

them

two

sepa

rate

bein

gs,

• x-w

ith

out-

yan

d• y

.B

ut

x-w

ith

out-

yis

n’t

the

wh

ole;

and

wh

ileth

isre

lati

onpe

rsis

tsit

’sa

rela

tion

betw

een

two

un

equ

alpa

rts;

and

itfo

llow

sth

atth

ew

illof

one

isn

olo

nge

rin

any

resp

ect

gen

eral

inre

lati

onto

the

oth

er.

Bu

twh

enth

ew

hol

epe

ople

decr

ees

for

the

wh

ole

peop

le,i

tis

·not

look

ing

outs

ide

itse

lf,bu

t·co

nsi

deri

ng

only

itse

lf;an

dif

are

lati

onis

then

form

ed,it

is·n

otbet

wee

ntw

ose

par

ate

obje

cts,

bu

ton

ly·

bet

wee

ntw

oas

pec

tsof

asi

ngl

een

tire

obje

ct,w

ith

no

nee

dto

split

itin

totw

opa

rts.

Inth

atca

seth

em

atte

rab

out

wh

ich

the

decr

eeis

mad

eis

,lik

eth

ede

cree

ing

will

,ge

ner

al.

This

act

isw

hat

Ica

lla

law

.W

hen

Isa

yth

atth

eob

ject

ofla

ws

isal

way

sge

ner

al,

Im

ean

that

law

con

side

rssu

bjec

tsco

llect

ivel

yan

dco

nsi

ders

kin

ds

orac

tion

s,n

ever

apar

ticu

lar

per

son

orac

tion

.Th

us

the

law

can

decr

eeth

atth

ere

shal

lbe

priv

ilege

s,bu

tit

can

’tn

ame

anyo

ne

wh

ois

toge

tth

em.

Itca

nse

tu

pdif

fere

nt

clas

ses

ofci

tize

ns,

and

even

stip

ula

teth

equ

alifi

cati

ons

for

belo

ngi

ng

toea

chof

thes

ecl

asse

s,bu

tit

can

’tpi

ckou

tan

yin

divi

dual

sas

belo

ngi

ng

toth

isor

that

clas

s.It

can

esta

blis

ha

mon

arch

yw

ith

her

edit

ary

succ

essi

on,bu

tit

can

’tch

oose

18

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u26.

The

law

aki

ng

orn

ame

aro

yalf

amily

.In

shor

t,an

yac

tion

that

has

anin

divi

dual

obje

ctfa

llsou

tsid

eth

esc

ope

ofth

ele

gisl

ativ

epo

wer

.W

ese

eat

once

that

onth

isac

cou

nt

ofth

ings

cert

ain

ques

tion

sca

nbe

laid

asid

e.‘W

hos

ebu

sin

ess

itis

tom

ake

law

s?’

(Th

eyar

eac

tsof

the

gen

eral

will

.)‘Is

the

pri

nce

isab

ove

the

law

?(·N

o·,be

cau

seh

eis

am

embe

rof

the

stat

e.)

‘Can

the

law

be

un

just

?’(·N

o·,

bec

ause

not

hin

gis

un

just

tow

ards

itse

lf.)

‘How

can

we

bebo

th• f

ree

and

• su

bjec

tto

the

law

s?(·T

her

e’s

no

prob

lem

abou

tth

is·,

beca

use

the

law

sar

en

oth

ing

but

reco

rds

ofou

rvo

litio

ns.

)W

ese

efu

rth

erth

atbec

ause

the

law

un

ites

un

iver

salit

yof

will

wit

hu

niv

ersa

lity

ofob

ject

,n

oth

ing

that

am

an—

an

ym

an—

com

man

ds

onh

isow

nin

itia

tive

can

be

ala

w.

Th

ath

olds

even

for

the

sove

reig

n:

wh

ath

eor

itco

mm

ands

wit

hre

gard

toa

par

ticu

lar

mat

ter

isn

ota

law

bu

ta

dec

ree,

anac

tn

otof

sove

reig

nty

but

ofm

agis

trac

y.S

oIg

ive

the

nam

e‘r

epu

blic

’to

any

stat

ego

vern

edby

law

s,w

hat

ever

form

its

adm

inis

trat

ion

takes

;fo

ron

lyw

hen

the

law

sgo

vern

does

the

publ

icin

tere

stgo

vern

,an

dth

epu

blic

thin

gis

som

eth

ing

real

.[R

ouss

eau

expe

cted

his

read

ers

tore

cogn

ize

that

chos

epu

bliq

ue

(=‘p

ubl

icth

ing’

)is

inLa

tin

res

publ

ica,

wh

ich

isth

eor

igin

ofré

publ

iqu

e(=

‘rep

ubl

ic’).

]E

very

legi

tim

ate

gove

rnm

ent

isre

publ

ican

;8w

hat

gove

rnm

ent

isI

will

expl

ain

late

ron

.La

ws

are

real

lyon

lyth

eco

ndit

ion

sof

civi

las

soci

atio

n.

Bec

ause

the

pop

ula

ceis

subje

ctto

the

law

s,it

ough

tto

be

thei

rau

thor

:th

eco

ndit

ion

sof

• th

eso

ciet

you

ght

tobe

regu

late

dso

lely

byth

ose

wh

oco

me

toge

ther

tofo

rm• i

t.B

ut

how

will

they

doth

is?

By

aco

mm

onag

reem

ent?

By

asu

dden

insp

irat

ion

?D

oes

the

body

polit

ich

ave

anor

gan

—·li

kevo

cal

cord

san

da

ton

gue·

—to

decl

are

its

will

?W

ho

can

give

itth

e

fore

sigh

tto

form

ula

tean

dan

nou

nce

its

acts

inad

van

ce?

orh

owis

itto

ann

oun

ceth

emin

the

hou

rof

nee

d?

How

can

ablin

dm

ult

itu

de,

wh

ich

ofte

ndoe

sn’t

kn

oww

hat

itw

ills

bec

ause

itra

rely

kn

ows

wh

atis

good

for

it,

carr

you

tfo

rit

self

such

agr

eat

and

dif

ficu

lten

terp

rise

asa

syst

emof

legi

slat

ion

?Th

epop

ula

cele

ftto

itse

lfal

way

sw

ills

the

good

,bu

tle

ftto

itse

lfit

does

n’t

alw

ays

see

wh

atth

atis

.Th

ege

ner

alw

illis

alw

ays

inth

eri

ght,

bu

tth

eju

dgm

ent

that

guid

esit

isn

’tal

way

sen

ligh

ten

ed.

Itou

ght

tobe

• mad

eto

see

obje

cts

asth

eyar

e,an

dso

met

imes

asth

eyou

ght

toap

pear

toit

;• s

how

nth

ego

odro

adit

isin

sear

chof

,• s

ecu

red

from

the

sedu

ctiv

ein

flu

ence

sof

indiv

idu

alw

ills,

• tau

ght

tolo

okca

refu

llyat

oth

erpl

aces

and

tim

es,a

nd

• mad

eto

wei

ghth

eat

trac

tion

sof

pres

ent

and

sen

sibl

ead

van

tage

sag

ain

stth

eda

nge

rof

dist

ant

and

hid

den

evils

.In

divi

dual

sse

eth

ego

odth

atth

eyre

ject

;th

epu

blic

will

sth

ego

odth

atit

doe

sn’t

see.

Bot

hn

eed

guid

ance

.In

div

idu

als

mu

stbe

mad

eto

brin

gth

eir

will

sin

tolin

ew

ith

thei

rre

ason

;th

epop

ula

cem

ust

be

tau

ght

tokn

oww

hat

itw

ills.

Ifth

atis

don

e,pu

blic

enlig

hte

nm

ent

lead

sto

the

un

ion

ofu

nder

stan

din

gan

dw

illin

the

soci

albod

y:th

epar

tsar

em

ade

tow

ork

exac

tly

toge

ther

,an

dth

ew

hol

eis

rais

edto

its

hig

hes

tpo

wer

.For

this

ther

eh

asto

bea

law

-mak

er.

8I

appl

yth

isw

ord

not

mer

ely

toar

isto

crac

ies

and

dem

ocra

cies

but

quit

ege

ner

ally

toa

ny

gove

rnm

ent

dire

cted

byth

ege

ner

alw

ill,

wh

ich

isth

ela

w.

To

bele

giti

mat

e,th

ego

vern

men

tm

ust

ben

otid

enti

calw

ith

the

sove

reig

n,

but

its

min

iste

r;so

even

am

onar

chy

can

bea

repu

blic

.I’l

lcl

arify

this

inB

ook

3.

19

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u27.

The

law

-mak

er

7.

The

law

-mak

er

Wh

atw

ould

be

nee

ded

todis

cove

rth

ebes

tru

les

ofso

ci-

ety.

...is

asu

per

ior

inte

llige

nce

that

cou

ldse

eal

lm

en’s

pass

ion

sw

ith

out

hav

ing

any

ofth

em.

This

inte

llige

nce

wou

ldh

ave

tom

eet

thes

eco

ndi

tion

s:• i

tis

wh

olly

un

rela

ted

toou

rn

atu

re,w

hile

know

ing

itth

rou

ghan

dth

rou

gh;

• its

hap

pin

ess

isdo

esn

’tde

pen

don

us,

yet

itco

nce

rns

itse

lfw

ith

our

hap

pin

ess;

and

last

ly• i

tca

nta

ke

the

lon

gvi

ew,w

orkin

gin

one

cen

tury

for

som

eth

ing

tobe

enjo

yed

inth

en

ext.

9

Itw

ould

take

gods

togi

vem

enla

ws!

....

Bu

tif

agr

eat

prin

ceis

ara

reki

nd

ofm

an,

wh

atw

illa

grea

tle

gisl

ator

be?

All

the

prin

ceh

asto

dois

tofo

llow

the

patt

ern

that

the

law

-giv

erh

asto

lay

dow

nin

the

firs

tpla

ce.

Th

ela

w-g

iver

isth

een

gin

eer

wh

oin

ven

tsth

em

ach

ine;

the

prin

ceis

mer

ely

the

mec

han

icw

ho

sets

itu

pan

dm

akes

itgo

.‘A

tth

ebi

rth

ofso

ciet

ies,

’say

sM

onte

squ

ieu

,‘th

eru

lers

ofre

publ

ics

esta

blis

hin

stit

uti

ons,

and

then

the

inst

itu

tion

sm

ould

the

rule

rs’(

The

Gre

atn

ess

an

dD

eca

den

ceof

the

Rom

an

s,ch

.1.

)S

omeo

ne

wh

ove

ntu

res

tota

ckle

the

task

ofm

akin

ga

peop

len

eeds

toh

ave

ase

nse

ofbe

ing

able

• to

chan

geh

um

ann

atu

re,so

tosp

eak—

totr

ansf

orm

each

indiv

idu

al,

wh

oon

his

own

isa

com

ple

tean

dso

litar

yw

hol

e,in

topa

rtof

agr

eate

rw

hol

efr

omw

hic

hh

ein

aw

ayre

ceiv

esh

islif

ean

dh

isbe

ing;

• to

alte

rm

an’s

con

stit

uti

onin

orde

rto

stre

ngt

hen

it;

• to

repl

ace

the

phys

ical

and

inde

pen

den

tex

iste

nce

that

nat

ure

gave

us

bya

part

iala

nd

mor

alex

iste

nce

.

[Inth

eF

ren

ch,

asin

this

vers

ion

,it

’scl

ear

that

Rou

ssea

uis

pres

enti

ng

thes

en

otas

thre

eta

sks

but

asth

ree

way

sof

look

ing

aton

eta

sk.]

Insh

ort,

he

mu

stdep

rive

man

of• h

isow

nre

sou

rces

,re

-pl

acin

gth

emby

• new

ones

that

are

alie

nto

him

and

that

he

can

’tem

ploy

wit

hou

th

elp

from

oth

ers.

The

mor

eco

mpl

etel

yth

ose

nat

ura

lre

sou

rces

are

ann

ihila

ted,

the

grea

ter

and

mor

ela

stin

gar

eth

en

ewon

esth

ath

eac

quir

es,

and

the

mor

est

able

and

perf

ect

are

the

new

inst

itu

tion

s.·If

you

find

that

last

stat

emen

tex

trav

agan

t,co

nsi

der·

:If

each

citi

zen

isn

oth

ing

and

can

don

oth

ing

wit

hou

tal

lth

eot

her

s,an

dif

the

reso

urc

esac

quir

edby

the

wh

ole

are

equ

alor

supe

rior

toth

en

atu

ral

forc

esof

all

the

indiv

idu

als

pu

tto

geth

er,

itca

nbe

said

that

legi

slat

ion

isat

the

hig

hes

tpo

int

ofpe

rfec

tion

.

Th

ela

w-g

iver

isan

extr

aord

inar

ym

anin

the

stat

e.If

his

inte

llect

ual

abili

ties

mak

eh

imso

,h

isof

fice

[her

e=

‘job’

]doe

sal

so.

It’s

not

mag

istr

acy

orso

vere

ign

ty.

Th

isw

ork

that

• con

stit

ute

sth

ere

publ

icis

n’t

part

ofit

s• c

onst

itu

tion

;it

isan

indiv

idu

alan

dsu

per

ior

role

that

has

not

hin

gin

com

mon

wit

hh

um

anpow

er;

for

ifan

yon

ew

ho

com

man

ds

men

ough

tn’t

toh

ave

com

man

dov

erth

ela

ws,

then

anyo

ne

wh

oh

asco

mm

and

over

the

law

sou

ghtn

’tto

hav

eit

over

men

;fo

rif

he

did,

his

law

sw

ould

beth

ese

rvan

tsof

his

pass

ion

san

dw

ould

ofte

nm

erel

ype

rpet

uat

eh

isin

just

ices

;his

priv

ate

aim

sw

ould

inev

ita

bly

mar

the

san

ctit

yof

his

wor

k.

Wh

enL

ycu

rgu

sga

vela

ws

toh

isco

un

try,

he

beg

anby

abdi

cati

ng

aski

ng.

Itw

asth

ecu

stom

ofm

ost

Gre

ekto

wn

sto

hav

efo

reig

ner

ses

tabl

ish

thei

rla

ws.

The

repu

blic

sof

mod

ern

Ital

yin

man

yca

ses

follo

wed

this

exam

ple

;G

enev

adid

the

sam

ean

dpr

ofite

dby

it.1

0R

ome

was

atit

sm

ost

pros

pero

us

9A

peop

lebe

com

esfa

mou

son

lyw

hen

its

legi

slat

ion

begi

ns

tode

clin

e.W

edo

n’t

know

for

how

man

yce

ntu

ries

the

syst

emof

Lyc

urg

us

mad

eth

eS

part

ans

hap

pybe

fore

the

rest

ofG

reec

eto

okan

yn

otic

eof

it.

10Th

ose

wh

okn

owC

alvi

non

lyas

ath

eolo

gian

mu

chu

nde

r-es

tim

ate

the

exte

nt

ofh

isge

niu

s.Th

eco

dific

atio

nof

our

wis

eed

icts

,in

wh

ich

he

play

eda

larg

epa

rt,

does

him

grea

th

onou

r...

.W

hat

ever

revo

luti

onti

me

may

brin

gin

our

relig

ion

,so

lon

gas

the

spir

itof

patr

ioti

sman

dlib

erty

still

lives

amon

gu

sth

em

emor

yof

this

grea

tm

anw

illbe

for

ever

bles

sed.

20

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u27.

The

law

-mak

er

wh

enit

suff

ered

are

viva

lof

all

the

crim

esof

tyra

nn

yan

dca

me

clos

eto

deat

h,

beca

use

itpu

tth

ele

gisl

ativ

eau

thor

ity

and

the

sove

reig

npo

wer

into

the

sam

eh

ands

.[In

the

nex

tse

nte

nce

,D

ecem

viri

=‘te

nm

en’,

refe

rrin

gto

the

men

wh

oin

the

5th

cen

tury

BC

Ew

ere

dele

gate

dto

draw

up

aco

deof

law

sfo

rth

eR

oman

repu

blic

.]N

ever

thel

ess,

the

Dec

emvi

rith

emse

lves

nev

ercl

aim

edth

eri

ght

topa

ssan

yla

wm

erel

yon

thei

row

nau

thor

ity.

‘Not

hin

gw

epro

pos

eto

you

’,th

eysa

idto

the

peo

ple

,‘c

anpas

sin

tola

ww

ith

out

you

rco

nse

nt.

Rom

ans,

beyo

urs

elve

sth

eau

thor

sof

the

law

sth

atar

eto

mak

eyo

uh

appy

.’S

oh

ew

ho

dra

ws

up

the

law

sdoe

sn’t

orsh

ould

n’t

hav

ean

yri

ght

tole

gisl

ate;

and

the

pop

ula

ceca

n’t

dep

rive

itse

lfof

this

non

-tra

nsf

erab

leri

ght,

even

ifit

wan

tsto

,bec

ause

acco

rdin

gto

the

basi

cco

mpa

ctth

eon

lyth

ing

that

can

bin

din

div

idu

als

isth

ege

ner

alw

ill,

and

the

only

way

tobe

sure

that

apa

rtic

ula

rw

illis

inco

nfo

rmit

yw

ith

the

gen

eral

will

isto

put

itto

afr

eevo

teof

the

peop

le.

Ih

ave

alre

ady

said

this

,bu

tit

’sw

orth

repe

atin

git

.Th

us

inth

eta

skof

law

-giv

ing

we

find

two

thin

gsto

geth

erth

atse

emin

com

pati

ble:

anen

terp

rise

that

surp

asse

sh

um

anpo

wer

s,an

dfo

rit

sex

ecu

tion

anau

thor

ity

that

isn

’tan

yth

ing!

An

oth

erdif

ficu

lty

des

erve

sat

ten

tion

.W

ise

[see

Glo

ssar

y]m

enw

ho

try

tosp

eak

inth

eir

lan

guag

eto

the

com

mon

her

d,in

stea

dsp

eaki

ng

asth

eh

erd

does

,h

ave

no

chan

ceof

bein

gu

nder

stoo

d.

Th

ere

are

cou

ntl

ess

kin

ds

ofid

eas

that

can

’tpo

ssib

lybe

tran

slat

edin

to• t

he

lan

guag

eof

the

peop

le.

Vie

ws

that

are

too

broa

dan

dob

ject

sth

atar

eto

odi

stan

tar

eeq

ual

lyou

tof

• its

ran

ge:

each

indiv

idu

al,

hav

ing

no

tast

efo

ran

ypl

anof

gove

rnm

ent

that

does

n’t

suit

his

part

icu

lar

inte

rest

s,ca

n’t

easi

lyse

eth

ead

van

tage

sh

ew

ould

get

aspa

ybac

kfo

rth

eco

nti

nu

alpr

ivat

ion

sth

atgo

odla

ws

impo

seon

him

.For

apop

ula

ceth

atis

just

com

ing

into

bei

ng

·as

abod

y·to

be

able

tore

lish

sou

nd

prin

cipl

esof

polit

ical

theo

ryan

dfo

llow

the

fun

dam

enta

lru

les

ofst

atec

raft

,th

eef

fect

wou

ldh

ave

tobec

ome

the

cau

se!

Th

eso

cial

spir

itth

atis

tobe

crea

ted

by

thes

ein

stit

uti

ons

wou

ldh

ave

topre

side

over

thei

rve

ryfo

un

dat

ion

;an

dm

enw

ould

hav

eto

be,

• in

adva

nce

ofth

ela

ws,

wh

atth

eysh

ould

bec

ome

• by

mea

ns

ofth

ela

ws.

So

the

law

-mak

er,be

ing

un

able

toap

peal

eith

erto

• for

ceor

to• r

easo

n,

mu

stre

sort

toan

auth

orit

yof

adi

ffer

ent

orde

rth

atca

n• c

onst

rain

wit

hou

tvi

olen

cean

d

Rou

ssea

u’s

nex

tth

ree

wor

ds:

pers

ua

der

san

sco

nva

incr

e.

flat

lytr

ansl

ated

:pe

rsu

ade

wit

hou

tco

nvi

nci

ng.

prob

able

mea

nin

g:ge

tpeo

ple

on-s

ide

wit

hou

tgi

vin

gth

emre

ason

sfo

rth

is.

That

’sw

hat

has

dow

nth

ece

ntu

ries

com

pelle

d• t

he

fath

ers

ofth

en

atio

ns

toap

pea

lto

div

ine

inte

rven

tion

and

cred

itth

ego

dsw

ith

• th

eir

own

wis

dom

,in

orde

rth

atth

epe

ople

s—su

bmit

tin

gto

the

law

sof

the

stat

eas

toth

ela

ws

ofn

atu

re,

and

reco

gnis

ing

the

pow

erth

atfo

rmed

the

city

asth

eve

ryon

eth

atfo

rmed

man

kin

d—m

igh

tob

eyfr

eely

,an

dbe

arw

ith

doci

lity

the

yoke

ofth

epu

blic

hap

pin

ess.

Wh

atth

ele

gisl

ator

puts

into

the

mou

thof

the

imm

orta

lsar

ede

cisi

ons

base

don

ah

igh

-flyi

ng

reas

onth

atis

far

abov

eth

era

nge

ofth

eco

mm

onh

erd,

the

aim

bei

ng

toco

nst

rain

by

div

ine

auth

orit

yth

ose

wh

oca

n’t

be

mov

edby

hu

man

pru

den

ce.

Bu

tit

’sn

otju

stan

yon

ew

ho

can

mak

eth

ego

ds

spea

k,or

bebe

lieve

dw

hen

he

clai

ms

tobe

thei

rin

terp

rete

r.Th

eon

lym

irac

leth

atca

npr

ove

ale

gisl

ator

’sm

issi

onis

his

grea

tso

ul.

An

ym

anca

n• e

ngr

ave

wor

dson

tabl

ets

ofst

one,

or• p

urc

has

eth

ese

rvic

esof

anor

acle

,or

• fak

ese

cret

com

mu

nic

atio

nw

ith

som

ego

d,or

• tra

ina

bird

tow

his

per

inh

isea

r,or

find

oth

ercr

ude

devi

ces

for

impo

sin

gon

the

peop

le.

Som

eon

ew

ho

can

’tdo

bet

ter

than

tha

tm

ayper

hap

sga

ther

rou

nd

21

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u28.

The

peop

le

him

aban

dof

fool

s;bu

th

e’ll

nev

erfo

un

dan

empir

e,an

dw

hat

ever

craz

yth

ing

he

doe

sfo

un

dw

illdie

soon

afte

rh

edo

es.

Idle

tric

kscr

eate

ate

mpo

rary

bon

d;on

lyw

isdo

mca

nm

ake

itpe

rman

ent.

The

Juda

icla

w,w

hic

hst

illsu

rviv

es,a

nd

Isla

mic

law

that

has

rule

dh

alf

the

wor

ldfo

rte

nce

ntu

ries

,st

illto

day

proc

laim

the

grea

tm

enw

ho

laid

them

dow

n;

and

wh

ile• p

rou

dph

iloso

ph

yan

d• t

he

blin

dsp

irit

ofpol

itic

alpa

rtis

ansh

ipse

esth

ose

men

asn

oth

ing

but

luck

yim

post

ors,

the

tru

epo

litic

alth

eori

stad

mir

esin

the

inst

itu

tion

sth

eyse

tu

pth

egr

eat

and

pow

erfu

lgen

ius

that

pres

ides

over

dura

ble

polit

ical

stru

ctu

res.

The

righ

tco

ncl

usi

onto

draw

from

allt

his

isn

ot..

..th

atam

ong

us

pol

itic

san

dre

ligio

nh

ave

aco

mm

onob

ject

,bu

tth

atw

hen

nat

ion

sar

efir

stst

arti

ng

up

relig

ion

isu

sed

asan

inst

rum

ent

for

polit

ics.

8.

The

peop

le

Bef

ore

putt

ing

up

ala

rge

build

ing,

the

arch

itec

tsu

rvey

san

dte

sts

the

grou

nd

tose

eif

itca

nsu

ppor

tth

ew

eigh

t;an

din

the

sam

ew

ayth

ew

ise

legi

slat

ordo

esn

’tst

art

byla

yin

gdo

wn

his

good

law

sbu

tby

inve

stig

atin

gw

het

her

the

popu

lace

they

are

inte

nde

dfo

ris

ina

con

diti

onto

rece

ive

them

.Pl

ato

refu

sed

tole

gisl

ate

for

the

Arc

adia

ns

and

the

Cyr

enie

ns

beca

use

he

knew

that

both

peop

les

wer

eri

chan

dco

uld

n’t

put

up

wit

heq

ual

ity;

and

Cre

teh

adgo

odla

ws

and

bad

men

beca

use

all

Min

osh

addo

ne

was

toim

pose

disc

iplin

eon

ape

ople

alre

ady

burd

ened

wit

hvi

ce.

Ath

ousa

nd

nat

ion

sth

atsh

one

arou

nd

the

eart

hco

uld

n’t

endu

rego

odla

ws

for

lon

g,an

dm

ost

cou

ldn

’th

ave

endu

red

them

atal

l.M

ost

peop

les,

like

mos

tm

en,

are

teac

hab

leon

lyin

you

th;a

sth

eygr

owol

dth

eybe

com

eim

poss

ible

toco

rrec

t.O

nce

cust

oms

hav

ebe

com

ees

tabl

ish

edan

dpr

eju

dice

sar

edu

gin

,tr

yin

gto

refo

rmth

emis

dan

gero

us

and

use

less

;th

e

popu

lace

can

’tst

and

hav

ing

anyo

ne

tou

chit

sfa

ult

s,ev

ento

rem

edy

them

;it

’slik

eth

efo

olis

han

dco

war

dly

pati

ents

wh

otr

embl

eat

sigh

tof

the

doct

or.

I’mn

otden

yin

gth

atth

ere

are

tim

esin

the

his

tory

ofst

ates

wh

en..

..vi

olen

cean

dre

volu

tion

sjo

ltth

epop

ula

cein

tore

mem

ber

ing

the

pas

t,so

that

the

stat

e,se

ton

fire

by

civi

lwar

s,is

soto

spea

kbo

rnag

ain

from

its

ash

es,a

nd

wit

ha

ren

ewed

vigo

ur

ofyo

uth

spri

ngs

from

the

jaw

sof

dea

th.

Exa

mple

s:S

par

taat

the

tim

eof

Lyc

urg

us,

Rom

eaf

ter

the

Tarq

uin

s,an

din

our

own

day

Hol

lan

dan

dS

wit

zerl

and

afte

rth

eex

puls

ion

ofth

ety

ran

ts.

Bu

tsu

chev

ents

are

rare

;th

eyar

eex

cepti

ons,

alw

ays

tobe

expla

ined

inte

rms

ofth

epar

ticu

lar

con

stit

uti

on[s

eeG

loss

ary]

ofth

eex

cepti

onal

stat

e.Th

eyca

n’t

even

hap

pen

twic

eto

the

sam

epe

ople

,fo

ra

popu

lace

can

mak

eit

self

free

aslo

ng

asit

ism

erel

yu

nci

viliz

ed,

bu

tn

otw

hen

the

civi

csp

rin

gh

asw

oun

ddow

n.

Th

endis

turb

ance

sca

ndes

troy

it,

bu

tre

volu

tion

sca

n’t

rebu

ildit

:it

nee

ds

am

aste

r,n

ota

liber

ator

.Fre

epe

ople

s,re

mem

ber

this

max

im:

‘Lib

erty

can

bega

ined

,bu

tit

can

nev

erbe

reco

vere

d.’

You

this

not

infa

ncy

.For

nat

ion

s,as

for

men

,th

ere

isa

peri

odof

you

ng

adu

lth

ood—

we

may

call

it‘m

atu

rity

’—be

fore

wh

ich

an

atio

nsh

ould

n’t

bem

ade

subj

ect

tola

ws;

but

itis

n’t

alw

ays

easy

tore

cogn

ise

ape

ople

’sm

atu

rity

,an

dif

polit

ical

deve

lopm

ents

are

set

goin

gbe

fore

that

,th

ede

velo

pmen

tsw

illfa

il.O

ne

peop

leis

amen

able

todi

scip

line

from

the

begi

nn

ing;

anot

her

,n

otaf

ter

ten

cen

turi

es.

The

Ru

ssia

ns

will

nev

erbe

real

lyci

vilis

ed,be

cau

seth

eyw

ere

‘civ

ilise

d’to

oso

on.

Pete

r·t

he

Gre

at·

had

age

niu

sfo

rim

itat

ion

,bu

th

edid

n’t

hav

eth

etr

ue

crea

tive

gen

ius

that

mak

esev

eryt

hin

gfr

omn

oth

ing.

Som

eof

the

thin

gsh

edi

dw

ere

good

,bu

tm

ost

ofth

emw

ere

wro

ng

for

that

tim

ean

dpl

ace.

He

saw

that

his

popu

lace

was

barb

arou

s,bu

tdi

dn’t

see

that

itw

asn

otri

pefo

rci

vilis

atio

n:

he

wan

ted

toci

vilis

eit

wh

enal

lit

nee

ded

was

tobe

prep

ared

22

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u29.

The

peop

le(c

onti

nu

ed)

for

war

.A

tfirs

th

ew

ante

dto

mak

eG

erm

ans,

En

glis

hm

en,

wh

enh

eou

ght

toh

ave

star

ted

by

mak

ing

Ru

ssia

ns;

he

blo

cked

his

subje

cts

from

ever

bec

omin

gw

hat

they

cou

ldh

ave

been

,by

pers

uad

ing

them

that

they

wer

ew

hat

they

are

not

.Th

isw

aslik

ea

Fre

nch

teac

her

wh

osh

apes

his

pupi

lto

bean

infa

nt

prod

igy,

and

for

the

rest

ofh

islif

eto

ben

oth

ing.

Th

eem

pir

eof

Ru

ssia

will

try

toco

nqu

erE

uro

pe,

and

will

itse

lfbe

con

quer

ed.

The

Tat

ars,

its

subj

ects

orn

eigh

bou

rs,

will

beco

me

its

mas

ters

and

ours

,by

are

volu

tion

that

seem

sto

me

inev

itab

le.

Inde

ed,

allt

he

kin

gsof

Eu

rope

are

wor

kin

gto

geth

erto

spee

dit

alon

g.

9.

The

peop

le(c

onti

nued

)

Just

asn

atu

reh

asse

tlim

its

toth

esi

zeof

aw

ell-

mad

em

an,a

nd

outs

ide

thos

elim

its

mak

eson

lygi

ants

and

dwar

fs,

soal

sofo

rth

eco

nst

itu

tion

ofa

stat

eto

be

atit

sbes

t,th

ere

are

upper

and

low

erbou

nds

toth

esi

zeof

the

stat

eif

itis

n’t

tobe

too

larg

efo

rgo

odgo

vern

men

tor

too

smal

lfo

rse

lf-m

ain

ten

ance

.E

very

bod

ypol

itic

has

am

axim

um

stre

ngt

hth

atit

can

’tex

ceed

,an

dth

atit

won

’tev

enre

ach

that

max

imu

mif

itbe

com

esto

ola

rge.

Eve

ryex

ten

sion

ofth

eso

cial

tie

slac

ken

sit

;an

dge

ner

ally

spea

kin

ga

smal

lsta

teis

stro

nge

rin

prop

orti

onth

ana

grea

ton

e.Th

ere

are

cou

ntl

ess

reas

ons

wh

yth

isis

so.

·Ish

all

pre

sen

ton

eof

them

,an

dth

ena

clu

ster

ofot

her

s·.

(1)·T

he

burd

enof

gove

rnm

ent:

·Lo

ng

dis

tan

ces

mak

ead

min

istr

atio

nm

ore

dif

ficu

lt,

just

asa

wei

ght

bec

omes

hea

vier

atth

een

dof

alo

nge

rle

ver.

Th

efu

rth

eru

pth

eh

iera

rch

yyo

ugo

,th

em

ore

burd

enso

me

the

adm

inis

trat

ion

sis

.F

irst

,ea

ch• c

ity

has

its

own

·gov

ern

men

t·,

wh

ich

ispai

dfo

rby

the

peo

ple

;so

doe

sea

ch• d

istr

ict,

still

pai

dfo

rby

the

peo

ple

;th

enea

ch• p

rovi

nce

,th

enth

e• g

reat

gove

rnm

ents

....

and

soon

,al

way

sco

stin

gm

ore

the

hig

her

you

go,a

nd

alw

ays

atth

eex

pen

seof

the

un

fort

un

ate

peop

le!

Last

ofal

lcom

esth

esu

prem

ead

min

istr

atio

n,w

hic

hsw

amps

allt

he

rest

.Th

ese

cost

sar

ea

con

tin

ual

drai

non

the

subj

ects

;an

dfa

rfr

ombe

ing

bett

ergo

vern

edby

allt

hes

edi

ffer

entl

evel

sof

gove

rnm

ent

they

’re

mu

chw

orse

gove

rned

than

they

wou

ldbe

ifth

eyh

adon

lya

sin

gle

auth

orit

yov

erth

em.

An

dw

ith

all

this

goin

gon

,th

ere

are

har

dly

any

reso

urc

esre

mai

nin

gto

mee

tem

erge

nci

es;

and

wh

enev

erth

ese

are

nee

ded

the

stat

eis

onth

ebr

ink

ofde

stru

ctio

n.

(2)·T

he

effe

ctiv

enes

sof

gove

rnm

ent:

·W

hen

par

tof

an

atio

nis

far

dis

tan

tfr

omth

ese

atof

gove

rnm

ent,

this

has

bad

effe

cts

onbo

thsi

des.

On

the

one

han

d,th

ego

vern

men

tis

wea

ker

and

slow

er• i

nla

w-e

nfo

rcem

ent

ther

e,• i

npre

ven

tin

gpeo

ple

from

ill-t

reat

ing

one

anot

her

ther

e,• i

nco

rrec

tin

gab

use

sth

ere,

•gu

ardi

ng

agai

nst

sedi

tiou

su

nde

rtak

ings

begu

nth

ere;

and

onth

eot

her

han

dth

epo

pula

ceof

that

regi

onh

asle

ssaf

fect

ion

for

• its

rule

rs,w

hom

itn

ever

sees

,• i

tsco

un

try,

wh

ich

toit

sey

esse

ems

like

the

wor

ld,

and

• its

fello

w-c

itiz

ens,

mos

tof

wh

omar

eu

nkn

own

toit

.Th

esa

me

law

sca

n’t

suit

som

any

div

erse

pro

vin

ces

wit

hdif

fere

nt

mœ

urs

[see

Glo

ssar

y]an

du

tter

lydif

fere

nt

clim

ates

,dif

feri

ng

also

inw

hat

kin

dof

gove

rnm

ent

they

can

pu

tu

pw

ith

.‘·W

ell,

then

,le

tth

ego

vern

men

th

ave

diff

eren

tla

ws

for

dif

fere

nt

pro

vin

ces.

’N

o,bec

ause

·dif

fere

nt

law

sle

adon

lyto

trou

ble

and

con

fusi

onam

ong

pop

ula

tion

sw

hic

h—

livin

gu

nde

rth

esa

me

rule

rsan

din

con

stan

tco

mm

un

icat

ion

wit

hon

ean

oth

er—

inte

rmin

gle

and

inte

rmar

ry,

and

wh

enth

eyco

me

un

der

the

sway

ofn

ewcu

stom

sdon

’tkn

oww

het

her

they

can

call

thei

rfa

mily

fort

un

eth

eir

own

.A

mon

gsu

ch

23

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u210

.Th

epe

ople

(furt

her

con

tin

ued

)

am

ult

itu

deof

men

wh

odo

n’t

know

one

anot

her

,cr

amm

edto

geth

erat

the

seat

ofth

ece

ntr

alad

min

istr

atio

n,

tale

nt

isbu

ried

,vi

rtu

eu

nkn

own

and

vice

un

pun

ish

ed.

The

lead

ers,

over

wh

elm

edw

ith

bu

sin

ess,

don

’tse

ean

yth

ing

for

them

-se

lves

;th

est

ate

isgo

vern

edby

bu

reau

crat

s.F

inal

ly,

the

mea

sure

sth

ath

ave

tobe

taken

tom

ain

tain

the

gen

eral

auth

orit

y,w

hic

hal

lth

ese

dis

tan

tof

fici

als

wis

hto

evad

eor

abu

se,

abso

rbal

lth

ego

vern

men

talen

ergy

,so

that

ther

e’s

non

ele

ftfo

rth

eh

appi

nes

sof

the

peop

le,

and

bare

lyen

ough

todef

end

itw

hen

nee

dar

ises

.Th

at’s

wh

ath

appen

sw

hen

abod

yis

too

big

for

its

con

stit

uti

on:

itcr

acks,

and

falls

cru

shed

un

der

its

own

wei

ght.

On

the

oth

erh

and,·it

’sbad

for

ast

ate

tobe

too

smal

l·.A

stat

en

eeds

ase

cure

base

ifit

isto

best

able

—n

otsh

aken

topie

ces

by

• th

esh

ocks

that

are

bou

nd

toco

me

its

way

orby

• th

eef

fort

sit

will

befo

rced

tom

ake

tom

ain

tain

itse

lf.A

llpop

ula

tion

sh

ave

akin

dof

cen

trifu

galfo

rce

by

wh

ich

they

• con

tin

ual

lyac

tag

ain

ston

ean

oth

er,

and

• ten

dto

enla

rge

them

selv

esat

thei

rn

eigh

bou

rs’e

xpen

se—

like

Des

cart

es’s

vort

ices

!Th

us

the

wea

kru

nth

eri

skof

bein

gso

onsw

allo

wed

up;

and

itis

alm

ost

impo

ssib

lefo

ran

yon

e·s

tate

·to

surv

ive

exce

ptby

putt

ing

itse

lfin

aso

rtof

equ

ilibr

ium

wit

hal

l·th

eot

her

s·so

that

the

pres

sure

onal

lsid

esis

abou

teq

ual

.S

oyo

uca

nse

eth

atth

ere

are

reas

ons

for

con

trac

tion

and

reas

ons

for

expan

sion

;an

dit

’sn

osm

all

par

tof

the

stat

esm

an’s

skill

toba

lan

ceou

tth

etw

osi

des

inth

ew

ayth

atis

best

for

the

pres

erva

tion

ofth

est

ate.

Itca

nbe

said

that

the

reas

ons

for

expa

nsi

on,

bein

gm

erel

yex

tern

alan

dre

lati

ve,

shou

ldbe

subo

rdin

ate

toth

ere

ason

sfo

rco

ntr

acti

on,

wh

ich

are

inte

rnal

and

abso

lute

.A

stro

ng

and

hea

lth

yco

nst

itu

tion

isth

efirs

tth

ing

tolo

okfo

r;an

dit

isbet

ter

toco

un

ton

the

vigo

ur

that

com

esfr

om

good

gove

rnm

ent

than

onth

ere

sou

rces

agr

eat

terr

itor

yfu

rnis

hes

.I

wou

ldad

dth

atw

eh

ave

know

nst

ates

that

• wer

eso

con

-st

itu

ted

that

the

nee

dto

mak

eco

nqu

ests

ente

red

into

thei

rve

ryco

nst

itu

tion

,an

d• h

adto

expan

dce

asel

essl

ym

erel

yin

orde

rto

surv

ive.

Perh

aps

they

con

grat

ula

ted

them

selv

esgr

eatl

yon

this

fort

un

ate

nec

essi

ty;

yet

wh

atit

mar

ked

out

for

them

wer

eth

elim

its

ofth

eir

grea

tnes

san

dth

ein

evit

able

mom

ent

ofth

eir

fall.

10.

The

peop

le(f

urt

her

conti

nued

)

Abo

dypo

litic

can

bem

easu

red

byth

eex

ten

tof

its

terr

itor

yor

by

the

nu

mber

ofit

speo

ple

;an

dth

ere

lati

onbet

wee

nth

ese

two

nee

dsto

beri

ght

ifa

stat

eis

tobe

real

lygr

eat.

The

men

mak

eth

est

ate,

and

the

terr

itor

ysu

stai

ns

the

men

;so

the

righ

tre

lati

onis

this

:th

ela

nd

shou

ldsu

ffice

tom

ain

tain

the

inh

abit

ants

,an

dth

ere

shou

ldbe

asm

any

inh

abit

ants

asth

ela

nd

can

feed

.Th

at’s

the

pro

por

tion

that

pro

vides

the

max

imu

mst

ren

gth

ofa

give

nn

um

ber

ofpeo

ple

.If

ther

e’s

too

mu

chla

nd,

itw

illbe

trou

bles

ome

topr

otec

t,in

adeq

uat

ely

cult

ivat

ed,an

dov

er-p

rodu

ctiv

e;it

will

give

rise

todef

ensi

vew

ars;

ifth

ere

isn

’ten

ough

lan

d,th

est

ate

has

tode

pen

don

its

nei

ghbo

urs

tom

eet

som

eof

its

nee

ds;

this

will

give

rise

toof

fen

sive

war

s.A

ny

popu

lati

onw

hos

ege

ogra

phic

alsi

tuat

ion

forc

esit

toch

oose

betw

een

com

mer

cean

dw

aris

intr

insi

cally

wea

k:it

dep

ends

onit

sn

eigh

bou

rs,

dep

ends

onou

tcom

es;

its

exis

ten

cew

illbe

un

cert

ain

and

shor

t.It

eith

erco

nqu

ers

oth

ers

and

chan

ges

its

·geo

grap

hic

al·

situ

atio

n,

orit

isco

nqu

ered

and

bec

omes

not

hin

g.O

nly

insi

gnifi

can

ceor

grea

tnes

sca

nke

epit

free

.

24

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u210

.Th

epe

ople

(furt

her

con

tin

ued

)

Th

ere’

sn

ow

ayof

stat

ing

the

idea

lre

lati

onof

size

topo

pula

tion

—n

hec

tare

spe

rm

peop

le—

beca

use

that

vari

esac

-co

rdin

gto

diff

eren

ces

in• t

he

qual

ity

and

fert

ility

ofth

ela

nd,

in• t

he

nat

ure

ofw

hat

grow

son

it,

in• t

he

clim

ate,

and

in• t

he

tem

pera

men

tsof

the

peop

lew

ho

live

onth

ela

nd.

Som

epe

ople

live

ina

fert

ileco

un

trys

ide

and

con

sum

elit

tle,

oth

ers

livin

gon

poo

rso

ilea

ta

lot.

Th

ele

gisl

ator

also

has

tota

ke

into

acco

un

tre

gion

aldi

ffer

ence

sin

the

fert

ility

ofw

omen

,in

how

favo

ura

ble

the

lan

dis

toth

egr

owth

ofpo

pula

tion

,an

din

how

mu

chdi

ffer

ence

islik

ely

tobe

mad

eby

gove

rnm

enta

lac

tivi

ty.

So

the

legi

slat

orsh

ould

gon

otby

wh

ath

e• s

ees

but

byw

hat

he

• for

esee

s;h

esh

ould

n’t

sett

lefo

rth

eac

tual

leve

lof

the

pop

ula

tion

bu

tsh

ould

aim

for

the

leve

lth

atit

ough

tn

atu

rally

toat

tain

.La

stly

,th

ere

are

cou

ntl

ess

situ

atio

ns

wh

ere

the

par

ticu

lar

loca

lci

rcu

mst

ance

sdem

and

oral

low

the

acqu

isit

ion

ofm

ore

terr

itor

yth

anse

ems

nec

essa

ry.

Thu

s,ex

pan

sion

will

begr

eat

ina

mou

nta

inou

ste

rrit

ory

wh

ere

the

nat

ura

lpro

duct

s—i.e

.woo

dsan

dpa

stu

res—

nee

dle

ssla

bou

r,w

her

eit

turn

sou

tth

atw

omen

are

mor

efe

rtile

than

inth

epla

ins,

and

wh

ere

agr

eat

expan

seof

slop

epre

sen

tson

lya

smal

llev

elst

retc

hth

atca

nbe

relie

don

for

grow

ing

thin

gs.

On

the

oth

erh

and,

con

trac

tion

ispos

sible

onth

eco

ast,

even

inte

rrit

orie

sof

rock

san

dn

earl

yba

rren

san

ds,b

ecau

se• t

her

efis

hin

gla

rgel

ym

akes

up

for

the

lack

ofla

nd-

prod

uce

,bec

ause

• th

ein

hab

itan

tsh

ave

tocl

ust

erto

geth

eror

der

tore

pel

pir

ates

,an

dfu

rth

erbec

ause

• it

isea

sier

toge

tri

dof

exce

sspo

pula

tion

byst

arti

ng

up

colo

nie

s.To

thes

eco

ndit

ion

sfo

res

tablis

hin

ga

peo

ple

ther

e’s

anot

her

that

mu

stbe

added

;it

doe

sn’t

take

the

pla

ceof

any

ofth

eot

her

s,bu

tw

ith

out

itth

eyar

eal

lu

sele

ss.

Th

isis

the

enjo

ymen

tof

peac

ean

dpl

enty

.·T

he

thre

atpo

sed

byw

ant

orw

arfa

reis

espec

ially

grav

e·,

bec

ause

wh

ena

stat

e

isin

itia

llyge

ttin

git

self

inor

der

itis

atit

sle

ast

capab

leof

offe

rin

gre

sist

ance

and

isea

sies

tto

dest

roy.

(Aba

ttal

ion

that

isin

pro

cess

offo

rmin

gu

pis

vuln

erab

lein

the

sam

ew

ay.)

Itco

uld

resi

stbet

ter

ata

tim

eof

abso

lute

chao

sth

anat

am

omen

tof

·pol

itic

ally

crea

tive

·agi

tati

on,w

hen

ever

yon

eis

occu

pie

dw

ith

his

own

stat

us

and

not

wit

hth

edan

ger.

Ifw

ar,

fam

ine,

orse

diti

onbr

eaks

out

atth

isti

me

ofcr

isis

,th

est

ate

will

inev

itab

lybe

over

thro

wn

.It

’str

ue

that

man

ygo

vern

men

tsh

ave

been

set

up

duri

ng

such

stor

ms;

bu

tin

thos

eca

ses

itw

asth

ego

vern

men

tsth

emse

lves

that

dest

roye

dth

est

ate.

Usu

rper

sal

way

scr

eate

orse

lect

tim

esof

dist

urb

ance

and

publ

icfe

arto

get

dest

ruc-

tive

law

spas

sed—

law

sth

atth

epeo

ple

wou

ldn

ever

hav

ead

opte

dw

hen

they

wer

eth

inkin

gco

olly

.O

ne

ofth

esu

rest

way

sof

dist

ingu

ish

ing

ale

gisl

ator

’sw

ork

from

aty

ran

t’sis

thro

ugh

the

ques

tion

:W

hen

did

he

choo

seto

act?

Then

wh

atpe

ople

isa

fitsu

bjec

tfo

rle

gisl

atio

n?

On

e• w

hic

his

alre

ady

hel

dto

geth

erby

som

eu

nit

yof

orig

in,

inte

rest

,or

agre

emen

t,an

dh

asn

ever

yet

felt

the

real

yoke

ofla

w;

• wh

ich

doe

sn’t

hav

edee

ply

ingr

ain

edcu

stom

sor

supe

rsti

tion

s,• w

hic

his

n’t

afra

idof

bei

ng

over

wh

elm

edby

sudden

inva

sion

,• w

hic

h,

wit

hou

ten

teri

ng

into

its

nei

ghbo

urs

’qu

arre

ls,

can

resi

stea

chof

them

un

aide

dor

can

get

the

hel

pof

one

tore

pela

not

her

,• i

nw

hic

hea

chm

embe

rca

nbe

know

nby

ever

yot

her

,an

dth

ere

isn

on

eed

tola

yon

any

man

bu

rden

sto

oh

eavy

for

am

anto

bear

;• w

hic

hdoe

sn’t

nee

dan

dis

n’t

nee

ded

by

oth

erpe

ople

s,11

11If

ther

ew

ere

two

nei

ghbo

uri

ng

peop

les,

one

ofw

hic

hn

eed

edth

eot

her

,it

wou

ldbe

very

har

don

the

one

and

very

dan

gero

us

for

the

oth

er.

Eve

ryw

ise

nat

ion

,in

such

aca

se,

wou

ldm

ake

ita

prio

rity

tofr

eeth

eot

her

from

depe

nde

nce

....

25

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u211

.D

iffe

ren

tsy

stem

sof

legi

slat

ion

• wh

ich

isn

eith

erri

chn

orpo

or,

but

self-

suffi

cien

t;an

dfin

ally

• wh

ich

com

bin

esth

eso

lidit

yof

anan

cien

tpe

ople

wit

hth

edo

cilit

y[h

ere

=‘w

illin

gnes

sto

bele

d’]of

an

ewon

e.W

hat

mak

esth

ew

ork

ofle

gisl

atio

ndi

fficu

ltis

not

som

uch

wh

ath

asto

beco

nst

ruct

edas

wh

ath

asto

bede

stro

yed;

and

wh

atm

akes

succ

ess

sora

reis

the

impos

sibili

tyof

fin

din

g• n

atu

ral

sim

plic

ity

com

bin

edw

ith

• th

efe

atu

res

that

are

nee

ded

for

soci

ety

tobe

pos

sible

.A

llth

ese

con

dit

ion

sar

ein

dee

dra

rely

fou

nd

un

ited

,w

hic

his

wh

yfe

wst

ates

hav

ego

odco

nst

itu

tion

s.Th

ere

isst

illin

Eu

rope

one

cou

ntr

yca

pabl

eof

bein

ggi

ven

law

s—C

orsi

ca.

Th

atbra

vepeo

ple

has

show

nsu

chva

lou

ran

dpe

rsis

ten

cyin

• reg

ain

ing

and

• def

endi

ng

its

liber

tyw

ell

that

itdes

erve

sto

hav

eso

me

wis

em

ante

ach

ith

owto

• pre

serv

eit

.I

hav

ea

feel

ing

that

som

eda

yth

atlit

tle

isla

nd

will

asto

nis

hE

uro

pe.

11.

Dif

fere

nce

sam

ong

syst

ems

ofle

gisl

atio

n

Wh

atpre

cise

lyis

the

grea

test

good

ofal

l,th

ego

odth

atsh

ould

be

the

goal

ofev

ery

syst

emof

legi

slat

ion

?It

com

esdow

nto

two

mai

nth

ings

:• l

iber

tyan

d• e

qual

ity—

liber

tybec

ause

any

con

stra

int

onon

ein

div

idu

alm

ean

sth

atth

atm

uch

forc

eis

take

nfr

omth

ebo

dyof

the

stat

e,an

deq

ual

ity

beca

use

liber

tyca

n’t

exis

tw

ith

out

it.

Ih

ave

alre

ady

defi

ned

civi

llib

erty

.A

sfo

req

ual

ity:

we

shou

ldta

keth

isto

mea

nn

otth

atth

ede

gree

sof

pow

eran

dri

ches

are

tobe

abso

lute

lyth

esa

me

for

ever

yon

e,bu

tth

at

• th

ose

wit

hpow

ersh

an’t

sin

kto

the

leve

lof

usi

ng

viol

ence

,an

dth

atth

eir

pow

erw

illal

way

sbe

exer

cise

dby

virt

ue

ofra

nk

and

law

;an

dth

at • No

citi

zen

will

ever

bew

ealt

hy

enou

ghto

buy

anot

her

,an

dn

one

poor

enou

ghto

befo

rced

tose

llh

imse

lf12

—w

hic

him

plie

s,on

the

par

tof

the

grea

t,n

oex

trem

esof

good

san

dcr

edit

[=‘b

orro

win

gpo

wer

’]an

don

the

side

ofth

eor

din

ary

folk

no

extr

emes

ofm

iser

lines

sor

gree

d.Th

eysa

yth

atth

iseq

ual

ity

isa

theo

reti

cal

pip

e-dre

amth

atca

n’t

exis

tin

pra

ctic

e.B

ut

·eve

n·

ifit

isce

rtai

nto

be

abu

sed,

isth

ata

reas

onfo

rn

otat

leas

tm

akin

gre

gula

tion

sco

nce

rnin

git

?It

’spre

cise

lybec

ause

the

forc

esat

wor

kin

the

wor

ldal

way

ste

nd

todes

troy

equ

alit

yth

atth

efo

rce

ofle

gisl

atio

nsh

ould

alw

ays

ten

dto

mai

nta

init

.B

ut

thes

ege

ner

algo

als

ofan

ygo

odco

nst

itu

tion

[see

Glo

s-sa

ry]n

eed

tobe

adap

ted

inea

chco

un

try

toth

elo

cals

itu

atio

nan

dth

ech

arac

ter

ofth

ein

hab

itan

ts;it

’sth

ese

that

shou

ldde

term

ine

the

part

icu

lar

inst

itu

tion

alsy

stem

that

isbe

st,n

otpe

rhap

sin

itse

lf,bu

tfo

rth

est

ate

inqu

esti

on.

For

exam

ple:

wh

atif

the

soil

isba

rren

and

un

prod

uct

ive,

orth

ela

nd

too

crow

ded

for

its

inh

abit

ants

?Th

entu

rnto

indu

stry

and

the

craf

ts,

and

exch

ange

wh

atth

eypr

odu

cefo

rth

eco

mm

odit

ies

you

lack

.If

onth

eot

her

han

dyo

ur

terr

itor

yis

rich

and

fert

ile,

focu

syo

ur

effo

rts

onla

bou

r-in

ten

sive

agri

cult

ure

,an

ddri

veou

tth

ecr

afts

that

wou

ldon

lydep

opu

late

you

rte

rrit

orie

sby

clu

ster

ing

wh

atfe

win

hab

itan

tsyo

uh

ave

ina

few

tow

ns.

13If

you

live

onan

exte

nsi

vean

dm

anag

eable

12D

oyo

uw

ant

the

stat

eto

beso

lid?

Then

mak

eth

ew

ealt

h-s

prea

das

smal

las

you

can

;do

n’t

allo

wri

chm

enor

begg

ars.

Thes

etw

oco

ndi

tion

sar

en

atu

rally

inse

para

ble:

·an

yst

ate

that

has

very

wea

lth

yci

tize

ns

will

also

hav

ebe

ggar

s,an

dvi

ceve

rsa·

.A

nd

they

are

equ

ally

fata

lto

the

com

mon

good

:on

epr

odu

ces

supp

orte

rsof

tyra

nn

y,th

eot

her

prod

uce

sty

ran

ts.

Itis

alw

ays

betw

een

them

that

publ

iclib

erty

ispu

ton

sale

:on

ebu

ys,

the

oth

erse

lls.

13‘A

ny

bran

chof

fore

ign

com

mer

ce’,

says

the

Mar

quis

d’A

rgen

son

,‘c

reat

esov

er-a

llon

lyan

appa

ren

tad

van

tage

for

the

kin

gdom

inge

ner

al;

itm

ayen

rich

som

ein

divi

dual

s,or

even

som

eto

wn

s,bu

tth

en

atio

nas

aw

hol

ega

ins

not

hin

gby

itan

dth

epo

pula

ceis

no

bett

erof

f.’

26

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u212

.C

lass

ifyin

gla

ws

coas

t-lin

e,co

ver

the

sea

wit

hsh

ips

and

dev

elop

trad

ean

dn

avig

atio

n;

you

rst

ate

will

hav

ea

life

that

isbri

llian

tan

dsh

ort!

Ifon

you

rco

ast

the

sea

was

hes

not

hin

gbu

tal

mos

tin

acce

ssib

lero

cks,

sett

lefo

ra

pri

mit

ive

way

oflif

ebas

edon

fish

-eat

ing;

you

’llh

ave

aqu

iete

rlif

e,per

hap

sa

bet

ter

one,

cert

ain

lya

hap

pie

ron

e.In

shor

t,ev

ery

nat

ion

has

,al

ong

wit

hpr

inci

ples

that

alln

atio

ns

hav

e,so

met

hin

gth

atgi

ves

them

apa

rtic

ula

rap

plic

atio

nin

its

case

,an

dm

akes

its

legi

slat

ion

stri

ctly

its

own

.Th

us,

amon

gth

eJe

ws

lon

gag

oan

dm

ore

rece

ntl

yam

ong

the

Ara

bs,t

he

mai

nth

ing

has

been

relig

ion

,am

ong

the

Ath

enia

ns

liter

atu

re,

atC

arth

age

and

Tyre

com

mer

ce,

atR

hod

essh

ippi

ng,

atS

part

aw

ar,

atR

ome

virt

ue.

The

auth

orof

The

Spi

rit

ofth

eLa

ws

[Mon

tesq

uie

u]h

assh

own

wit

hm

any

exam

ples

the

skill

sth

ele

gisl

ator

use

sin

dire

ctin

gth

eco

nst

itu

tion

inon

eor

oth

erof

thes

edi

rect

ion

s.

Wh

atm

akes

the

con

stit

uti

onof

ast

ate

real

lyso

lidan

dla

stin

gis

its

hav

ing

apop

ula

tion

wh

ose

mem

ber

sbeh

ave

sode

cen

tly

toon

ean

oth

erth

atn

atu

ralr

elat

ion

sar

eal

way

sin

har

mon

yw

ith

the

law

s,so

that

all

the

law

doe

sis

,so

tosp

eak,

toas

sure

,ac

com

pan

yan

dad

just

thos

en

atu

ral

rela

tion

s.B

ut

ifth

ele

gisl

ator

aim

sw

ron

gly

and

adop

ts• a

prin

cipl

eot

her

than

• th

eon

eth

atis

root

edin

the

nat

ure

ofth

ings

— • his

mak

esfo

rse

rvit

ude

wh

ileth

en

atu

ralo

ne

mak

esfo

rlib

erty

,or

• his

mak

esfo

rri

ches

,w

hile

the

oth

erm

akes

for

popu

lati

on-g

row

th,

• his

mak

esfo

rpea

ce,

wh

ileth

eot

her

mak

esfo

rco

n-

ques

t

—th

ela

ws

will

grad

ual

lylo

seth

eir

influ

ence

,th

eco

nst

itu

tion

will

alte

r,an

dth

est

ate

will

hav

en

ore

stfr

omtr

ouble

till

itis

eith

erdes

troy

edor

chan

ged,

and

invi

nci

ble

nat

ure

has

re-a

sser

ted

its

pow

er.

12.

Cla

ssif

ying

law

s

Ifth

ew

hol

eth

ing

isto

bese

tin

orde

r—i.e

.ift

he

publ

icth

ing

isto

bepu

tin

toth

ebe

stpo

ssib

lesh

ape—

ther

ear

eva

riou

sre

lati

ons

tobe

taken

acco

un

tof

.[R

ouss

eau

use

dch

ose

publ

iqu

e

=‘p

ubl

icth

ing’

expe

ctin

gh

isre

ader

sto

know

that

the

Lati

nfo

rth

isis

res

publ

ica

=‘r

epu

blic

’.](1

)Th

ere

isth

eac

tion

ofth

eco

mple

tebod

yu

pon

itse

lf,i.e.

the

rela

tion

ofth

ew

hol

eto

the

wh

ole,

ofth

eso

vere

ign

toth

est

ate.

Th

isre

lati

onis

com

pos

edof

the

rela

tion

sam

ong

the

par

tsof

the

wh

ole,

asw

esh

alls

eein

due

cou

rse.

Th

ela

ws

that

regu

late

this

rela

tion

are

calle

dpo

liti

cal

law

s,an

dth

eydes

erve

thei

rn

ame

‘fun

dam

enta

lla

ws’

—if

they

are

wel

ldon

e.·W

hat

does

thei

rqu

alit

yh

ave

todo

wit

hth

eir

stat

us

asfu

nda

men

tal?

Wel

l·,if

for

each

stat

eth

ere’

son

lyon

ego

odw

ayof

orga

nis

ing

thin

gs,

the

pop

ula

ceth

ath

asfo

un

dit

shou

ldst

ick

toit

,·w

hic

hm

ean

sth

atfo

rth

emit

isfu

ndam

enta

l·;bu

tif

the

esta

blis

hed

orga

nis

atio

nis

bad

,w

hy

shou

ldla

ws

that

prev

ent

itfr

ombe

ing

good

bere

gard

edas

fun

dam

enta

l?A

ctu

ally

ape

ople

isa

lwa

ysin

apo

siti

onto

chan

geit

sla

ws.

Eve

nif

they

are

good

law

s?Ye

s;fo

rif

the

popu

lace

choo

ses

todo

itse

lfh

arm

,w

ho

can

hav

ea

righ

tto

stop

it?

(2)

Th

enth

ere’

sth

ere

lati

onof

the

mem

ber

s(a

)to

one

anot

her

or(b

)to

the

bod

yas

aw

hol

e.Th

ere

shou

ldbe

aslit

tle

aspo

ssib

leof

(2a)

and

asm

uch

aspo

ssib

leof

(2b)

.E

ach

citi

zen

wou

ldth

enbe

per

fect

lyin

dep

enden

tof

all

the

rest

,an

dat

the

sam

eti

me

very

depe

nde

nt

onth

eci

ty;an

dth

ese

two

resu

lts

are

bro

ugh

tab

out

alw

ays

by

the

sam

em

ean

s,bec

ause

only

(2b)

the

stre

ngt

hof

the

stat

eca

nse

cure

(2a)

the

liber

tyof

its

mem

ber

s.F

rom

this

seco

nd

rela

tion

aris

eci

vil

law

s.(3

)W

em

ayco

nsi

der

also

ath

ird

kin

dof

rela

tion

betw

een

the

indiv

idu

alan

dth

ela

w,th

ere

lati

onof

• dis

obed

ien

ceto

27

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u212

.C

lass

ifyin

gla

ws

• pu

nis

hm

ent.

This

crea

tes

an

eed

for

crim

inal

law

s,w

hic

har

ebas

ical

lyn

otso

mu

cha

kin

dof

law

asth

esa

nct

ion

beh

ind

allt

he

oth

erla

ws.

(4)A

lon

gw

ith

thes

eth

ree

kin

dsof

law

goes

afo

urt

h,m

ost

impo

rtan

tof

all,

wh

ich

• is

insc

ribe

dn

oton

tabl

ets

ofm

arbl

eor

bras

sbu

ton

the

hea

rts

ofth

eci

tize

ns;

• for

ms

the

real

con

stit

uti

onof

the

stat

e;• t

akes

onn

ewpo

wer

sev

ery

day;

• res

tore

sor

repla

ceot

her

law

sw

hen

they

dec

ayor

die

out,

kee

ps

apeo

ple

inth

esp

irit

inw

hic

hit

was

esta

blis

hed

,an

dgr

adu

ally

repl

aces

auth

orit

yby

the

forc

eof

hab

it.

Iam

spea

kin

gof

mœ

urs

[see

Glo

ssar

y],

ofcu

stom

,ab

ove

allo

fpu

blic

opin

ion

;an

elem

ent

inth

esi

tuat

ion

that

our

polit

ical

theo

rist

sdo

n’t

reco

gnis

e,th

ough

succ

ess

inev

eryt

hin

gel

sedep

ends

onit

.Th

isis

the

elem

ent

that

the

grea

tle

gisl

ator

isse

cret

lyco

nce

rned

wit

h,

thou

ghh

ese

ems

tobe

atte

ndi

ng

only

topa

rtic

ula

rre

gula

tion

s.Th

ere

gula

tion

sar

eon

lyth

ear

cof

the

arch

;m

œu

rsco

me

into

iton

lyla

ter,

bu

tth

eyev

entu

ally

con

stit

ute

the

arch

’sim

mov

able

keys

ton

e.[R

ouss

eau

isre

ferr

ing

toth

ecl

assi

calm

eth

odof

build

ing

ston

ear

ches

:

The

ston

esm

akin

gth

ear

car

eh

eld

inpl

ace

byex

tern

alsu

ppor

tsu

nti

lth

efin

alst

one,

the

keys

ton

e,is

drop

ped

into

plac

e,an

dth

enth

ew

hol

eth

ing

hol

dsit

self

up.

]O

fth

ese

dif

fere

nt

sort

sof

law

sth

eon

lyon

esth

atar

ere

leva

nt

tom

ysu

bjec

tar

eth

epo

litic

alla

ws,

wh

ich

dete

rmin

eth

efo

rms

ofth

ego

vern

men

t.

28

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u31.

Gov

ern

men

tin

gen

eral

BO

OK

3

Bef

ore

spea

kin

gof

the

diff

eren

tfo

rms

ofgo

vern

men

t,le

tu

str

yto

fix

the

exac

tse

nse

ofth

ew

ord

’gov

ern

men

t’,w

hic

hh

asn

’tye

tbe

enth

orou

ghly

expl

ain

ed.

1.

Gov

ernm

ent

inge

ner

al

Iw

arn

you

that

this

chap

ter

requ

ires

care

ful

read

ing,

and

that

Idon

’th

ave

the

skill

tom

ake

mys

elf

clea

rto

som

eon

ew

ho

won

’tat

ten

d.E

very

free

acti

onis

pro

du

ced

by

two

cau

ses

wor

kin

gto

geth

er:

one

ism

enta

l,n

amel

yth

evo

litio

nth

atde

term

ines

the

act;

the

oth

eris

phys

ical

,n

amel

yth

epo

wer

that

carr

ies

the

act

out.

Wh

enI

wal

kto

war

dsso

met

hin

g,it

isn

eces

sary

• th

atI

shou

ldw

illto

goth

ere

and

• th

atm

yfe

etsh

ould

carr

ym

eth

ere.

Ifa

par

alyt

icw

ills

toru

nan

dan

acti

vem

ando

esn

’t,th

eyw

illbo

thst

ayw

her

eth

eyar

e.Th

ebo

dypo

litic

has

the

sam

em

otiv

epow

ers,

wh

ich

agai

ndiv

ide

into

will

and

forc

e:w

illis

calle

d‘le

gisl

ativ

epo

wer

’an

dfo

rce

isca

lled

‘exe

cuti

vepo

wer

’.N

oth

ing

isdo

ne,

not

hin

gsh

ould

bedo

ne,

wit

hou

tth

etw

oof

them

acti

ng

toge

ther

.W

eh

ave

seen

that

the

legi

slat

ive

pow

erbel

ongs

toth

epe

ople

and

can

’tbe

lon

gan

ywh

ere

else

.B

ut

the

prin

cipl

esI

hav

ela

iddo

wn

mak

eit

easy

tose

eth

atth

eex

ecu

tive

pow

erca

n’t

bel

ong

toth

epeo

ple

asle

gisl

atu

reor

sove

reig

n[s

eeG

loss

ary]

,bec

ause

itco

nsi

sts

wh

olly

ofpar

ticu

lar

acts

that

fall

outs

ide

the

scop

eof

the

law

,an

dco

nse

quen

tly

ofth

eso

vere

ign

,w

hos

eac

tsm

ust

alw

ays

bela

ws.

So

the

publ

icfo

rce

nee

dsan

agen

tof

its

own

....

to• s

etit

tow

ork

un

der

the

dir

ecti

onof

the

gen

eral

will

,to

• pu

tth

est

ate

into

uch

wit

hth

eso

vere

ign

,• t

odo

for

the

colle

ctiv

epe

rson

som

eth

ing

like

wh

atth

eu

nio

nof

sou

lan

dbo

dydo

es

for

·an

indi

vidu

al·m

an.

Her

ew

eh

ave

wh

atis

,in

the

stat

e,th

era

tion

ale

ofgo

vern

men

t;it

’squ

ite

wro

ng

toid

enti

fyit

wit

hth

eso

vere

ign

—it

serv

esth

eso

vere

ign

.Th

enw

hat

isgo

vern

men

t?A

nin

term

edia

tebo

dyse

tu

pbet

wee

nth

esu

bje

cts

and

the

sove

reig

nto

enab

leth

emto

com

mu

nic

ate

wit

hon

ean

oth

er;it

’sjo

bis

toap

ply

the

law

san

dto

mai

nta

inci

vila

nd

polit

ical

liber

ty.

Th

em

ember

sof

this

bod

yar

eca

lled

‘mag

istr

ates

’[s

eeG

loss

ary]

or‘k

ings

’,i.e.

gove

rnor

s,an

dth

ebod

yas

aw

hol

eh

asth

en

ame

‘pri

nce

’.Th

us,

thos

ew

ho

clai

mth

atth

eac

tby

wh

ich

apeo

ple

pu

tsit

self

un

der

lead

ers

isn

ota

• con

trac

tar

equ

ite

righ

t.It

issi

mpl

ya

• com

mis

sion

,a

• job

,in

wh

ich

the

lead

ers—

mer

eof

fici

als

ofth

eso

vere

ign

—ex

erci

sein

its

nam

eth

epo

wer

that

ith

aslo

dged

wit

hth

em.

The

sove

reig

nca

nlim

itth

ispow

er,

mod

ify

itor

take

itbac

k,

just

asit

wis

hes

;be

cau

seth

eal

ien

atio

n[s

eeG

loss

ary]

ofsu

cha

righ

tis

inco

mpa

tibl

ew

ith

the

nat

ure

ofth

eso

cial

body

,an

dco

ntr

ary

toth

ego

alof

asso

ciat

ion

.S

oin

my

usa

ge‘g

over

nm

ent’

(or

‘su

prem

ead

min

istr

atio

n’)

nam

esth

ele

giti

mat

eex

erci

seof

the

exec

uti

vepow

er,

and

‘pri

nce

’or

‘mag

istr

ate’

nam

esth

em

anor

the

body

entr

ust

edw

ith

that

adm

inis

trat

ion

.[In

the

nex

tco

upl

eof

page

sR

ouss

eau

use

ste

chn

ical

term

sfr

omm

ath

e-m

atic

s,in

way

sth

atar

efil

tere

dou

tfr

omth

epr

esen

tve

rsio

nbe

cau

seth

eyar

eto

oh

ard

tom

ake

clea

rh

ere.

(i)

He

isu

sin

gth

ete

rms

inse

nse

sw

hic

hth

eyh

adth

enan

ddo

n’t

hav

en

ow.

(ii)

He

also

ex-

ploi

tsth

eam

bigu

itie

sof

wor

dsth

ath

ave

(or

had

)m

ath

emat

ical

and

non

-mat

hem

atic

alse

nse

s.(i

ii)

Itis

pret

tycl

ear

that

thes

ede

tou

rsth

rou

ghm

ath

emat

ics—

even

ifth

eydo

n’t

dese

rve

the

moc

kery

they

hav

eof

ten

attr

acte

d—do

n’t

real

lyh

elp

us

tou

nde

rsta

nd

Rou

ssea

u’s

theo

ries

ofpo

litic

s.(i

v)F

oran

extr

emel

yh

elpf

ul

disc

uss

ion

ofth

is

29

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u31.

Gov

ern

men

tin

gen

eral

mat

ter

(inF

ren

ch)

see

the

disc

uss

ion

not

eby

Mar

cel

Fra

nço

nat

htt

p://

ww

w.w

eb.m

dx.a

c.u

k/ca

hie

rs/v

ol08

/cpa

8.4.

Fra

nco

n.h

tml.]

....

Th

e(b

)go

vern

men

tge

tsfr

omth

e(a

)so

vere

ign

the

order

sit

give

sto

the

(c)

peo

ple

;an

dfo

rth

est

ate

tobe

pro

per

lybal

ance

dth

ere

mu

stbe

ast

eady

rela

tion

ship

be-

twee

nth

ea-

to-b

rela

tion

and

the

b-t

o-c

rela

tion

.If

any

ofth

ese

thre

ete

rms

wer

eal

tere

d,

the

stea

dy

rela

tion

ship

wou

ldin

stan

tly

bede

stro

yed.

[Rou

ssea

upu

tsth

atin

term

sof

the

brea

kdow

nof

am

ath

emat

ical

rati

o;th

atis

part

ofth

ede

tou

rdi

scu

ssed

inth

epr

eced

ing

not

e.]

Ifth

e(a

)so

vere

ign

trie

sto

gove

rn,

orth

e(b

)mag

istr

ate

trie

sto

give

law

s,or

ifth

e(c

)su

bjec

tsre

fuse

toob

ey,

diso

rder

take

sth

epl

ace

ofre

gula

rity

,fo

rce

and

will

no

lon

ger

act

toge

ther

,an

dth

est

ate

isdi

ssol

ved

and

falls

into

desp

otis

mor

anar

chy.

Last

ly..

..,t

her

eis

also

only

one

good

gove

rnm

ent

poss

ible

for

ast

ate;

but

asth

ere

lati

ons

wit

hin

ape

ople

can

chan

gein

cou

ntl

ess

way

s,di

ffer

ent

gove

rnm

ents

may

bego

odfo

rdi

ffer

ent

peop

les

orev

enfo

ra

sin

gle

peop

leat

diff

eren

tti

mes

.T

ryin

gto

give

som

eid

eaof

the

vari

ous

rela

tion

sth

atm

ayh

old

bet

wee

nth

ese

two

term

s(a

)an

d(c

),I

shal

ltak

eas

anex

ample

the

nu

mer

ical

size

ofa

pop

ula

tion

,w

hic

his

the

mos

tea

sily

expr

essi

ble.

Su

ppos

eth

est

ate

isco

mpo

sed

ofte

nth

ousa

nd

citi

zen

s.Th

eso

vere

ign

can

only

be

con

sider

edco

llect

ivel

yan

das

abod

y;bu

tea

chm

ember

,in

his

role

asa

subje

ct,

isco

nsi

der

edin

div

idu

ally

;so

the

sove

reig

nis

toth

esu

bje

ctas

ten

thou

san

dto

one,

mea

nin

gth

atea

chm

ember

ofth

est

ate

has

ash

issh

are

only

ate

n-t

hou

san

dth

par

tof

the

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity,

alth

ough

he

isw

hol

lyu

nder

that

auth

orit

y’s

con

trol

.If

the

pop

ula

tion

nu

mber

sa

hu

ndre

dth

ousa

nd,

the

con

diti

onof

the

subj

ects

does

n’t

chan

ge;e

ach

ofth

emis

un

der

the

wh

ole

auth

orit

yof

the

law

s,w

hile

his

vote

....

now

has

only

ate

nth

asm

uch

influ

ence

indr

awin

gth

emu

p.Th

us,

the

peop

le-t

o-so

vere

ign

rati

oin

crea

ses

wit

h

the

nu

mber

ofth

eci

tize

ns,

from

wh

ich

this

follo

ws:

The

larg

erth

est

ate

,th

ele

ssth

elib

erty

....

Now

,th

ela

rger

the

rati

oof

part

icu

lar

will

sto

the

gen

eral

will

....

,th

egr

eate

rth

ere

pre

ssiv

efo

rce

shou

ldbe.

Ifth

ego

vern

men

tis

tobe

ago

odon

e,it

shou

ldbe

prop

orti

onat

ely

stro

nge

ras

the

popu

lati

onis

grea

ter.

[Tw

ore

mar

ks:

(i)

The

ellip

sis

mar

ksth

epl

ace

wh

ere

Rou

ssea

ueq

uat

esth

ere

lati

on part

icu

lar

will

s—th

ege

ner

alw

illw

ith

the

rela

tion

mœ

urs

—lo

is[lo

isar

ela

ws;

for

mœ

urs

see

Glo

ssar

y].

(ii)

Wh

atR

ouss

eau

wro

tem

ean

s‘T

he

smal

ler

the

rati

oof

part

icu

lar

will

s...

.’,bu

tth

atm

ust

hav

ebe

ena

slip

.]O

nth

eot

her

han

d,th

ebi

gger

the

stat

eth

em

ore

tem

pta-

tion

san

dch

ance

sth

eh

older

sof

the

pu

blic

auth

orit

yh

ave

for

abu

sin

gth

eir

pow

er;

soth

egr

eate

rth

efo

rce

gove

rnm

ent

shou

ldh

ave

for

keep

ing

the

peop

lein

han

d,th

egr

eate

rth

efo

rce

the

sove

reig

nsh

ould

hav

eke

epin

gth

ego

vern

men

tin

han

d.

I’mn

otta

lkin

gab

out

abso

lute

amou

nt-

of-f

orce

,bu

tof

the

com

para

tive

amou

nts

offo

rce

ofth

edi

ffer

ent

part

sof

the

stat

e.Th

isco

nce

ptu

alsc

hem

eof

rati

osof

(a)

the

sove

reig

nto

(b)th

epri

nce

(·or

gove

rnm

ent·

)an

dof

the

pri

nce

to(c

)th

epe

ople

isn

otan

arbi

trar

yid

ea,b

uta

nin

evit

able

con

sequ

ence

ofth

en

atu

reof

the

body

polit

ic..

..O

ne

thin

gw

ele

arn

from

itis

that

ther

eis

no

sin

gle

un

iqu

ean

dab

solu

tefo

rmof

gove

rnm

ent,

bu

tra

ther

asm

any

gove

rnm

ents

dif

feri

ng

inn

atu

reas

ther

ear

est

ates

diff

erin

gin

size

.In

dis

cuss

ing

this

mat

ter

inte

rms

ofpop

ula

tion

-siz

e,I

amm

erel

yta

kin

gan

exam

ple;

the

rati

osth

atI

amba

sica

llyta

lkin

gab

out

are

not

mea

sure

dby

the

nu

mbe

rof

men

,bu

tqu

ite

gen

eral

lyby

the

am

oun

tof

act

ion,

wh

ich

isa

com

bin

a-ti

onof

am

ult

itu

de

ofca

use

s.A

sfo

rm

ybri

efly

bor

row

ing

term

sfr

omm

ath

emat

ics,

let

me

say

that

I’mw

ella

war

eth

atm

oral

quan

titi

esdo

n’t

allo

wof

geom

etri

calp

reci

sion

.

30

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u32.

The

sou

rce

ofgo

vern

men

talv

arie

ty

[At

this

poi

nt,

Rou

ssea

upre

sen

tsan

oth

erm

ath

emat

i-ca

lflou

rish

,an

dth

enpu

shes

itas

ide:

]W

ith

out

wre

stlin

gw

ith

this

pro

lifer

atio

nof

·tec

hn

ical

·te

rms,

let

us

sett

lefo

r·s

omet

hin

gm

uch

sim

ple

r,n

amel

y·a

view

of(b

)th

ego

vern

men

tas

an

ewbo

dyw

ith

inth

est

ate,

dist

inct

from

(c)

the

peop

lean

d(a

)th

eso

vere

ign

,an

din

term

edia

tebe

twee

nth

em.

Bet

wee

nth

ego

vern

men

tan

dth

est

ate

ther

eis

this

esse

nti

aldi

ffer

ence

:th

est

ate

exis

tsin

its

own

righ

t,w

her

eas

the

gove

rnm

ent

exis

tson

lyth

rou

ghth

eso

vere

ign

.Th

us

the

prin

ce’s

dom

inan

tw

illis

,or

shou

ldbe

,n

oth

ing

but

the

gen

eral

will

orth

ela

w;

his

forc

eis

only

the

pu

blic

forc

eco

nce

ntr

ated

inh

ish

ands

,an

dth

em

omen

th

etr

ies

toba

sean

yab

solu

tean

din

depe

nde

nt

act

onh

isow

nau

thor

ity,

the

wh

ole

stru

ctu

rest

arts

toco

me

apar

t.Lo

okat

itth

isw

ay:

Ifth

epri

nce

cam

eto

hav

ea

par

ticu

lar

will

mor

eac

tive

than

the

sove

reig

n’s

,an

dem

ploy

edth

epu

blic

forc

ein

his

han

dsin

obed

ien

ceto

this

part

icu

lar

will

,th

ere

wou

ldin

effe

ctbe

two

sove

reig

ns—

one

righ

tfu

lan

dth

eot

her

actu

al—

and

the

soci

alu

nio

nw

ould

evap

orat

ein

stan

tly,

and

the

body

polit

icw

ould

bedi

ssol

ved.

How

ever

,fo

rth

ego

vern

men

tto

hav

ean

exis

ten

cean

da

real

life

dist

ingu

ish

ing

itfr

omth

ebo

dyof

the

stat

e,an

dfo

ral

lit

sm

ember

sto

be

able

toac

tto

geth

erto

war

ds

the

goal

for

wh

ich

itw

asse

tu

p,it

mu

sth

ave

apar

ticu

lar

mys

elf,

ase

nsi

bilit

ysh

ared

amon

gal

lits

mem

bers

,afo

rce,

aw

illof

its

own

,th

atca

usa

llyfa

vou

rsit

spre

serv

atio

n.

Th

isex

iste

nce

asa

par

ticu

lar

implie

sas

sem

blie

s,co

un

cils

,a

pow

erto

del

iber

ate

and

mak

edec

isio

ns

abou

tth

eri

ghts

,ti

tles

,an

dpr

ivile

ges

that

are

tobe

lon

gex

clu

sive

lyto

the

prin

ce,

givi

ng

toh

isof

fice

asm

agis

trat

eh

onou

rsth

atar

epr

opor

tion

alto

how

ardu

ous

itis

.It

isdi

fficu

ltto

orga

nis

eth

ings

soth

at(b

)th

issu

bor

din

ate

wh

ole

fits

into

(c)th

ebig

wh

ole

insu

cha

way

that

inaf

firm

ing

itow

nco

nst

itu

tion

(b)do

esn

’tal

ter

the

gen

eral

con

stit

uti

on,a

nd

alw

ays

dist

ingu

ish

esth

epa

rtic

ula

rfo

rce

itpo

sses

ses,

wh

ich

ism

ean

tfo

rit

its

pres

erva

tion

,fro

mth

epu

blic

forc

e,w

hic

his

the

pre

serv

atio

nof

(c)

the

stat

e;an

d,in

shor

t,is

alw

ays

read

yto

sacr

ifice

(b)th

ego

vern

men

tto

(c)

the

peo

ple

,an

dn

ever

tosa

crifi

ceth

epeo

ple

toth

ego

vern

men

t.A

lth

ough

the

arti

fici

albod

yof

(b)th

ego

vern

men

tis

the

wor

kof

(a)an

oth

erar

tific

ialb

ody,

soth

atit

has

only

aki

nd

ofbo

rrow

edan

dsu

bord

inat

elif

e,th

isdo

esn

’tpr

even

tit

from

bein

gab

leto

act

mor

eor

less

vigo

rou

sly

and

quic

kly,

orfr

ombei

ng

inm

ore

orle

ssro

bu

sth

ealt

h,

soto

spea

k.

Fin

ally

,w

ith

out

mov

ing

dire

ctly

away

from

the

goal

for

wh

ich

itw

asin

stit

ute

d,th

ego

vern

men

tm

ayde

viat

e• s

omew

hat

from

that

goal

—• h

owm

uch

depe

nds

onh

owit

isco

nst

itu

ted.

Fro

mal

lth

ese

dif

fere

nce

sar

ise

the

vari

ous

rela

tion

sth

atth

ego

vern

men

tsh

ould

hav

eto

the

bod

yof

the

stat

e.·T

he

det

ails

ofth

ese

rela

tion

s·sh

ould

vary

wit

hpar

ticu

lar

con

tin

gen

tch

ange

sth

atth

est

ate

un

der

goes

;fo

rit

ofte

nh

appe

ns

that

anin

trin

sica

llyex

celle

nt

gove

rnm

ent

beco

mes

dre

adfu

lbec

ause

its

rela

tion

sto

the

bod

ypol

itic

hav

en’t

chan

ged

inre

spon

seto

defe

cts

inth

ebo

dypo

litic

.

2.

The

sourc

eof

the

vari

ety

amon

gfo

rms

ofgo

vern

men

t

To

set

out

the

gen

eral

cau

seof

the

abov

edif

fere

nce

s,w

eh

ave

todi

stin

guis

h• t

he

gove

rnm

ent

from

• th

epr

ince

,as

we

earl

ier

dist

ingu

ish

ed(c

)th

est

ate

from

(a)th

eso

vere

ign

.H

owm

any

mem

ber

sth

em

agis

trac

yca

nh

ave

vari

es.

Isa

idth

atth

era

tio

ofth

esu

bjec

tsto

the

sove

reig

nw

asgr

eate

rin

pro

por

tion

asth

epop

ula

tion

was

mor

en

um

erou

s;an

dby

anob

viou

san

dcl

ear

anal

ogy

we

can

say

the

sam

eof

the

rela

tion

ofth

em

agis

trat

esto

the

gove

rnm

ent.

31

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u32.

The

sou

rce

ofgo

vern

men

talv

arie

ty

Now

,th

eto

talf

orce

ofth

ego

vern

men

tis

alw

ays

that

ofth

est

ate,

soit

does

n’t

vary

;fr

omw

hic

hit

follo

ws

that

the

mor

eof

this

forc

eth

ego

vern

men

tsp

ends

onit

sow

nm

ember

sth

ele

ssit

has

left

toem

ploy

onth

ew

hol

epe

ople

.Th

us,

the

mor

em

agis

trat

esth

ere

are,

the

wea

ker

the

gove

rnm

ent

is.

This

prin

cipl

eis

real

lyba

sic,

sow

esh

ould

doou

rbe

stto

get

clea

rab

out

it.

Inth

epe

rson

ofth

em

agis

trat

ew

eca

ndi

stin

guis

hth

ree

esse

nti

ally

diff

eren

tw

ills:

(i)th

epr

ivat

ew

illof

the

indi

vidu

al,

ten

din

gon

lyto

his

pers

onal

adva

nta

ge;

(ii)

the

com

mon

will

ofth

em

agis

trat

es,

wh

ich

rela

tes

pu

rely

toth

ead

van

tage

ofth

epri

nce

(cal

lth

is‘c

orpor

ate

will

’,w

hic

his

gen

eral

inre

lati

onto

the

gove

rnm

ent

and

part

icu

lar

inre

lati

onto

the

stat

eof

wh

ich

the

gove

rnm

ent

isa

par

t);

and

(iii

)th

ew

illof

the

peo

ple

,i.e.

the

sove

reig

nw

ill,

wh

ich

isge

ner

albot

hin

rela

tion

toth

est

ate

rega

rded

asth

ew

hol

e,an

dto

the

gove

rnm

ent

rega

rded

asa

part

ofth

ew

hol

e.In

ape

rfec

tac

tof

legi

slat

ion

,th

ein

divi

dual

orpa

rtic

ula

rw

illsh

ould

beat

zero

;th

ego

vern

men

t’sco

rpor

ate

will

shou

ldbe

thor

ough

lysu

bord

inat

e;an

dth

ege

ner

alor

sove

reig

nw

ill,

ther

efor

e,sh

ould

alw

ays

pred

omin

ate

and

shou

ldbe

the

sole

guid

eof

allt

he

rest

.It

’sju

sta

fact

ofn

atu

reth

atth

ese

diff

eren

tw

ills

beco

me

mor

eac

tive

the

mor

eth

eyar

eco

nce

ntr

ated

.Th

us,

the

gen

-er

alw

illis

alw

ays

the

wea

kest

,th

eco

rpor

ate

will

seco

nd,

and

the

indi

vidu

alw

illst

ron

gest

ofal

l:so

that

inth

ego

vern

men

tea

chm

embe

ris

first

ofal

l• h

imse

lf,·a

nsw

erab

leon

lyto

his

own

pers

onal

nee

dsan

dde

sire

s·,th

en• a

mag

istr

ate,

·an

swer

able

toth

en

eeds

and

duti

esof

the

mag

istr

acy,

the

gove

rnm

ent·

,an

dth

en• a

citi

zen

,·a

nsw

erab

leto

the

nee

dsof

the

stat

e·—

inex

actl

yth

ere

vers

eor

der

tow

hat

the

soci

alsy

stem

requ

ires

.

Th

isgr

ante

d,

ifth

ew

hol

ego

vern

men

tis

inth

eh

ands

ofon

em

an,

his

par

ticu

lar

will

isal

lof

apie

cew

ith

the

corp

orat

ew

ill·o

fth

ego

vern

men

t·,

soth

atth

ela

tter

—·t

he

will

ofth

ego

vern

men

tco

nce

ntr

ated

ina

sin

gle

man

·—is

atit

sh

igh

est

poss

ible

degr

eeof

inte

nsi

ty.

Bu

t• h

owm

uch

forc

ea

gove

rnm

ent

emplo

ysdep

ends

onth

e• s

tren

gth

ofit

sw

ill,

and

the

abso

lute

forc

eof

the

gove

rnm

ent

isin

vari

able

;so

itfo

llow

sth

atth

em

ost

acti

vego

vern

men

tis

that

ofon

em

an.

Su

ppos

ew

ego

inth

eop

pos

ite

dir

ecti

on,

lett

ing

(a)

the

legi

slat

ive

auth

orit

ybe

(b)

the

gove

rnm

ent—

i.e.

givi

ng

the

role

of(b

)pri

nce

to(a

)th

eso

vere

ign

—th

ereb

ytu

rnin

g(c

)al

lth

eci

tize

ns

into

mag

istr

ates

:th

en(b

)th

eco

rpor

ate

will

,be

ing

iden

tifie

dw

ith

(a)t

he

gen

eral

will

,won

’th

ave

any

mor

eac

tivi

tyth

an(a

)do

es,

leav

ing

(c)th

epa

rtic

ula

rw

illas

stro

ng

asit

can

poss

ibly

be.

Thu

s,th

ego

vern

men

t,h

avin

gal

way

sth

esa

me

abso

lute

forc

e,w

illbe

atth

elo

wes

tpoi

nt

ofit

sre

lati

vefo

rce

orac

tivi

ty.

Thes

ere

lati

ons

are

beyo

nd

ques

tion

,an

dot

her

con

side

r-at

ion

sst

illfu

rth

erco

nfirm

them

.W

eca

nse

e,fo

rin

stan

ce,

that

each

mag

istr

ate

ism

ore

acti

vein

the

body

tow

hic

hh

ebe

lon

gsth

anea

chci

tize

nis

inth

ebo

dyto

wh

ich

he

belo

ngs

,an

dth

atco

nse

quen

tly

each

part

icu

lar

will

has

mu

chm

ore

influ

ence

onth

eac

tsof

the

gove

rnm

ent

than

onth

ose

ofth

eso

vere

ign

;fo

rea

chm

agis

trat

eis

alm

ost

alw

ays

assi

gned

toso

me

gove

rnm

enta

lfu

nct

ion

,w

her

eas

each

citi

zen

onh

isow

nex

erci

ses

no

fun

ctio

nof

sove

reig

nty

.Fu

rth

erm

ore,

the

bigg

erth

est

ate

grow

s,th

em

ore

its

real

forc

ein

crea

ses,

thou

ghn

otin

dir

ect

pro

por

tion

toit

sin

crea

sein

size

;bu

tw

hen

the

stat

ere

mai

ns

the

sam

e,it

won

’tdo

the

mag

istr

acy

any

good

toin

ceas

eit

sn

um

bers

,be

cau

seit

sfo

rce

isth

atof

the

stat

e,i.e

.st

ays

the

sam

e...

.A

lso,

it’s

cert

ain

• th

atth

em

ore

peop

lear

epu

tin

char

geof

som

epro

ject

,th

elo

nge

rit

takes

toge

tit

goin

g;• t

hat

ingi

vin

gto

om

uch

wei

ght

topru

den

ceon

edoe

sn’t

mak

e

32

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u33.

Cla

ssify

ing

gove

rnm

ents

enou

ghal

low

ance

for

·th

epo

ssib

ility

ofgo

od·l

uck

;an

d• t

hat

·wit

hto

om

any

peo

ple

invo

lved

·an

oppor

tun

ity

may

be

let

slip

soth

atal

lth

isde

liber

atio

nre

sult

sin

the

loss

ofth

ego

alth

atth

ede

liber

atio

nw

asa

bou

t.I

hav

eju

stsh

own

that

the

gove

rnm

ent

beco

mes

slac

kin

prop

orti

onto

any

incr

ease

inth

en

um

ber

ofm

agis

trat

es;a

nd

Ish

owed

earl

ier

[pag

e30

]th

atth

em

ore

peop

leth

ere

are,

the

grea

ter

the

repr

essi

vefo

rce

nee

dsto

be.

Fro

mth

isit

follo

ws

that

the

rati

oof

mag

istr

ates

toth

ego

vern

men

tsh

ould

vary

inve

rsel

yto

the

rati

oof

the

subj

ects

toth

eso

vere

ign

;w

hic

hm

ean

sth

atth

ela

rger

the

stat

eis

the

mor

eth

ego

vern

men

tsh

ould

shri

nk,

soth

atth

en

um

ber

ofth

eru

lers

dim

inis

hin

prop

orti

onto

the

incr

ease

inth

epo

pula

tion

.I

amh

ere

spea

kin

gof

the

gove

rnm

ent’s

rela

tive

stre

ngt

h,

not

ofit

sle

giti

mac

y.Th

em

ore

nu

mer

ous

the

mag

istr

acy,

the

nea

rer

the

corp

orat

ew

illco

mes

toth

ege

ner

alw

ill;

wh

erea

su

nder

asi

ngl

em

agis

trat

eth

issa

me

corp

orat

ew

illis

,as

Isa

id,

not

hin

gbu

ta

part

icu

lar

will

.Th

us,

wh

atis

lost

onon

esi

dem

aybe

gain

edon

the

oth

er,

and

the

art

ofth

ele

gisl

ator

isto

kn

owh

owto

fix

the

poi

nt

atw

hic

hth

ego

vern

men

t’s• f

orce

and

its

• will

,w

hic

har

eal

way

sin

inve

rse

prop

orti

on,

inte

rsec

tin

the

rela

tion

that

isbe

stfo

rth

est

ate.

3.

Cla

ssif

ying

gove

rnm

ents

The

prec

edin

gch

apte

rsh

owed

wh

yw

edi

stin

guis

hth

eva

ri-

ous

kin

ds

orfo

rms

ofgo

vern

men

tin

term

sof

how

man

ym

ember

sth

eyh

ave;

now

we

hav

eto

dis

cove

rh

owth

isdi

visi

onis

mad

e.(A

)Th

eso

vere

ign

may

put

the

gove

rnm

ent

inth

eh

ands

ofth

ew

hol

epe

ople

orof

am

ajor

ity

ofth

em,so

that

amon

gth

eci

tize

ns

the

mag

istr

ates

outn

um

ber

the

mer

ely

pri

vate

indi

vidu

als.

This

form

ofgo

vern

men

tis

calle

dde

moc

racy

.

(B)

Or

the

sove

reig

nm

ayre

stri

ctth

ego

vern

men

tto

asm

all

nu

mber

ofci

tize

ns,

soth

atth

epri

vate

citi

zen

sou

t-n

um

ber

mag

istr

ates

;an

dth

isis

calle

dar

isto

crac

y.(C

)O

rth

eso

vere

ign

may

con

cen

trat

eth

ew

hol

ego

vern

-m

ent

inth

eh

ands

ofa

sin

gle

mag

istr

ate

from

wh

omal

lth

eot

her

s—·i.

e.al

lth

eot

her

gove

rnm

enta

loffi

cial

s·—

hol

dth

eir

pow

er.

This

thir

dfo

rmis

the

mos

tu

sual

,an

dis

calle

dm

onar

chy,

orro

yalg

over

nm

ent.

Wit

hin

each

ofth

ese

form

s,or

atle

ast

each

ofth

efirs

ttw

o,th

ere

can

bedi

ffer

ence

sof

degr

ee,in

clu

din

gve

ryw

ide

ones

.A

dem

ocra

cy,fo

rex

ampl

e,m

ayin

clu

deal

lth

epe

ople

orre

stri

cted

toh

alf

ofth

em.

An

aris

tocr

acy,

init

stu

rn,

may

be

rest

rict

edin

defi

nit

ely

from

hal

fth

epeo

ple

dow

nto

the

smal

lest

pos

sible

nu

mber

.A

nd

even

roya

lty

isop

ento

ace

rtai

nam

oun

tof

shar

ing

out:

Spa

rta

alw

ays

had

two

kin

gs,

asit

sco

nst

itu

tion

prov

ided

;an

dth

eR

oman

Em

pire

had

asm

any

asei

ght

empe

rors

aton

ce,

wit

hou

tan

ysp

litti

ng

up

ofth

eE

mpi

reit

self.

Thu

s,ea

chfo

rmof

gove

rnm

ent

pass

esin

toth

en

ext

ata

cert

ain

poin

t,an

dit

emer

ges

that

thos

eth

ree

mai

nh

eadi

ngs

cove

ras

man

ypo

ssib

lefo

rms

ofgo

vern

men

tas

the

stat

eh

asci

tize

ns.

Th

ere

are

even

mor

e:a

gove

rnm

ent

can

be

subdiv

ided

alon

gce

rtai

nlin

esin

topar

tsth

atm

aybe

adm

inis

tere

din

diff

eren

tw

ays

from

one

anot

her

,so

the

com

bin

atio

nof

the

thre

efo

rms

may

resu

ltin

am

ult

itu

deof

mix

edfo

rms.

...

Ther

eh

ave

alw

ays

been

figh

tsab

out

wh

atth

ebe

stfo

rmof

gove

rnm

ent

is,

ign

orin

gth

efa

ctea

chfo

rmis

inso

me

case

sth

ebe

stan

din

oth

ers

the

wor

st.

Ifin

the

dif

fere

nt

stat

esth

en

um

ber

ofsu

pre

me

mag

is-

trat

esou

ghtt

obe

inin

vers

era

tio

toth

esi

zeof

the

popu

lati

on,

itfo

llow

sim

med

iate

lyth

atdem

ocra

tic

gove

rnm

ent

suit

ssm

all

stat

es,

aris

tocr

atic

gove

rnm

ent

thos

eof

mid

dle

size

,an

dm

onar

chy

grea

ton

es.

Bu

tth

ere

are

cou

ntl

ess

poss

ible

circ

um

stan

ces

that

wou

ldpr

ovid

eex

cept

ion

s.

33

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u34.

Dem

ocra

cy

4.

Dem

ocra

cy

Wh

oeve

r(a

)m

akes

ala

wkn

ows

bett

erth

anan

yon

eel

seh

owit

shou

ldbe

(b)in

terp

rete

dan

dap

plie

d.It

seem

sth

enth

atth

ebe

stpo

ssib

leco

nst

itu

tion

ison

ein

wh

ich

the

(b)e

xecu

tive

and

(a)

legi

slat

ive

pow

ers

are

un

ited

;bu

tth

isve

ryu

nio

nw

ould

mak

eth

ego

vern

men

tin

cert

ain

resp

ects

inad

equ

ate,

beca

use

itru

ns

toge

ther

thin

gsth

atsh

ould

bedi

stin

guis

hed

;an

dth

e(b

)pri

nce

and

the

(a)

sove

reig

n,

bei

ng

the

sam

epe

rson

,am

oun

tto

no

mor

eth

anan

un

gove

rned

gove

rnm

ent.

Itis

n’t

good

for

(a)

the

per

son

wh

om

akes

the

law

s(b

)to

exec

ute

them

,or

for

the

bod

yof

the

peo

ple

tom

ove

the

focu

sof

its

atte

nti

onaw

ayfr

om• g

ener

alco

nce

rns

tow

ards

• par

ticu

lar

obje

cts.

Not

hin

gis

mor

edan

gero

us

than

the

influ

ence

ofpri

vate

inte

rest

sin

pu

blic

affa

irs;

itle

ads

toth

eco

rru

ptio

nof

the

legi

slat

or,w

hic

his

anev

enw

orse

evil

than

the

abu

seof

the

law

sby

the

gove

rnm

ent;

itm

akes

asu

bsta

nti

alch

ange

inth

est

ate,

and

allr

efor

mat

ion

beco

mes

impo

ssib

le,

Ape

ople

that

wou

ldn

ever

mis

use

gove

rnm

enta

lpow

ers

wou

ldn

ever

mis

use

indep

enden

ce;

apeo

ple

that

wou

ldal

way

sgo

vern

wel

lwou

ldn

’tn

eed

tobe

gove

rned

.Th

ere

nev

erw

asan

dn

ever

will

be

are

aldem

ocra

cyin

the

stri

ctse

nse

ofth

ew

ord.

It’s

agai

nst

the

nat

ura

lor

der

for

the

man

yto

gove

rnan

dth

efe

wto

be

gove

rned

.It

isu

nim

agin

able

that

the

peo

ple

shou

ldbe

con

tin

ual

lyin

ses-

sion

deal

ing

wit

hpu

blic

affa

irs,

and

obvi

ousl

yth

eyco

uld

n’t

set

up

com

mis

sion

sfo

rth

atpu

rpos

ew

ith

out

chan

gin

gth

efo

rmof

the

adm

inis

trat

ion

.In

fact

,I

can

con

fiden

tly

lay

dow

nas

apri

nci

ple

that

wh

enth

ew

ork

ofgo

vern

men

tis

shar

edou

tam

ong

seve

ral

trib

un

als,

the

less

nu

mer

ous

·of

thes

e·w

illev

entu

ally

ac-

quir

eth

egr

eate

stau

thor

ity,

ifon

lybec

ause

it’s

an

atu

ral

con

sequ

ence

ofth

eir

abili

tyto

act

quic

kly.

Bes

ides

,su

cha

gove

rnm

ent

requ

ires

som

any

con

diti

ons

that

are

har

dto

sati

sfy

alla

ton

ce!

• Asm

alls

tate

,w

her

eth

epe

ople

can

asse

mbl

eea

sily

and

wh

ere

it’s

not

har

dfo

rea

chci

tize

nto

know

allt

he

rest

;•si

mpl

icit

yof

mœ

urs

[see

Glo

ssar

y],

topre

ven

tco

mple

xity

and

con

trov

ersy

inpu

blic

affa

irs;

• ah

igh

deg

ree

ofeq

ual

ity

inra

nk

and

fort

un

e,w

ith

out

wh

ich

equ

alit

yof

righ

tsan

dau

thor

ity

can

’tex

ist

for

lon

g;an

d• l

ittl

eor

no

luxu

ry—

for

luxu

ryei

ther

com

esfr

omri

ches

orm

akes

them

nec

essa

ry.

Itco

rru

pts

bot

hri

chan

dpoo

r,th

eri

chby

hav

ing

itan

dth

epo

orby

wan

tin

git

;it

sells

the

cou

ntr

yto

soft

nes

san

dva

nit

y;it

robs

the

stat

eof

all

its

citi

zen

sby

pu

ttin

gso

me

ofth

emin

toth

ese

rvic

eof

the

oth

ers

and

putt

ing

allo

fth

emin

toth

ese

rvic

eof

publ

icop

inio

n.

That

’sw

hy

afa

mou

sw

rite

r[M

onte

squ

ieu]h

asm

ade

virt

ue

the

driv

ing

forc

eof

are

publ

ics;

for

non

eof

thes

eco

ndi

tion

sco

uld

exis

tw

ith

out

virt

ue.

Bu

tth

atgr

eat

thin

ker

did

n’t

mak

eal

lth

en

eeded

dis

tin

ctio

ns,

and

that

led

him

ofte

nto

be

inex

act

and

som

etim

esto

be

obsc

ure

;h

edid

n’t

see

that

bec

ause

the

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity

isev

eryw

her

eth

esa

me,

the

sam

edri

vin

gfo

rce

shou

ldbe

atw

ork

inev

ery

wel

l-co

nst

itu

ted

stat

e—m

ore

orle

ss,

itis

tru

e,de

pen

din

gon

the

form

ofth

ego

vern

men

t.Th

ere

isn

o·o

ther

·go

vern

men

tso

subje

ctto

civi

lw

ars

and

inte

rnal

agit

atio

ns

asde

moc

rati

cor

popu

lar

gove

rnm

ent,

beca

use

ther

eis

non

eth

at• h

assu

cha

stro

ng

and

con

tin

ual

ten

den

cyto

chan

geto

anot

her

form

,or

• th

atn

eeds

mor

evi

gila

nce

and

cou

rage

for

its

mai

nte

nan

ceas

itis

.It

isin

adem

ocra

tic

syst

emab

ove

all

that

the

citi

zen

shou

ldar

mh

imse

lfw

ith

stre

ngt

han

dco

nst

ancy

,an

dsa

yev

ery

day

ofh

islif

ew

hat

avi

rtu

ous

Cou

nt

Pal

atin

esa

idin

the

Pol

ish

parl

iam

ent:

‘Ipr

efer

liber

tyw

ith

dan

ger

tope

ace

wit

hsl

aver

y’[R

ouss

eau

quot

esth

isin

Lati

n].

Apo

pula

tion

ofgo

dsco

uld

hav

ea

dem

ocra

tic

gove

rnm

ent.

Ago

vern

men

tas

perf

ect

asth

atis

not

for

men

.

34

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u35.

Ari

stoc

racy

5.

Ari

stoc

racy

We

hav

eh

ere

two

quit

edis

tin

ctm

oral

per

son

s,(b

)th

ego

v-er

nm

ent

and

(a)t

he

sove

reig

n.

So

ther

ear

etw

oge

ner

alw

ills,

(a)o

ne

gen

eral

inre

lati

onto

allt

he

citi

zen

s,(b

)th

eot

her

only

for

the

mem

bers

ofth

ead

min

istr

atio

n.

Thu

s,al

thou

ghth

ego

vern

men

tca

nre

gula

teit

sin

tern

alw

orki

ngs

asit

plea

ses,

itca

nsp

eak

toth

epe

ople

only

inth

en

ame

ofth

eso

vere

ign

,i.e

.of

the

peop

leit

self.

This

fact

shou

ldn

otbe

forg

otte

n.

Th

efirs

tso

ciet

ies

wer

ego

vern

edar

isto

crat

ical

ly.

Th

eh

eads

offa

mili

esco

nsu

lted

wit

hon

ean

oth

eron

pu

blic

affa

irs.

The

you

ng

had

no

prob

lem

givi

ng

way

toth

eau

thor

ity

ofex

per

ien

ce.

[Rou

ssea

upoi

nts

out

that

man

yla

bel

sfo

rpo

litic

alle

ader

sbe

gan

asw

ords

refe

rrin

gto

age

,for

exam

ple

‘sen

ator

’.Th

en:]

Th

esa

vage

sof

Nor

thA

mer

ica

gove

rnth

emse

lves

inth

isw

ayev

enn

ow,

and

thei

rgo

vern

men

tis

adm

irab

le.

Bu

tto

the

exte

nt

that

ineq

ual

itie

spro

du

ced

by

the

so-

cial

set-

up

cam

eto

pre

dom

inat

eov

ern

atura

lin

equ

alit

y,ri

ches

orpo

wer

wer

epu

tbe

fore

age,

and

aris

tocr

acy

beca

me

elec

tive

.Fin

ally

,w

hen

the

fath

er’s

pow

erw

asin

her

ited

byh

isof

fspr

ing,

alon

gw

ith

his

good

s,th

isga

veth

ew

hol

efa

mily

the

stat

us

of‘n

oble

s’,t

hu

sm

akin

ggo

vern

men

th

ered

itar

y—an

dth

ere

cam

eto

be20

-yea

r-ol

dse

nat

ors!

Ther

ear

eth

enth

ree

sort

sof

aris

tocr

acy—

nat

ura

l,el

ecti

vean

dh

ered

itar

y.Th

efir

stis

only

for

sim

ple

peop

les;

the

thir

dis

the

wor

stof

allg

over

nm

ents

;th

ese

con

dis

the

best

,an

dis

aris

tocr

acy

prop

erly

so-c

alle

d.·C

ompar

ing

aris

tocr

acy

wit

hdem

ocra

cyor

pop

ula

rgo

v-er

nm

ent·

:B

esid

esth

ead

van

tage

that

com

esfr

omkee

pin

gth

etw

opo

wer

sdi

stin

ctfr

omon

ean

oth

er,a

rist

ocra

cyh

asth

e

adva

nta

geth

atin

itth

ego

vern

men

t’sm

embe

rsar

ech

osen

.In

pop

ula

r·=

dem

ocra

tic·

gove

rnm

ent,

all

the

citi

zen

sar

ebo

rnm

agis

trat

es;

but

inar

isto

crac

yth

ero

leof

mag

istr

ate

isco

nfin

edto

afe

w,

wh

oar

eel

ecte

dto

that

posi

tion

.14

By

this

mea

ns

upr

igh

tnes

s,u

nde

rsta

ndi

ng,

expe

rien

cean

dal

loth

ercl

aim

sto

pre

-em

inen

cean

dpu

blic

este

embec

ome

furt

her

guar

ante

esof

wis

ego

vern

men

t.M

oreo

ver,

• ass

emblie

sar

em

ore

easi

lyh

eld,

• aff

airs

are

dis

cuss

edbet

ter

and

don

ew

ith

mor

eor

der

and

dili

gen

ce,

and

• th

est

ate’

scr

edib

ility

inth

eey

esof

oth

erst

ates

isbe

tter

mai

nta

ined

,by

ven

erab

lese

nat

ors

than

bya

mu

ltit

ude

that

isu

nkn

own

orde

spis

ed.

Inbr

ief,

the

best

and

mos

tn

atu

rala

rran

gem

ent

isfo

rth

ew

ises

tto

gove

rnth

em

ult

itu

de,

wh

enit

isas

sure

dth

atth

eyw

illgo

vern

for

its

profi

tan

dn

otfo

rth

eir

own

.D

on’t

use

less

lyad

dto

the

wh

eels

and

spri

ngs

ofth

ego

vern

men

tm

ech

anis

m,

gett

ing

thou

san

dsof

men

todo

wh

ata

hu

ndr

edpi

cked

men

can

do

bet

ter.

[Rou

ssea

u’s

nex

tse

nte

nce

isaw

kw

ard

and

un

clea

r.It

sgi

stis

that

wit

ha

smal

lish

gove

rnm

ent

ther

ew

illbe

ate

nde

ncy

for

its

inte

rest

sto

defle

ctit

sac

tivi

ties

,so

that

som

eof

the

exec

uti

vepo

wer

will

com

efr

omth

atso

urc

era

ther

than

from

the

wis

hes

ofth

eso

vere

ign

,i.e

.th

ew

illof

the

enti

repo

pula

tion

.]In

wh

atci

rcu

mst

ance

sis

aris

tocr

acy

the

bes

tfo

rmof

gove

rnm

ent?

Wel

l,th

est

ate

shou

ldn

’tbe

sosm

all,

orth

epe

ople

sosi

mpl

ean

du

prig

ht,

that

the

exec

uti

onof

the

law

sfo

llow

sim

med

iate

lyfr

omth

epu

blic

will

,as

itw

ould

ina

good

dem

ocra

cy.

Nor

shou

ldth

en

atio

nbe

sola

rge

that

its

rule

rs—

scat

tere

din

orde

rto

gove

rnit

—ar

eab

leto

play

the

sove

reig

nea

chin

his

own

depa

rtm

ent,

and

mak

eth

emse

lves

inde

pen

den

tas

ast

epto

war

dsbe

com

ing

mas

ters

.14

Itm

atte

rsgr

eatl

yto

hav

ela

ws

gove

rnin

gth

efo

rmof

the

elec

tion

ofm

agis

trat

es;

for

ifth

atis

left

atth

edi

scre

tion

ofth

epr

ince

the

gove

rnm

ent

will

slid

ein

tobe

ing

anh

ered

ita

ryar

isto

crac

y,as

hap

pen

edin

the

repu

blic

sof

Ven

ice

and

Ber

ne.

Thu

sVe

nic

eco

llaps

edas

ast

ate,

lon

gag

o;bu

tth

ere

publ

icof

Ber

ne

ism

ain

tain

edth

rou

ghit

sse

nat

e’s

grea

tw

isdo

m;

itis

anex

cept

ion

—on

eth

atis

very

hon

oura

ble

and

very

dan

gero

us!

35

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u36.

Mon

arch

y

Bu

tal

thou

ghar

isto

crac

ydo

esn

’tde

man

dal

lth

evi

rtu

esn

eede

dby

popu

lar

gove

rnm

ent,

itde

man

dsot

her

sth

atar

eal

lits

own

;fo

rin

stan

ce,m

oder

atio

non

the

part

ofth

eri

chan

dco

nte

ntm

ent

onth

epa

rtof

the

poor

.·N

ote

that

Iam

not

dem

andi

ng

the

abol

itio

nof

the

rich

/poo

rdi

vide

·,be

cau

seit

seem

sth

atth

orou

gh-g

oin

geq

ual

ity

wou

ldbe

out

ofpla

ce;

they

didn

’th

ave

itev

enat

Spa

rta.

Ifth

isfo

rmof

gove

rnm

ent

carr

ies

wit

hit

ace

rtai

nin

-eq

ual

ity

offo

rtu

ne,

that

isa

good

thin

gbec

ause

itle

tsth

ead

min

istr

atio

nof

pu

blic

affa

irs

be

entr

ust

edto

thos

ew

ho

are

mos

tab

leto

give

them

thei

rw

hol

eti

me,

bu

tn

otfo

rA

rist

otle

’rea

son

,n

amel

yth

atth

eri

chsh

ould

alw

ays

bepu

tfirs

t.O

nth

eco

ntr

ary,

itm

atte

rsth

atan

oppos

ite

choi

cesh

ould

occa

sion

ally

teac

hth

epe

ople

that

men

’sm

erit

sar

ea

wei

ghti

erre

ason

for

pref

eren

ceth

anth

eir

wea

lth

.

6.

Mon

arch

y

So

far,

we

hav

eco

nsi

der

edth

epri

nce

asa

mor

alan

dco

l-le

ctiv

epe

rson

,u

nifi

edby

the

forc

eof

the

law

s,an

dch

arge

dby

the

stat

ew

ith

hol

din

gan

dex

erci

sin

gth

eex

ecu

tive

pow

er.

Let

us

now

con

side

rth

ispo

wer

wh

enit

isga

ther

edin

toth

eh

ands

ofon

en

atura

lpe

rson

,on

ere

alm

an,w

ho

alon

eh

asth

eri

ght

toex

erci

seit

inac

cord

ance

wit

hth

ela

ws.

Su

cha

pers

onis

calle

da

‘mon

arch

’or

‘kin

g’.

Wh

erea

sin

som

efo

rms

ofad

min

istr

atio

na

colle

ctiv

ebei

ng

repre

sen

tsan

indiv

idu

al,

inth

ison

ean

indiv

idu

alre

pre

sen

tsa

colle

ctiv

ebei

ng;

soth

atth

em

oral

un

ity

that

con

stit

ute

sth

epri

nce

isat

the

sam

eti

me

aph

ysic

alu

nit

y,an

dal

lth

equ

alit

ies

that

inth

eot

her

case

are

labor

iou

sly

brou

ght

toge

ther

• by

the

law

are

her

e• n

atu

rally

un

ited

.Th

us

one

sin

gle

mot

ive

pow

erge

ner

ates

• th

ew

illof

the

peop

le,

• th

ew

illof

the

prin

ce,

• th

epu

blic

forc

eof

the

stat

e,an

d• t

he

part

icu

lar

forc

eof

the

gove

rnm

ent.

All

the

spri

ngs

ofth

em

ach

ine

are

inth

esa

me

han

ds,

the

wh

ole

mov

esto

war

dsth

esa

me

end;

ther

ear

en

oco

nfli

ctin

gm

ovem

ents

that

cou

ldca

nce

lon

ean

oth

erou

t,an

da

smal

lin

pu

tof

effo

rtpro

du

ces

ala

rge

outp

ut

ofac

tion

—in

dee

dw

eca

n’t

ima

gin

ea

kin

dof

con

stit

uti

onw

ith

abet

ter

inpu

t-ou

tpu

tra

tio.

Arc

him

edes

,se

ated

quie

tly

onth

eban

kan

dea

sily

pu

llin

ga

grea

tve

ssel

thro

ugh

the

wat

er·w

ith

alo

ng

leve

r·,re

pre

sen

tsfo

rm

ea

skilf

ulm

onar

ch,go

vern

ing

vast

stat

esfr

omh

isst

udy,

mov

ing

ever

yth

ing

wh

ilese

emin

g,h

imse

lf,n

otto

mov

e.N

ogo

vern

men

tis

mor

evi

goro

us

than

this

,an

dal

soth

ere’

sn

ogo

vern

men

tin

wh

ich

the

par

ticu

lar

will

hol

ds

mor

esw

ayan

dm

ore

easi

lyru

les

the

oth

erw

ills.

Itis

inde

edtr

ue

that

‘the

wh

ole

mov

esto

war

ds

asi

ngl

een

d’,

bu

tth

een

din

ques

tion

isn

otpu

blic

hap

pin

ess,

and

allt

he

ener

gyof

this

adm

inis

trat

ion

isco

nst

antl

ybe

ing

use

dto

har

mth

est

ate. Kin

gsw

ant

tobe

abso

lute

,an

dth

edis

tan

tcr

yco

mes

toth

em‘T

he

bes

tw

ayto

do

that

isto

be

love

dby

you

rpeo

ple

’.Th

isis

afin

em

axim

,an

dth

ere’

sev

enso

me

tru

thin

it;bu

tu

nfo

rtu

nat

ely

the

cou

rtw

illal

way

sm

ake

fun

ofit

.Th

epow

erth

atco

mes

from

apeo

ple

’slo

veis

no

dou

bt

the

grea

test

;bu

tit

ispre

cari

ous

and

con

dit

ion

al[=

‘vu

lner

able

toch

ange

sin

circ

um

stan

ces’

],an

dpri

nce

sw

illn

ever

rest

con

ten

tw

ith

it.

Th

ebes

tkin

gsw

ant

tobe

sopla

ced

that

they

can

be

wic

ked

ifth

eyw

ant

to,

wit

hou

tlo

sin

gth

eir

mas

tery

.A

polit

ical

serm

onis

erm

ayte

llth

emth

at,b

ecau

seth

epe

ople

’sst

ren

gth

isth

eir

own

,th

eir

chie

fin

tere

stis

that

the

peo

ple

shou

ldbe

• pro

sper

ous,

• nu

mer

ous

and

• for

mid

able

;bu

tth

ere’

sn

opo

int

inte

llin

gth

emth

isbe

cau

seth

eykn

owve

ryw

ell

that

it’s

not

tru

e!Th

eir

firs

tper

son

alin

tere

stis

that

the

peop

lesh

ould

be• w

eak,

• wre

tch

ed,a

nd

• un

able

tore

sist

36

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u36.

Mon

arch

y

them

.I

adm

itth

atth

epr

ince

’sin

tere

stw

ould

inde

edbe

that

his

peo

ple

shou

ldbe

pow

erfu

l,so

that

its

pow

er,

bei

ng

his

own

,w

ould

mak

eh

imfo

rmid

able

toh

isn

eigh

bou

rs—

that

wou

ldbe

inh

isin

tere

sts

pro

vided

he

cou

ldst

illkee

ph

issu

bje

cts

insu

bm

issi

on.

Bu

tst

ren

gth

isin

com

pat

ible

wit

hsu

bmis

sion

,so

apr

ince

has

toch

oose

;an

dh

en

atu

rally

give

sth

epr

efer

ence

toth

epr

inci

ple

that

ism

ore

toh

isim

med

iate

adva

nta

ge.

Th

atis

wh

atS

amu

elpu

tst

ron

gly

bef

ore

the

Heb

rew

s[1

Sa

mu

el8:

10–1

8],an

dw

hat

Mac

hia

velli

has

clea

rly

show

n.

Wh

ilepr

eten

din

gto

teac

hki

ngs

,h

ew

asre

ally

givi

ng

exte

nsi

vele

sson

sto

the

peop

le.

His

The

Prin

ceis

the

book

ofR

epu

blic

ans.

15

We

hav

efo

un

d,fr

omge

ner

alre

ason

sco

nce

rnin

gre

lati

ons

betw

een

diff

eren

tst

ates

,th

atm

onar

chy

issu

itab

leon

lyfo

rgr

eat

stat

es,

and

this

will

be

con

firm

edw

hen

we

exam

ine

mon

arch

yin

itse

lf.Th

em

ore

peop

leth

ere

are

inth

epu

blic

adm

inis

trat

ion

,th

en

eare

rth

epr

ince

-to-

subj

ects

rati

oco

mes

toeq

ual

ity,

soth

atin

dem

ocra

cy—

·wh

ere

ever

ym

ember

ofth

epop

ula

ceh

asa

role

inth

ego

vern

men

t·—

the

rati

ois

1:1

,or

abso

lute

equ

alit

y.A

nd

wh

enth

ego

vern

men

tis

prog

ress

ivel

yre

stri

cted

inn

um

bers

the

rati

obe

com

esst

eepe

ran

dre

ach

esit

sm

axim

um

wh

enth

ego

vern

men

tis

inth

eh

ands

ofa

sin

gle

pers

on,·s

oth

atth

era

tio

is1:

nw

her

en

=th

esi

zeof

the

pop

ula

tion

·.In

that

case

,th

eref

ore,

ther

e’s

too

mu

chdi

stan

cebe

twee

npr

ince

and

peop

le,

and

the

stat

eis

n’t

pro

per

lyh

eld

toge

ther

.To

bin

dit

ther

ew

ould

hav

eto

bein

term

edia

teor

ders

—du

kes,

gran

dees

,n

oble

s—to

fillt

he

spac

ebet

wee

nth

epri

nce

and

the

peo

ple

.B

ut

non

eof

that

suit

sa

smal

lsta

te,

tow

hic

hal

lcla

ssdi

ffer

ence

sm

ean

ruin

.

[Inth

atpa

ssag

e,‘d

uke

s’m

istr

ansl

ates

Rou

ssea

u’s

prin

ces.

Inu

sin

gth

atw

ord

ther

e,h

ew

asu

nw

isel

ysl

idin

gfr

omh

isu

sual

use

ofpr

ince

tost

and

for

wh

atev

erpe

rson

orgr

oup

gove

rns

the

stat

eto

its

mor

eor

din

ary

sen

sein

wh

ich

itis

the

labe

lnot

for

afu

nct

ion

but

for

ara

nk.

]

Bu

tif

itis

har

dfo

ra

big

stat

eto

be

wel

lgo

vern

ed,

it’s

mu

chh

arde

rst

illfo

rit

tobe

wel

lgov

ern

edby

one

man

;an

dev

eryo

ne

know

sw

hat

hap

pen

sw

hen

kin

gssu

bsti

tute

oth

ers

for

them

selv

es!

Mon

arch

ical

gove

rnm

ent

has

anes

sen

tial

and

inev

itab

lede

fect

that

will

alw

ays

put

itbe

low

repu

blic

ango

vern

men

t,n

amel

y: Wh

erea

sin

are

publ

icth

epu

blic

voic

eh

ardly

ever

rais

esto

the

hig

hes

tpo

siti

ons

men

wh

oar

en’t

enlig

ht-

ened

and

capab

le,

men

wh

ow

illfill

thos

epos

itio

ns

hon

oura

bly

,in

mon

arch

ies

thos

ew

ho

rise

toth

eto

par

em

ost

ofte

nm

erel

ylit

tle

mu

ddle

-hea

ds,

littl

ecr

ooks

,lit

tle

intr

igu

ers,

wh

ose

littl

eta

len

ts• g

etth

emin

toth

eh

igh

est

posi

tion

sat

cou

rtan

dth

en,o

nce

they

are

ther

e,• r

evea

lto

the

publ

ich

owin

com

pete

nt

they

are.

Th

epop

ula

ceis

far

less

ofte

nm

ista

ken

inth

isch

oice

than

the

pri

nce

is;

and

am

anof

real

wor

tham

ong

the

·kin

g’s·

min

iste

rsis

alm

ost

asra

reas

afo

olat

the

hea

dof

are

pu

blic

ango

vern

men

t!Th

us,

wh

en,

bygo

odlu

ckon

eof

thes

ebo

rngo

vern

ors

take

sth

eh

elm

ofth

est

ate

inso

me

mon

arch

yth

ath

asbe

enn

earl

yru

ined

byth

ose

swar

ms

ofel

egan

tan

dso

cial

lypre

sen

table

adm

inis

trat

ors,

ther

eis

amaz

emen

tat

the

reso

urc

esh

edi

scov

ers,

and

this

mar

ksan

era

inh

isco

un

try’

sh

isto

ry.

15M

ach

iave

lliw

asan

hon

est

man

and

ago

odci

tize

n;

but,

bein

gat

tach

edto

the

cou

rtof

the

Med

ici,

he

had

tove

ilh

islo

veof

liber

tyin

the

mid

stof

his

cou

ntr

y’s

oppr

essi

on.

The

choi

ceof

his

dete

stab

leh

ero,

·Ces

are

Bor

gia·

,cl

earl

yen

ough

show

sh

ish

idde

nai

m;

and

the

con

trad

icti

onbe

twee

nth

ete

ach

ing

ofTh

ePr

ince

and

that

ofth

eD

isco

urs

eson

Livy

and

the

His

tory

ofF

lore

nce

show

sth

atth

ispr

ofou

nd

polit

ical

thin

ker

has

sofa

rbe

enst

udi

edon

lyby

supe

rfici

alor

corr

upt

read

ers.

The

cou

rtof

Rom

est

ern

lypr

ohib

ited

his

book

—of

cou

rse

itdi

d!be

cau

seth

at’s

the

cou

rtth

atth

ebo

okm

ost

clea

rly

port

rays

.

37

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u36.

Mon

arch

y

[Not

ice

that

the

defe

ctof

mon

arch

yth

atR

ouss

eau

first

calle

d’e

ssen

tial

and

inev

itab

le’

has

turn

edou

tto

bea

defe

ctof

wh

ich

mon

arch

ies

are

‘har

dly

ever

’fre

e.]

For

am

onar

chic

alst

ate

toh

ave

ach

ance

ofbei

ng

wel

lgo

vern

ed,

its

pop

ula

tion

and

geog

raph

ical

size

mu

stbe

suit

able

for

the

abili

ties

ofit

sgo

vern

or.

Itis

easi

erto

• con

quer

than

to• r

ule

.W

ith

alo

ng

enou

ghle

ver,

the

wor

ldco

uld

be• m

oved

wit

ha

sin

gle

finge

r;• h

oldi

ng

itu

pn

eeds

the

shou

lder

sof

Her

cule

s.H

owev

ersm

alla

stat

eis

,th

epr

ince

isn

earl

yal

way

sto

osm

allf

orit

.A

nd

wh

enon

the

oth

erh

and

ast

ate

isto

osm

all

for

its

rule

r(t

his

does

n’t

hap

pen

ofte

n!),

itis

still

badl

ygo

vern

ed.

That

’sbe

cau

seth

eru

ler,

con

stan

tly

purs

uin

gh

isgr

eat

plan

s,fo

rget

sh

ispe

ople

’sin

tere

sts

and

mak

esth

emas

wre

tch

edby

• mis

usi

ng

the

tale

nts

he

has

asa

mor

elim

ited

rule

rw

ould

mak

eth

embec

ause

of• t

he

lack

ofth

eta

len

tsh

edi

dn’t

hav

e.A

kin

gdom

shou

ldex

pan

dor

con

trac

t,so

tosp

eak,

wit

hea

chre

ign

,ac

cord

ing

toth

eh

owab

leea

chpri

nce

is;

wh

erea

s·in

are

pu

blic

ansy

stem

·th

eab

iliti

esof

ase

nat

ear

em

ore

con

stan

t,so

that

the

stat

eca

nh

ave

per

man

ent

fron

tier

sw

ith

out

the

adm

inis

trat

ion

suff

erin

g.Th

edis

adva

nta

geth

atis

mos

tfe

ltin

mon

arch

ical

gov-

ern

men

tis

the

lack

ofan

ysu

chco

nti

nu

ous

succ

essi

onas

bot

hth

eot

her

form

s·o

fgo

vern

men

t,dem

ocra

cyan

dar

isto

crac

y·h

ave

topro

vide

anu

nbro

ken

bon

dof

un

ion

.A

kin

gdie

s,an

oth

eris

nee

ded

;el

ecti

ons

leav

edan

gero

us

gaps

and

are

full

ofst

orm

s;an

du

nle

ssth

eci

tize

ns

are

disi

nte

rest

ed[=

not

self

-in

tere

sted

’]an

du

prig

ht

toa

degr

eeth

atve

ryse

ldom

goes

wit

hth

iski

nd

ofgo

vern

men

t,in

trig

ue

and

corr

upti

onab

oun

d.

Som

eon

eto

wh

omth

est

ate

has

sold

itse

lfca

nh

ardl

yh

elp

selli

ng

itin

his

turn

and

gett

ing

back

,at

the

expen

seof

the

wea

k,

the

mon

eyth

epow

erfu

lh

ave

exto

rted

from

him

·as

thei

rpr

ice

for

the

thro

ne·

.U

nde

rsu

chan

adm

inis

trat

ion

,gr

eed

for

mon

eysp

read

sth

rou

ghev

ery

part

·ofth

eki

ngd

om·,

and

peac

een

joye

din

this

way

un

der

akin

gis

wor

seth

anth

edis

order

sof

anin

terr

egn

um

[i.e.

ape

riod

betw

een

two

kin

gs].

Wh

ath

asbee

ndon

eto

pre

ven

tth

ese

evils

?C

row

ns

hav

ebe

enm

ade

her

edit

ary

ince

rtai

nfa

mili

es,

and

anor

der

ofsu

cces

sion

has

bee

nse

tu

p,

topre

ven

tdis

pu

tes

from

aris

ing

wh

enki

ngs

die.

That

isto

say,

the

disa

dvan

tage

sof

rege

ncy

[=‘h

avin

ga

stan

d-in

for

the

kin

g’]h

ave

been

put

inpl

ace

ofth

edi

sadv

anta

ges

ofch

oice

;app

aren

ttr

anqu

ility

has

been

pref

erre

dto

wis

ego

vern

men

t;an

dm

enh

ave

pref

erre

d• t

he

risk

ofh

avin

gch

ildre

n,

mon

stro

siti

es,

orim

beci

les

asru

lers

to• h

avin

gdis

pu

tes

over

the

choi

ceof

good

kin

gs.

Ith

asn

’tbe

enta

ken

into

acco

un

tth

atin

thu

sex

posi

ng

ours

elve

sto

that

risk

we

are

load

ing

the

dic

eag

ain

stou

rsel

ves.

Th

ere

was

sou

nd

sen

sein

wh

atth

eyo

un

ger

Dio

nys

ius

said

toh

isfa

ther

,w

ho

repro

ach

edh

imfo

rdoi

ng

som

esh

amef

uldee

dby

askin

g,‘D

idI

set

you

the

exam

ple

?’‘A

h,’

answ

ered

his

son

,‘y

our

fath

erw

asn

’ta

kin

g.’[

He

mea

nt:

‘You

rm

oral

edu

cati

onh

adan

adva

nta

geth

atm

ine

didn

’t.’

See

the

pen

ult

imat

epa

ragr

aph

ofth

isch

apte

r.]

Wh

ena

man

isse

tin

auth

orit

yov

erot

her

s,ev

eryt

hin

gco

nsp

ires

toro

bh

imof

his

sen

seof

just

ice

and

reas

on.

Mu

chtr

ouble

,w

e’re

told

,is

taken

tote

ach

you

ng

pri

nce

sth

ear

tof

• rei

gnin

g;bu

tit

doe

sn’t

seem

todo

them

mu

chgo

od.

Itw

ould

bebe

tter

tobe

gin

byte

ach

ing

them

the

art

of• o

beyi

ng.

Th

egr

eate

stkin

gsce

lebra

ted

inh

isto

ryw

ere

not

bro

ugh

tu

pto

reig

n:

reig

nin

gis

asc

ien

ceth

ata

man

isn

ever

sofa

rfr

omh

avin

gat

his

com

man

das

wh

enh

eh

asle

arn

edto

om

uch

ofit

—a

scie

nce

that

he

wou

ldac

quir

ebet

ter

by

obey

ing

than

byco

mm

andi

ng.

‘Th

ebe

stan

dsh

orte

stw

ayto

find

out

wh

atis

good

and

wh

atis

bad

isto

con

side

rw

hat

you

wou

ldh

ave

wan

ted

toh

appen

orn

otto

hap

pen

ifso

meo

ne

else

had

bee

nE

mper

or’(

Tac

itu

s,H

isto

ries

,i.

16)

[Rou

ssea

uqu

otes

this

inLa

tin].

38

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u37.

Mix

edgo

vern

men

ts

On

ere

sult

ofth

isla

ckof

coh

esio

nis

the

inco

nst

ancy

ofro

yal

gove

rnm

ent;

regu

late

dn

owon

this

sch

eme

and

now

onth

at,ac

cord

ing

toth

ech

arac

ter

ofth

ere

ign

ing

prin

ceor

thos

ew

ho

reig

nfo

rh

im,

such

ago

vern

men

tca

n’t

for

lon

gh

ave

afix

edob

ject

ive

ora

con

sist

ent

polic

y;it

will

alw

ays

besh

iftin

gfr

omsl

ogan

tosl

ogan

and

from

proj

ect

topr

ojec

t—a

vari

abili

tyth

atis

n’t

fou

nd

inth

eot

her

form

sof

gove

rnm

ent,

wh

ere

the

prin

ce[s

eeG

loss

ary]

isal

way

sth

esa

me.

So

we

find

that

inge

ner

alif

a·m

onar

chic

al·

cou

rth

asm

ore

plo

ttin

g,a

sen

ate

has

mor

ew

isdo

m,an

dre

publ

ics

adva

nce

tow

ards

thei

ren

dsby

mor

eco

nsi

sten

tan

dbe

tter

con

side

red

polic

ies;

wh

erea

sev

ery

chan

geof

min

iste

ru

nde

ra

mon

arch

crea

tes

are

volu

tion

inth

est

ate,

beca

use

the

prin

cipl

eth

atis

adop

ted

by

all

min

iste

rsan

dn

earl

yal

lkin

gsis

todo

inev

eryt

hin

gth

ere

vers

eof

wh

atth

eir

pred

eces

sors

did.

....

Roy

alis

tpol

itic

alw

riti

ng

liken

sci

vil

gove

rnm

ent

todom

esti

cgo

vern

men

t,an

dth

epri

nce

toth

efa

ther

ofa

fam

ily—

this

erro

rh

asal

read

ybe

enre

fute

d—an

dal

sola

vish

lycr

edit

sth

epri

nce

wit

hh

avin

gal

lth

evi

rtu

esth

atit

wou

ldbe

use

ful

toh

imto

hav

e,an

dst

eadily

suppos

esh

imto

be

wh

ath

eou

ght

tobe.

Wit

hth

eh

elp

ofth

issu

ppos

itio

n,

itis

easy

tom

ake

out

that

roya

lgo

vern

men

tis

pre

fera

ble

toal

loth

ers,

beca

use

itis

un

ques

tion

ably

the

• str

onge

st;an

din

addit

ion

toth

at,

allit

nee

ds

tobe

the

• bes

t—·n

eeds

bu

tdo

esn

’th

ave·

—is

aco

rpor

ate

will

that

ism

ore

inco

nfo

rmit

yw

ith

the

gen

eral

will

.B

ut

ifPl

ato

isri

ght

wh

enh

esa

ysin

The

Sta

tesm

an

that

a‘k

ing

byn

atu

re’i

sa

rari

ty,h

owof

ten

will

nat

ure

and

fort

un

ew

ork

toge

ther

togi

veh

ima

crow

n?

An

d,if

roya

ledu

cati

onin

evit

ably

corr

upts

thos

ew

ho

rece

ive

it,w

hat

can

we

hop

eto

get

from

ase

ries

ofm

enbro

ugh

tu

pto

reig

n?

Som

eon

ew

ho

con

fuse

s• r

oyal

gove

rnm

ent

wit

h• g

over

nm

ent

bya

good

kin

gis

will

fully

dece

ivin

gh

imse

lf.To

see

roya

lgov

ern

men

tas

itis

init

self,

we

mu

stlo

okat

itu

nder

pri

nce

sw

ho

are

inco

mpe

ten

tor

wic

ked;

for

eith

erth

eyw

illbe

like

that

wh

enth

eyco

me

toth

eth

ron

eor

the

thro

ne

will

mak

eth

emso

.O

ur

wri

ters

know

allt

his

,bu

tar

en’t

trou

bled

byit

.Th

ere

med

y,th

eysa

y,is

toob

eyw

ith

out

am

urm

ur:

God

angr

ilyse

nds

bad

kin

gs,

wh

om

ust

be

endu

red

asth

esc

ourg

esof

hea

ven

.Im

pro

vin

gta

lk,

no

dou

bt;

bu

tw

ould

n’t

itbe

mor

ein

plac

ein

apu

lpit

than

ina

book

onpo

litic

s?W

hat

are

we

tosa

yab

out

aph

ysic

ian

wh

opr

omis

esm

irac

les,

and

wh

ose

wh

ole

trea

tmen

tis

tou

rge

the

suff

erer

tobe

pati

ent?

Wh

enth

ere’

sbad

gove

rnm

ent

we

mu

stpu

tu

pw

ith

it—

we

know

that

alre

ady!

The

ques

tion

ish

owto

find

ago

odon

e.

7.

Mix

edgo

vern

men

ts

Str

ictl

ysp

eakin

g,th

ere’

sn

osu

chth

ing

asa

sim

ple

·or

un

-m

ixed

·gov

ern

men

t.A

nis

olat

edru

ler

mu

sth

ave

subo

rdin

ate

mag

istr

ates

;a

pop

ula

rgo

vern

men

tm

ust

hav

ea

hea

d.

Inth

edis

trib

uti

onof

the

exec

uti

vepow

er,

ther

efor

e,th

ere

isal

way

sa

grad

atio

nfr

omla

rger

tosm

alle

rn

um

bers

,wit

hth

isva

riat

ion

:so

met

imes

the

grea

ter

nu

mber

dep

ends

onth

esm

alle

r,an

dso

met

imes

it’s

the

oth

erw

ayar

oun

d.S

omet

imes

the

dis

trib

uti

onis

equ

al:

• th

eco

nst

itu

ent

par

tsar

ein

mu

tual

dep

enden

ce,

asin

the

gove

rnm

ent

ofE

ngl

and,

or• t

he

auth

orit

yof

each

par

tof

the

gove

rnm

ent

isin

depe

nde

nt,

but

inco

mpl

ete—

·par

tx

has

som

eau

thor

ity,

part

yh

asso

me,

and

nei

ther

com

esu

nde

rth

eot

her

·.Th

isla

stfo

rmis

bad

beca

use

ther

e’s

no

un

ity

inth

ego

vern

men

t,an

dth

est

ate

has

not

hin

gto

hol

dit

toge

ther

.W

hic

his

bet

ter,

asi

mple

gove

rnm

ent

ora

mix

edon

e?Pol

itic

alw

rite

rsar

eal

way

sdeb

atin

gth

isqu

esti

on,

wh

ich

shou

ldbe

answ

ered

inth

esa

me

way

that

Iea

rlie

ran

swer

ed·t

he

corr

espo

ndi

ng

ques

tion

·abo

ut

allf

orm

sof

gove

rnm

ent.

Sim

ple

gove

rnm

ent

isbet

ter

init

self,

just

bec

ause

itis

sim

ple

.B

ut

wh

enth

eex

ecu

tive

pow

eris

n’t

suffi

cien

tly

39

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u38.

No

one

form

ofgo

vern

men

t...

dep

enden

tu

pon

the

legi

slat

ive

pow

er,

i.e.

wh

enth

epri

nce

push

esh

arde

ron

the

sove

reig

nth

anth

epe

ople

push

onth

epr

ince

,th

isim

bala

nce

shou

ldbe

cure

dby

divi

din

gth

ego

v-er

nm

ent;

for

allt

he

part

sst

illh

ave

asm

uch

auth

orit

yov

erth

esu

bje

cts,

wh

ileth

eir

div

isio

nm

akes

them

all

toge

ther

less

stro

ng

agai

nst

the

sove

reig

n.

That

sam

edi

sadv

anta

geis

also

prev

ente

dby

the

appo

int-

men

tof

inte

rmed

iate

mag

istr

ates

;th

atle

aves

the

gove

rn-

men

tu

ndi

vide

d,an

dm

erel

yba

lan

ces

the

two

pow

ers—

·i.e.

the

gove

rnm

ent

and

the

sove

reig

n·—

and

mai

nta

ins

thei

rre

spec

tive

righ

ts.

This

ism

oder

ated

gove

rnm

ent,

not

mix

edgo

vern

men

t.Th

ere’

sa

sim

ilar

cure

for

the

oppo

site

disa

dvan

tage

:w

hen

the

gove

rnm

ent

isto

osl

ack,

set

up

trib

un

als

tom

ake

itpu

llit

self

toge

ther

.Th

at’s

wh

atal

lth

edem

ocra

cies

do.

Inth

efirs

tsi

tuat

ion

the

gove

rnm

ent

isdiv

ided

tom

ake

itw

eak;

inth

ese

con

dit

isdi

vide

dto

mak

eit

stro

ng;

for

the

max

ima

ofbo

thst

ren

gth

and

wea

knes

sar

efo

un

din

sim

ple

gove

rnm

ents

,w

hile

the

mix

edfo

rms

pro

vide

inte

rmed

iate

amou

nts

ofst

ren

gth

.

8.

No

one

form

ofgo

vern

men

tsu

its

allco

untr

ies

Libe

rty

isn

’ta

fru

itof

ever

ycl

ima

te,s

oit

isn

’tw

ith

inth

ere

ach

ofev

ery

peop

le.

The

mor

eyo

uth

ink

abou

tth

ispr

inci

ple

that

Mon

tesq

uie

ula

iddo

wn

,th

em

ore

you

feel

its

tru

th;

and

the

mor

eyo

ufig

ht

it,th

em

ore

evid

ence

you

find

init

sfa

vou

r.In

allt

he

gove

rnm

ents

inth

ew

orld

the

publ

icpe

rson

con

-su

mes

wit

hou

tpr

odu

cin

g.Th

enw

her

edo

esit

get

the

stu

ffit

con

sum

es?

Fro

mth

ela

bou

rof

its

mem

bers

.Th

epu

blic

’sn

eces

siti

esar

esu

pplie

dou

tof

the

indi

vidu

als’

surp

luse

s.It

follo

ws

that

the

civi

lsta

teca

nsu

rviv

eon

lyso

lon

gas

men

’sla

bou

rbr

ings

them

are

turn

grea

ter

than

thei

rn

eeds

.

The

amou

nt

ofth

isex

cess

isn

’tth

esa

me

inal

lcou

ntr

ies.

Inso

me

itis

con

sider

able

,in

oth

ers

mid

dlin

g,in

yet

oth

-er

sn

il,in

som

eev

enn

egat

ive.

Th

is·e

arn

ed:n

eeded

·ra

tio

dep

ends

onth

efe

rtili

tyof

the

clim

ate,

onth

ekin

dof

wor

kth

ela

nd

dem

ands,

onth

en

atu

reof

its

pro

du

cts,

onth

est

ren

gth

ofit

sin

hab

itan

ts,on

how

mu

chor

littl

eth

eyn

eed

toco

nsu

me,

and

onot

her

fact

ors

that

also

con

trib

ute

toth

eov

er-a

llra

tio.

On

the

oth

ersi

de

·of

the

rati

o·,

gove

rnm

ents

aren

’tal

lof

the

sam

en

atu

re:

som

ear

ele

ssvo

raci

ous

than

oth

ers,

and

the

diff

eren

ces

betw

een

them

are

base

don

this

seco

nd

prin

cipl

e,th

atth

efu

rth

erth

epu

blic

con

trib

uti

ons

are

from

thei

rso

urc

e,th

em

ore

bu

rden

som

eth

eyar

e.Th

atbu

rden

shou

ldn

’tbe

mea

sure

dby

the

amou

nt

ofm

oney

invo

lved

,bu

tby

the

dis

tan

ceit

has

totr

avel

inor

der

toge

tbac

kto

thos

ew

ho

pai

dit

.W

hen

the

circ

ula

tion

isfa

stan

dse

cure

,it

doe

sn’t

mat

ter

wh

eth

erth

eam

oun

tis

smal

lor

larg

e;th

epop

ula

ceis

alw

ays

rich

and

fin

ance

sar

eal

way

sin

good

shap

e.In

the

oppos

ite

situ

atio

n,

how

ever

littl

eth

epeo

ple

give

s,if

that

littl

edo

esn

’tge

tba

ckto

itth

enit

isco

nst

antl

ygi

vin

g,an

dbe

fore

lon

git

isex

hau

sted

;an

din

that

case

the

stat

eis

nev

erri

chan

dth

epo

pula

ceis

alw

ays

abe

ggar

.It

follo

ws

that

the

grea

ter

the

dis

tan

cebet

wee

npeo

ple

and

gove

rnm

ent

the

mor

ebu

rden

som

eth

eta

xes

are:

the

peo

ple

carr

yth

elig

hte

stbu

rden

ina

dem

ocra

cy,

ah

eavi

eron

ein

anar

isto

crac

y,an

dth

eh

eavi

est

ina

mon

arch

y.Th

us,

mon

arch

ysu

its

only

wea

lth

yn

atio

ns,

aris

tocr

acy

suit

son

esof

mid

dlin

gsi

zean

dw

ealt

h,a

nd

dem

ocra

cysu

its

stat

esth

atar

esm

alla

nd

poor

.In

fact

,th

em

ore

you

thin

kab

out

this

the

mor

eyo

u’ll

see

itas

adi

ffer

ence

betw

een

free

stat

esan

dm

onar

chie

s.In

free

stat

esev

eryt

hin

gis

use

dfo

rth

epu

blic

adva

nta

ge;

inth

eot

her

s,th

ere’

san

inte

rpla

ybet

wee

nth

epu

blic

forc

esan

dth

ose

ofin

divi

dual

s,an

das

eith

erof

them

wea

ken

sth

eot

her

40

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u38.

No

one

form

ofgo

vern

men

t...

grow

sst

ron

g.In

an

uts

hel

l:in

stea

dof

gove

rnin

gsu

bjec

tsto

mak

eth

emh

appy

,des

poti

smm

akes

them

wre

tch

edin

orde

rto

gove

rnth

em.

Th

us,

inev

ery

clim

ate

ther

ear

en

atu

ral

cau

ses

that

det

erm

ine

wh

ich

form

ofgo

vern

men

tw

ould

be

bes

tfo

rit

;an

dw

eca

nev

ensa

yw

hat

sort

ofin

hab

itan

tsw

ould

bebe

stfo

rit

.H

arsh

and

barr

enla

nds

wh

ere

the

prod

uct

isn

’tw

orth

the

labo

ur

shou

ldre

mai

nde

sert

and

un

cult

ivat

ed,or

occu

pied

only

bysa

vage

s;la

nds

wh

ere

men

’sla

bou

rbr

ings

inpr

ecis

ely

the

bare

min

imu

mn

eede

dfo

rsu

rviv

alsh

ould

bein

hab

ited

byba

rbar

ous

peop

les:

no

polit

ical

stru

ctu

reis

poss

ible

insu

chpla

ces;

lan

ds

wh

ere

ther

e’s

am

iddlin

gsu

rplu

sof

pro

du

ctov

erla

bou

rar

esu

itab

lefo

rfr

eepeo

ple

s;on

esw

her

eth

eso

ilis

abu

ndan

tan

dfe

rtile

and

yiel

ds

ala

rge

pro

du

ctfo

ra

littl

ela

bou

rca

llfo

rm

onar

chic

algo

vern

men

t,so

that

the

exce

ssiv

esu

rplu

ses

amon

gth

esu

bjec

tsm

aybe

con

sum

edby

the

luxu

ryof

the

pri

nce

:fo

rit

’sbet

ter

for

this

exce

ssto

be

abso

rbed

by

the

gove

rnm

ent

than

scat

tere

dam

ong

the

indi

vidu

als.

Yes,

Ikn

owth

atth

ere

are

exce

ptio

ns;

but

thes

eex

cepti

ons

them

selv

esco

nfirm

the

rule

,bec

ause

soon

eror

late

rth

eypro

du

cere

volu

tion

sth

atre

stor

eth

ings

toth

en

atu

ralo

rder

.Le

tu

sn

ever

con

fuse

gen

eral

law

sw

ith

part

icu

lar

cau

ses

that

mig

ht

mod

ify

the

effe

cts

ofa

law

.If

all

the

sou

thw

ere

cove

red

wit

hre

publ

ics

and

allt

he

nor

thw

ith

desp

otic

stat

es,

itw

ould

still

be

tru

eth

at..

..des

pot

ism

issu

itab

leto

hot

cou

ntr

ies,

bar

bar

ism

toco

ldon

es,

and

good

pol

ity

tote

mper

ate

regi

ons.

Ise

eal

soth

atpeo

ple

wh

oal

lac

cept

the

pri

nci

ple

may

dis

agre

eab

out

its

applic

atio

n;

som

eon

em

igh

tsa

yth

atso

me

cold

cou

ntr

ies

are

very

fert

ile,

and

som

etr

opic

alon

esar

ebar

ren

.B

ut

som

eon

ew

ho

thin

ks

this

isa

dif

ficu

lty

·for

my

pos

itio

n·

has

n’t

look

edin

toth

ism

atte

rth

orou

ghly

enou

gh.

Ire

peat

,w

eh

ave

tota

kela

bou

r,

stre

ngt

h,co

nsu

mpt

ion

etc.

into

acco

un

t.·T

oge

tan

idea

ofw

hat

Iam

talk

ing

abou

t·,

con

side

rth

isex

ampl

e:• T

wo

stre

tch

esof

terr

itor

yx

and

y,ea

chh

asan

area

ofa

hu

ndr

edsq

uar

em

iles;

• xbr

ings

infiv

e·lo

ads

ofco

rn·a

nd

ybr

ings

inte

n;

• th

ein

hab

itan

tsof

xco

nsu

me

the

equ

ival

ent

offo

ur

load

sof

corn

,w

hile

the

inh

abit

ants

ofy

con

sum

en

ine.

Her

eth

eam

oun

tof

surp

lus

isth

esa

me,

bu

tth

era

tios

ofsu

rplu

sto

prod

uct

are

diff

eren

t:in

xth

esu

rplu

sis

afif

thof

the

tota

l,in

yit

isa

ten

th..

..Th

ere’

sn

oqu

esti

onof

x’s

hav

ing

twic

eth

epr

odu

ctth

aty

has

;an

dId

on’t

thin

kan

yon

ew

ould

mai

nta

inth

atin

gen

eral

cold

cou

ntr

ies

are

asfe

rtile

ash

oton

es.

Bu

tsu

ppos

eth

atth

atis

how

thin

gsst

and:

En

glan

dis

onth

esa

me

leve

lof

fert

ility

asS

icily

,an

dPol

and

asE

gypt—

furt

her

sou

thw

e’ll

hav

eA

fric

aan

dth

eIn

dies

;fu

rth

ern

orth

,n

oth

ing

atal

l.To

get

this

equ

alit

yof

prod

uct

,w

hat

adi

ffer

ence

ther

em

ust

bein

farm

ing

prac

tice

s!In

Sic

ilyth

eyn

eed

only

tosc

ratc

hth

egr

oun

d,w

her

eas

inE

ngl

and,

how

men

mu

stto

il!A

nd

wh

ere

mor

eh

ands

are

nee

ded

toge

tth

esa

me

prod

uct

,th

esu

rplu

sm

ust

bele

ss.

Bea

rin

min

dal

soth

atm

enco

nsu

me

mu

chle

ssin

hot

cou

ntr

ies.

Tost

ayh

ealt

hy

inth

ose

clim

eson

em

ust

eat

and

drin

kfr

uga

lly;E

uro

pean

sw

ho

try

toliv

eth

ere

asth

eyw

ould

ath

ome

alld

ieof

dyse

nte

ryan

din

dige

stio

n.

Ch

ardi

nw

rite

s:‘W

ear

eca

rniv

orou

san

imal

s,w

olve

s,in

com

par

ison

wit

hth

eA

sian

s.S

ome

attr

ibu

teth

ePer

sian

s’fr

u-

galit

yto

thei

rco

un

try’

sbei

ng

less

cult

ivat

ed;

bu

tI

thin

kth

atth

at’s

bac

kto

fron

t,an

dth

atre

ally

thei

rco

un

try

isle

ssw

ells

upp

lied

wit

hfo

odst

uff

sbe

cau

seth

ein

hab

itan

tsn

eed

less

.If

thei

rfr

uga

lity

wer

ean

effe

ctof

the

lan

d’s

pov

erty

,on

lyth

epoo

rw

ould

eat

41

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u38.

No

one

form

ofgo

vern

men

t...

littl

e;w

her

eas

infa

ctev

eryo

ne

ther

eea

tslit

tle.

Aga

inth

eco

nsu

mpti

onle

vel

wou

lddif

fer

inth

edif

fere

nt

pro

vin

ces,

acco

rdin

gto

the

fert

ility

ofth

eir

lan

d,

wh

erea

sin

fact

the

sam

efr

uga

lity

wit

hfo

odan

ddr

ink

occu

rsth

rou

ghou

tth

eki

ngd

om.

[Plu

sso

me

rem

arks

abou

tdi

etin

rela

tion

tosk

in-c

olou

r.]

Th

en

eare

ryo

uge

tto

the

equ

ator

,th

ele

sspeo

ple

live

on.

Mea

tth

eyh

ardly

tou

ch;

rice

,m

aize

,co

usc

ous,

mill

etan

dca

ssav

aar

eth

eir

stan

dar

ddie

t.Th

ere

are

mill

ion

sof

men

inth

eIn

dies

wh

ose

food

-in

take

cost

sle

ssth

ana

hal

fpen

ny

aday

.E

ven

inE

uro

pe

we

see

con

sider

able

dif

fere

nce

sof

appe

tite

betw

een

nor

ther

nan

dso

uth

ern

peop

les:

aS

pan

iard

will

live

for

aw

eek

ona

Ger

man

’sdi

nn

er..

..Lu

xury

incl

oth

essh

ows

sim

ilar

diff

eren

ces.

Incl

imat

esw

her

eth

ese

ason

sar

efa

stan

dbig

,m

enh

ave

bet

ter

and

sim

ple

rcl

oth

es;

inla

nds

wh

ere

they

dre

sson

lyfo

rad

orn

-m

ent,

they

care

mor

eab

out

wh

atis

stri

kin

gth

anab

out

wh

atis

use

ful;

clot

hes

them

selv

esar

eth

ena

luxu

ry.

InN

aple

syo

uca

nse

e...

.men

ingo

ld-e

mbro

ider

edve

sts

and

no

leg-

cove

rin

gs.

Itis

the

sam

ew

ith

build

ings

;m

agn

ifice

nce

isal

lth

atm

atte

rsw

hen

ther

e’s

not

hin

gto

fear

from

the

air.

InPar

isan

dLo

ndon

,yo

uw

ant

tobe

lodge

dw

arm

lyan

dco

mfo

rtab

ly;

Mad

rid

has

supe

rbsa

lon

sbu

tn

ow

indo

ws

that

clos

e,an

dyo

ugo

tobe

din

am

ere

hol

e.In

hot

cou

ntr

ies

food

sar

em

uch

mor

esu

bst

anti

alan

dm

ore

tast

y,an

dth

isth

ird

dif

fere

nce

isbou

nd

toh

ave

anin

flu

ence

onth

ese

con

d.

[He

mea

ns:

anin

fluen

ceon

how

mu

chpe

ople

eat.

He

isev

iden

tly

leav

ing

clot

hes

out

ofh

isen

um

erat

ion

ofdi

ffer

ence

s.]

Wh

yar

eso

man

yve

geta

ble

sea

ten

inIt

aly?

Bec

ause

ther

eth

eyar

ego

od,n

utr

itio

us

and

exce

llen

tin

tast

e.In

Fra

nce

,w

her

eve

geta

ble

sar

en

ouri

shed

only

onw

ater

,th

eydon

’tpro

vide

nou

rish

men

tan

dar

eh

ardly

liste

don

men

us.

They

don

’tta

keu

ple

ssgr

oun

d·t

han

inth

eso

uth

·,an

dar

eat

leas

tas

mu

chtr

oubl

eto

grow

.It

isa

prov

edfa

ct

that

the

wh

eat

ofB

arba

ry,in

oth

erre

spec

tsin

feri

orto

that

ofFra

nce

,yi

elds

mu

chm

ore

flou

r,an

dth

atFra

nce

’sw

hea

tin

turn

yiel

dsm

ore

than

wh

eat

inn

orth

ern

cou

ntr

ies;

from

wh

ich

it’s

afa

irin

fere

nce

that

this

grad

atio

n·in

wh

eat-

yiel

d·h

olds

gen

eral

ly,f

rom

equ

ator

topo

le,i

sfo

un

dge

ner

ally

.W

ell,

now

,is

n’t

itan

obvi

ous

disa

dvan

tage

for

aneq

ual

·am

oun

tof

·pro

duct

toco

nta

inle

ssn

ouri

shm

ent?

Afu

rth

erdif

fere

nce

·bet

wee

nh

otan

dco

ldco

un

trie

s·ar

ises

from

the

pre

viou

sdif

fere

nce

san

dal

sost

ren

gth

ens

them

,n

amel

y:H

otco

un

trie

sh

ave

less

nee

dof

inh

abit

ants

than

cold

ones

do,an

dca

nsu

ppor

tm

ore

ofth

em.

Th

ere

isth

us

adou

ble

surp

lus—

·mor

epro

du

ct,

few

erco

nsu

mer

s·—

wh

ich

isal

lto

the

adva

nta

geof

des

pot

ism

.(i)F

oran

yfixe

dn

um

ber

ofin

hab

itan

ts,

the

mor

eth

eyar

ege

ogra

phic

ally

spre

adou

tth

eh

arde

rit

beco

mes

for

them

tore

volt

,be

cau

se·w

ould

-be

revo

luti

onar

ies·

can

’tac

tto

geth

erqu

ickl

yor

secr

etly

:th

ego

vern

men

tca

nea

sily

un

mas

kth

eir

acti

viti

es·t

hu

sde

feat

ing

secr

ecy·

,an

dcu

tco

mm

un

icat

ion

s·t

hu

sde

feat

ing

co-o

rdin

atio

nam

ong

the

revo

luti

onar

yce

lls·.

On

the

oth

erh

and,

(ii)

the

mor

ege

ogra

phic

ally

con

cen

trat

eda

popu

lati

onis

,th

eh

arde

rit

isfo

rth

ego

vern

men

tto

usu

rpth

eso

vere

ign

’spl

ace:

the

peop

le’s

lead

ers

can

delib

erat

eas

safe

lyin

thei

rh

ouse

sas

the

prin

ceca

nin

cou

nci

l,an

dth

ecr

owd

gath

ers

asra

pidl

yin

the

tow

nsq

uar

esas

the

prin

ce’s

troo

psdo

inth

eir

barr

acks

.[A

lth

ough

his

term

inol

ogy

diff

ers

alit

tle,

Rou

ssea

uis

pres

enti

ng

(i)

and

(ii)

astw

osi

des

ofa

sin

gle

coin

:w

hat

the

geog

raph

ical

spre

adde

feat

s,an

dth

ege

ogra

phic

alco

nce

ntr

atio

nen

cou

rage

s,is

acti

onby

the

peop

le(t

he

peop

le’s

lead

ers,

the

plan

ner

sof

revo

lt,t

he

wou

ld-b

ere

volu

tion

arie

s)ag

ain

stat

tem

pts

byth

ego

vern

men

tto

usu

rpth

epo

wer

sof

sove

reig

nty

,th

us

beco

min

gde

spot

ic.]

So

aty

ran

nic

algo

vern

men

tdo

esbe

stw

hen

acti

ng

atgr

eat

dist

ance

s.W

ith

the

hel

pof

the

rally

ing-

poin

tsit

esta

blis

hes

,

42

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u39.

The

sign

sof

ago

odgo

vern

men

t

its

stre

ngt

hgr

ows

wit

hdis

tan

celik

eth

atof

ale

ver.

16Th

epeo

ple

’sst

ren

gth

,on

the

oth

erh

and,

acts

only

wh

enco

n-

cen

trat

ed:

wh

enit

issp

read

arou

nd

itev

apor

ates

and

islo

st,

like

gun

pow

der

pow

der

scat

tere

don

the

grou

nd,

wh

ich

·doe

sn’t

explo

de

bu

t·on

lyca

tch

esfire

grai

nby

grai

n.

Th

ele

ast

pop

ulo

us

cou

ntr

ies

are

thu

sth

efitt

est

for

tyra

nn

y:fie

rce

anim

als

reig

non

lyin

dese

rts.

9.

The

sign

sof

ago

odgo

vern

men

t

So

ifso

meo

ne

asks

‘Wh

atis

,ov

er-a

ll,th

ebe

stgo

vern

men

t?’

he

has

tobe

told

that

the

ques

tion

isu

nan

swer

able

asw

ell

asbei

ng

indet

erm

inat

e;or

you

cou

ldsa

yth

atit

has

asm

any

good

answ

ers

asth

ere

are

pos

sible

com

bin

atio

ns

inth

eab

solu

tean

dre

lati

vesi

tuat

ion

sof

alln

atio

ns.

‘Wel

l,by

wh

atsi

gnca

nw

ete

llw

het

her

agi

ven

peop

leis

wel

lor

badl

ygo

vern

ed?’

—th

at’s

aqu

esti

onof

fact

that

does

hav

ean

answ

er.

Bu

tw

edon

’th

ave

the

answ

erto

it,

bec

ause

ever

yon

ew

ants

toan

swer

itin

his

own

way

:• S

ubj

ects

prai

sepu

blic

tran

quili

ty,

citi

zen

spr

aise

indi

-vi

dual

liber

ty;

• som

epre

fer

secu

rity

ofpos

sess

ion

s,ot

her

sse

curi

tyof

the

pers

on;

• som

eh

old

that

the

best

gove

rnm

enti

sth

em

osts

ever

e,ot

her

sth

atit

isth

em

ildes

t;• s

ome

wan

tcr

imes

pu

nis

hed

,ot

her

sw

ant

them

pre

-ve

nte

d;• s

ome

wan

tth

est

ate

tobe

fear

edby

its

nei

ghbou

rs,

oth

ers

pref

ers

that

itsh

ould

·kee

pa

low

profi

lean

d·

beig

nor

ed;

• som

ear

eco

nte

nt

aslo

ng

asm

oney

circ

ula

tes,

oth

ers

dem

and

that

the

peop

leh

ave

brea

d.E

ven

ifw

ere

ach

edag

reem

ent

onpoi

nts

like

thes

e,w

ould

that

be

any

sort

ofpro

gres

s?M

oral

qual

itie

sca

n’t

be

mea

sure

dex

actl

y,so

agre

emen

tab

out

• th

esi

gns

ofgo

odgo

vern

men

tco

uld

still

leav

eu

sdis

agre

ein

gab

out

• wh

ich

actu

algo

vern

men

tsar

ego

odon

es.

Iam

con

tin

ual

lyas

ton

ish

edth

atsu

cha

sim

ple

sign

·of

good

gove

rnm

ent·

isn

’tre

cogn

ised

,or

per

hap

sm

endo

reco

gnis

eit

bu

tar

en’t

hon

est

enou

ghto

say

so.

Wh

atis

the

pu

rpos

eof

any

pol

itic

alas

soci

atio

n?

Th

epre

serv

atio

nan

dpro

sper

ity

ofit

sm

ember

s.A

nd

wh

atis

the

sure

stsi

gnof

thei

rpre

serv

atio

nan

dpro

sper

ity?

Th

eir

nu

mber

and

thei

rpop

ula

tion

·-gr

owth

·.Th

at’s

the

sign

you

are

look

ing

for.

Oth

erth

ings

bei

ng

equ

al,

the

un

ques

tion

ably

bes

tgo

vern

men

tis

the

one

un

der

wh

ich

the

pop

ula

tion

incr

ease

sm

ost,

wit

hou

tex

tern

alh

elp

from

nat

ura

lisin

gfo

reig

ner

sor

esta

blis

hin

gco

lon

ies.

Th

ego

vern

men

tu

nder

wh

ich

the

pop

ula

tion

shri

nks

isth

ew

orst

.O

ver

toyo

u,

Cal

cula

tors

—co

un

t,m

easu

re,co

mpa

re!

·TH

EN

EX

TP

AR

AG

RA

PH

WA

SO

RIG

INA

LL

YA

SIN

GL

EF

OO

TN

OT

E·

That

shou

ldal

sobe

the

basi

sfo

rde

cidi

ng

wh

ich

cen

turi

esh

ave

bee

nth

ebes

tfo

rh

um

anpro

sper

ity.

Th

ere

has

bee

nto

om

uch

adm

irat

ion

for

the

tim

esw

hen

arts

and

lett

ers

flou

rish

ed,b

ype

ople

wh

odi

dn’t

see

the

hid

den

obje

ctof

thei

rcu

ltu

re,

and

did

n’t

take

into

acco

un

tit

sfa

talef

fect

.‘W

hat

ign

oran

tpe

ople

calle

d“c

ivili

zed

cult

ure

’was

real

lyan

aspe

ctof

slav

ery’

(Tac

itu

s,A

gric

ola,

31).

Will

we

ever

see

inth

em

axim

sof

any

book

ast

atem

ent

ofth

evu

lgar

inte

rest

that

16Th

isdo

esn

’tco

ntr

adic

tw

hat

Isa

idea

rlie

r[p

age

23]

abou

tth

edi

sadv

anta

ges

ofgr

eat

stat

es.

The

topi

cba

ckth

ere

was

the

gove

rnm

ent’s

auth

orit

yov

erit

sm

embe

rs,

wh

erea

sth

epr

esen

tto

pic

isit

sfo

rce

agai

nst

the

subj

ects

.It

ssc

atte

red

mem

bers

serv

eit

asfu

lcru

ms

for

acti

onat

adi

stan

ce·b

yle

vera

ge·a

gain

stth

epe

ople

;bu

tth

ego

vern

men

th

asn

ofu

lcru

mfo

rdi

rect

acti

onon

its

own

mem

bers

.Th

us

for

the

gove

rnm

ent

the

len

gth

ofth

ele

ver

isa

wea

knes

sfo

ron

epu

rpos

ean

da

stre

ngt

hfo

rth

eot

her

.

43

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u310

.A

buse

and

dege

ner

atio

nof

gove

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ent

mot

ivat

esth

eau

thor

?N

o!W

hat

ever

they

say,

wh

ende

spit

eit

sre

now

na

cou

ntr

yis

losi

ng

popu

lati

onit

’sn

ottr

ue

that

all

isw

ellt

her

e;a

poet

may

hav

ean

inco

me

of10

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ancs

for

sayi

ng

that

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ing.

Less

atte

nti

onsh

ould

be

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dto

• th

eap

par

ent

pea

cean

dtr

anqu

ility

ofth

eru

lers

than

to• t

he

wel

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ng

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hol

en

atio

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espec

ially

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ew

ith

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larg

est

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-u

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Ah

ail-

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mla

ysse

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afa

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,bu

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the

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wh

ileth

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tw

ho

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erth

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eir

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pro

sper

itie

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dca

lam

itie

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me

from

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rpe

rman

ent

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on:

it’s

wh

enth

ew

hol

ere

mai

ns

cru

shed

ben

eath

the

yoke

that

the

wh

ole

falls

into

dec

ay.

Th

atis

wh

enth

eru

lers

des

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them

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d‘W

her

eth

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aste

-lan

d,th

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e’(T

acit

us,

Agr

icol

a31)[

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uqu

otes

Tac

itu

sea

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the

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Fran

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ngt

hen

itth

anal

lits

diss

ensi

ons

had

don

eto

wea

ken

it.

Alit

tle

dis

turb

ance

ener

gize

sth

eso

ul;

wh

atm

akes

our

spec

ies

tru

lypr

ospe

rou

sis

not

som

uch

peac

eas

liber

ty.

10.

How

gove

rnm

ent

isab

use

d.It

ste

nde

ncy

tode

gener

ate

Just

asth

ein

divi

dual

will

isco

nst

antl

yac

tin

gin

oppo

siti

onto

the

gen

eral

will

,so

the

gove

rnm

ent

isco

nti

nu

ally

exer

tin

git

self

agai

nst

the

sove

reig

nty

.Th

em

ore

stre

nu

ousl

yit

does

this

,th

em

ore

the

con

stit

uti

onch

ange

s;an

dbec

ause

inth

issi

tuat

ion

ther

e’s

no

oth

erco

rpor

ate

will

tocr

eate

aneq

uili

briu

mby

resi

stin

gth

ew

illof

the

prin

ce,

even

tual

lyth

epri

nce

will

bea

rdow

nh

ard

onth

eso

vere

ign

and

bre

akth

eso

cial

trea

ty.

[Rem

embe

rth

at‘th

epr

ince

’=‘th

ego

vern

men

t’,an

d‘th

eso

vere

ign

’=‘th

ege

ner

alw

ill’.]

This

isth

ein

her

ent

and

inev

itab

ledef

ect

wh

ich

,fr

omth

eve

rybir

thof

the

bod

ypol

itic

,te

nds

ceas

eles

sly

tode

stro

yit

,as

age

and

deat

hev

entu

ally

dest

roy

the

hu

man

body

.H

owdo

esa

gove

rnm

ent

dege

ner

ate?

Ther

ear

etw

oba

sic

way

s:• i

tsh

rin

ks,or

• th

est

ate

isdi

ssol

ved.

Ago

vern

men

tco

ntr

act

sw

hen

itch

ange

sfr

omth

em

any

toth

efe

w,

i.e.

from

dem

ocra

cyto

aris

tocr

acy,

and

from

aris

tocr

acy

tom

onar

chy.

Ith

asa

nat

ura

lten

den

cyto

mov

ein

that

dire

ctio

n.1

7If

ago

vern

men

tto

okth

ere

vers

eco

urs

e17

The

slow

form

atio

nan

dth

ede

velo

pmen

tof

the

Rep

ubl

icof

Ven

ice

init

sla

goon

sar

ea

not

able

inst

ance

ofth

isse

quen

ce;

and

itis

mos

tas

ton

ish

ing

that

afte

rm

ore

than

twel

veh

un

dred

year

s’th

eVe

net

ian

sse

emto

best

illat

the

seco

nd

stag

e,w

hic

hth

eyre

ach

edw

ith

the

clos

ing

dow

nof

the

Gre

atC

oun

cil

in11

98..

..O

ppon

ents

ofm

yvi

ewar

esu

reto

cite

the

Rom

anR

epu

blic

,w

hic

hth

eyw

illsa

yfo

llow

edex

actl

yth

eop

posi

teco

urs

e,go

ing

from

mon

arch

yto

aris

tocr

acy

and

then

tode

moc

racy

.I

don

’tlo

okat

itin

anyt

hin

glik

eth

atw

ay.

Wh

atR

omu

lus

first

set

up

was

am

ixed

gove

rnm

ent,

wh

ich

soon

dete

rior

ated

into

desp

otis

m.

Fro

msp

ecia

lca

use

s,th

atst

ate

died

anu

nti

mel

yde

ath

,as

new

-bor

nch

ildre

nso

met

imes

die

wit

hou

tre

ach

ing

man

hoo

d.Th

ere

albi

rth

ofth

eR

oman

repu

blic

date

sfr

omth

eex

puls

ion

ofth

eTar

quin

s;bu

tat

that

tim

eit

didn

’th

ave

aco

nst

ant

form

beca

use

the

job

was

only

hal

f-do

ne:

they

didn

’tab

olis

hth

en

obili

ty.

Inth

atw

ayh

ered

itar

yar

isto

crac

y—th

ew

orst

ofal

lle

giti

mat

efo

rms

ofad

min

istr

atio

n—

rem

ain

edin

con

flict

wit

hde

moc

racy

,an

dth

efo

rmof

the

gove

rnm

ent

was

free

-floa

tin

gan

du

nce

rtai

n.

Itdi

dn’t

get

fixed

un

til

this

44

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u310

.A

buse

and

dege

ner

atio

nof

gove

rnm

ent

from

the

few

toth

em

any,

itco

uld

besa

idto

bere

laxi

ng;

but

this

reve

rse

sequ

ence

isim

poss

ible

.In

dee

d,

ago

vern

men

tw

on’t

chan

geit

sfo

rmu

nle

ssit

su

nw

oun

dsp

rin

gle

aves

itto

ow

eak

tokee

pth

efo

rmth

atit

has

.If

ago

vern

men

tre

laxe

dw

hile

exte

ndin

git

ssp

her

e,it

sfo

rce

wou

ldbe

com

eab

solu

tely

nil,

and

itw

ould

beev

enfu

rth

erfr

ombei

ng

able

tosu

rviv

e.S

o·w

hen

this

star

tsto

hap

pen·i

tis

nec

essa

ryto

goba

ckan

dw

ind

up

the

spri

ng

toge

tri

dof

the

slac

k;ot

her

wis

eth

est

ate

that

itsu

stai

ns

will

com

eto

grie

f.[In

the

prec

edin

gtw

opa

ragr

aph

s,R

ouss

eau

has

spok

enof

ago

vern

-m

ent’s

(i)c

ontr

acti

ng

orre

laxi

ng

(=‘e

xpan

din

g’),

and

then

ofit

s(i

i)be

ing

wou

nd

up

tigh

tor

com

ing

un

wou

nd.

He

use

sth

esa

me

Fre

nch

verb

sfo

rea

chof

thes

eco

ntr

asts

.A

reth

ese

mea

nt

tobe

asi

ngl

eco

ntr

ast?

Wel

l,in

the

first

con

tras

ta

gove

rnm

ent

sere

sser

reby

beco

min

gsm

alle

r,in

volv

ing

few

erpe

ople

,w

her

eas

inth

ese

con

dco

ntr

ast

you

ress

erre

ago

vern

men

tby

win

din

gup

its

spri

ng.

Thos

ear

en

otob

viou

sly

equ

iva-

len

t,bu

tre

adon

.]Th

edis

solu

tion

ofth

est

ate

can

com

eab

out

inei

ther

oftw

ow

ays.

(1)

Wh

enth

epri

nce

stop

sgo

vern

ing

the

stat

ein

acco

r-da

nce

wit

hth

ela

ws,

and

usu

rps

the

sove

reig

npo

wer

.Th

enso

met

hin

gre

mar

kab

leh

appen

s:th

ego

vern

men

tdoe

sn’t

con

trac

t,bu

tth

est

ate

does

;I

mea

nth

atth

egr

eat

big

stat

eis

diss

olve

d,an

dan

oth

erst

ate

isfo

rmed

wit

hin

it,•

com

pose

dso

lely

ofth

em

ember

sof

the

gove

rnm

ent

and

• rel

atin

gto

the

rest

ofth

epe

ople

asth

eir

mas

ter

and

tyra

nt.

Thu

s,th

em

omen

tth

ego

vern

men

tu

surp

sth

eso

vere

ign

ty,th

eso

cial

com

pact

isbr

oken

,an

dal

lpri

vate

citi

zen

sre

cove

rby

righ

tth

eir

nat

ura

llib

erty

;th

eyar

efo

rced

toob

ey,bu

tth

eyh

ave

no

oblig

atio

nto

doso

.(2

)W

hen

the

mem

ber

sof

the

gove

rnm

ent

indiv

idu

ally

usu

rpth

epo

wer

they

shou

ldex

erci

seon

lyas

abo

dy.

This

isas

grea

tan

infr

acti

onof

the

law

s,an

dre

sult

sin

even

grea

ter

diso

rder

s.W

hen

this

hap

pen

sth

ere

are

asm

any

prin

ces

asth

ere

are

mag

istr

ates

,so

tosp

eak,

and

the

stat

e,w

hic

his

asdi

vide

das

the

gove

rnm

ent

is,ei

ther

peri

shes

orch

ange

sit

sfo

rm.

Wh

enth

est

ate

isdis

solv

ed,

the

abu

seof

gove

rnm

ent,

wh

atev

erit

is,

bea

rsth

eco

mm

onn

ame

of‘a

nar

chy’

....

,dem

ocra

cydeg

ener

ates

into

och

locr

acy

[=‘m

obru

le’],

and

aris

tocr

acy

deg

ener

ates

into

olig

arch

y.I

wou

ldad

dth

atro

yalt

yde

gen

erat

esin

toty

ran

ny,

but

‘tyra

nn

y’is

ambi

guou

san

dn

eeds

expl

anat

ion

.In

the

ever

yday

sen

seof

the

wor

d,

aty

ran

tis

akin

gw

ho

gove

rns

wit

hth

eh

elp

ofvi

olen

cean

dw

ith

out

rega

rd

was

ach

ieve

dby

the

esta

blis

hm

ent

ofth

esy

stem

oftr

ibu

nes

(Mac

hia

velli

has

prov

edth

is);

only

then

was

ther

ea

tru

ego

vern

men

tan

da

veri

tabl

ede

moc

racy

.In

fact

,th

epo

pula

cew

asth

enn

oton

lyso

vere

ign

,bu

tal

som

agis

trat

ean

dju

dge;

the

sen

ate

was

only

asu

bord

inat

etr

ibu

nal

,to

mod

erat

eth

ego

vern

men

tan

dgi

veit

focu

s;an

dev

enth

eco

nsu

ls—

thou

ghth

eyw

ere

ofth

en

obili

ty,ch

iefm

agis

trat

es,ab

solu

tege

ner

als

inw

ar—

wer

ein

Rom

eit

self

no

mor

eth

anth

epo

pula

ce’s

cha

irm

en[F

ren

chpr

ésid

ents

].F

rom

then

onw

ards

the

gove

rnm

ent

follo

wed

its

nat

ura

lten

den

cy,i

ncl

inin

gst

ron

gly

tow

ards

aris

tocr

acy.

The

nob

ility

abol

ish

edit

self,

asit

wer

e,an

dth

ear

isto

crac

yw

asfo

un

dn

olo

nge

r

inth

ebo

dyof

the

her

edit

ary

nob

ility

,as

atVe

nic

ean

dG

enoa

,bu

tin

the

body

ofth

ese

nat

e,w

hic

hw

asco

mpo

sed

ofn

oble

san

dco

mm

oner

s,an

dev

enin

the

body

oftr

ibu

nes

wh

enth

eybe

gan

tou

surp

anac

tive

fun

ctio

n.

(Don

’tle

tth

ela

bels

get

inth

ew

ayof

you

rth

inki

ng

abou

tth

efa

cts.

Wh

enth

epe

ople

has

rule

rsw

ho

gove

rnfo

rit

,th

ego

vern

men

tis

ana

rist

ocra

cy,

wh

atev

erla

beli

spu

ton

its

mem

bers

.)Th

eab

use

ofar

isto

crac

yle

dto

the

civi

lwar

san

dth

etr

ium

vira

te.

Su

lla,

Juliu

sC

aesa

ran

dA

ugu

stu

sbe

cam

ein

fact

real

mon

arch

s;an

dfin

ally

,u

nde

rth

ede

spot

ism

ofT

iber

ius

the

stat

ew

asdi

ssol

ved.

So

Rom

anh

isto

rydo

esn

’tin

valid

ate

the

prin

cipl

eI

hav

ela

iddo

wn

;it

con

firm

sit

!

45

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u312

.M

ain

tain

ing

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity

for

just

ice

and

the

law

s.In

the

wor

d’s

pre

cise

sen

se,

aty

ran

tis

anin

divi

dual

wh

ogr

abs

the

roya

lau

thor

ity

wit

hou

th

avin

gan

yri

ght

toit

.Th

atis

how

the

Gre

eks

un

der

stoo

dth

ew

ord

‘tyra

nt’:

they

appl

ied

itev

en-h

ande

dly

togo

odan

dbad

pri

nce

sw

hos

eau

thor

ity

was

n’t

legi

tim

ate.

...

‘Tyr

ant’

and

‘usu

rper

’are

thu

spe

rfec

tly

syn

onym

ous

term

s.S

oas

toh

ave

dif

fere

nt

label

sfo

rdif

fere

nt

thin

gs,

Ica

llso

meo

ne

wh

ou

surp

sth

ero

yala

uth

orit

ya

tyra

nt,

and

him

wh

ou

surp

sth

eso

vere

ign

pow

era

des

pot.

Th

ety

ran

tis

som

eon

ew

ho

illeg

ally

forc

esh

isw

ayin

,so

asto

gove

rnin

acco

rdan

cew

ith

the

law

s;th

edes

pot

isso

meo

ne

wh

ose

tsh

imse

lfab

ove

even

the

law

s.Th

us

the

tyra

nt

nee

dn

’tbe

ade

spot

,bu

tth

ede

spot

isal

way

sa

tyra

nt.

11.

The

deat

hof

the

body

poli

tic

Dea

this

the

nat

ura

lan

din

evit

able

ten

den

cyof

the

bes

tco

nst

itu

ted

gove

rnm

ents

.If

Spa

rta

and

Rom

epe

rish

ed,w

hat

stat

eca

nh

ope

tola

stfo

rev

er?

Ifw

ew

ant

toes

tablis

ha

lon

g-liv

edfo

rmof

gove

rnm

ent,

let

us

not

even

dre

am

ofm

akin

git

eter

nal

!If

we’

reto

succ

eed,

we

mu

stn

’tat

tem

pt

the

impo

ssib

le,

orfla

tter

ours

elve

sth

atw

ear

een

dow

ing

the

wor

kof

man

wit

ha

stab

ility

that

the

hu

man

con

diti

onis

not

infa

ctca

pabl

eof

.Th

ebod

ypol

itic

,lik

eth

eh

um

anbod

y,beg

ins

todie

asso

onas

itis

bor

n,

and

carr

ies

init

self

the

cau

ses

ofit

sde

stru

ctio

n.

Bu

tin

each

case

the

life-

span

may

belo

nge

ror

shor

ter,

dep

endin

gon

wh

eth

erth

eco

nst

itu

tion

ism

ore

orle

ssro

bu

st.

Man

’sco

nst

itu

tion

isth

ew

ork

of• n

atu

re;

the

stat

e’s

con

stit

uti

onis

the

wor

kof

• art

,·i.

e.it

ism

an-m

ade,

art

ifici

al,

not

nat

ura

l·.It

isn

’tin

men

’spow

erto

pro

lon

gth

eir

own

lives

;bu

tit

’su

pto

them

togi

veth

est

ate

aslo

ng

alif

eas

pos

sible

by

givi

ng

itth

ebes

tpos

sible

con

stit

uti

on.

Eve

nth

ebes

tco

nst

itu

ted

stat

ew

illco

me

toan

end;

bu

tit

will

end

late

rth

anan

yot

her

,u

nle

ssso

me

un

fore

seen

even

tbr

ings

abou

tit

spr

emat

ure

dest

ruct

ion

.Th

ebod

ypol

itic

’sso

urc

eof

life

lies

inth

eso

vere

ign

auth

orit

y.Th

ele

gisl

ativ

epow

eris

the

stat

e’s

• hea

rt,

and

the

exec

uti

vepo

wer

isit

s• b

rain

,w

hic

hpu

tsth

epa

rts

into

mot

ion

.It

can

hap

pen

that

the

bra

inbec

omes

par

alys

edw

hile

the

indiv

idu

alst

illliv

es.

Am

anca

nbe

anim

bec

ilew

hile

stay

ing

aliv

e.B

ut

asso

onas

the

hea

rtce

ases

tope

rfor

mit

sfu

nct

ion

s,th

ean

imal

body

isde

ad.

Wh

atkee

ps

the

stat

eal

ive

isn

ot• t

he

law

sbu

t• t

he

legi

slat

ive

pow

er.

Yest

erda

y’s

law

isn

otbi

ndi

ng

to-d

ay;bu

tta

cit

con

sen

tis

infe

rred

from

sile

nce

;an

dw

hen

ther

e’s

ala

wth

at• t

he

sove

reig

nco

uld

abro

gate

but

does

n’t,

• it

ish

eld

tobe

con

tin

uou

sly

con

firm

ing

it.

con

firm

ince

ssan

tly

the

law

sit

doe

sn

otab

roga

teas

itm

igh

t.A

nyt

hin

gth

atit

has

ever

decl

ared

itse

lfto

will

itw

ills

alw

ays

un

less

itsa

ysot

her

wis

e.Th

at’s

wh

yso

mu

chre

spec

tis

pai

dto

old

law

s.W

esh

ould

acce

pt

that

not

hin

gco

uld

hav

epre

serv

edth

emfo

rso

lon

gbu

tth

eir

own

exce

llen

ce;

ifth

eso

vere

ign

had

n’t

reco

gnis

edth

emas

salu

tary

,it

wou

ldh

ave

can

celle

dth

ema

thou

san

dti

mes

.S

oin

any

wel

lcon

stit

ute

dst

ate

the

law

sco

nti

nu

ally

grow

(not

wea

ker

from

old

age,

but)

stro

nge

r...

.A

nd

wh

erev

erth

ela

ws

grow

wea

kas

they

age,

this

show

s• t

hat

ther

eis

no

lon

ger

ale

gisl

ativ

epow

er,

and

that

• th

est

ate

isde

ad.

12.

How

the

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity

ism

ainta

ined

Th

eso

vere

ign

,h

avin

gn

ofo

rce

exce

pt

the

legi

slat

ive

pow

er,

acts

only

thro

ugh

the

law

s;an

dbec

ause

the

law

sar

eju

stth

eau

then

tic

acts

ofth

ege

ner

alw

ill,

the

sove

reig

nca

n’t

act

exce

pt

wh

enth

epop

ula

ceis

asse

mble

d.

‘Th

epop

ula

cein

asse

mbl

y—w

hat

afa

nta

sy!’

you

’llw

ant

tosa

y.It

isso

toda

y,bu

t20

00ye

ars

ago

itw

asn

’t.H

asm

an’s

nat

ure

chan

ged?

46

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u313

.M

ain

tain

ing

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity

The

bou

nds

ofh

um

anpo

ssib

ility

are

not

asco

nfin

ing

asw

eth

ink

they

are;

they

are

mad

eto

·see

mto

·be

tigh

tby

our

wea

knes

ses,

our

vice

s,ou

rpr

eju

dice

sth

atco

nfin

eth

em.

Low

-gra

deso

uls

hav

en

obe

lief

ingr

eat

men

;vi

lesl

aves

grin

moc

kin

gly

atth

en

ame

oflib

erty

.

Let’s

thin

kab

out

wh

atca

nbe

don

e,re

mem

ber

ing

wh

ath

as

been

don

e.I

shan

’tdi

scu

ssth

ean

cien

tG

reek

repu

blic

s;bu

tth

eR

oman

repu

blic

stri

kes

me

ash

avin

gbee

na

grea

tst

ate,

and

the

tow

nof

Rom

ea

grea

tto

wn

.Th

ela

stce

nsu

sre

por

ted

that

Rom

eh

adfo

ur

hu

ndre

dth

ousa

nd

citi

zen

sca

pab

leof

bea

rin

gar

ms,

and

the

last

stat

emen

tof

the

popu

lati

onof

the

Em

pire

show

edov

erfo

ur

mill

ion

citi

zen

s—an

dth

at’s

not

incl

udi

ng

subj

ect

peop

les,

fore

ign

ers,

wom

en,

child

ren

orsl

aves

.

Freq

uen

tas

sem

blin

gof

the

vast

popu

lati

onof

this

capi

tal

and

its

nei

ghbo

urh

ood—

wh

ata

labo

ur

that

mu

sth

ave

been

!Ye

tth

eR

oman

peop

ledi

das

sem

ble

alm

ost

wee

kly

and

som

e-ti

mes

even

mor

eof

ten

.Th

epop

ula

ceex

erci

sed

the

righ

tsof

sove

reig

nty

and

also

som

eof

the

righ

tsof

gove

rnm

ent.

Ittr

ansa

cted

som

ebu

sin

ess

and

judge

dso

me

case

s;an

d·t

he

mem

ber

sof

·th

isw

hol

epop

ula

tion

wer

ein

the

pu

blic

mee

tin

g-pl

ace

as• m

agis

trat

esal

mos

tas

ofte

nas

they

wer

eth

ere

as• c

itiz

ens.

Ifw

ew

ent

bac

kto

the

earl

iest

his

tory

ofn

atio

ns,

we

wou

ldfin

dth

atm

ost

ofth

ean

cien

tgo

vern

men

ts—

even

thos

eof

mon

arch

ical

form

,su

chas

the

Mac

edon

ian

and

the

Fra

nki

sh—

had

sim

ilar

cou

nci

ls.

Be

that

asit

may

,th

eon

eu

nqu

esti

onab

lefa

ctth

atI

hav

epr

esen

ted

·abo

ut

asse

mbl

ies

inR

ome·

isan

answ

erto

alldif

ficu

ltie

s.‘S

omet

hin

gex

ists

,so

itis

poss

ible

’—th

atlo

oks

tom

elik

ego

odlo

gic.

13.

How

the

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity

ism

ainta

ined

(con

tinued

)

It’s

not

enou

ghfo

rth

eas

sem

bled

peop

leto

hav

e• fi

xed

the

stat

e’s

con

stit

uti

onon

one

occa

sion

bygi

vin

git

sas

sen

tto

abo

dyof

law

s;or

toh

ave

• set

up

ape

rpet

ual

gove

rnm

ent,

orto

hav

e• p

rovi

ded

once

for

allf

orth

eel

ecti

onof

mag

istr

ates

.Th

ere

mu

stal

sobe

fixe

dper

iodic

alas

sem

blie

sth

atca

n’t

be

can

celle

dor

pos

tpon

ed,

soth

aton

the

pro

per

day

the

popu

lace

isle

giti

mat

ely

calle

dto

geth

erby

law

,w

ith

out

any

nee

dfo

ra

form

alsu

mm

onin

g.(T

his

isad

dit

ion

alto

any

spec

iala

ssem

blie

sth

atm

aybe

requ

ired

inem

erge

nci

es.)

Bu

tap

art

from

thes

eas

sem

blie

sau

thor

ised

by

thei

rdat

eal

one,

ever

yas

sem

bly

ofth

epeo

ple

not

sum

mon

edby

mag

istr

ates

appoi

nte

dfo

rth

atpu

rpos

e,in

acco

rdan

cew

ith

the

pres

crib

edfo

rms,

shou

ldbe

rega

rded

asill

egit

imat

e,an

dal

lits

acts

asn

ull

and

void

,bec

ause

the

law

has

tobe

the

sou

rce

ofth

eco

mm

and

toas

sem

ble.

How

ofte

nsh

ould

thes

ela

wfu

las

sem

blie

soc

cur?

Th

atdep

ends

onso

man

yco

nsi

der

atio

ns

that

exac

tru

les

for

itca

n’t

begi

ven

.S

till,

one

can

say

inge

ner

alth

atth

est

ron

ger

ago

vern

men

tis

the

mor

en

eed

ther

eis

for

the

sove

reig

nto

show

itse

lfof

ten

·inas

sem

blie

sof

the

peop

le·.

‘Th

ism

aybe

all

righ

tfo

ra

sin

gle

tow

n,’

you

’llw

ant

tosa

y,‘b

ut

wh

atif

the

stat

ein

clu

des

seve

ralt

own

s?(i)Is

the

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity

tobe

div

ided

?(ii)

orco

nce

ntr

ated

ina

sin

gle

tow

nto

wh

ich

allt

he

rest

are

mad

esu

bjec

t?’N

eith

erof

thos

e,I

repl

y.(i)Th

eso

vere

ign

auth

orit

yis

one

and

does

n’t

hav

epar

ts;

soit

can

’tbe

div

ided

wit

hou

tbei

ng

des

troy

ed.

(ii)

An

don

eto

wn

can

’tle

giti

mat

ely

be

mad

esu

bje

ctto

anot

her

,an

ym

ore

than

one

nat

ion

can

;bec

ause

the

esse

nce

ofth

ebod

ypol

itic

lies

inth

eh

arm

ony

of• o

bed

ien

cew

ith

• lib

erty

,an

dth

ew

ords

‘su

bjec

t’an

d‘s

over

eign

’are

prec

isel

y

47

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u314

.M

ain

tain

ing

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity

(con

t’d)

com

plem

enta

ry,t

he

con

cept

sbe

ing

un

ited

inth

esi

ngl

ew

ord

‘cit

izen

’.I

repl

yal

soth

atit

’sal

way

sba

dto

un

ifyse

vera

ltow

ns

ina

sin

gle

city

,an

dth

atan

yon

ew

anti

ng

todo

this

had

bett

erbe

read

yfo

rit

sn

atu

rald

isad

van

tage

s.[In

the

past

seve

ralp

ages

Rou

ssea

uh

asw

ritt

enn

otof

‘cit

ies’

but

of‘s

tate

s’,

and

inth

en

ext

few

para

grap

hs

he

flips

back

to‘s

tate

s’.

This

con

firm

sth

eap

pare

nt

ups

hot

ofth

efo

otn

ote

onpa

ge7,

wh

ere

he

seem

sto

equ

ate

thes

etw

o.].

...

Bu

th

owca

nsm

all

stat

esbe

give

nth

est

ren

gth

tore

sist

grea

ton

es?

·By

allia

nce

s·,

asth

eG

reek

tow

ns

once

resi

sted

the

grea

tPe

rsia

nki

ng

Xer

xes,

and

asH

olla

nd

and

Sw

itze

rlan

d,m

ore

rece

ntl

y,h

ave

resi

sted

the

Hou

seof

Au

stri

a.B

ut

ifa

stat

eca

n’t

be

kep

tw

ith

inpro

per

limit

s,th

ere’

son

eth

ing

that

can

bedo

ne,

nam

ely:

Don

’th

ave

aca

pit

al,

mov

eth

ese

atof

gove

rnm

ent

from

tow

nto

tow

n,

and

asse

mble

by

turn

inea

chof

the

pro

vin

cial

esta

tes

ofth

eco

un

try.

Pop

ula

teth

ete

rrit

ory

even

ly,

exte

nd

the

sam

eri

ghts

toev

eryo

ne,

brin

gab

un

dan

cean

dlif

eev

eryw

her

e.B

yth

ese

mea

ns

the

stat

ew

illbe

com

eas

stro

ng

and

asw

ell

gove

rned

asit

pos

sibly

cou

ldbe.

·In

pre

par

ing

for

such

ast

ate,

don

’tm

ake

gran

dios

epr

ovis

ion

for

gove

rnm

ent

inea

chof

the

tow

ns

wh

ere

itw

illte

mpo

rari

lyre

side

·.R

emem

ber

that

the

wal

lsof

tow

ns

are

bu

ilten

tire

lyou

tof

the

ruin

sof

the

hou

ses

ofth

eco

un

trys

ide!

For

ever

ypa

lace

Ise

era

ised

ina

capi

tal,

my

min

d’s

eye

sees

aw

hol

eco

un

try

mad

ede

sola

te.

14.

How

the

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity

ism

ainta

ined

(con

tinued

)

Th

em

omen

tth

epop

ula

ceis

legi

tim

atel

yas

sem

ble

das

aso

vere

ign

bod

y,th

eju

risd

icti

onof

the

gove

rnm

ent

wh

olly

lapse

s,th

eex

ecu

tive

pow

eris

susp

ended

,an

dth

eper

son

of• a

citi

zen

atth

ebot

tom

ofth

eso

cial

hea

pis

assa

cred

and

invi

olab

leas

that

of• t

he

firs

tm

agis

trat

e;bec

ause

repr

esen

tati

ves

no

lon

ger

exis

tin

the

pres

ence

ofw

hat

ever

itw

asth

eyre

pre

sen

ted.

Mos

tof

the

tum

ult

sth

atar

ose

inth

eco

mit

iain

Rom

ew

ere

due

toig

nor

ance

orn

egle

ctof

this

rule

.[R

eco

mit

ia:

see

page

61.]

The

con

suls

wer

ein

them

mer

ely

the

peo

ple

’sch

airm

en;th

etr

ibu

nes

wer

em

ere

spea

ker

s;18

the

sen

ate

was

not

hin

gat

all.

Th

ese

inte

rval

sof

susp

ensi

ondu

rin

gw

hic

hth

epri

nce

reco

gnis

esor

ough

tto

reco

gnis

ean

actu

alsu

peri

or—

·nam

ely

the

asse

mbl

edpo

pula

ce,th

eso

vere

ign·—

hav

eal

way

sbe

en,

from

his

poi

nt

ofvi

ew,

ath

reat

;an

dth

ese

• ass

emblie

sof

the

peo

ple

,w

hic

har

eth

epro

tect

ive

shie

ldar

oun

dth

ebod

ypol

itic

and

the

curb

onth

ego

vern

men

t,h

ave

alw

ays

been

the

hor

ror

ofru

lers

.Th

at’s

wh

yru

lers

spar

en

opa

ins,

obje

ctio

ns,

diffi

cult

ies,

and

prom

ises

tost

opth

eci

tize

ns

from

hav

ing

• th

em.

Wh

enth

eci

tize

ns

are

gree

dy,co

war

dly,

and

smal

l-m

inded

,an

dlo

veea

sem

ore

than

liber

ty,

they

don

’tlo

ng

hol

dou

taga

inst

the

redo

ubl

edef

fort

sof

the

gove

rnm

ent;

and

thu

s,as

the

resi

stin

gfo

rce

·exe

rcis

edby

the

gove

rnm

ent·

keep

sgr

owin

g,th

eso

vere

ign

auth

orit

yev

entu

ally

disa

ppea

rs,

and

mos

tci

ties

fall

and

per

ish

bef

ore

thei

rti

me.

[Inth

atpa

ragr

aph

,th

ew

ords

‘the

prin

ce..

.his

...’

cou

ldas

wel

lh

ave

been

‘the

gove

rnm

ent.

..it

s...

’;fo

rR

ouss

eau

thos

ear

est

rict

lyeq

uiv

alen

t.Th

etw

ofo

rmu

lati

ons

don

’tfe

elas

diff

eren

tin

Fre

nch

,in

wh

ich

‘he’

and

‘his

’are

not

dist

ingu

ish

edfr

om‘it

’an

d‘it

s’.]

Bu

tbet

wee

nth

e• s

over

eign

auth

orit

yan

d• a

rbit

rary

gove

rnm

ent

ther

eso

met

imes

com

esto

be

anin

terv

enin

gpo

wer

abou

tw

hic

hso

met

hin

gm

ust

besa

id.

18In

nea

rly

the

sam

ese

nse

as‘s

peak

er’

has

inth

eE

ngl

ish

parl

iam

ent.

The

sim

ilari

tyof

thes

efu

nct

ion

sw

ould

hav

ebr

ough

tth

eco

nsu

lsan

dth

etr

ibu

nes

into

con

flict

even

wh

enal

lju

risd

icti

onh

adbe

ensu

spen

ded.

48

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u315

.D

epu

ties

orre

pres

enta

tive

s

15.

Dep

uti

esor

repr

esen

tati

ves

As

soon

aspu

blic

serv

ice

stop

sbei

ng

the

chie

fbu

sin

ess

ofth

eci

tize

ns,

and

they

pref

erto

serv

ew

ith

thei

rm

oney

rath

erth

anw

ith

thei

rpe

rson

s,th

est

ate

isn

otfa

rfr

omit

sco

llaps

e.Th

eyar

en

eede

dto

mar

chou

tto

war

?th

eypa

ytr

oops

and

stay

ath

ome.

Th

eyar

en

eeded

tom

eet

inco

un

cil?

they

nam

edep

uti

esan

dst

ayat

hom

e.B

yfo

rce

ofla

zin

ess

and

mon

ey,

they

end

up

wit

hso

ldie

rsto

ensl

ave

thei

rco

un

try

and

repr

esen

tati

ves

tose

llit

.It

isth

rou

ghth

eh

ust

leof

com

mer

cean

dth

etr

ades

,th

rou

ghth

egr

eedy

con

cern

for

profi

t,an

dth

rou

ghso

ftn

ess

and

love

ofam

enit

ies,

that

pers

onal

serv

ices

are

repl

aced

bym

oney

.M

ensu

rren

der

apar

tof

thei

rpro

fits

soas

toh

ave

tim

eto

incr

ease

them

atle

isu

re.

·An

dth

eydon

’tse

eh

owda

nge

rou

sth

isis

·.G

ive

mon

eyan

dbe

fore

lon

gyo

u’ll

bein

chai

ns!

This

wor

d‘fi

nan

ce’i

ssl

ave

talk

;you

won

’ten

cou

nte

rit

inth

eci

ty-s

tate

.In

atr

uly

free

cou

ntr

yth

eci

tize

ns

do

ever

yth

ing

wit

hth

eir

own

mu

scle

s,an

dn

oth

ing

wit

hm

oney

;fa

rfr

ompa

yin

gto

beex

cuse

dfr

omth

eir

duti

es,th

eyw

ould

even

pay

tobe

allo

wed

toper

form

them

.M

yvi

ewon

this

topi

cis

far

from

the

com

mon

one:

Ire

gard

forc

edla

bou

ras

less

oppos

edto

liber

tyth

anta

xes

are.

[Th

eF

ren

chis

taxe

s;it

cou

ldm

ean

som

eth

ing

like

‘fees

impo

sed

byth

ego

vern

men

t’.]

The

bett

era

stat

e’s

con

stit

uti

onis

,th

em

ore

publ

icaf

fair

sou

tran

kpr

ivat

eco

nce

rns

inth

em

inds

ofth

eci

tize

ns.

Ther

ew

on’t

even

beas

man

ypr

ivat

eco

nce

rns

·as

ther

ear

ein

ale

ssw

ellc

onst

itu

ted

stat

e·,b

ecau

seth

eag

greg

ate

ofth

eco

mm

onh

appi

nes

spr

ovid

esa

bigg

erpr

opor

tion

ofth

eh

appi

nes

sof

each

indiv

idu

al,so

that

ther

e’s

less

for

him

todo

inta

kin

gca

reof

his

own

nee

ds

and

des

ires

.In

aw

ell-

order

edci

tyev

ery

man

flies

toth

eas

sem

blie

s;u

nde

ra

bad

gove

rnm

ent

no-

one

wan

tsto

take

ast

epto

get

ther

e,be

cau

se

• no-

one

isin

tere

sted

inw

hat

hap

pen

sth

ere,

and

beca

use

• it

can

be

seen

inad

van

ceth

atth

ege

ner

alw

illw

on’t

prev

ail,

and

last

lybe

cau

se• d

omes

tic

care

sar

eal

l-ab

sorb

ing.

Goo

dla

ws

lead

toth

em

akin

gof

bett

eron

es;

bad

ones

brin

gab

out

wor

se.

As

soon

asan

yon

esa

ysof

the

affa

irs

ofth

est

ate

‘Wh

atdo

Ica

re?’

,th

est

ate

may

begi

ven

up

for

lost

.Th

elu

kew

arm

nes

sof

pat

riot

ism

,th

eac

tivi

tyof

pri

vate

inte

rest

,th

eva

stn

ess

ofst

ates

,co

nqu

est

and

the

abu

seof

gove

rnm

ent

sugg

este

dth

em

eth

odof

hav

ing

dep

uti

esor

repre

sen

tati

ves

ofth

epeo

ple

inth

en

atio

nal

asse

mblie

s.S

ome

men

inso

me

cou

ntr

ies

hav

epr

esu

med

toca

llth

ese

‘the

Thir

dE

stat

e’;·n

otic

eth

ird·!—

putt

ing

the

indi

vidu

alin

tere

stof

the

nob

ility

and

the

cler

gyfir

stan

dse

con

d,an

dth

epu

blic

inte

rest

thir

d.

Sov

erei

gnty

can

’tbe

repr

esen

ted,

for

the

sam

ere

ason

that

itca

n’t

beal

ien

ated

[see

Glo

ssar

y];w

hat

sove

reig

nty

esse

nti

ally

isis

the

gen

eral

will

,an

da

will

can

’tbe

repr

esen

ted;

som

e-th

ing

purp

orti

ng

tosp

eak

for

the

will

ofx

eith

eris

the

will

ofx

orit

isso

met

hin

gel

se;

ther

eis

no

inte

rmed

iate

poss

ibili

ty,

·i.e.

som

eth

ing

that

isn

’tex

actl

yx’

sw

illbu

tis

n’t

outr

igh

tn

otx’

sw

illei

ther

·.Th

epe

ople

’sde

puti

es,th

eref

ore,

can

’tbe

its

repr

esen

tati

ves:

they

are

mer

ely

its

agen

ts,an

dca

n’t

sett

lean

yth

ing

byth

emse

lves

.A

ny

‘law

’th

atth

epo

pula

ceh

asn

’tra

tifie

din

pers

onis

nu

llan

dvo

id—

itis

n’t

ala

w.

The

En

glis

hpop

ula

cere

gard

sit

self

asfr

ee,bu

tth

at’s

quit

ew

ron

g;it

isfr

eeon

lydu

rin

gth

eel

ecti

onof

mem

ber

sof

par

liam

ent.

As

soon

asth

eyar

eel

ecte

d,th

epo

pula

cego

esin

tosl

aver

y,an

dis

not

hin

g.Th

eu

seit

mak

esof

its

shor

tm

omen

tsof

liber

tysh

ows

that

itde

serv

esto

lose

its

liber

ty!

The

idea

ofre

pres

enta

tion

ism

oder

n;

itco

mes

tou

sfr

omfe

uda

lgov

ern

men

t,fr

omth

atin

iqu

itou

san

dab

surd

syst

emth

atdeg

rades

hu

man

ity

and

dis

hon

ours

the

nam

eof

man

.

49

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u315

.D

epu

ties

orre

pres

enta

tive

s

Inan

cien

tre

pu

blic

san

dev

enin

mon

arch

ies,

the

peo

ple

nev

erh

adre

pres

enta

tive

s;th

ew

ord

itse

lfw

asu

nkn

own

.It

isre

mar

kab

le• t

hat

inR

ome,

wh

ere

the

trib

un

esw

ere

sosa

cros

anct

,n

o-on

eev

erim

agin

edth

atth

eyco

uld

usu

rpth

efu

nct

ion

sof

the

peop

le,an

d• t

hat

inth

em

idst

ofso

grea

ta

mu

ltit

ude

they

nev

ertr

ied

toco

ndu

cta

pu

blic

refe

ren

du

mon

thei

row

nau

thor

ity.

Sti

ll,w

eca

nga

uge

the

dif

ficu

ltie

sso

met

imes

cau

sed

by

the

size

ofth

ose

crow

ds

from

wh

ath

appen

edat

the

tim

eof

the

Gra

cch

i,w

hen

som

eof

the

citi

zen

sh

adto

cast

thei

rvo

tes

from

the

roof

-top

s.W

her

eri

ght

and

liber

tyar

eev

eryt

hin

g,di

sadv

anta

ges

are

not

hin

g.A

mon

gth

isw

ise

peo

ple

—·t

he

anci

ent

Rom

ans·

—ev

eryt

hin

gw

asgi

ven

its

just

valu

e:it

slic

tors

wer

eal

low

edto

dow

hat

its

trib

un

esw

ould

nev

erh

ave

dare

dto

do,

beca

use

ith

adn

ofe

arth

atit

slic

tors

wou

ldtr

yto

repr

esen

tit

.Yo

u’ll

un

der

stan

dh

owth

etr

ibu

nes

did

som

etim

esre

p-

rese

nt

the

peo

ple

ifyo

uth

ink

abou

th

owth

ego

vern

men

tre

pre

sen

tsth

eso

vere

ign

.La

wbei

ng

not

hin

gbu

tth

edec

la-

rati

onof

the

gen

eral

will

,it

’scl

ear

that

the

pop

ula

cein

its

law

-mak

ing

capa

city

can

’tbe

repr

esen

ted;

but

inre

spec

tof

the

exec

uti

vepo

wer

—w

hic

his

only

the

forc

eth

atis

appl

ied

to·im

plem

enti

ng·

the

law

—it

can

and

shou

ldbe

repr

esen

ted.

We

thu

sse

eth

atif

we

look

edcl

osel

yin

toth

em

atte

rw

ew

ould

fin

dth

atve

ryfe

wn

atio

ns

hav

ean

yla

ws!

Be

that

asit

may

,it

isce

rtai

nth

atth

etr

ibu

nes

,h

avin

gn

oex

ecu

tive

pow

er,

cou

ldn

ever

repre

sen

tth

eR

oman

peo

ple

• by

righ

tof

the

pow

ers

entr

ust

edto

them

,bu

ton

ly• b

yu

surp

ing

the

righ

tsof

the

sen

ate.

InG

reec

e,al

lth

atth

epop

ula

ceh

adto

do,

itdid

for

itse

lf;

itw

asco

nst

antl

yas

sem

ble

din

the

pu

blic

squ

are.

Th

eG

reek

sliv

edin

am

ildcl

imat

e;th

eyw

eren

’tgr

eedy;

slav

esdi

dth

eir

wor

kfo

rth

em;

thei

rgr

eat

con

cern

was

wit

hlib

erty

.La

ckin

gth

ose

adva

nta

ges,

how

can

you

pre

serv

eth

ose

righ

ts?

You

rh

arsh

ercl

imat

esad

dto

you

rn

eeds;

19

for

hal

fth

eye

aryo

ur

publ

icsq

uar

esar

eu

nin

hab

itab

le;th

efla

tnes

sof

you

rla

ngu

ages

un

fits

them

for

bein

gh

eard

inth

eop

enai

r;yo

upu

tm

ore

into

profi

tth

anin

tolib

erty

,an

dfe

aryo

usl

aver

yle

ssth

anyo

ufe

arpo

vert

y.W

hat

?!Is

liber

tym

ain

tain

edon

lyw

ith

hel

pfr

omsl

aver

y?It

may

be

so.

Ext

rem

esm

eet.

Eve

ryth

ing

that

isn

’tin

the

cou

rse

ofn

atu

reh

asit

sdra

wbac

ks,

espec

ially

civi

lsoc

iety

.Th

ere

are

som

eu

nh

appy

circ

um

stan

ces

wh

ere

we

can

’tkee

pou

rlib

erty

exce

pt

atot

her

s’ex

pen

se,

and

wh

ere

the

citi

zen

can

be

per

fect

lyfr

eeon

lyw

hen

the

slav

eis

mos

ta

slav

e.Th

at’s

how

thin

gsst

ood

atS

par

ta.

As

for

you

,m

oder

npeo

ple

s,yo

udon

’th

ave

slav

esbu

tyo

ua

resl

aves

;yo

upay

for

thei

rlib

erty

wit

hyo

ur

own

.B

oast

away

abou

tth

ispr

efer

ence

—I

find

init

mor

eco

war

dice

than

hu

man

ity.

Idon

’tm

ean

that

one

ough

tto

hav

esl

aves

,or

that

the

righ

tof

slav

ery

isle

giti

mat

e(I

hav

esh

own

that

itis

n’t)

.I’m

mer

ely

sayi

ng

wh

ym

oder

npeo

ple

s,th

inkin

gth

eyar

efr

ee,

hav

ere

pres

enta

tive

s,w

her

eas

anci

entp

eopl

esdi

dn’t.

Be

that

asit

may

,th

em

omen

tape

ople

allo

ws

itse

lfto

bere

pres

ente

d,it

stop

sbe

ing

free

—it

stop

sbe

ing.

All

thin

gsco

nsi

der

ed,

Idon

’tse

eth

atit

isan

ylo

nge

rpo

ssib

lefo

rth

eso

vere

ign

topr

eser

veam

ong

us

the

exer

cise

ofit

sri

ghts

,u

nle

ssth

eci

tyis

very

smal

l.B

ut

ifit

isve

rysm

all,

won

’tit

be

con

quer

ed?

No.

I’ll

show

late

ron

how

ath

eex

tern

alst

ren

gth

ofa

grea

tpe

ople

can

beco

mbi

ned

wit

hth

esm

ooth

polit

ics

and

good

orde

rof

asm

alls

tate

.20

19To

adop

tin

cold

cou

ntr

ies

the

luxu

ryan

def

fem

inac

yof

the

Eas

tis

tow

ant

tosu

bmit

toit

sch

ain

s—in

deed

tobo

wto

them

far

mor

ein

evit

ably

inou

rca

seth

anin

thei

rs.

20I

had

inte

nde

dto

doth

isin

the

sequ

elto

the

pres

ent

wor

k,w

hen

inde

alin

gw

ith

exte

rnal

rela

tion

sI

cam

eto

the

subj

ect

ofco

nfe

dera

tion

s.Th

esu

bjec

tis

quit

en

ew,

and

its

prin

cipl

esh

ave

still

tobe

laid

dow

n.

50

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u317

.W

hat

doe

ses

tabl

ish

gove

rnm

ent

16.

What

esta

blis

hes

gove

rnm

ent

isn’t

aco

ntr

act

On

ceth

ele

gisl

ativ

epow

erh

asbee

nw

ell

esta

blis

hed

,th

en

ext

thin

gis

toes

tablis

hal

soth

eex

ecu

tive

pow

er;

for

this

latt

er,

wh

ich

wor

ks

only

thro

ugh

par

ticu

lar

acti

ons,

isn

’tpa

rtof

the

esse

nce

ofth

efo

rmer

and

sois

nat

ura

llyse

para

tefr

omit

.If

the

sove

reig

nqu

aso

vere

ign

cou

ldpos

sess

the

exec

uti

vepow

er,ri

ght

and

fact

wou

ldbe

som

ixed

toge

ther

that

no-

one

cou

ldte

llw

hat

was

law

and

wh

atw

asn

’t;an

dth

ebo

dypo

litic

,th

us

disfi

gure

d,w

ould

soon

fall

prey

toth

evi

olen

ceit

was

inst

itu

ted

topr

even

t.B

ecau

seth

eci

tize

ns

are,

byth

eso

cial

con

trac

t,al

lequ

al,

they

can

allpre

scri

be

anyt

hin

gth

atal

lof

them

shou

lddo;

wh

erea

sn

o-on

eh

asa

righ

tto

dem

and

that

som

eon

eel

sesh

alld

oso

met

hin

gth

ath

edo

esn

’tdo

him

self.

Itis

this

righ

tth

atth

eso

vere

ign

,in

inst

itu

tin

gth

ego

vern

men

t,co

nfe

rsu

pon

the

pri

nce

.It

’sa

righ

tth

at·t

he

pri

nce

has

toh

ave

beca

use

it·i

sin

disp

ensa

ble

for

givi

ng

life

and

mov

emen

tto

the

body

polit

ic.

Man

yth

eori

sts

hav

ecl

aim

edth

atth

isac

tof

esta

blis

h-

men

tw

asa

con

trac

tbet

wee

nth

epeo

ple

and

the

rule

rsit

sets

over

itse

lf—

aco

ntr

act

spec

ifyi

ng

the

con

dit

ion

su

nder

wh

ich

one

ofth

etw

opar

ties

was

oblig

edto

com

man

dan

dth

eot

her

was

oblig

edto

obey

.I’m

sure

you

’llag

ree

wit

hm

eth

atth

atw

ould

bean

odd

kin

dof

con

trac

tto

ente

rin

to!

Bu

tle

tu

sse

eif

this

view

can

beu

phel

d.·I

’llgi

veth

ree

reas

ons

wh

yit

can

’t·.

(1)Th

esu

prem

eau

thor

ity

can

no

mor

ebe

mod

ified

than

itca

nbe

alie

nat

ed;

tolim

itit

isto

des

troy

it.

Itis

absu

rdan

dco

ntr

adic

tory

tosu

ppos

eth

atth

eso

vere

ign

mig

ht

set

asu

peri

orov

erit

self;

bin

din

git

self

toob

eya

mas

ter

wou

ldbe

retu

rnin

gto

·th

ete

rrib

lech

aos

of·a

bsol

ute

liber

ty.

(2)

Mor

eove

r,it

iscl

ear

that

this

con

trac

tbet

wee

nth

epe

ople

and

such

-an

d-su

chin

divi

dual

sw

ould

bea

part

icu

lar

act;

and

from

this

isfo

llow

sth

atit

can

’tbe

ala

wor

anac

tof

sove

reig

nty

,an

dth

atco

nse

quen

tly

itw

ould

beill

egit

imat

e.(3

)It

’sob

viou

sal

soth

at·in

this

suppos

edco

ntr

act·

the

con

trac

tin

gpar

ties

wou

ldbe

un

der

not

hin

gbu

tth

ela

wof

nat

ure

,w

ith

no

guar

ante

esof

thei

rm

utu

alu

nde

rtak

ings

—w

hic

hw

ould

bew

hol

lyat

vari

ance

wit

hth

eci

vils

tate

.S

ome-

one

wh

oh

asfo

rce

ath

isco

mm

and

isal

way

sin

apo

siti

onto

con

trol

exec

uti

on,s

oth

eid

eath

atI’m

atta

ckin

gw

ould

beon

apar

wit

hgi

vin

gth

ela

bel

‘con

trac

t’to

the

act

ofon

em

anw

ho

said

toan

oth

er:

‘Igi

veyo

ual

lm

ygo

ods,

onco

ndit

ion

that

you

give

me

back

asm

uch

ofth

emas

you

plea

se.’

Ther

e’s

only

one

con

trac

tin

the

stat

e;it

isth

eco

ntr

act

ofas

soci

atio

n,w

hic

hsi

ngl

e-h

ande

dly

rule

sou

tan

yot

her

s.It

isim

poss

ible

toco

nce

ive

ofan

ypu

blic

con

trac

tth

atw

ould

n’t

viol

ate

the

first

one.

17.

What

does

esta

blis

hgo

vern

men

t

Un

der

wh

atge

ner

alid

eath

ensh

ould

we

con

ceiv

eth

eac

tby

wh

ich

gove

rnm

ent

isin

stit

ute

d?I’l

lsta

rtby

sayi

ng

that

the

act

isco

mple

x,i.e.

isco

mpos

edof

two

oth

ers—

(i)

the

esta

blis

hm

ent

ofth

ela

wan

d(ii)

the

exec

uti

onof

the

law

.B

y(i)th

eso

vere

ign

decr

ees

that

ther

e’s

tobe

ago

vern

ing

body

esta

blis

hed

insu

ch-a

nd-

such

afo

rm;t

his

act

iscl

earl

ya

law

.B

y(ii)

the

pop

ula

cepic

ks

the

rule

rsw

ho

are

toru

nth

ego

vern

men

tth

ath

asbee

nes

tablis

hed

.Th

isse

lect

ion

isa

par

ticu

lar

act;

soit

’scl

earl

yn

otan

oth

erla

w,

bu

tm

erel

ya

con

sequ

ence

ofth

efir

stan

da

fun

ctio

nof

gove

rnm

ent

[=‘a

nac

tof

the

gove

rnm

ent’]

.B

ut

ther

e’s

adif

ficu

lty:

How

can

ther

ebe

anac

tof

the

gove

rnm

ent

befo

reth

ego

vern

men

tex

ists

?A

nd

how

can

the

pop

ula

ce,

wh

ich

ison

ly• s

over

eign

or• s

ubje

ct,

bec

ome

apr

ince

orm

agis

trat

eu

nde

rce

rtai

nci

rcu

mst

ance

s?

51

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u318

.Pr

otec

tin

gth

ego

vern

men

tfr

omta

ke-o

vers

[Th

efo

rmer

ofth

ose

two

ques

tion

sar

ises

stra

igh

tou

tof

wh

atR

ouss

eau

has

just

been

sayi

ng,

but

the

latt

erqu

esti

ondo

esn

’t.W

ekn

owh

isth

esis

that

the

popu

lace

—th

eto

talit

yof

the

peop

le—

isth

e• s

over

eign

thro

ugh

the

exer

cise

ofit

sge

ner

alw

ill,a

nd

isth

ese

tof

• su

bjec

tsbe

cau

seof

thei

rob

ligat

ion

toob

eyth

ego

vern

men

t.A

nd

we

reca

llth

atba

ckat

page

33h

ese

emed

toco

un

ten

ance

the

idea

that

the

gove

rnin

gbo

dym

igh

tre

ach

the

upp

erlim

itof

nu

mer

ousn

ess

byad

mit

tin

gev

ery

citi

zen

into

it.

He

rais

esth

em

atte

rag

ain

her

ebe

cau

se,it

seem

s,h

eth

inks

ith

elps

him

toan

swer

the

form

erof

the

two

ques

tion

s.]

At

this

poi

nt

we

enco

un

ter

one

ofth

eas

ton

ish

ing

pro

p-

erti

esof

the

bod

ypol

itic

,by

mea

ns

ofw

hic

hit

reco

nci

les

appa

ren

tly

con

trad

icto

ryop

erat

ion

s:th

isis

don

eby

asu

d-de

nco

nve

rsio

nof

• sov

erei

gnty

into

• dem

ocra

cy,

soth

atw

ith

no

chan

geth

atan

yon

eco

uld

see

and

pure

lyth

rou

gha

new

rela

tion

ofal

lto

all,

the

citi

zen

sbec

ome

mag

istr

ates

and

pass

from

gen

eral

acts

topa

rtic

ula

rac

ts,

from

legi

slat

ion

toth

eex

ecu

tion

ofth

ela

w.

This

chan

geof

rela

tion

ship

isn

’ta

theo

reti

cian

’ssu

btle

tyw

ith

no

exam

ple

sou

tth

ere

inth

ew

orld

.It

hap

pen

sev

ery

day

inth

eE

ngl

ish

par

liam

ent,

wh

ere

once

rtai

noc

casi

ons

the

Low

erH

ouse

turn

sit

self

into

a‘c

omm

itte

eof

the

wh

ole’

soas

toh

ave

abet

ter

dis

cuss

ion

ofaf

fair

s,so

that

from

bei

ng

aton

em

omen

ta

sove

reig

nco

urt

itbec

omes

atth

en

ext

am

ere

com

mis

sion

,·a

nor

gan

ofgo

vern

men

t·;th

enit

repor

tsth

eu

psh

otof

thes

edis

cuss

ion

sto

itse

lfas

Hou

seof

Com

mon

s,w

her

eit

deba

tes

un

der

one

nam

ew

hat

ith

asal

read

yse

ttle

du

nde

ran

oth

er.

That

’sth

esp

ecia

ladv

anta

geof

dem

ocra

tic

gove

rnm

ent—

that

itca

nbe

bro

ugh

tin

toex

iste

nce

by

asi

mple

act

ofth

ege

ner

alw

ill.

An

dth

enth

ispr

ovis

ion

algo

vern

men

tre

mai

ns

inpo

wer

,if

that

’sw

hat

was

deci

ded,

orel

seit

,ac

tin

gin

the

nam

eof

the

sove

reig

n,

esta

blis

hes

the

gove

rnm

ent

that

ispr

escr

ibed

byla

w;an

dth

us

the

wh

ole

thin

gis

don

eby

the

rule

s.Th

at’s

the

only

pos

sible

way

tose

tu

pgo

vern

men

t

legi

tim

atel

yan

din

acco

rdan

cew

ith

the

prin

cipl

esI

hav

ela

iddo

wn

.

18.

How

topr

otec

tth

ego

vern

men

tfr

ombe

ing

taken

over

Wh

atIh

ave

just

said

con

firm

sch

apte

r16

,an

dm

akes

itcl

ear

• th

atth

eac

tth

atin

stit

ute

sgo

vern

men

tis

not

aco

ntr

act,

bu

ta

law

;• t

hat

the

reci

pie

nts

ofth

eex

ecu

tive

pow

erar

en

otth

epeo

ple

’sm

aste

rs,

bu

tit

sof

fice

rs;

• th

atit

can

set

them

up

and

pu

llth

emdow

nw

hen

itlik

es;

• th

atfo

rth

emth

ere

isn

oqu

esti

onof

con

trac

t,bu

tof

obed

ien

ce;

and

• th

atin

taki

ng

over

the

fun

ctio

ns

the

stat

eh

asas

sign

edto

them

they

’re

only

doin

gth

eir

duty

asci

tize

ns,

wit

hou

th

avin

gth

ean

yri

ght

toch

alle

nge

the

con

diti

ons.

So

wh

enth

epo

pula

cese

tsu

pa

her

edit

ary

gove

rnm

ent—

wh

eth

erm

onar

chic

alw

ith

inon

efa

mily

orar

isto

crat

icw

ith

inon

e·s

ocia

l·cl

ass—

itis

n’t

mak

ing

any

prom

ises

.A

llit

’sdo

ing

isto

give

the

adm

inis

trat

ion

ace

rtai

nfo

rm,

prov

isio

na

lly,

tola

stu

nti

lit

plea

ses

the

peop

leto

mak

eso

me

oth

erar

ran

ge-

men

t. It’s

tru

eth

atsu

chch

ange

sar

eal

way

sdan

gero

us,

and

that

anes

tabl

ish

edgo

vern

men

tsh

ould

n’t

beto

uch

edu

nle

ssit

has

com

ein

toco

nflic

tw

ith

the

pu

blic

good

;bu

tth

isis

just

an

ote

ofw

arn

ing,

am

axim

ofpo

licy;

itis

n’t

ale

galr

ule

,an

dth

est

ate

isn

om

ore

bou

nd

tole

ave

civi

lau

thor

ity

inth

eh

ands

ofit

sru

lers

than

itis

tole

ave

mili

tary

auth

orit

yin

the

han

dsof

its

gen

eral

s.C

are

shou

ldbe

taken

insu

chca

ses

toob

serv

eal

lth

efo

rmal

itie

sth

atar

ere

quir

edif

are

gula

ran

dle

giti

mat

eac

tis

tobe

dist

ingu

ish

edfr

oma

sedi

tiou

stu

mu

lt,an

dth

ew

illof

aw

hol

epe

ople

dist

ingu

ish

edfr

omth

ecl

amou

rof

afa

ctio

n.

‘Car

esh

ould

be

taken

’—it

wou

ldbe

impos

sible

tota

ke

too

mu

chca

re!

[Th

isn

ext

bit

expa

nds

som

eth

ing

that

Rou

ssea

uw

rote

52

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u318

.Pr

otec

tin

gth

ego

vern

men

tfr

omta

ke-o

vers

usi

ng

anol

dle

gal

term

.]H

ere

abov

eal

lth

ego

vern

men

t,w

hen

con

fron

ted

wit

hcl

aim

sof

righ

tsth

atit

thin

ks

wou

ldbe

espec

ially

dan

gero

us

toal

low

,sh

ould

allo

won

lyw

hat

itle

gally

mu

st.

Th

isob

ligat

ion

give

sth

epri

nce

agr

eat

ad-

van

tage

inpr

eser

vin

gh

ispo

wer

desp

ite

the

peop

le,

wit

hou

tit

sbei

ng

pos

sible

tosa

yh

eh

asu

surp

edit

;fo

r,se

emin

gon

lyto

• exe

rcis

eh

isri

ghts

,h

efin

ds

itve

ryea

syto

• ext

end

them

,an

dto

use

the

‘kee

pin

gth

epea

ce’e

xcu

seto

pre

ven

tga

ther

ings

that

wer

eto

hav

ebe

enai

med

atre

stor

ing

orde

r.In

this

way

he

take

sad

van

tage

of• a

sile

nce

that

he

does

n’t

allo

wto

be

bro

ken

,or

of• i

rreg

ula

riti

esth

ath

eca

use

sto

beco

mm

itte

d,to

• ass

um

eth

ath

eh

asth

esu

ppor

tof

thos

ew

hom

fear

pre

ven

tsfr

omsp

eakin

g,an

dto

• pu

nis

hth

ose

wh

odar

eto

spea

k.

Th

atis

how

anci

ent

Rom

e’s

dec

emvi

rs,

firs

tel

ecte

dfo

ron

eye

aran

dth

enkep

ton

inof

fice

for

ase

con

d,tr

ied

tom

ake

thei

rpo

wer

perm

anen

tby

forb

iddi

ng

the

com

itia

toas

sem

ble

;an

dby

this

easy

met

hod

ever

ygo

vern

men

tin

the

wor

ld,on

ceit

iscl

oth

edw

ith

the

pu

blic

pow

er,

soon

eror

late

ru

surp

sth

eso

vere

ign

auth

orit

y.[T

he

dece

mvi

rsw

ere

ate

n-m

anco

mm

itte

ew

hic

hw

as,

inR

ouss

eau

’sse

nse

ofth

ew

ord,

‘apr

ince

’.O

fcou

rse

aco

mm

itte

eis

an‘it

’,n

ota

‘he’

asa

prin

ceis

—in

En

glis

h,

but

Fre

nch

does

n’t

hav

edi

ffer

ent

wor

dsfo

r‘h

e’an

d‘it

’;se

eth

en

ote

onpa

ge48

.]

The

peri

odic

alas

sem

blie

sth

atI

spok

eof

earl

ier

[pag

e47

]ar

ea

devi

cefo

rpr

even

tin

gor

post

pon

ing

this

cala

mit

y.Th

eir

chan

ceof

succ

eedi

ng

inth

atis

grea

ter

ifth

eydo

n’t

hav

eto

befo

rmal

lysu

mm

oned

,be

cau

seth

enth

epr

ince

can

’tst

opth

emw

ith

out

open

lyde

clar

ing

him

self

ala

w-b

reak

eran

dan

enem

yof

the

stat

e.Th

ese

asse

mbl

ies,

wh

ose

sole

obje

ctis

the

mai

nte

nan

ceof

the

soci

altr

eaty

,sh

ould

open

byth

epo

sin

gof

two

ques

tion

sth

at• m

ust

nev

erbe

suppre

ssed

and

• sh

ould

be

vote

don

sepa

rate

ly:

(1)‘D

oes

itple

ase

the

sove

reig

nto

pre

serv

eth

epre

sen

tfo

rmof

gove

rnm

ent?

’(2

)‘D

oes

itple

ase

the

peo

ple

tole

ave

its

adm

inis

trat

ion

inth

eh

ands

ofth

ose

wh

oar

ecu

rren

tly

inch

arge

ofit

?’I’m

assu

min

gh

ere

som

eth

ing

that

Ith

ink

Ih

ave

show

n,

nam

ely

that

ther

eis

inth

est

ate

no

fun

dam

enta

lla

wth

atca

n’t

be

revo

ked

.E

ven

the

soci

alco

mpac

tit

self

can

be

revo

ked

:if

all

the

citi

zen

sca

me

toge

ther

for

the

agre

edpu

rpos

eof

brea

kin

gth

eco

mpa

ct,

ther

e’s

no

dou

btth

atth

isw

ould

very

legi

tim

atel

ybre

akit

.G

roti

us

even

thin

ks

that

each

man

can

ren

oun

ceh

ism

ember

ship

ofh

isow

nst

ate,

and

reco

ver

his

nat

ura

llib

erty

and

his

good

son

leav

ing

the

cou

ntr

y.21

Itw

ould

beab

surd

ifal

lth

eci

tize

ns

inas

sem

bly

cou

ldn

’tdo

som

eth

ing

that

each

can

doby

him

self.

21Pr

ovid

ed,

ofco

urs

e,th

ath

edo

esn

’tle

ave

toes

cape

his

oblig

atio

ns

and

avoi

dh

avin

gto

serv

eh

isco

un

try

just

wh

enit

nee

dsh

im.

Flig

ht

that

case

wou

ldbe

crim

inal

and

pun

ish

able

;it

wou

ldn

’tbe

aw

ith

draw

albu

ta

dese

rtio

n.

53

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u41.

The

gen

eral

will

isin

dest

ruct

ible

BO

OK

4

1.

The

gener

alw

illis

inde

stru

ctib

le

As

lon

gas

an

um

ber

ofm

enga

ther

edto

geth

erre

gard

them

-se

lves

asa

sin

gle

bod

y,th

eyh

ave

only

asi

ngl

ew

ill,

wh

ich

isco

nce

rned

wit

hth

esu

rviv

alan

dw

ell-

bein

gof

allo

fth

em.

Inth

isca

se,

the

stat

e’s

mac

hin

ery

isal

lvig

orou

san

dsi

mpl

ean

dit

sru

les

clea

ran

dlu

min

ous;

ther

e’s

no

tan

gle

ofh

idde

nag

enda

s;th

eco

mm

ongo

odis

alw

ays

obvi

ous,

and

only

good

sen

seis

nee

ded

tope

rcei

veit

.Pe

ace,

un

ity

and

equ

alit

yar

een

emie

sof

polit

ical

subt

leti

es.

Sim

ple

stra

igh

tfor

war

dm

enar

eh

ard

todec

eive

bec

ause

ofth

eir

sim

plic

ity;

lure

san

din

gen

iou

sex

cuse

sdon

’tw

ork

wit

hth

em—

they

aren

’tev

ensu

btle

enou

ghto

bedu

pes!

Wh

enam

ong

the

wor

ld’s

hap

pies

tpeo

ple

we

see

agr

oup

ofpea

san

tsga

ther

edu

nder

anoa

kto

regu

late

the

stat

e’s

affa

irs,

and

alw

ays

acti

ng

wis

ely,

can

we

hel

psc

orn

ing

the

soph

isti

cati

onof

oth

ern

atio

ns,

wh

ich

pu

tso

mu

chsk

illan

dso

mu

chm

yste

ryin

tom

akin

gm

ake

them

selv

esill

ust

riou

san

dw

retc

hed

?A

stat

ego

vern

edlik

eth

atdoe

sn’t

nee

dm

any

law

s;an

dw

hen

new

ones

are

nee

ded

,ev

eryo

ne

will

see

that

they

are.

The

first

man

topr

opos

eth

emis

mer

ely

putt

ing

into

wor

dsw

hat

they

hav

eal

lbee

nth

inki

ng,

and

ther

e’s

no

plac

eh

ere

for

dea

lsor

for

eloq

uen

cein

order

toge

tpas

sed

into

law

som

eth

ing

that

each

ofth

emh

asal

read

ydec

ided

todo

asso

onas

he’

ssu

reth

atth

ere

stw

illac

tw

ith

him

.Th

eori

sts

are

stru

ckby

the

impo

ssib

ility

ofap

plyi

ng

such

pro

cedu

res

toan

yst

ate

that

they

hav

ese

en;

bu

tth

eygo

wro

ng

abou

tth

is,be

cau

seth

eon

lyst

ates

they

hav

elo

oked

atar

eon

esth

atw

ere

badl

yco

nst

itu

ted

from

the

begi

nn

ing.

Wh

enth

eypi

ctu

real

lth

eab

surd

itie

sth

ata

clev

erra

scal

ora

char

min

gsp

eake

rm

igh

tge

tth

epe

ople

ofPa

ris

orLo

ndo

n

tobel

ieve

,it

mak

esth

emsm

ile.

Th

eydon

’tre

aliz

eth

atC

rom

wel

lwou

ldh

ave

been

sen

ten

ced

toh

ard

labo

ur

byth

epe

ople

ofB

ern

e,an

dth

eD

uc

deB

eau

fort

wou

ldh

ave

been

put

ina

refo

rmat

ory

byth

eG

enev

ese!

Bu

tw

hen

the

soci

albon

dbeg

ins

tosl

acken

and

the

stat

eto

grow

wea

k,w

hen

part

icu

lar

inte

rest

sst

art

tom

ake

them

selv

esfe

ltan

dth

esm

alle

rso

ciet

ies

begi

nto

influ

ence

the

larg

eron

e,th

eco

mm

onin

tere

stch

ange

san

dco

mes

toh

ave

oppon

ents

;vo

tes

are

no

lon

ger

un

anim

ous;

the

gen

eral

will

isn

olo

nge

rth

ew

illof

all;

con

trad

icto

ryvi

ews

are

pres

ente

dan

dde

bate

sst

art

up;

and

the

best

advi

ceis

n’t

acce

pted

wit

hou

tqu

esti

on.

Fin

ally

,• w

hen

the

nea

rly

ruin

edst

ate

exis

tson

lyin

anill

uso

ryan

dem

pty

form

,w

hen

• in

ever

yh

eart

the

soci

albo

nd

isbr

oken

,an

dw

hen

• th

em

ean

est

inte

rest

braz

enly

hel

psit

self

toth

esa

cred

nam

eof

‘pu

blic

good

’,th

ege

ner

alw

illfa

llssi

len

t:al

lmen

,gu

ided

byse

cret

mot

ives

,st

opgi

vin

gth

eir

view

sas

citi

zen

s(it

’sas

thou

ghth

ere

had

nev

erbee

na

stat

e);

and

wic

ked

dec

rees

dir

ecte

dso

lely

topr

ivat

ein

tere

stge

tpa

ssed

offas

‘law

s’.

Doe

sit

follo

wfr

omth

isth

atth

ege

ner

alw

illis

exte

rmi-

nat

edor

corr

upte

d?

Not

atal

l:it

con

tin

ues

tobe

con

stan

t,u

nal

tera

ble

and

pu

re;

bu

tit

ispu

shed

asid

eby

oth

erw

ills

that

inva

de

its

terr

itor

y.E

ach

man

,in

dis

tin

guis

hin

gh

isin

tere

sts

from

the

com

mon

inte

rest

,se

escl

earl

yth

ath

eca

n’t

enti

rely

separ

ate

them

,·i.

e.th

ath

ispu

rsu

itof

his

own

inte

rest

sw

illh

ave

som

en

egat

ive

effe

cton

the

com

mon

good

·;bu

th

ese

es• h

issh

are

inth

epu

blic

mis

fort

un

esas

neg

ligib

leco

mpa

red

wit

h• t

he

priv

ate

good

that

he

isla

yin

gcl

aim

to.

Apar

tfr

omth

ispri

vate

good

,h

ew

ills

the

gen

eral

54

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u42.

Voti

ng

good

asst

ron

gly

asan

yon

eel

sebe

cau

seit

’sin

his

inte

rest

sto

do

so.

Eve

nw

hen

he

sells

his

vote

for

mon

ey,

he

doe

sn

otex

tin

guis

hth

ege

ner

alw

illin

him

self,

bu

ton

lydod

ges

arou

nd

it.

The

wro

ng

thin

gh

edo

esis

toch

an

geth

equ

esti

on,

answ

erin

ga

dif

fere

nt

ques

tion

from

the

one

he

was

asked

.In

stea

dof

givi

ng

avo

teth

atsa

ys‘It

isto

the

stat

e’s

adva

nta

geth

atsu

ch-a

nd-s

uch

shou

ldh

appe

n’,

he

says

thro

ugh

his

vote

‘Itis

tox’

sad

van

tage

that

such

-an

d-s

uch

shou

ldh

appe

n’,

wh

ere

xis

som

em

anor

fact

ion

.Th

ela

wof

pu

blic

order

—·i.

e.th

eth

ing

that

itm

atte

rsm

ost

toh

ave

hap

pen

·—in

asse

mblie

sis

not

som

uch

• ma

inta

inin

gth

ege

ner

alw

illas

• en

suri

ng

that

itis

con

sult

edan

dth

atit

answ

ers.

Icou

ldof

fer

man

yre

flect

ion

son

the

sim

ple

righ

tof

voti

ng

inev

ery

act

ofso

vere

ign

ty—

ari

ght

that

no-

one

can

take

from

the

citi

zen

s—an

dal

soon

the

righ

tof

stat

ing

view

s,m

akin

gpr

opos

als,

divi

din

gan

ddi

scu

ssin

g,w

hic

hth

ego

vern

men

tis

alw

ays

mos

tca

refu

lto

leav

eso

lely

toit

sm

embe

rs;bu

tth

isim

por

tan

tsu

bje

ctw

ould

nee

da

boo

kto

itse

lf—

Ica

n’t

say

ever

yth

ing

inth

ison

e.

2.

Voti

ng

You

[see

Glo

ssar

y]ca

nse

efr

omth

ela

stch

apte

rth

ata

pre

tty

good

indic

atio

nof

the

curr

ent

stat

eof

mœ

urs

[see

Glo

ssar

y]an

dth

eh

ealt

hof

the

body

polit

icis

give

nby

the

fact

sab

out

how

gen

eral

bu

sin

ess

ism

anag

edby

it..

..Th

en

eare

rop

inio

nco

mes

tou

nan

imit

y,th

egr

eate

ris

the

dom

inan

ceof

the

gen

eral

will

;w

her

eas

lon

gdeb

ates

,dis

sen

sion

san

dtu

mu

ltpr

ocla

im• t

he

dom

inat

ion

bypa

rtic

ula

rin

tere

sts

and

• th

ede

clin

eof

the

stat

e.

This

seem

sle

ssob

viou

sw

hen

ast

ate’

sco

nst

itu

tion

con

-ta

ins

two

orm

ore

order

sof

citi

zen

s,lik

ean

cien

tR

ome’

sn

obili

tyan

dple

bei

ans,

wh

ose

quar

rels

ofte

ndis

turb

edth

eco

mit

ia[s

eepa

ge61

],ev

enin

the

bes

tday

sof

the

Rep

ublic

.B

ut

the

exce

pti

onis

appar

ent

rath

erth

anre

al;

bec

ause

inth

atca

seth

ein

her

ent

def

ect

inth

ebod

ypol

itic

bri

ngs

itab

out

that

ther

ear

e,so

tosp

eak,

two

stat

esin

one,

and

wh

at’s

not

tru

eof

the

two

toge

ther

istr

ue

ofea

chse

para

tely

.In

deed

,ev

enin

the

mos

tst

orm

yti

mes

,th

epl

ebis

cite

sof

the

peo

ple

—as

lon

gas

the

Sen

ate

did

n’t

get

invo

lved

—al

way

sw

ent

thro

ugh

quie

tly

and

by

larg

em

ajor

itie

s:th

eci

tize

ns

had

only

one

inte

rest

,so

the

peop

leh

adon

lyon

ew

ill.

At

the

oth

eren

dof

the

pol

itic

alsp

ectr

um

,u

nan

imit

yci

rcle

sbac

k:

that

’sw

hen

the

citi

zen

s,h

avin

gfa

llen

into

serv

itu

de,

no

lon

ger

hav

ean

ylib

erty

oran

yw

ill.

Fea

ran

dfla

tter

yth

enco

nve

rt• v

otin

gin

to• a

ccla

mat

ion

;n

o-on

eco

nsi

ders

issu

esan

ym

ore;

allt

hey

dois

tofa

wn

·on

thos

ein

pow

er·o

rto

curs

e·t

hei

rri

vals

·.S

uch

was

the

vile

man

ner

inw

hic

hth

ese

nat

eex

pres

sed

its

‘vie

ws’

un

der

the

Em

pero

rs.

Itdi

dso

som

etim

esw

ith

absu

rdpr

ecau

tion

s:Tac

itu

sre

port

sth

atu

nde

rth

eem

pero

rO

tho

the

sen

ator

s,in

hea

pin

gcu

rses

onV

itel

lius,

arra

nge

dto

mak

ea

dea

fen

ing

noi

seso

that

ifV

itel

lius

ever

bec

ame

thei

rm

aste

rh

ew

ould

n’t

kn

oww

hat

each

ofth

emh

adsa

id!

Wh

atru

les

shou

ldgo

vern

the

met

hod

sof

cou

nti

ng

vote

san

dco

mpa

rin

gop

inio

ns?

That

depe

nds

onth

efa

ctor

sI

hav

ebee

ndis

cuss

ing,

i.e.

onh

owea

syor

har

dit

isto

dis

cove

rw

hat

the

gen

eral

will

is,

and

onh

owfa

ral

ong

the

stat

eis

init

sde

clin

e.Th

ere’

son

lyon

ela

wth

atfr

omit

sve

ryn

atu

ren

eeds

un

anim

ous

con

sen

t,n

amel

yth

eso

cial

com

pac

t;fo

rci

vil

asso

ciat

ion

isth

em

ost

volu

nta

ryof

allac

ts.

Eve

rym

anis

born

free

and

his

own

mas

ter,

son

o-on

eon

any

pret

ext—

an

ypre

text

—ca

nm

ake

any

man

asu

bje

ctw

ith

out

his

con

sen

t.

55

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u42.

Voti

ng

To

rule

that

the

son

ofa

slav

eis

born

asl

ave

isto

rule

that

he

isn

’tbo

rna

man

.S

oif

the

soci

alco

mpa

cth

asop

pon

ents

atth

eti

me

wh

enit

ism

ade,

thei

rop

posi

tion

does

n’t

inva

lidat

eth

eco

ntr

act;

itm

erel

ypr

even

tsth

emfr

ombe

ing

incl

ude

din

it,m

akin

gth

emfo

reig

ner

sam

ong

citi

zen

s.O

nce

ast

ate

has

been

inst

itu

ted,

resi

den

ceco

nst

itu

tes

con

sen

t;to

live

wit

hin

its

terr

itor

yis

tosu

bmit

toit

sso

vere

ign

ty.2

2

Apa

rtfr

omth

ispr

imal

con

trac

t,th

evo

teof

the

maj

orit

yal

way

sbi

nds

allt

he

rest

.Th

isfo

llow

sfr

omth

eco

ntr

act

itse

lf.[T

hat

isth

ela

stm

enti

onof

the

soci

alco

ntr

act

un

tilth

ela

stpa

geor

two

ofth

ew

ork.

]Yo

uw

illas

k:‘H

owca

na

man

bebo

th• f

ree

and

• for

ced

toco

nfo

rmto

will

sth

atar

en

oth

isow

n.

How

are

the

oppo

nen

tsat

once

free

and

subje

ctto

law

sth

eyh

ave

not

agre

edto

?I

reply

that

the

ques

tion

isw

ron

gly

pu

t.Th

eci

tize

ngi

ves

his

con

sen

tto

all

the

law

s,in

clu

din

gon

esth

atar

epas

sed

agai

nst

his

oppo

siti

on,

and

even

law

sth

atpu

nis

hh

imw

hen

he

dar

esto

bre

akan

yla

w.

Th

eco

nst

ant

will

ofal

lth

em

ember

sof

the

stat

eis

the

gen

eral

will

;by

virt

ue

ofit

they

are

citi

zen

san

dfr

ee.2

3W

hen

ala

wis

pro

pos

edto

the

asse

mbl

edpe

ople

,w

hat

they

are

bein

gas

ked

isn

ot(1

)D

oyo

uap

prov

eor

reje

ctth

ispr

opos

al?

but

rath

er(2

)Is

this

prop

osal

inco

nfo

rmit

yw

ith

the

gen

eral

will

?—

the

gen

eral

will

bein

gth

eir

will

.E

ach

man

’svo

tegi

ves

his

opin

ion

onth

atpoi

nt,

·i.e.

his

answ

erto

ques

tion

(2)·;

and

the

gen

eral

will

isfo

un

dby

cou

nti

ng

vote

s.W

hen

ther

efor

e

the

opin

ion

that

isco

ntr

ary

tom

yow

npr

evai

ls,th

ispr

oves

nei

ther

mor

en

orle

ssth

anth

atI

was

mis

taken

,an

dth

atw

hat

Ith

ough

tto

be

the

gen

eral

will

was

not

so.

[Rou

ssea

uis

avoi

din

gsa

yin

gth

ata

mer

ely

maj

orit

yvo

teco

uld

expr

ess

the

gen

eral

wil

l;al

lit

does

,h

esa

ys,

isto

expr

ess

anop

inio

nab

out

wh

atth

ege

ner

alw

ill

is.].

...

Th

ispre

suppos

es,

indee

d,

that

all

the

qual

itie

sof

the

gen

eral

will

still

resi

de

inth

em

ajor

ity:

wh

enth

eyce

ase

todo

so,

wh

atev

ersi

de

am

anm

ayta

ke,

liber

tyis

no

lon

ger

poss

ible

.

Inm

yea

rlie

rdem

onst

rati

on[p

age

14]

ofh

owpar

ticu

lar

will

sar

esu

bst

itu

ted

for

the

gen

eral

will

inpu

blic

del

iber

a-ti

ons,

Isai

den

ough

abou

tth

ew

orka

ble

met

hod

sfo

rav

oidi

ng

this

abu

se;

and

I’ll

retu

rnto

them

late

ron

.I

also

set

out

the

pri

nci

ple

sfo

rdec

idin

gh

owbig

am

ajor

ity

isn

eeded

for

adec

lara

tion

ofth

atw

ill.

Adif

fere

nce

ofon

evo

tedes

troy

seq

ual

ity;

asi

ngl

eop

pon

ent

dest

roys

un

anim

ity;

but

betw

een

50-5

0an

du

nan

imit

yth

ere

are

man

ygr

ades

ofu

neq

ual

div

isio

n—

·man

ydif

fere

nce

sin

how

stee

pth

em

ajor

ity-

to-

min

orit

ysl

ope

is·—

and

wh

ich

ofth

ese

issu

ffici

ent

for

adec

isio

nto

be

mad

ew

illva

ryac

cord

ing

toth

en

eeds

ofth

ebo

dypo

litic

inqu

esti

on.

Two

gen

eral

rule

spr

ovid

egu

idan

ceto

the

deci

sion

sab

out

maj

orit

ies.

(i)Th

em

ore

seri

ous

and

impo

rtan

tth

equ

esti

onth

atis

bei

ng

pu

tto

the

vote

,th

en

eare

rto

un

anim

ity

the

thre

shh

old

shou

ldbe

set.

(ii)

Th

em

ore

the

subje

ctof

the

ques

tion

calls

for

spee

d,

the

smal

ler

the

maj

orit

yca

nbe

allo

wed

tobe;

and

wh

ere

anin

stan

tdec

isio

nh

asto

be

22Th

issh

ould

ofco

urs

ebe

un

ders

tood

asap

plyi

ng

toa

free

stat

e.In

any

oth

erki

nd

ofst

ate

am

anm

aybe

kept

ina

cou

ntr

yag

ain

sth

isw

ill—

byco

nsi

dera

tion

sof

fam

ily,

good

s,la

ckof

are

fuge

,n

eces

sity

,or

viol

ence

—an

dth

enh

isdw

ellin

gth

ere

no

lon

ger

byit

self

impl

ies

anyt

hin

gab

out

his

atti

tude

—ei

ther

way

—to

the

con

trac

t.23

At

Gen

oa,

the

wor

d‘L

iber

ty’a

ppea

rsov

erth

efr

ont

ofth

epr

ison

san

don

the

chai

ns

ofth

epr

ison

ers

serv

ing

inth

ega

lleys

.Th

isu

seof

the

devi

ceis

good

and

just

.In

deed

it’s

only

the

crim

inal

s—ri

ch,

poor

,an

dm

iddl

ing—

wh

opr

even

tth

eci

tize

nfr

ombe

ing

free

.In

aco

un

try

wh

ere

all

such

men

wer

epu

llin

goa

rsin

the

galle

ys,

the

mos

tpe

rfec

tlib

erty

wou

ldbe

enjo

yed.

56

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u43.

Ele

ctio

ns

reac

hed

,a

maj

orit

yof

one

vote

shou

ldbe

enou

gh.

Ofth

ese

two

rule

s,(i)se

ems

mor

ein

har

mon

yw

ith

the

law

s,an

d(ii)

seem

sm

ore

inh

arm

ony

wit

hpr

acti

cala

ffai

rs.

An

yway

,it

’sth

eco

mbin

atio

nof

them

that

doe

sth

ebes

tjo

bof

dec

idin

gw

hat

size

ofm

ajor

ity

agi

ven

ques

tion

nee

ds.

3.

Ele

ctio

ns

Inth

eel

ecti

ons

ofth

epri

nce

and

the

mag

istr

ates

(wh

ich

are,

Ire

pea

t,co

mple

xac

ts)

ther

ear

etw

opos

sible

way

sto

proc

eed,

• ch

oosi

ng

and

• dra

win

glo

ts.

Bot

hh

ave

been

use

din

vari

ous

repu

blic

s,an

da

hig

hly

com

plic

ated

mix

ture

ofth

etw

ost

illsu

rviv

esin

the

elec

tion

ofth

eD

oge

atVe

nic

e.’E

lect

ion

bylo

tter

y’,sa

ysM

onte

squ

ieu

,‘is

dem

ocra

tic

inn

atu

re’.

Iag

ree

that

itis

,bu

th

owis

it?

‘Th

elo

tter

y’,h

ego

eson

,‘is

aw

ayof

elec

tin

gth

atis

n’t

un

fair

toan

yon

e;it

leav

esea

chci

tize

nw

ith

are

ason

able

hop

eof

serv

ing

his

cou

ntr

y.’

Thos

ear

en’t

rea

son

s!If

we

bear

inm

ind

that

the

elec

tion

ofru

lers

isso

met

hin

gdon

eby

gove

rnm

ent,

not

by

sove

reig

nty

,w

e’ll

see

·th

ere

alre

ason

·wh

yth

elo

tter

yis

the

mor

en

atu

ralf

orde

moc

racy

—a

form

ofgo

vern

men

tw

her

eth

ead

min

istr

atio

nis

bet

ter

inpr

opor

tion

asth

en

um

ber

ofit

sac

tsis

smal

l.In

any

real

dem

ocra

cy,

mag

istr

acy

isn

’ta

ben

efit—

it’s

abu

rden

som

ere

spon

sibili

tyth

atca

n’t

fair

lybe

impos

edon

one

indiv

idu

alra

ther

than

anot

her

.If

the

indiv

idu

alis

sele

cted

by

alo

tter

y,th

ese

lect

ion

isbei

ng

mad

eby

the

law

that

esta

blis

hes

the

lott

ery;

bu

tth

ela

wdoe

sn’t

lose

its

un

iver

salit

yby

itse

lfpic

kin

gou

ton

ein

div

idu

al,an

dn

och

oice

has

been

mad

eth

atde

pen

dson

any

hu

man

will

.In

anar

isto

crac

y,th

epri

nce

choo

ses

the

pri

nce

,th

ego

vern

men

tis

pres

erve

dby

itse

lf,an

dth

at’s

the

righ

tki

nd

ofsi

tuat

ion

for

voti

ng.

The

way

they

elec

tth

eD

oge

ofVe

nic

edo

esn

’tsq

uas

hth

is

dist

inct

ion

;it

con

firm

sit

.Th

em

ixed

form

ofel

ecti

onsu

its

am

ixed

gove

rnm

ent.

·An

dth

ego

vern

men

tof

Ven

ice

isin

deed

mix

ed·;

for

itis

aner

ror

toth

ink

itis

are

alar

isto

crac

y.G

ran

ted,

the

pop

ula

ceh

asn

osh

are

inth

ego

vern

men

t;bu

tin

Ven

ice

the

nob

ility

isth

epop

ula

ce.

Th

atin

clu

des

ah

ost

ofpoo

ryo

un

ger

son

s—·a

nd

you

nge

rso

ns

ofyo

un

ger

son

s—of

nob

lefa

mili

es·;

they

nev

erge

tn

ear

toh

avin

gan

ypos

itio

nin

the

gove

rnm

ent,

and

all

thei

r‘n

obili

ty’

bri

ngs

them

is• t

he

silly

righ

tto

bead

dres

sed

as‘Y

our

Exc

elle

ncy

’an

d• t

he

righ

tto

sit

inth

eG

reat

Cou

nci

l—w

hic

hh

asas

man

ym

ember

sas

our

Gen

eral

Cou

nci

lat

Gen

eva,

soth

atit

s‘il

lust

riou

s’m

ember

sh

ave

no

mor

epri

vile

ges

than

do

our

pla

inci

tize

ns.

Itis

indis

pu

table

that

alth

ough

the

two

repu

blic

sar

eex

trem

ely

dif

fere

nt

inm

any

way

s,th

ebo

urg

eois

ieof

Gen

eva

exac

tly

mat

ches

the

nob

ility

ofVe

nic

e;ou

rn

ativ

esan

din

hab

itan

tsm

atch

the

tow

nsm

enan

dth

epe

ople

ofVe

nic

e;ou

rpe

asan

tsm

atch

the

·Ven

etia

n·s

ubj

ects

onth

em

ain

lan

d·a

sdis

tin

ctfr

omth

eon

esw

ho

live

onth

ecl

ust

erof

isla

nds

that

con

stit

ute

the

his

tori

ch

eart

ofVen

ice·

;an

dw

hat

ever

way

you

look

atit

(set

tin

gas

ide

its

size

),Ven

ice’

sgo

vern

men

tis

no

mor

ear

isto

crat

icth

anou

row

n.

Th

ew

hol

edif

fere

nce

isth

atw

eh

ave

no

nee

dto

use

the

lott

ery,

bec

ause

our

rule

rsar

en

otap

poi

nte

dfo

rlif

eas

Ven

ice’

sar

e.E

lect

ion

by

lott

ery

wou

ldh

ave

few

dra

wbac

ks

ina

real

dem

ocra

cy,

wh

ere

itw

ould

har

dly

mat

ter

wh

ow

asch

osen

beca

use

allt

he

peop

lew

ould

beon

apa

ras

rega

rds

mœ

urs

and

tale

nts

asw

ell

aspri

nci

ple

san

dfo

rtu

nes

.B

ut

Ih

ave

alre

ady

said

that

ther

ear

en’t

any

dem

ocra

cies

.[T

he

end

of3:

4on

page

34]

Wh

ench

oice

and

lott

ery

are

com

bin

ed,

pos

itio

ns

that

requ

ire

spec

ial

tale

nts

,su

chas

mili

tary

pos

ts,

shou

ldbe

fille

dby

choi

ce;

the

lott

ery

serv

esfo

rth

elik

esof

judic

ial

office

s,in

wh

ich

good

sen

se,

just

ice,

and

inte

grit

yar

eal

l

57

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u44.

The

com

itia

inan

cien

tR

ome

that

’sn

eeded

,bec

ause

ina

wel

lco

nst

itu

ted

stat

eth

ese

qual

itie

sar

eco

mm

onto

allt

he

citi

zen

s.N

eith

erlo

tter

yn

orvo

teh

asan

ypla

cein

mon

arch

ical

gove

rnm

ent.

Th

em

onar

chbei

ng

by

righ

tso

lepri

nce

and

only

mag

istr

ate,

itis

for

him

alon

eto

choo

seh

islie

ute

nan

ts.

Wh

enth

eA

bbé

deS

ain

t-Pi

erre

prop

osed

that

the

Cou

nci

lsof

the

Kin

gof

Fra

nce

shou

ldbe

mu

ltip

lied,

and

thei

rm

embe

rsel

ecte

dby

bal

lot,

he

did

n’t

see

that

he

was

pro

pos

ing

toch

ange

the

·fun

dam

enta

l·fo

rmof

gove

rnm

ent.

Ish

ould

now

spea

kof

the

met

hod

sof

givi

ng

and

cou

nti

ng

opin

ion

sin

the

asse

mbly

ofth

epeo

ple

;bu

tper

hap

san

his

tori

cala

ccou

nt

ofth

isas

pec

tof

Rom

anpol

itic

sw

illgi

veyo

um

ore

ofa

sen

seof

the

rule

sI

cou

ldla

ydo

wn

.It

isw

orth

the

wh

ileof

aju

dic

iou

sre

ader

tofo

llow

inso

me

det

ail

the

wor

kin

gof

pu

blic

and

pri

vate

affa

irs

ina

cou

nci

lw

ith

two

hu

ndr

edth

ousa

nd

mem

bers

.

4.

The

com

itia

inan

cien

tR

ome

We

hav

en

ore

liable

reco

rds

ofR

ome’

sea

rly

year

s;it

seem

sve

rylik

ely,

inde

ed,th

atm

ost

ofth

est

orie

sto

ldab

out

itar

efa

ble

s.In

gen

eral

,th

em

ost

inst

ruct

ive

par

tof

the

his

tory

ofpeo

ple

s,n

amel

yth

epas

tdea

ling

wit

hth

eir

fou

ndat

ion

,is

just

wh

atw

eh

ave

leas

tof

.E

xper

ien

cete

ach

esu

sev

ery

day

wh

atca

use

sge

ner

ate

the

revo

luti

ons

ofem

pir

es;

bu

tn

ewpeo

ple

sar

en

otfo

rmed

thes

eday

s,so

we

hav

eal

mos

tn

oth

ing

beyo

nd

con

ject

ure

togo

upo

nin

expl

ain

ing

how

they

wer

ecr

eate

d.Th

ecu

stom

sw

efin

des

tabl

ish

edsh

owat

leas

tth

atth

ese

cust

oms

had

anor

igin

.Th

etr

adit

ion

sth

atgo

back

toth

ose

orig

ins,

and

hav

eth

egr

eate

stau

thor

itie

sbe

hin

dth

em,

and

are

con

firm

edby

the

stro

nge

stev

iden

ce,

shou

ldco

un

tas

the

mos

tce

rtai

n.

Th

ese

are

the

rule

sI

hav

etr

ied

tofo

llow

inin

vest

igat

ing

how

the

free

stan

dm

ost

pow

erfu

lpeo

ple

on

eart

hex

erci

sed

its

supr

eme

pow

er.

Aft

erth

efo

un

dati

onof

Rom

e,th

en

ew-b

orn

repu

blic

—i.e

.th

ear

my

ofit

sfo

un

der

,co

mpos

edof

Alb

ans,

Sab

ines

and

fore

ign

ers—

was

divi

ded

into

thre

ecl

asse

sw

hic

hth

enca

me

tobe

calle

d‘tr

ibes

’.E

ach

ofth

ese

trib

esw

assu

bdiv

ided

into

ten

curi

ae,

and

each

curi

ain

tod

ecu

ria

e,h

eade

dby

lead

ers

calle

dcu

rion

esan

dd

ecu

rion

es.

Bes

ides

this

,ou

tof

each

trib

ew

asta

ken

abod

yof

one

hu

ndre

dca

valr

ymen

orkn

igh

ts,

calle

da

‘cen

tury

’,w

hic

hsh

ows

that

thes

ediv

isio

ns,

bei

ng

un

nec

essa

ryin

ato

wn

,w

ere

atfirs

tm

erel

ym

ilita

ry.

Bu

tan

inst

inct

for

grea

tnes

sse

ems

toh

ave

led

the

littl

eto

wn

ofR

ome

topr

ovid

eit

self

inad

van

cew

ith

apo

litic

alsy

stem

suit

able

for

the

capi

talo

fth

ew

orld

.[R

egar

din

gth

isn

ext

para

grap

h:

Ser

viu

sw

asa

kin

gof

Rom

ein

the

sixt

hce

ntu

ryB

CE

.]O

ut

ofth

isor

igin

aldiv

isio

nan

awkw

ard

situ

atio

nso

onar

ose.

Th

etr

ibes

ofth

eA

lban

san

dth

eS

abin

esre

mai

ned

alw

ays

inth

esa

me

con

diti

on,w

hile

that

ofth

efo

reig

ner

sco

nti

nu

ally

grew

asm

ore

and

mor

efo

reig

ner

sca

me

toliv

ein

Rom

e,so

that

itso

onsu

rpas

sed

the

oth

ers

·inst

ren

gth·.

Ser

viu

sre

med

ied

this

dan

gero

us

fau

ltby

abol

-is

hin

gth

era

cial

basi

sfo

rth

edi

visi

onin

totr

ibes

,re

plac

ing

itby

age

ogra

ph

ical

one—

fou

rtr

ibes

now

,ea

chco

nta

inin

gth

ein

hab

itan

tsof

one

ofth

eh

ills

ofR

ome,

afte

rw

hic

hit

was

nam

ed.

Inth

isw

ay,

wh

ilefixi

ng

the

imm

edia

tein

equ

alit

ypro

ble

mS

ervi

us

also

pro

vided

for

the

futu

re;

and

soth

atth

edi

visi

onm

igh

tbe

one

ofpe

rson

sas

wel

las

loca

litie

s,h

efo

rbad

eth

ein

hab

itan

tsof

one

quar

ter

tom

igra

teto

anot

her

,an

dso

prev

ente

dth

em

ingl

ing

ofth

era

ces.

He

also

dou

ble

d·t

he

size

of·

the

thre

eol

d‘c

entu

ries

’of

kn

igh

ts,

and

added

twel

vem

ore,

still

kee

pin

gth

eol

dn

ames

,an

dby

this

sim

ple

and

pru

den

tm

eth

odh

edre

wa

line

bet

wee

nth

ebod

yof

kn

igh

tsan

dth

epeo

ple

,w

ith

out

am

urm

ur

from

the

peop

le.

58

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u44.

The

com

itia

inan

cien

tR

ome

To

the

fou

ru

rban

trib

esS

ervi

us

added

fift

een

oth

ers

calle

dru

ralt

ribe

s,be

cau

seth

eyco

nsi

sted

ofth

ose

wh

oliv

edin

the

cou

ntr

y,div

ided

into

fift

een

can

ton

s.S

ubse

quen

tly,

fift

een

mor

ew

ere

crea

ted,

and

the

Rom

anpeo

ple

fin

ally

fou

nd

itse

lfdiv

ided

into

thir

ty-fi

vetr

ibes

,as

itre

mai

ned

dow

nto

the

end

ofth

eR

epu

blic

.Th

edi

stin

ctio

nbe

twee

nu

rban

and

rura

ltri

bes

had

one

effe

ctth

atis

wor

thn

otin

g,be

cau

se• i

tis

the

only

exam

ple

ofit

skin

d,

and

bec

ause

• Rom

eow

edto

itth

epre

serv

atio

nof

her

mœ

urs

[see

Glo

ssar

y]an

dth

een

larg

emen

tof

her

empir

e.O

ne

wou

ldh

ave

expe

cted

that

the

urb

antr

ibes

wou

ldso

onm

onop

olis

epow

eran

dh

onou

rs,

losi

ng

no

tim

ein

pu

shin

gth

eru

ralt

ribe

sdo

wn

into

pove

rty

and

wea

knes

s;bu

tw

hat

hap

pen

edw

asex

actl

yth

ere

vers

e.Th

eta

ste

ofth

eea

rly

Rom

ans

for

cou

ntr

ylif

eis

wel

lkn

own

.Th

eyow

edth

ista

ste

toth

eir

wis

efo

un

der,

wh

om

ade

rura

lan

dm

ilita

ryla

bou

rsgo

alon

gw

ith

• lib

erty

and

(as

itw

ere)

pu

shed

off

into

the

tow

n• a

rts,

• tra

des

,• i

ntr

igu

e,• l

uck

,an

d• s

lave

ry.

[By

‘thei

rw

ise

fou

nde

r’,

Rou

ssea

um

ean

sR

omu

lus—

apu

rely

myt

hic

alfo

un

der

ofR

ome,

thou

ghR

ouss

eau

may

hav

eth

ough

th

ew

asre

al,

asdi

dal

lth

eR

oman

his

tori

ans

onw

hos

ew

ork

he

relie

s.]

Th

us,

bec

ause

allR

ome’

sm

ost

illu

stri

ous

citi

zen

sliv

edin

the

field

san

dti

lled

the

eart

h,

the

cou

ntr

ysid

eca

me

tobe

the

only

pla

cew

her

eth

eylo

oked

for

the

peo

ple

wh

ow

ould

keep

the

repu

blic

run

nin

g.Th

isru

ralw

ayof

life,

bein

gth

atof

the

bes

tn

oble

s,w

ash

onou

red

by

ever

yon

e;th

esi

mple

and

har

d-w

orkin

glif

eof

the

villa

ger

was

pre

ferr

edto

the

slac

kan

did

lelif

eof

the

bou

rgeo

isie

ofR

ome;

and

som

eon

ew

ho

inth

eto

wn

wou

ldh

ave

bee

na

wre

tch

edpro

leta

rian

beca

me,

asa

labo

ure

rin

the

field

s,a

resp

ecte

dci

tize

n.

Ou

rgr

eat-

sou

led

ance

stor

s,sa

ysVar

ro,

kn

eww

hat

they

wer

edoi

ng

wh

enth

eyes

tablis

hed

inth

evi

llage

sth

en

urs

ery

ofth

eto

ugh

,bra

vem

enw

ho

• def

ende

dth

emin

tim

eof

war

and

• fed

them

inti

me

ofpe

ace.

Plin

ysa

ysex

plic

itly

that

the

rura

l

trib

esw

ere

hon

oure

dbe

cau

seof

the

men

ofw

hom

they

wer

eco

mpos

ed;

and

thei

rw

ayof

dis

hon

ouri

ng

aco

war

dw

asto

subj

ect

him

toth

epu

blic

disg

race

ofbe

ing

tran

sfer

red

into

anu

rban

trib

e...

.F

reed

slav

esal

way

sen

tere

dth

eu

rban

trib

es,

nev

erth

eru

ralo

nes

;an

dal

thou

ghfr

eed

slav

esco

uld

beco

me

citi

zen

s,th

ere

isn

’ta

sin

gle

exam

ple,

thro

ugh

out

the

Rep

ublic

,of

afr

eed

slav

ere

ach

ing

any

mag

istr

acy

[=‘b

ein

gap

poin

ted

toa

posi

tion

asa

gove

rnm

ent

offic

ial’]

.Th

isw

asan

exce

llen

tru

le;bu

tit

was

carr

ied

sofa

rth

atin

the

end

itle

dto

ach

ange

and

cert

ain

lyto

anab

use

inth

epo

litic

alsy

stem

.Fi

rst

the

cen

sors

,aft

erm

any

year

sof

clai

min

gth

eri

ght

toch

oose

wh

attr

ibe

aci

tize

nco

uld

betr

ansf

erre

dto

,eve

ntu

ally

allo

wed

mos

tpeo

ple

toen

roll

them

selv

esin

wh

atev

ertr

ibe

they

ple

ased

.Th

isper

mis

sion

cert

ain

lydid

no

good

,an

dde

priv

edth

ece

nso

rsh

ipof

one

ofit

sm

ain

sou

rces

ofpo

wer

.M

oreo

ver,

asth

egr

eat

and

pow

erfu

lal

lh

adth

emse

lves

enro

lled

inth

eco

un

try

trib

es,

wh

ileth

efr

eed

slav

esw

ho

had

beco

me

citi

zen

sre

mai

ned

wit

hth

epo

pula

cein

the

tow

ntr

ibes

,th

etr

ibes

inge

ner

also

onst

opped

hav

ing

any

loca

lor

terr

itor

ial

mea

nin

g,an

dal

lw

ere

soco

nfu

sed

that

the

mem

ber

sof

one

cou

ldn

otbe

told

from

thos

eof

anot

her

exce

pt

thro

ugh

the

mem

ber

ship

lists

;so

that

the

idea

of‘tr

ibe’

beca

me

pers

onal

inst

ead

ofre

al,or

rath

erca

me

tobe

littl

em

ore

than

ach

imer

a.It

hap

pen

edal

soth

atth

eu

rban

trib

es,

bei

ng

mor

eon

the

spot

,w

ere

ofte

nth

est

ron

ger

inth

e• c

omit

iaan

dso

ldth

est

ate

toth

ose

wh

ost

oope

dto

buy

the

vote

sof

the

rabb

leco

mpo

sin

g• t

hem

.[T

he

com

itia

will

beex

plai

ned

onpa

ge61

.]A

sth

efo

un

der

had

set

up

ten

curi

ae

inea

chtr

ibe,

the

wh

ole

Rom

anpeo

ple

then

con

tain

edw

ith

inth

eto

wn

wal

lsco

nsi

sted

ofth

irty

curi

ae,

each

ofw

hic

hh

adit

ste

mpl

es,it

sgo

ds,it

sof

ficer

s,it

spr

iest

san

dit

sfe

stiv

als.

...

59

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u44.

The

com

itia

inan

cien

tR

ome

Wh

enS

ervi

us

mad

eh

isn

ewdi

visi

on,

asth

eth

irty

curi

ae

cou

ldn

’tbe

shar

edeq

ual

lybet

wee

nh

isfo

ur

trib

es,

and

he

didn

’tw

ant

toin

terf

ere

wit

hth

em;

soth

eybe

cam

ea

furt

her

div

isio

nof

the

inh

abit

ants

ofR

ome,

quit

ein

dep

enden

tof

the

trib

es.

Bu

tcu

ria

edid

n’t

hav

ean

ybea

rin

gon

the

rura

ltr

ibes

orth

eir

mem

ber

s,bec

ause

for

them

the

trib

esh

adbec

ome

apu

rely

civi

lin

stit

uti

on,

and

an

ewsy

stem

for

rais

ing

troo

ps

had

bee

nin

trod

uce

d,

mak

ing

the

mili

tary

divi

sion

sof

Rom

ulu

ssu

perfl

uou

s.[R

ouss

eau

has

n’t

said

expl

icit

lyth

atth

edi

visi

onin

tocu

ria

ew

asa

mili

tary

one;

the

read

eris

pres

um

ably

expe

cted

tokn

owth

is,]

Thu

s,al

thou

ghev

ery

citi

zen

was

enro

lled

ina

trib

e,m

any

ofth

emw

ere

not

mem

bers

ofa

curi

a.S

ervi

us

also

mad

ea

thir

ddiv

isio

n—

quit

edis

tin

ctfr

omth

etw

oI

hav

em

enti

oned

—an

dth

eef

fect

sof

this

mad

eit

the

mos

tim

port

ant

ofth

eth

ree.

He

sort

edth

ew

hol

eR

oman

peop

lein

tosi

xcl

asse

s,di

stin

guis

hed

not

bypl

ace

orpe

rson

bu

tby

wea

lth

;th

efirs

tcl

asse

sin

clu

ded

the

rich

,th

ela

stth

epo

or,

and

thos

ein

betw

een

incl

ude

dpe

ople

ofm

oder

ate

mea

ns.

Th

ese

six

clas

ses

wer

esu

bdiv

ided

into

183

oth

erbod

ies,

calle

d‘c

entu

ries

’,w

hic

hw

ere

dis

trib

ute

din

such

aw

ayth

atth

efirs

tcl

ass

alon

eco

mpri

sed

mor

eth

anh

alf

ofth

em,

wh

ileth

ela

stcl

ass

com

pri

sed

only

one.

Th

us

the

clas

sth

ath

adth

efe

wes

tm

ember

sco

nta

ined

the

mos

tce

ntu

ries

,an

dth

ew

hol

eof

the

last

clas

s—w

hic

hin

clu

ded

mor

eth

anh

alfth

ein

hab

itan

tsof

Rom

e—on

lyco

un

ted

asa

sin

gle

subd

ivis

ion

,·a

sin

gle

cen

tury

·.To

veil

the

resu

lts

ofth

isar

ran

gem

ent

from

the

peo

ple

,S

ervi

us

trie

dto

give

ita

mili

tary

ton

e:in

the

seco

nd

clas

sh

ein

sert

edtw

oce

ntu

ries

ofar

mou

rers

,an

din

the

fou

rth

two

of·m

aker

sof

·wea

pon

s;an

din

each

clas

sex

cept

the

last

he

dis

tin

guis

hed

you

ng

from

old,i.e.

dis

tin

guis

hed

thos

ew

ho

wer

eob

liged

tobe

arar

ms

from

thos

ew

hos

eag

ega

veth

emle

gale

xem

ptio

n.

(It

was

this

dist

inct

ion

,ra

ther

than

that

ofw

ealt

h,

that

crea

ted

the

nee

dfo

rfr

equ

ent

repet

itio

nof

the

cen

sus.

)La

stly

,he

orde

red

that

the

asse

mbl

ysh

ould

beh

eld

inth

eC

ampu

sM

arti

us,

and

ever

yon

ew

hos

eag

em

ade

him

liabl

efo

rm

ilita

ryse

rvic

esh

ould

brin

gh

isw

eapo

ns.

Wh

ydid

n’t

he

div

ide

the

last

clas

sin

toyo

un

gan

dol

d?

Bec

ause

its

mem

ber

sw

eren

’tgi

ven

the

righ

tto

bea

rar

ms

for

the

cou

ntr

y:to

hav

eth

eri

ght

tode

fen

dh

eart

han

dh

ome,

am

anh

adto

ha

vea

hea

rth

and

hom

e!O

fal

lth

eco

un

tles

str

oops

ofbeg

gars

wh

oto

-day

len

dlu

stre

toth

ear

mie

sof

kin

gs,

ther

eis

per

hap

sn

oton

ew

ho

wou

ldn

’th

ave

bee

nsc

orn

fully

dri

ven

out

ofa

Rom

anpla

toon

bac

kin

the

day

sw

hen

sold

iers

wer

eth

ede

fen

ders

oflib

erty

.[R

ouss

eau

will

now

refe

rto

cert

ain

peop

le(in

Lati

n)

asca

pite

cen

si=

‘hea

d-co

un

tpe

ople

’.Th

eyco

uld

n’t

figu

rein

ace

nsu

sth

rou

ghth

eir

nu

mbe

rof

hou

ses,

busi

nes

ses,

anim

als,

slav

eset

c.,

beca

use

they

didn

’tow

nan

yth

ing.

]B

ut

this

last

clas

sw

as

furt

her

div

ided

into

• pro

leta

rian

san

dth

e• c

api

tece

nsi

.Th

epro

leta

rian

s,n

otqu

ite

redu

ced

ton

oth

ing,

atle

ast

gave

the

stat

eci

tize

ns

and

inso

me

tim

esof

grea

tn

eed

even

gave

itso

ldie

rs.

The

capi

tece

nsi

,wh

oh

adn

oth

ing

atal

lan

dco

uld

ben

um

bere

don

lyby

cou

nti

ng

hea

ds,

wer

ere

gard

edas

zero

es,

and

Mar

ius—

·fou

rce

ntu

ries

afte

rS

ervi

us·

—w

asth

efir

stw

ho

stoo

ped

toen

roll

them

.W

ith

out

dec

idin

gn

oww

het

her

this

thir

dar

ran

gem

ent

was

good

orbad

init

self,

Ith

ink

Ica

nsa

yth

atit

cou

ldn

’th

ave

wor

ked

ifit

wer

en’t

for

the

earl

yR

oman

s’si

mpl

em

œu

rs[s

eeG

loss

ary]

,dis

inte

rest

edn

ess,

likin

gfo

rag

ricu

ltu

re,

and

scor

nfo

rco

mm

erce

and

the

pro

fit

mot

ive.

Wh

ere

isth

em

oder

npe

ople

amon

gw

hom

con

sum

ing

gree

d,re

stle

ssn

ess,

intr

igu

e,co

nti

nu

alpr

omot

ion

san

dde

mot

ion

s,an

dpe

rpet

ual

chan

ges

offo

rtu

ne,

cou

ldle

ave

such

asy

stem

inpla

cefo

r·e

ven·

twen

tyye

ars

wit

hou

tto

pplin

gth

een

tire

stat

e?I

shou

ldad

dth

atm

œu

rsan

dth

ece

nso

rsh

ip[s

eeG

loss

ary]

,bei

ng

stro

nge

rth

anth

isin

stit

uti

on,

corr

ecte

dit

sdef

ects

atR

ome—

·for

exam

ple

·,a

rich

man

wh

om

ade

too

mu

ch

60

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u44.

The

com

itia

inan

cien

tR

ome

disp

lay

ofh

isri

ches

fou

nd

him

self

degr

aded

toth

ecl

ass

ofth

epo

or!

[By

‘str

onge

rth

anth

isin

stit

uti

on’R

ouss

eau

may

hav

em

ean

t‘s

tron

ger

than

any

ten

den

cies

inan

cien

tR

ome

togr

eed,

rest

less

nes

s,in

trig

ue

etc.

’.]S

oit

’sea

syto

see

wh

yu

sual

lyon

lyfive

clas

ses

are

men

tion

ed,th

ough

ther

ew

ere

real

lysi

x.B

ecau

seth

esi

xth

didn

’tpr

ovid

eso

ldie

rsfo

rth

ear

my

orvo

tes

inth

eC

ampu

sM

arti

us,

24an

dw

asal

mos

tw

ith

out

fun

ctio

nin

the

stat

e,it

was

seld

omre

gard

edas

ofan

yac

cou

nt.

Thes

ew

ere

the

vari

ous

way

sin

wh

ich

the

Rom

anpe

ople

was

div

ided

.Le

tu

sn

owse

eh

owth

ese

div

isio

ns

affe

cted

the

asse

mbl

ies.

Wh

enla

wfu

llysu

mm

oned

,th

ese

asse

mbl

ies

wer

eca

lled

com

itia

:th

eyw

ere

usu

ally

hel

din

the

pu

blic

squ

are

orin

the

Cam

pus

Mar

tiu

s,an

dw

ere

ofth

ree

kin

ds:

(1)th

eco

mit

iacu

ria

ta,w

hic

hw

ere

fou

nde

dby

Rom

ulu

s,(2

)th

eco

mit

iace

ntu

ria

ta,w

hic

hw

ere

fou

nde

dby

Ser

viu

s,an

d(3

)th

eco

mit

iatr

ibu

taw

hic

hw

ere

fou

nde

dby

the

trib

un

esof

the

peop

le.

No

law

rece

ived

its

san

ctio

nan

dn

om

agis

trat

ew

asel

ecte

dex

cept

inth

eco

mit

ia;an

das

ever

yci

tize

nw

asen

rolle

din

acu

ria,

ace

ntu

ry,or

atr

ibe,

itfo

llow

sth

atev

ery

citi

zen

had

the

righ

tto

vote

,an

dth

atth

eR

oman

pop

ula

cew

astr

uly

sove

reig

n—

both

• as

am

atte

rof

law

and

• in

fact

.F

orth

eco

mit

iato

be

law

fully

asse

mble

d,

and

for

thei

rac

tsto

hav

eth

efo

rce

ofla

w,

thre

eco

ndi

tion

sh

adto

bem

et.

(a)Th

ebo

dyor

mag

istr

ate

con

voki

ng

them

had

toh

ave

the

auth

orit

yto

doso

.(b

)Th

eas

sem

bly

had

tobe

hel

don

ada

yal

low

edby

law

.(c

)Th

eau

guri

esh

adto

befa

vou

rabl

e.Th

ere

ason

for

(a)n

eeds

no

expl

anat

ion

.(b

)is

am

atte

rof

polic

y;fo

rex

ampl

e,th

eco

mit

iaw

ere

not

toh

eld

onfe

stiv

als

orm

arket

-day

s,w

hen

the

cou

ntr

y-fo

lkco

min

gto

Rom

eon

bu

sin

ess

did

n’t

hav

eti

me

tosp

end

the

day

inth

epu

blic

squ

are.

By

mea

ns

of(c

),th

ese

nat

ekep

ta

tigh

tre

inon

the

pro

ud

and

rest

ive

peo

ple

,an

d(w

hen

this

was

nee

ded

)re

stra

ined

the

ardou

rof

sedit

iou

str

ibu

nes

;th

ough

the

trib

un

esfo

un

dm

ore

than

one

way

ofge

ttin

gar

oun

dth

ish

indr

ance

.Th

eco

mit

iapa

ssed

judg

men

ton

mor

eth

anm

erel

yla

ws

and

the

elec

tion

ofru

lers

;th

eR

oman

popu

lace

took

onit

self

the

mos

tim

port

ant

fun

ctio

ns

ofgo

vern

men

t.It

can

besa

idth

atth

efa

teof

Eu

rope

was

regu

late

din

its

asse

mbl

ies!

The

vari

ety

ofth

ings

they

deal

tw

ith

crea

ted

vari

ety

inth

efo

rms

they

took

.To

form

aju

dgm

ent

abou

tth

ese

vari

ous

form

s,al

lw

en

eed

do

isto

com

par

eth

em.

Wh

enR

omu

lus

set

up

the

curi

ae,

his

aim

was

tou

seth

epeo

ple

toch

eck

the

sen

ate,

and

the

sen

ate

toch

eck

the

peo

ple

,w

hile

con

tin

uin

gto

dom

inat

ebot

h.

So

he

set

thin

gsu

pin

such

aw

ayth

atth

epeo

ple

wou

ldh

ave

all

the

auth

orit

yof

• nu

mber

sto

bal

ance

the

auth

orit

yof

• pow

eran

dri

ches

,w

hic

hh

ele

ftto

the

nob

ility

.B

ut

inth

esp

irit

ofm

onar

chy

he

gave

agr

eate

rad

van

tage

toth

en

obili

tyth

rou

ghth

ein

flu

ence

ofth

eir

clie

nts

onvo

te-n

um

ber

s.Th

isad

mir

able

inst

itu

tion

of• p

atro

nan

d• c

lien

tw

asa

mas

terp

iece

ofst

ates

man

ship

and

hu

man

ity

wit

hou

tw

hic

hth

en

obili

tyas

acl

ass,

bei

ng

flagr

antl

yin

con

trad

icti

onto

the

repu

blic

ansp

irit

,co

uld

n’t

hav

esu

rviv

ed.

Rom

eal

one

has

the

hon

our

ofh

avin

ggi

ven

toth

ew

orld

this

grea

tex

ampl

e,w

hic

hn

ever

led

toan

yab

use

but

has

nev

erbe

enfo

llow

ed.

Th

eas

sem

blie

sby

curi

ae

per

sist

edu

nder

the

kin

gsti

llth

eti

me

ofS

ervi

us.

...

Un

der

the

Rep

ublic

the

curi

ae,

still

con

fin

edto

the

fou

ru

rban

trib

esan

dco

nta

inin

gon

lyth

epop

ula

ceof

Rom

e,did

n’t

suit

the

sen

ate

(wh

ich

led

24I

say

‘inth

eC

ampu

sM

arti

us’

beca

use

that

isw

her

eth

eco

mit

iaas

sem

bled

byce

ntu

ries

;in

its

two

oth

erfo

rms

the

popu

lace

asse

mbl

edin

the

foru

mor

else

wh

ere;

and

then

the

‘cou

nte

dh

eads

’had

asm

uch

influ

ence

and

auth

orit

yas

the

fore

mos

tci

tize

ns.

61

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u44.

The

com

itia

inan

cien

tR

ome

the

‘nob

les’

)or

the

trib

un

es(w

ho,

thou

ghple

bei

ans,

led

the

wel

l-to

-do

citi

zen

s).

Th

eyth

eref

ore

fell

into

dis

repu

te,

and

thei

rde

grad

atio

nw

assu

chth

atw

hat

the

·full·

com

itia

curi

ata

shou

ldh

ave

don

ew

asdo

ne

byan

asse

mbl

yof

thei

rth

irty

licto

rs.

The

divi

sion

byce

ntu

ries

was

sofa

vou

rabl

eto

the

aris

toc-

racy

that

it’s

har

dto

see

atfirs

th

owth

ese

nat

eev

erfa

iled

topre

vail

inth

eco

mit

iabea

rin

gth

eir

nam

e—·t

he

com

itia

cen

turi

ata

·—by

wh

ich

the

con

suls

,th

ece

nso

rsan

dth

eot

her

sen

ior

mag

istr

ates

wer

eel

ecte

d.In

deed

,oft

he

193

cen

turi

esin

tow

hic

hth

esi

xcl

asse

sof

the

wh

ole

Rom

anpeo

ple

wer

ediv

ided

,th

efirs

tcl

ass

con

tain

ed98;

and,

asvo

tin

gw

ent

sole

lyby

cen

turi

es,

this

clas

sal

one

had

am

ajor

ity

over

all

the

rest

.W

hen

all

thos

ece

ntu

ries

wer

ein

agre

emen

t,th

ere

stof

the

vote

sw

eren

’tev

enta

ken

;th

ede

cisi

onof

the

smal

lest

nu

mber

cou

nte

das

the

dec

isio

nof

the

mu

ltit

ude,

and

it’s

fair

tosa

yth

atin

the

com

itia

cen

turi

ata

dec

isio

ns

wer

ere

gula

ted

byam

oun

tsof

mon

eym

ore

than

byn

um

bers

ofvo

tes.

Bu

tth

isex

trem

eau

thor

ity

was

mod

ified

intw

ow

ays.

Fir

st,th

etr

ibu

nes

usu

ally

belo

nge

dto

the

clas

sof

the

rich

,an

dso

did

man

yple

bei

ans;

soth

eyco

un

terb

alan

ced

the

influ

ence

ofth

en

oble

sin

the

first

clas

s.Th

ese

con

dw

ayw

asth

is.

Inst

ead

ofh

avin

gth

ece

ntu

ries

vote

inor

der,

soth

atth

efir

stce

ntu

ryal

way

svo

ted

first

,th

eR

oman

sal

way

sch

ose

bylo

tter

yon

ece

ntu

ryth

atw

ent

ahea

dan

dvo

ted,

and

then

ona

not

her

da

yth

ere

mai

nin

gce

ntu

ries

wer

eca

lled

tovo

tein

the

orde

rof

thei

rra

nks

.Th

eyu

sual

lyag

reed

wit

hth

evo

teof

the

first

one

that

vote

d.In

this

way

,th

eau

thor

ity

ofex

ample

—·i.

e.th

ein

flu

ence

you

get

from

goin

gfirs

t·—

was

han

ded

out

not

acco

rdin

gto

ran

kbu

tby

lott

ery,

ona

dem

ocra

tic

prin

cipl

e.Th

iscu

stom

had

afu

rth

erad

van

tage

.Th

eci

tize

ns

from

the

cou

ntr

ysid

eh

adti

me,

bet

wee

nth

etw

oel

ecti

ons,

to

info

rmth

emse

lves

ofth

em

erit

sof

the

can

did

ate

wh

oh

adbee

nvo

ted

for

firs

tti

me

arou

nd,

and

did

n’t

hav

eto

vote

wit

hou

tkn

owle

dge

ofth

eca

se.

Bu

tu

nder

the

pre

text

ofav

oidin

gdel

ays

this

cust

omw

asev

entu

ally

abol

ish

ed,an

dbo

thel

ecti

ons

wer

eh

eld

onth

esa

me

day.

The

com

itia

trib

uta

wer

epr

oper

lya

cou

nci

lof

the

Rom

anpe

ople

.O

nly

the

trib

un

esco

uld

call

them

toge

ther

;at

them

the

trib

un

esw

ere

elec

ted

and

con

du

cted

thei

rple

bis

cite

s.Th

ese

nat

eh

adn

ost

andi

ng

inth

em,a

nd

was

n’t

even

enti

tled

tobe

pre

sen

t;an

dth

ese

nat

ors,

bei

ng

forc

edto

obey

law

sth

atth

eyco

uld

n’t

vote

on,

wer

ein

this

resp

ect

less

free

than

the

low

est

citi

zen

s.Th

isin

just

ice

was

enti

rely

wro

ng,

and

was

alon

een

ough

toin

valid

ate

the

dec

rees

ofa

bod

yto

wh

ich

all

its

mem

ber

sw

ere

not

adm

itte

d.

Ifth

en

oble

sh

adat

ten

ded

the

com

itia

byvi

rtu

eof

thei

rri

ght

asci

tize

ns,

they

wou

ldh

ave

been

ther

eas

mer

epr

ivat

ein

divi

dual

s,an

dw

ould

hav

eh

adve

rylit

tle

influ

ence

ona

vote

reck

oned

by

cou

nti

ng

hea

ds,w

her

eth

elo

wes

tpr

olet

aria

nw

asas

good

asth

ele

ader

ofth

ese

nat

e.S

oyo

uca

nse

e• t

hat

ord

erw

asac

hie

ved

byth

ese

vari

ous

way

sof

div

idin

gu

pth

isgr

eat

peo

ple

and

takin

git

svo

tes;

and

• th

atth

edif

fere

nt

div

isio

ns

did

n’t

hav

eat

thei

rbas

isso

me

neu

tra

lw

ayof

carv

ing

up

the

popu

lati

on.

Eac

hon

eof

them

was

pref

erre

dbe

cau

seof

wh

atw

asex

pect

edto

resu

ltfr

omit

.N

ever

min

dth

efu

rth

erdet

ails

.W

hat

Ih

ave

said

show

sth

at• t

he

com

itia

trib

uta

wer

eth

em

ost

favo

ura

ble

topo

pu-

lar

gove

rnm

ent

[=‘d

emoc

racy

’],• t

he

com

itia

cen

turi

ata

wer

eth

em

ost

favo

ura

ble

toar

isto

crac

y,an

d• t

he

com

itia

curi

ata

,in

wh

ich

the

pop

ula

ceof

Rom

efo

rmed

the

maj

orit

y,w

asgo

odfo

rn

oth

ing

bu

tto

furt

her

tyra

nn

yan

dev

ilde

sign

s.

62

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u45.

Tri

bun

es

Nat

ura

llyth

eco

mit

iacu

ria

tafe

llin

todis

repu

te,

and

even

sedi

tiou

spe

rson

sab

stai

ned

from

usi

ng

this

met

hod

beca

use

isw

ould

too

clea

rly

show

wh

atth

eyw

ere

up

to.

Th

ere’

sn

oqu

esti

onab

out

it:

the

wh

ole

maj

esty

ofth

eR

oman

peo

ple

lay

sole

lyin

the

com

itia

cen

turi

ata

,th

eon

lyco

mit

iath

atin

clu

ded

ever

yon

e;fo

rth

eco

mit

iacu

ria

taex

clu

ded

the

rura

ltr

ibes

and

the

com

itia

trib

uta

excl

uded

the

sen

ate

and

the

nob

ility

.A

sfo

rth

em

eth

odof

taki

ng

the

vote

,am

ong

the

anci

ent

Rom

ans

that

was

assi

mpl

eas

thei

rm

œu

rs,t

hou

ghS

part

a’s

was

even

sim

ple

r.E

ach

man

dec

lare

dh

isvo

teal

oud,

and

acl

erk

duly

wro

teit

dow

n;th

em

ajor

ity

inea

chtr

ibe

dete

r-m

ined

the

vote

ofth

etr

ibe,

the

maj

orit

yof

the

trib

esth

atof

the

peop

le;

sim

ilarl

yw

ith

curi

ae

and

cen

turi

es.

This

cust

omw

asgo

odas

lon

gas

hon

esty

was

triu

mph

ant

amon

gth

eci

tize

ns,

and

each

man

was

ash

amed

tovo

tepu

blic

lyin

favo

ur

ofan

un

just

pro

pos

alor

anu

nw

orth

yper

son

;bu

tw

hen

the

peop

legr

ewco

rru

ptan

dvo

tes

wer

ebo

ugh

t,it

was

fitti

ng

that

voti

ng

shou

ldbe

secr

etso

asto

dete

rpu

rch

aser

sw

ho

wou

ldn

’ttr

ust

·th

atth

evo

tes

they

had

bou

ght

wou

ldbe

deliv

ered

·an

dto

give

rogu

esa

way

ofn

otbe

ing

trai

tors

.(I

kn

owth

atC

icer

oat

tack

sth

isch

ange

·to

secr

ecy

invo

tin

g·an

dgi

ves

itso

me

ofth

ebla

me

for

the

ruin

ofth

eR

epu

blic

.I

feel

the

wei

ght

that

Cic

ero’

sau

thor

ity

mu

stca

rry

ona

poin

tlik

eth

is,

but

Ica

n’t

agre

ew

ith

him

;I

hol

d,on

the

con

trar

y,th

atth

edes

tru

ctio

nof

ast

ate

will

be

has

ten

edif

chan

ges

like

this

are

not

mad

e.Ju

stas

the

regi

men

ofh

ealt

hdo

esn

’tsu

itth

esi

ck,it

’sw

ron

gto

try

togo

vern

aco

rru

pted

peop

leby

law

sth

atw

ould

beri

ght

for

ago

odpe

ople

.Th

ere’

sn

obet

ter

evid

ence

for

this

thes

isth

anth

elo

ng

life

ofth

eR

epu

blic

ofVen

ice.

Itst

illex

ists

—or

anyw

aya

shad

owof

itdoe

s—so

lely

bec

ause

its

law

sar

esu

itab

leon

lyfo

rw

icked

men

.)

So

the

citi

zen

sw

ere

prov

ided

wit

hta

blet

sw

ith

wh

ich

each

man

cou

ldvo

tew

ith

out

anyo

ne

know

ing

how

he

vote

d:n

ewpro

cedu

res

wer

eal

soin

trod

uce

dfo

rco

llect

ing

the

table

ts,

for

cou

nti

ng

vote

s,fo

rco

mpa

rin

gn

um

bers

,et

c.;

yet

desp

ite

all

this

the

good

fait

hof

the

office

rsch

arge

dw

ith

thes

efu

nct

ion

s...

.w

asof

ten

susp

ect.

Fin

ally

,to

prev

ent

intr

igu

esan

dtr

affick

ing

invo

tes,

edic

tsw

ere

issu

ed;

bu

tth

eir

very

nu

mbe

rpr

oves

how

use

less

they

wer

e.Tow

ards

the

end

ofth

eR

epu

blic

,it

was

ofte

nn

eces

-sa

ryto

bri

ng

insp

ecia

lpro

cedu

res

inor

der

tom

ake

up

for

the

inad

equ

acy

ofth

ela

ws.

Som

etim

esm

irac

les

wer

esu

ppos

ed—

·i.e.

the

auth

orit

ies

repo

rted

mir

acu

lou

sev

ents

that

poi

nte

dto

the

nee

dfo

rso

me

pol

itic

alqu

esti

onto

be

answ

ered

one

way

rath

erth

anan

oth

er·—

bu

tth

ism

eth

od,

wh

ileit

mig

ht

dec

eive

the

pop

ula

ce,

cou

ldn

’tdec

eive

thos

ew

ho

gove

rned

it.

Som

etim

esan

asse

mbly

·for

voti

ng·

was

calle

dto

geth

ersu

dden

ly,

leav

ing

the

can

did

ates

wit

hn

oti

me

tofo

rmth

eir

fact

ion

s.S

omet

imes

,w

hen

itw

asse

enth

atth

epeo

ple

wer

eal

read

ypri

med

tovo

te·in

wh

atth

eau

thor

itie

sth

ough

tto

be·t

he

wro

ng

way

,th

een

tire

mee

tin

gw

asal

low

edto

pla

yit

self

out

inta

lk,

·wit

hn

ovo

tebei

ng

take

n·.

Bu

tin

the

end

ambi

tion

alw

ays

got

away

.Th

em

ost

incr

edib

lefa

ctof

alli

sth

atin

the

mid

stof

allt

hes

eab

use

sth

isen

orm

ous

popu

lace

relie

don

its

anci

ent

regu

lati

ons

and

wen

tah

ead

elec

tin

gm

agis

trat

es,p

assi

ng

law

s,ju

dgin

gca

ses,

and

carr

yin

gth

rou

ghpu

blic

and

priv

ate

busi

nes

s,do

ing

all

this

alm

ost

asea

sily

asth

ese

nat

eit

self

cou

ldh

ave

don

e.

5.

Tri

bunes

Wh

enan

exac

tpr

opor

tion

can

’tbe

esta

blis

hed

betw

een

the

con

stit

uen

tpa

rts

ofa

stat

e,or

wh

enth

ere

lati

onof

one

part

toan

oth

eris

con

stan

tly

bei

ng

alte

red

by

som

eca

use

that

can

’tbe

stop

ped

,a

spec

ial

kin

dof

gove

rnm

enta

len

tity

is

63

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u45.

Tri

bun

es

inst

itu

ted,

one

wh

ich

• isn

’tan

inte

gral

part

ofan

yla

rger

gove

rnm

enta

lbod

y,• g

ets

each

term

—·e

ach

bit

ofth

epo

litic

alst

ruct

ure

·—ba

ckin

toit

sri

ght

rela

tion

wit

hth

eot

her

s,an

d• i

sa

mid

dle

term

con

nec

tin

gth

epr

ince

wit

hpe

ople

,or

the

prin

cew

ith

the

sove

reig

n,or

both

aton

ceif

nee

dbe

.Th

isbo

dy,w

hic

hIs

hal

lcal

l‘th

etr

ibu

nat

e’,i

sth

egu

ardi

anof

the

law

san

dof

the

legi

slat

ive

pow

er.

Som

etim

esit

prot

ects

the

sove

reig

nag

ain

stth

ego

vern

men

t,as

the

trib

un

esof

the

peo

ple

did

inR

ome;

som

etim

esit

uph

olds

the

gove

rnm

ent

agai

nst

the

peop

le,a

sth

eC

oun

cilo

fTen

does

now

inVe

nic

e;an

dso

met

imes

itm

ain

tain

sth

eba

lan

cebe

twee

nth

etw

o,as

the

Eph

ors

did

inS

part

a.[T

his

para

grap

hw

illu

seth

ew

ord

‘cit

y’fo

rth

efir

stti

me

sin

cepa

ge50

.R

ecal

lRou

ssea

u’s

dist

inct

ion

inth

efo

otn

ote

onpa

ge7

betw

een

‘cit

y’an

d‘to

wn

’.]Th

etr

ibu

nat

eis

n’t

aco

nst

itu

ent

part

ofth

eci

ty,an

dsh

ould

hav

en

osh

are

inei

ther

the

legi

slat

ive

orth

eex

ecu

tive

pow

er;

bu

tth

isve

ryfa

ctm

akes

its

own

pow

erth

egr

eate

r,bec

ause

wh

ileit

can

’td

oan

yth

ing

itca

npre

ven

tan

yth

ing

from

bein

gd

one.

Itis

mor

esa

cred

and

mor

ere

vere

das

the

def

ender

ofth

ela

ws

than

the

pri

nce

that

applie

sth

emor

the

sove

reig

nth

atis

sues

orda

ins

them

.Th

isw

asse

enve

rycl

earl

yat

Rom

e,w

hen

the

prou

dn

oble

sw

ho

alw

ays

scor

ned

the

peo

ple

wer

efo

rced

tobow

bef

ore

am

ere

office

rof

the

peop

le—

·atr

ibu

ne·

—w

ho

Rou

ssea

u’s

nex

tph

rase

:n

’ava

itn

iau

spic

esn

iju

rid

icti

on.

what

itm

eans:

didn

’th

ave

(i)au

spic

esor

(ii)

juri

sdic

tion

.

what

he

may

hav

ebe

enge

ttin

gat

:did

n’t

hav

ean

y(ii)

lega

lsa

yov

eran

yth

ing

oran

y(i)pr

iest

sco

nfir

min

gth

eau

thor

ity

ofth

etr

ibu

nes

byan

nou

nci

ng

the

mea

nin

gsof

clou

d-sh

apes

,bi

rd-e

ntr

ails

,or

wh

atev

er.

Th

etr

ibu

nat

e,w

isel

yte

mper

ed,

isth

est

ron

gest

suppor

ta

good

con

stit

uti

onca

nh

ave;

but

ifit

sst

ren

gth

isev

ensl

igh

tly

exce

ssiv

e,it

over

turn

sev

eryt

hin

g.A

sfo

rw

eakn

ess—

that

’sn

otin

its

nat

ure

;pro

vided

itis

som

eth

ing,

the

trib

un

ate

isn

ever

less

than

itsh

ould

be.

Itde

gen

erat

esin

toty

ran

ny

wh

enit

usu

rps

the

exec

uti

vepo

wer

that

itsh

ould

bem

oder

at-

ing,

and

wh

enit

trie

sto

dis

pen

sew

ith

the

law

sth

atit

shou

ldbe

prot

ecti

ng.

Th

eim

men

sepow

erof

the

Eph

ors,

har

mle

ssas

lon

gas

Spa

rta

pres

erve

dit

sm

œu

rs[s

eeG

loss

ary]

,h

aste

ned

Spa

rta’

sco

rru

pti

onw

hen

once

ith

adbeg

un

....

Rom

eper

ish

edin

the

sam

ew

ay:

the

exce

ssiv

epow

erof

the

trib

un

es,

wh

ich

they

had

acqu

ired

byd

ecre

ein

gth

atth

eyh

adit

,fin

ally

use

dla

ws

that

had

bee

nm

ade

tose

cure

liber

tyas

apro

tect

ive

shie

ldfo

rth

eem

per

ors

wh

odes

troy

edlib

erty

.A

sfo

rth

eVe

net

ian

Cou

nci

lofT

en,i

tis

atr

ibu

nal

ofbl

ood,

anob

ject

ofh

orro

rfo

rn

oble

san

dpe

ople

alik

e.Fa

rfr

ompr

ovid

ing

alo

fty

pro

tect

ion

for

the

law

s,it

doe

sn

oth

ing,

now

that

the

law

sh

ave

beco

me

degr

aded

,bu

tst

rike

inth

eda

rkn

ess

blow

sth

atn

o-on

eda

res

ton

otic

e.Th

etr

ibu

nat

e,lik

eth

ego

vern

men

t,w

eake

ns

asit

sm

em-

bers

hip

grow

s.Th

etr

ibu

nes

ofth

eR

oman

peop

lest

arte

dat

two,

then

wen

tu

pto

five;

and

wh

enth

eyw

ante

dto

dou

ble

that

nu

mber

,th

ese

nat

ele

tth

emdo

so,

inth

eco

nfiden

ceth

atit

cou

ldpl

ayth

emof

faga

inst

one

anot

her

,wh

ich

inde

edit

did! Th

ebes

tw

ayto

pre

ven

tsu

cha

form

idab

lebod

yfr

omge

ttin

gou

tof

han

d—

thou

ghn

ogo

vern

men

th

asye

ttr

ied

this

—w

ould

be

toh

ave

regu

lar

per

iods

du

rin

gw

hic

hit

doe

sn’t

exis

t,ra

ther

than

its

bei

ng

atw

ork

con

tin

uou

sly.

Thes

ein

term

issi

ons

shou

ldn

’tbe

lon

gen

ough

togi

veab

use

sti

me

togr

owst

ron

g;th

ela

wes

tablis

hin

gth

emsh

ould

be

64

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u46.

Dic

tato

rsh

ip

fram

edin

such

aw

ayth

atth

ein

term

issi

ons

can

easi

lybe

shor

ten

edw

hen

ther

e’s

an

eed

for

that

.I

can

’tse

eth

atth

ism

eth

odh

asan

ydr

awba

cks,

beca

use

the

trib

un

ate—

asI

said

befo

re—

isn

’tpa

rtof

the

con

stit

uti

on,

soth

atit

sre

mov

alw

on’t

do

the

con

stit

uti

onan

yh

arm

.It

also

seem

sto

be

effica

ciou

s,bec

ause

an

ewly

rest

ored

mag

istr

ate

star

tsn

otw

ith

the

pow

erh

ispr

edec

esso

rh

adbu

tw

ith

wh

atth

ela

wal

low

sh

im.

[Not

ice:

• Rou

ssea

uev

iden

tly

thin

ksof

the

peri

ods

ofre

mis

sion

asin

volv

ing

ach

ange

inth

em

embe

rsh

ipof

the

trib

un

ate;

and

• alt

hou

ghth

etr

ibu

nat

eis

n’t

part

ofth

ego

vern

men

tit

sm

embe

rsar

eh

ere

calle

d‘m

agis

trat

es’.]

6.

Dic

tato

rship

The

infle

xibi

lity

ofth

ela

ws

prev

ents

them

from

bein

gad

apte

dto

circ

um

stan

ces,

and

inso

me

situ

atio

ns

that

mak

esth

emdis

astr

ous,

cau

sin

gth

eru

inof

the

stat

eat

ati

me

ofcr

isis

.Th

eyre

quir

eth

ings

tobe

don

esl

owly

,in

anor

derl

yfa

shio

n,

requ

irin

ga

stre

tch

ofti

me

that

the

wor

lddoe

sn’t

alw

ays

pro

vide.

Cou

ntl

ess

thin

gsca

nh

appen

that

the

legi

slat

orh

asn

’tpr

ovid

edfo

r;yo

uca

n’t

fore

see

ever

yth

ing;

and

bein

gaw

are

ofth

atfa

ctis

ah

igh

lyn

eces

sary

part

offo

resi

ght!

So

itis

wro

ng

tow

ant

tom

ake

pol

itic

alin

stit

uti

ons

sost

ron

gth

atth

eir

oper

atio

nca

n’t

susp

ended

.E

ven

Spar

taal

low

edit

sla

ws

tola

pse.

Bu

ton

lyth

egr

eate

stdan

gers

can

outw

eigh

the

dan

ger

ofch

angi

ng

the

pu

blic

order

;an

dth

esa

cred

pow

erof

the

law

ssh

ould

nev

erbe

susp

ende

du

nle

ssth

eex

iste

nce

ofth

eco

un

try

isat

stak

e.In

the

rare

case

sw

her

eit

isob

viou

sth

atis

wh

at’s

atst

ake,

• th

epu

blic

secu

rity

ispro

vided

for

by

asp

ecia

lact

entr

ust

ing

• it

tow

hoe

ver

ism

ost

wor

thy

toh

ave

it.

This

can

bedo

ne

inei

ther

oftw

ow

ays,

depe

ndi

ng

onth

en

atu

reof

the

dan

ger.

Ifth

etr

oubl

eca

nbe

fixed

byin

crea

sin

g• t

he

gove

rnm

ent’s

acti

vity

,po

wer

isco

nce

ntr

ated

inth

eh

ands

ofon

eor

two

of• i

tsm

embe

rs.

Inth

isca

seth

ech

ange

isn

otin

the

auth

orit

yof

the

law

sbu

ton

lyin

the

form

ofad

min

iste

rin

gth

em.

Bu

tif

the

per

ilis

ofsu

cha

kin

dth

atth

eap

par

atu

sof

the

law

sis

anob

stac

leto

savi

ng

the

law

s,th

em

eth

odis

ton

omin

ate

asu

pre

me

rule

rw

ho

isto

sile

nce

all

the

law

san

dbri

efly

susp

end

the

sove

reig

nau

thor

ity.

Insu

cha

case

ther

e’s

no

dou

btab

out

the

gen

eral

will

:it

’scl

ear

that

the

peop

le’s

first

inte

nti

onis

that

the

sta

teis

not

tope

rish

.S

oth

esu

spen

sion

ofth

ele

gisl

ativ

eau

thor

ity

isn

otit

sab

olit

ion

;th

em

agis

trat

ew

ho

keep

sit

quie

tca

n’t

mak

eit

spea

k;h

edo

min

ates

it,

but

can

’tre

pres

ent

it.

The

only

thin

gh

eca

n’t

dois

tom

ake

law

s.[B

y‘c

an’t

mak

eit

spea

k’R

ouss

eau

seem

sto

mea

n‘c

an’t

spea

kfo

rit

’.]Th

efir

stm

eth

odw

asu

sed

byth

eR

oman

sen

ate

wh

en,i

na

con

secr

ated

form

ula

[i.e.

ina

sole

mn

cere

mon

ypr

esid

edov

erby

prie

sts]

,it

char

ged

the

con

suls

wit

hta

kin

gca

reof

the

safe

tyof

the

Rep

ubl

ic.

The

seco

nd

was

empl

oyed

wh

enon

eof

the

two

con

suls

nom

inat

eda

dict

ator

,25

apr

oced

ure

Rom

ebo

rrow

edfr

omA

lba.

Du

rin

gth

efirs

tper

iod

ofth

eR

epu

blic

they

ofte

nfe

llbac

kon

dic

tato

rsh

ip,

bec

ause

the

stat

ew

asn

’tye

tso

lidly

grou

nde

den

ough

tobe

able

tom

ain

tain

itse

lfby

the

stre

ngt

hof

its

con

stit

uti

onal

one.

At

that

tim

eth

em

œu

rsm

ade

supe

rflu

ous

man

yof

the

prec

auti

ons

that

wou

ldh

ave

been

nec

essa

ryat

oth

erti

mes

;so

ther

ew

asn

ofe

arth

ata

dict

ator

wou

ldab

use

his

auth

orit

yor

try

toke

epit

beyo

nd

his

term

ofof

fice.

Qu

ite

the

oppo

site

:th

ose

wh

oh

addi

ctat

oria

lpow

ers

fou

nd

them

bu

rden

som

e,an

dgo

tri

dof

them

asso

onas

pos

sible

—as

ifta

kin

gth

epl

ace

ofth

ela

ws

had

bee

nto

otr

oubl

esom

ean

dto

ope

rilo

us

apo

siti

onto

reta

in.

25Th

en

omin

atio

nw

asm

ade

secr

etly

byn

igh

t,as

ifth

ere

wer

eso

met

hin

gsh

amef

uli

nse

ttin

ga

man

abov

eth

ela

ws.

65

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u47.

Cen

sors

hip

Th

eea

rly

Rom

anu

seof

this

supre

me

mag

istr

acy—

dic

tato

rsh

ip—

was

n’t

wis

e;w

hat

Ih

old

agai

nst

itis

not

the

risk

ofit

sbei

ng

abu

sed

bu

tth

eri

skof

its

ofit

sbec

omin

gch

eap.

Wh

enit

was

bei

ng

free

lyem

plo

yed

atel

ecti

ons,

dedi

cati

ons

and

pure

lyfo

rmal

fun

ctio

ns,

ther

ew

asa

dan

ger

ofit

sbec

omin

gle

ssfo

rmid

able

inti

me

ofn

eed—

adan

ger

that

men

wou

ldco

me

toth

ink

ofit

asan

empty

titl

eth

atw

asu

sed

only

onoc

casi

ons

ofem

pty

cere

mon

ial.

Tow

ards

the

end

ofth

eR

epu

blic

,th

eR

oman

s,h

avin

ggr

own

mor

eci

rcu

msp

ect,

wer

eas

un

reas

onab

ly• s

pari

ng

inth

eir

use

ofdic

tato

rsh

ipas

they

had

form

erly

bee

n• l

avis

h.

Itw

asea

syto

see

that

thei

rfe

ars

wer

eu

nfo

un

ded

:th

eca

pit

al’s

wea

kn

ess

mad

eit

safe

from

the

mag

istr

ates

wh

oliv

edth

ere;

adic

tato

rm

igh

tso

met

imes

• def

end

the

pu

blic

liber

tybu

tw

ould

nev

erbe

ina

posi

tion

to• e

nda

nge

rit

;an

dR

ome’

sch

ain

sw

ould

befo

rged

not

inR

ome

itse

lfbu

tin

its

arm

ies.

The

wea

knes

sof

Mar

ius’

sre

sist

ance

toS

ulla

,an

dof

Pom

pey’

sto

Cae

sar,

clea

rly

show

edw

hat

cou

ldbe

expe

cted

from

auth

orit

yat

hom

eag

ain

stfo

rce

from

abro

ad.

Th

ism

isco

nce

pti

onle

dth

eR

oman

sto

mak

egr

eat

mis

-ta

kes;

such

,for

exam

ple,

asth

efa

ilure

ton

omin

ate

adi

ctat

orin

the

Cat

ilin

aria

nco

nsp

irac

y.[R

ouss

eau

goes

into

det

ails

ofth

isen

orm

ousl

yco

mple

x(a

nd

still

con

trov

ersi

al)m

atte

r.H

eh

olds

that

adi

ctat

orco

uld

hav

esw

iftly

clea

ned

the

wh

ole

thin

gu

p,

wh

erea

sin

fact

itw

asa

lon

g-dra

wn

-ou

taf

fair

invo

lvin

gcr

imin

altr

ials

and

am

ixtu

reof

good

and

bad

beh

avio

ur

by

Cic

ero,

wh

ow

asa

con

sulat

the

tim

eas

wel

las

apro

fess

ion

allit

igat

ing

law

yer.

Th

atev

eryt

hin

gw

orked

out

sati

sfac

tori

lyfr

omR

ome’

spo

int

ofvi

ew,

Rou

ssea

usa

ys,

was

bett

erlu

ckth

anR

ome

dese

rved

.]H

owev

erth

isim

por

tan

ttr

ust

isco

nfe

rred

,it

sdu

rati

onsh

ould

be

fixe

dfo

ra

very

bri

efper

iod

that

isn

ever

tobe

pro

lon

ged.

Inth

ecr

ises

that

lead

toth

eap

poi

ntm

ent

ofa

dict

ator

,th

est

ate

isgo

ing

tobe

soon

lost

orso

onsa

ved;

and

wh

enth

eem

erge

ncy

isov

er,

the

dict

ator

ship

beco

mes

eith

erty

ran

nic

alor

idle

.In

Rom

e,w

her

edic

tato

rsh

eld

office

for

only

six

mon

ths,

mos

tof

them

abdic

ated

bef

ore

thei

rti

me

was

up.

Ifth

eir

term

had

been

lon

ger,

they

mig

ht

wel

lhav

etr

ied

topro

lon

git

still

furt

her

,as

the

dec

emvi

rsdid

wh

ench

osen

for

aye

ar.

Th

edic

tato

rh

adon

lyti

me

todea

lw

ith

the

nee

dth

ath

adca

use

dh

imto

bech

osen

;h

eh

adn

oti

me

toth

ink

offu

rth

erpr

ojec

ts.

7.

Cen

sors

hip

Just

asth

ege

ner

alw

illis

dec

lare

dby

the

law

,th

epu

blic

judg

men

tis

decl

ared

byth

ece

nso

rsh

ip[s

eeG

loss

ary]

.Pu

blic

opin

ion

isth

eso

rtof

law

that

the

cen

sor

adm

inis

ters

;al

lhe

does

isto

appl

yit

topa

rtic

ula

rca

ses,

inth

esa

me

fash

ion

asth

epr

ince

.Th

ece

nso

rial

trib

un

aldoe

sn’t

• pas

sju

dgm

ent

onth

epe

ople

’sop

inio

n;

iton

ly• d

ecla

res

it,

and

asso

onas

the

two

part

com

pan

yit

sde

cisi

ons

are

nu

llan

dvo

id.

It’s

poi

ntl

ess

todis

tin

guis

h• t

he

mœ

urs

[see

Glo

ssar

y]of

an

atio

nfr

om• t

he

obje

cts

ofit

ses

teem

;th

eybot

hco

me

from

the

sam

eso

urc

e,an

dca

n’t

be

dis

enta

ngl

edfr

omon

ean

oth

er.

Inev

ery

nat

ion

onea

rth

the

choi

ceof

the

peop

le’s

plea

sure

sis

deci

ded

not

byn

atu

rebu

tby

opin

ion

.C

orre

ctm

en’s

opin

ion

s,an

dth

eir

mœ

urs

will

puri

fyth

emse

lves

.M

enal

way

slo

vew

hat

isgo

odor

wh

atth

eyfin

dgo

od;

wh

ere

they

gow

ron

gis

inth

eir

judgm

ents

abou

tw

hat

isgo

od.

Wh

atn

eeds

tobe

regu

late

d,

then

,is

this

judgm

ent.

Inm

akin

gju

dgm

ents

abou

tm

œu

rson

eis

mak

ing

judgm

ents

abou

tw

hat

ish

onou

rabl

e;an

dth

eba

sis

for

such

judg

men

ts—

the

law

that

isbe

ing

appl

ied—

is·p

ubl

ic·o

pin

ion

.[In

this

nex

tse

nte

nce

Rou

ssea

usp

eaks

,od

dly,

ofth

eco

nst

itu

tion

ofa

peop

le.

Els

ewh

ere,

con

stit

uti

ons

are

cred

ited

toor

gan

ism

s,to

man

assu

ch,an

dto

polit

ical

enti

ties

.]A

peop

le’s

opin

ion

sco

me

from

its

66

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u48.

Civ

icre

ligio

n

con

stit

uti

on;a

lth

ough

the

law

does

not

regu

late

• mœ

urs

,it’s

legi

slat

ion

that

give

s• t

hem

bir

th.

Wh

enle

gisl

atio

ngr

ows

wea

k,m

œu

rsde

gen

erat

e;bu

tin

such

case

sth

eju

dgm

ent

ofth

ece

nso

rsw

on’t

succ

eed

wh

ere

the

forc

eof

the

law

sh

asfa

iled. Itfo

llow

s,th

en,

that

cen

sors

hip

may

be

use

ful

for

pre

-se

rvin

gm

œu

rsbu

tn

ever

for

rest

orin

gth

em.

Set

up

cen

sors

wh

ileth

ela

ws

are

vigo

rou

s;as

soon

asth

eyw

eake

n,a

llh

ope

isgo

ne;

no

legi

tim

ate

item

reta

ins

its

forc

ew

hen

the

law

sh

ave

lost

thei

rs.

Th

ece

nso

rsh

ipu

ph

olds

mœ

urs

by

pre

ven

tin

gop

inio

ns

from

grow

ing

corr

upt

,by

pres

ervi

ng

thei

rre

ctit

ude

byap

ply-

ing

them

wis

ely,

and

som

etim

esev

enby

fixi

ng

them

wh

enth

eyar

est

illu

nce

rtai

n.

[Inth

atse

nte

nce

,th

e‘th

ey’

inqu

esti

onse

ems

tobe

mœ

urs

,n

otop

inio

ns.

]I

hav

esa

idel

sew

her

e...

.th

atas

pu

blic

opin

ion

isn

’tsu

bjec

tto

any

con

stra

int,

ther

en

eedn

’tbe

any

trac

eof

itin

the

trib

un

alse

tu

pto

repr

esen

tit

.It

’sim

poss

ible

toad

mir

eto

om

uch

the

skill

wit

hw

hic

hth

eR

oman

san

d(e

ven

mor

e)th

eS

par

tan

su

sed

this

reso

urc

e,w

hic

hw

em

oder

ns

hav

ew

hol

lylo

st.

Wh

ena

man

wit

hba

dm

œu

rsm

ade

ago

odpr

opos

alin

the

Spa

rtan

Cou

nci

l,th

eE

phor

sig

nor

edit

and

arra

nge

dfo

rth

esa

me

prop

osal

tobe

mad

eby

avi

rtu

ous

citi

zen

.W

hat

adi

s-gr

ace

for

one

man

,an

dw

hat

anh

onou

rfo

rth

eot

her

,wit

hou

tei

ther

ofth

embe

ing

blam

edor

prai

sed!

Cer

tain

dru

nka

rds

from

Sam

os..

..po

llute

dth

etr

ibu

nal

ofth

eE

phor

s;th

en

ext

day

apu

blic

edic

tga

veS

amia

ns

perm

issi

onto

bedi

sgu

stin

g.A

nac

tual

pu

nis

hm

ent

wou

ldh

ave

bee

nle

ssse

vere

than

such

a‘p

erm

issi

on’!

Wh

enS

part

ah

aspr

onou

nce

don

wh

atis

oris

n’t

righ

t,G

reec

edo

esn

’tap

peal

agai

nst

its

judg

men

ts.

[Inth

epr

eced

ing

para

grap

h,R

ouss

eau

isev

iden

tly

stre

tch

ing

the

not

ion

ofce

nso

rsh

ip[s

eeG

loss

ary]

asan

cien

tR

ome

had

it,

toco

ver

anyt

hin

gof

ficia

lth

atn

udg

esor

hoo

ksin

topu

blic

opin

ion

inso

me

obliq

ue

way

:

ign

orin

gth

eba

dm

an’s

prop

osal

,pe

rmit

tin

gth

edr

un

kard

sto

bedi

s-gu

stin

g.B

efor

eco

min

gto

that

,h

eh

asof

fere

dan

oth

erex

ampl

e(n

otan

anci

ent

one)

ofth

atst

retc

h.]

Th

eu

seof

seco

nds

indu

els,

wh

ich

had

bee

nca

rrie

dto

wild

extr

emes

inth

eF

ren

chkin

gdom

,w

asdon

eaw

ayw

ith

mer

ely

byth

ese

wor

dsin

aro

yale

dict

:‘A

sfo

rth

ose

wh

oar

eco

war

ds

enou

ghto

call

upon

seco

nds.

..’.

Th

isju

dgm

ent,

gett

ing

inah

ead

of• t

he

pu

blic

’sju

dgm

ent,

imm

edia

tely

deci

ded

• it.

Bu

tw

hen

thos

esa

me

edic

tstr

ied

topr

onou

nce

du

ellin

git

self

asco

war

dly

(an

dso

itis

!),th

epu

blic

did

n’t

take

this

seri

ousl

ybec

ause

its

min

dw

asal

read

ym

ade

up

the

oth

erw

ay.

8.

Civ

icre

ligi

on

At

firs

tm

enh

adn

okin

gsex

cept

the

gods,

and

no

gove

rn-

men

tex

cept

theo

crac

y.Th

eyre

ason

edlik

eC

alig

ula

—·a

Rom

anem

per

orw

ho

thou

ght

he

wa

sa

god·—

and

atth

atper

iod

the

reas

onin

gw

asco

rrec

t.M

en’s

thou

ghts

and

feel

ings

hav

eto

goth

rou

gha

lon

gper

iod

ofch

ange

bef

ore

they

can

bri

ng

them

selv

esto

take

thei

req

ual

sas

mas

ters

and

toex

pect

topr

ofit

bydo

ing

so.

Sim

ply

from

the

fact

that

God

was

put

inch

arge

ofev

ery

polit

ical

soci

ety,

itfo

llow

edth

atth

ere

wer

eas

man

ygo

dsas

peop

les.

Two

peop

les

that

wer

est

ran

gers

toon

ean

oth

er,a

nd

nea

rly

alw

ays

enem

ies,

cou

ldn

’tgo

onre

cogn

isin

gth

esa

me

mas

ter

for

lon

g;tw

oar

mie

sgi

vin

gbat

tle

cou

ldn

’tob

eyth

esa

me

lead

er.

So

nat

ion

aldi

visi

ons

led

topo

lyth

eism

,w

hic

hin

turn

led

to• t

heo

logi

cala

nd

• civ

ilin

tole

ran

ce—

wh

ich

,as

I’lls

how

late

r,ar

ees

sen

tial

lyth

esa

me.

The

Gre

eks’

likin

gfo

rdi

scov

erin

gth

eir

gods

amon

g• t

he

bar

bar

ian

sar

ose

from

thei

rre

gard

ing

them

selv

esas

the

nat

ura

lsov

erei

gns

of• t

hos

epe

ople

s.B

ut

it’s

our

own

tim

esth

ath

ave

prod

uce

dth

elin

eof

‘sch

olar

ship

’th

atis

base

don

67

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u48.

Civ

icre

ligio

n

iden

tify

ing

gods

ofon

en

atio

nw

ith

gods

ofan

oth

er.

As

ifM

oloc

h,S

atu

rn,an

dC

hro

nos

cou

ldbe

the

sam

ego

d!A

sif

the

Phoe

nic

ian

Baa

l,th

eG

reek

Zeu

s,an

dth

eLa

tin

Jupi

ter

cou

ldbe

the

sam

e!A

sif

ther

eco

uld

bean

yco

mm

onre

sidu

ein

imag

inar

ybe

ings

wit

hdi

ffer

ent

nam

es!

You

may

ask:

‘Wh

yw

ere

ther

en

ow

ars

ofre

ligio

nin

the

paga

nw

orld

,w

her

eea

chst

ate

had

its

own

form

ofw

orsh

ip[c

ult

e]an

dit

sow

ngo

ds?

’M

yre

ply

isth

atju

stbec

ause

each

stat

eh

adit

sow

nfo

rmof

wor

ship

asw

ell

asit

sow

ngo

vern

men

t,n

ost

ate

dis

tin

guis

hed

its

gods

from

its

law

s.Pol

itic

alw

arw

asal

soth

eolo

gica

lw

ar;

the

gods

had

,so

tosp

eak,

prov

ince

sth

atw

ere

fixed

byth

ebo

un

dari

esof

nat

ion

s.Th

ego

dof

one

peo

ple

had

no

righ

tov

erot

her

peo

ple

s.Th

ego

dsof

the

paga

ns

wer

en

otje

alou

sgo

ds[=

‘did

n’t

dem

and

that

thei

rfo

llow

ers

hav

en

oth

ing

todo

wit

han

yot

her

gods

’];th

eysh

ared

the

wor

ldam

ong

them

selv

es.

Eve

nM

oses

and

the

Heb

rew

sso

met

imes

adop

ted

that

poi

nt

ofvi

ewby

spea

kin

gof

‘the

God

ofIs

rael

’.It

’str

ue

that

they

rega

rded

aspo

wer

less

the

gods

ofth

eC

anaa

nit

es,a

pro

scri

bed

peo

ple

con

dem

ned

tode

stru

ctio

n,w

hos

epl

ace

they

wer

eto

take

;bu

tlo

okat

how

they

spok

eof

the

divi

nit

ies

ofth

en

eigh

bou

rin

gpe

ople

sth

eyw

ere

forb

idden

toat

tack

!‘Is

n’t

the

terr

itor

ybel

ongi

ng

toyo

ur

god

Ch

emos

hla

wfu

llyyo

urs

?’sa

idJe

ph

thah

toth

eA

mm

onit

es.

‘We

hav

eth

esa

me

titl

eto

the

lan

ds

that

our

con

quer

ing

God

has

mad

eh

isow

n’(

Jud

ges

11:2

4)..

..H

ere,

Ith

ink,

ther

eis

are

cogn

itio

nth

atth

eri

ghts

ofC

hem

osh

are

ona

par

wit

hth

ose

ofth

eG

odof

Isra

el.

Wh

enth

eJe

ws

wer

esu

bjec

tsof

the

Kin

gsof

Bab

ylon

and

then

ofth

eK

ings

ofS

yria

,th

eyst

illob

stin

atel

yre

fuse

dto

reco

gnis

ean

ygo

dbu

tth

eir

own

;th

isre

fusa

lwas

rega

rded

asre

bel

lion

agai

nst

thei

rco

nqu

eror

,an

ddre

wdow

non

them

the

pers

ecu

tion

sw

ere

adof

inth

eir

his

tory

,w

hic

har

e

wit

hou

tpa

ralle

ltill

the

com

ing

ofC

hri

stia

nit

y.26

Th

us,

bec

ause

ever

yre

ligio

nw

asat

tach

edso

lely

toth

ela

ws

ofth

est

ate

that

pres

crib

edit

,th

eon

lyw

ayto

con

vert

apeo

ple

was

toen

slav

eit

,an

dth

eon

lym

issi

onar

ies

ther

eco

uld

bew

ere

con

quer

ors.

...

So

far

from

men

figh

tin

gfo

rth

ego

ds,t

he

gods

(as

inH

omer

)fou

ght

for

men

;eac

hm

anas

ked

his

god

for

vict

ory,

and

pai

dfo

rit

wit

hn

ewal

tars

.B

efor

eth

eR

oman

sto

oka

plac

e,th

eyca

lled

onit

sgo

dsto

aban

don

it;

and

wh

enth

eyle

ftth

eTar

enti

nes

wit

hth

eir

outr

aged

gods

,th

eyre

gard

edth

ose

gods

assu

bjec

tto

thei

row

nan

dfo

rced

todo

them

hom

age.

Th

eyle

ftth

eva

nqu

ish

edth

eir

gods

asth

eyle

ftth

emth

eir

law

s.A

wre

ath

toth

eJu

pite

rof

the

Cap

itol

was

ofte

nth

eon

lytr

ibu

teth

eyim

pose

d.Fin

ally

,w

hen

the

Rom

ans

insp

read

ing

thei

rem

pire

had

also

spre

adth

eir

form

sof

wor

ship

and

thei

rgo

ds,an

dh

adof

ten

adop

ted

for

them

selv

esth

ego

ds

ofth

eva

nqu

ish

ed,

gran

tin

gth

eri

ghts

ofth

eci

tyto

both

lots

ofgo

ds,t

he

peop

les

ofth

atva

stem

pire

very

grad

ual

lyca

me

toh

ave

mu

ltit

ude

sof

gods

and

form

sof

wor

ship

,ev

eryw

her

eal

mos

tth

esa

me;

and

that

’sh

owit

cam

eab

out

that

paga

nis

mth

rou

ghou

tth

ekn

own

wor

ldfin

ally

cam

eto

bea

sin

gle

relig

ion

.Th

isw

asth

esi

tuat

ion

wh

enJe

sus

cam

eto

set

up

onea

rth

asp

irit

ual

kin

gdom

,w

hic

h,

byse

para

tin

gth

eth

eolo

gi-

calf

rom

the

polit

ical

syst

em,d

estr

oyed

the

un

ity

ofth

est

ate,

and

cau

sed

the

inte

rnal

divi

sion

sth

ath

ave

nev

erce

ased

totr

oubl

eC

hri

stia

npe

ople

s.Th

isn

ewid

eaof

aki

ngd

omof

‘the

oth

erw

orld

’cou

ldn

ever

hav

eoc

curr

edto

pag

ans,

soth

eyal

way

sre

gard

edth

eC

hri

stia

ns

asre

ally

rebel

s,w

ho

wh

ilepr

eten

din

gto

besu

bmis

sive

wer

eon

lyw

aiti

ng

for

the

chan

ceto

beco

me

inde

pen

den

tan

dto

bein

char

ge,c

un

nin

gly

seiz

ing

the

auth

orit

yth

eypre

ten

ded

inth

eir

wea

kn

ess

tore

spec

t.Th

isw

asth

eca

use

ofth

epe

rsec

uti

ons.

26It

isu

tter

lycl

ear

that

the

so-c

alle

d’S

acre

dw

ar’a

gain

stth

ePh

ocia

ns

was

not

aw

arof

relig

ion

.It

sai

mw

asto

pun

ish

acts

ofsa

crile

ge,n

otto

con

quer

un

belie

vers

.

68

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u48.

Civ

icre

ligio

n

Wh

atth

epa

gan

sh

adfe

ared

took

plac

e.Th

enev

eryt

hin

gw

asre

-arr

ange

d:th

eh

um

ble

Ch

rist

ian

sch

ange

dth

eir

way

ofta

lkin

g,an

dso

onth

isso

-cal

led

kin

gdom

of• t

he

oth

erw

orld

turn

ed,

un

der

avi

sible

lead

er,

into

the

mos

tvi

olen

tde

spot

ism

in• t

his

wor

ld.

How

ever

,as

ther

ew

asal

way

s• a

prin

cean

dci

vill

aws

·as

wel

las

• ach

urc

h·,

this

dou

ble

pow

ercr

eate

da

con

flic

tof

juri

sdic

tion

that

mad

eit

impo

ssib

lefo

rC

hri

stia

nst

ates

tobe

gove

rned

wel

l;an

dm

enn

ever

man

aged

todi

scov

erw

het

her

they

wer

eob

liged

toob

eyth

em

aste

ror

the

prie

st.

Sev

eral

peo

ple

s,h

owev

er,ev

enin

Eu

rope

and

its

nei

gh-

bou

rhoo

d,h

ave

trie

dto

pres

erve

orre

stor

eth

eol

dsy

stem

—tr

ied

and

faile

d,

bec

ause

the

spir

itof

Ch

rist

ian

ity

has

won

ever

yti

me.

Th

esa

cred

cult

has

alw

ays

rem

ain

edor

agai

nbec

ome

indep

enden

tof

the

sove

reig

nan

dn

otes

sen

tial

lylin

ked

wit

hth

ebo

dyof

the

stat

e.M

ahom

eth

eld

very

sou

nd

and

sen

sible

view

s,an

dm

ade

ago

odjo

bof

linkin

gh

ispol

itic

alsy

stem

toge

ther

;an

das

lon

gas

the

calip

hs

wh

osu

ccee

ded

him

pre

serv

edth

efo

rmof

his

gove

rnm

ent,

that

gove

rnm

ent

had

the

good

feat

ure

ofbei

ng

one—

·au

nit

ary

gove

rnm

ent,

not

split

betw

een

secu

lar

and

relig

iou

spo

wer

s·.

Bu

tw

hen

the

Ara

bsbe

cam

epr

ospe

rou

s,le

tter

ed,ci

vilis

ed,

slac

kan

dco

war

dly,

they

wer

eco

nqu

ered

byba

rbar

ian

s,an

dth

ediv

isio

nbet

wee

nth

etw

opow

ers

star

ted

up

agai

n.

Itis

less

con

spic

uou

sam

ong

the

Mah

omet

ans

than

amon

gth

eC

hri

stia

ns,

but

the

Mah

omet

ans

doh

ave

it,

espe

cial

lyin

the

sect

ofA

li,an

din

som

est

ates

such

asPe

rsia

itis

con

tin

ual

lym

akin

git

self

felt

.A

mon

gu

s·E

uro

pean

s·,th

eki

ngs

ofE

ngl

and

hav

ebe

enm

ade

hea

dsof

the

Ch

urc

h,an

dth

eC

zars

hav

edo

ne

mu

ch

the

sam

eth

ing;

but

• th

isti

tle

has

mad

eth

emm

inis

ters

ofth

eC

hu

rch

rath

erth

anit

sm

aste

rs;

• th

eyh

ave

acqu

ired

the

pow

erto

mai

nta

inth

ech

urc

hra

ther

than

toch

ange

it;

• th

eyar

en’t

its

legi

slat

ors,

but

only

its

prin

ces.

Wh

erev

erth

ecl

ergy

isa

corp

orat

ebod

y,27

itis

mas

ter

and

legi

slat

orin

its

own

cou

ntr

y.Th

ere

are

thu

stw

opo

wer

s,tw

oso

vere

ign

s,in

En

glan

dan

din

Ru

ssia

,as

wel

las

else

wh

ere.

[Rou

ssea

ush

ould

n’t

hav

esa

id‘tw

oso

vere

ign

s’.

Wh

ath

eh

asbe

enm

ain

-ta

inin

gis

that

En

glan

dh

as(i

)a

sove

reig

nan

d(i

i)a

gove

rnm

ent,

and

that

(i)t

he

body

ofth

eA

ngl

ican

cler

gyis

the

sove

reig

n,w

hile

(ii)

the

kin

gis

the

gove

rnm

ent.]

The

philo

soph

erH

obbe

sis

the

only

Ch

rist

ian

wri

ter

wh

oh

asse

enth

eev

ilan

dse

enh

owto

rem

edy

it,an

dh

asda

red

topro

pos

ebri

ng

the

two

hea

ds

ofth

eea

gle

toge

ther

agai

n,

rest

orin

gth

eto

tal

pol

itic

alu

nit

yw

ith

out

wh

ich

no

stat

eor

gove

rnm

ent

will

ever

be

righ

tly

con

stit

ute

d.

Bu

th

esh

ould

hav

ese

enth

atC

hri

stia

nit

y’s

dom

inat

ing

spir

itis

inco

mpat

ible

wit

hh

issy

stem

,an

dth

atth

epri

ests

’sid

eof

the

divi

dew

ould

alw

ays

best

ron

ger

than

the

stat

e’s.

Wh

ath

asdr

awn

dow

nh

atre

don

his

polit

ical

theo

ryis

not

som

uch

wh

atis

fals

ean

dte

rrib

lein

itas

wh

atis

just

and

tru

e...

.I

belie

veth

atif

the

stu

dyof

his

tory

wer

ede

velo

ped

from

this

poi

nt

ofvi

ew,

itw

ould

be

easy

tore

fute

the

opin

ion

ofB

ayle

that

no

relig

ion

isu

sefu

lto

the

body

polit

ic,

and

also

the

oppo

sin

gop

inio

nof

War

burt

onth

atC

hri

stia

nit

yis

the

bod

ypol

itic

’sst

ron

gest

sup-

port

.27

Itsh

ould

ben

oted

that

wh

atbi

nds

the

cler

gyto

geth

erto

con

stit

ute

abo

dyis

not

afo

rmal

asse

mbl

ybu

tra

ther

the

com

mu

nio

nof

chu

rch

es.

Com

mu

nio

nan

dex

com

mu

nic

atio

nar

eth

ecl

ergy

’sso

cial

com

pact

,a

com

pact

that

will

alw

ays

mak

eth

emm

aste

rsof

peop

les

and

kin

gs.

All

prie

sts

wh

ogi

veor

take

com

mu

nio

nto

geth

erar

efe

llow

-cit

izen

s,ev

enif

they

com

efr

omop

posi

teen

dsof

the

eart

h.

This

inve

nti

onis

apo

litic

alm

aste

rpie

ce;

paga

npr

iest

sh

ave

not

hin

glik

eit

,w

hic

his

wh

yth

eyh

ave

ther

efor

en

ever

con

stit

ute

da

cler

ical

corp

orat

ebo

dy.

69

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u48.

Civ

icre

ligio

n

·Sta

rtin

gfr

omth

eH

obbb

esia

nvi

ewpo

int·

,w

ew

ould

dem

on-

stra

teto

Bay

leth

atn

ost

ate

has

ever

been

fou

nde

dw

ith

out

are

ligio

us

basi

s,an

dto

War

burt

onth

atC

hri

stia

nla

wba

sica

llyw

eaken

sth

est

ate’

sco

nst

itu

tion

mor

eth

anit

hel

ps

it.

To

mak

em

ysel

fu

nder

stoo

d,I

hav

eon

lyto

shar

pen

up

alit

tle

the

un

du

lyva

gue

idea

sof

relig

ion

that

com

eu

pin

this

subj

ect.

Rel

igio

n,

con

side

red

inre

lati

onto

soci

ety,

can

bedi

vide

din

totw

okin

ds.

(a)

Wit

hth

ere

leva

nt

‘soc

iety

’tak

enas

the

wh

ole

ofm

ankin

d,

we

hav

eth

ere

ligio

nof

man

;(b

)w

ith

‘soc

iety

’un

der

stoo

dat

the

soci

ety

ofth

isor

that

nat

ion

we

hav

eth

ere

ligio

nof

the

citi

zen

ofth

isor

that

nat

ion

.(a

)doe

sn’t

hav

ete

mple

s,or

alta

rsor

rite

s,an

dis

con

fin

ed• t

oth

epu

rely

inte

rnal

wor

ship

ofth

esu

pre

me

God

and

• th

eet

ern

alob

ligat

ion

sof

mor

alit

y;it

isth

ere

ligio

nof

the

Gos

pel

pure

and

sim

ple,

the

tru

eth

eism

,w

hat

may

beca

lled

nat

u-

ral

divi

ne

law

.(b

)is

codi

fied

ina

sin

gle

cou

ntr

y,to

wh

ich

itgi

ves

its

gods

and

its

own

pat

ron

sain

ts;

ith

asit

sdog

mas

,it

sri

tes,

and

its

exte

rnal

form

sof

wor

ship

pre

scri

bed

by

law

;it

view

sal

lth

eot

her

nat

ion

sas

un

bel

ieve

rs,

fore

ign

,ba

rbar

ous;

itdo

esn

’tre

gard

the

duti

esan

dri

ghts

ofm

anas

exte

ndin

gfa

rbey

ond

its

own

alta

rs.

Th

ere

ligio

ns

ofea

rly

peop

les

wer

eal

lofth

isso

rt.

We

cou

ldla

belt

hem

asci

vilo

rpo

siti

vedi

vin

ela

w.

[Inth

eco

ntr

ast

betw

een

nat

ura

lla

wan

dpo

siti

vela

w,

‘pos

itiv

e’m

ean

s‘c

reat

edby

the

deci

sion

sof

hu

man

bein

gs’.

Itw

asa

gen

eral

lyu

nde

r-st

ood

dist

inct

ion

inea

rly

mod

ern

tim

es;

Rou

ssea

uis

her

eu

sin

git

todi

stin

guis

htw

oki

nds

ofre

ligio

n,s

ugg

esti

ng

that

one

ofth

emis

nat

ura

l—pe

rhap

san

ups

hot

ofh

um

ann

atu

re—

wh

erea

sth

eot

her

isar

tific

ial,

som

eth

ing

delib

erat

ely

devi

sed

orin

ven

ted

byh

um

ans.

He

thro

ws

in‘d

i-vi

ne’

beca

use

the

item

su

nde

rdi

scu

ssio

nar

ere

ligio

ns;

Rou

ssea

udo

esn

’tth

ink

that

any

god

has

anyt

hin

gto

dow

ith

(b),

and

the

adje

ctiv

e-pa

ir‘p

osit

ive

divi

ne’

,w

hic

hm

ean

s‘m

an-m

ade

and

divi

ne’

and

isvi

rtu

ally

self-

con

trad

icto

ry,

isa

joke

.]

Ther

e’s

ath

ird

biza

rre

sort

ofre

ligio

n(c

)th

at• g

ives

men

two

codes

ofla

w,

two

rule

rs,

and

two

cou

ntr

ies,

• im

pos

esco

ntr

adic

tory

duti

eson

them

,an

d• m

akes

itim

poss

ible

for

them

tobe

belie

vers

and

citi

zen

s.Th

ere

ligio

nof

the

Lam

asis

like

that

,an

dso

isth

ere

ligio

nof

the

Japa

nes

e.A

not

her

exam

ple

isR

oman

·Cat

hol

ic·C

hri

stia

nit

y.W

eco

uld

call

this

sort

ofre

ligio

nth

ere

ligio

nof

the

prie

st.

Itle

ads

toa

sort

ofm

ixed

and

anti

-soc

ialc

ode

that

has

no

nam

e·a

nal

ogou

sto

‘nat

ura

ldiv

ine’

and

‘pos

itiv

edi

vin

e’fo

rth

eot

her

two·

.Lo

oked

atfr

omth

epol

itic

alpoi

nt

ofvi

ew,

thes

eth

ree

kin

ds

ofre

ligio

nal

lh

ave

def

ects

.(c

)is

socl

earl

ybad

that

• pas

sin

gth

eti

me

pro

vin

gth

atit

isso

wou

ldbe

• was

tin

gti

me.

An

yth

ing

that

des

troy

sso

cial

un

ity

isw

orth

less

;al

lin

stit

uti

ons

that

set

man

inco

ntr

adic

tion

toh

imse

lfar

ew

orth

less

.(b

)h

asso

me

good

feat

ure

s.It

un

ites

divi

ne

wor

ship

wit

hlo

veof

the

law

s.B

ym

akin

gth

eco

un

try

the

obje

ctof

the

citi

zen

s’ad

orat

ion

,it

teac

hes

them

that

serv

ice

don

eto

the

stat

eis

serv

ice

don

eto

its

guar

dia

ngo

d.

Itis

afo

rmof

theo

crac

y,in

wh

ich

ther

esh

ould

ben

opo

pebu

tth

epr

ince

,an

dn

opr

iest

sbu

tth

em

agis

trat

es.

Inth

issy

stem

,dy

ing

for

one’

sco

un

try

issu

ffer

ing

mar

tyrd

om;

viol

atin

git

sla

ws

issa

crile

ge;

and

subje

ctin

ga

crim

inal

topu

blic

exec

rati

onis

con

dem

nin

gh

imto

the

ange

rof

the

gods

....

Bu

tit

isbad

inth

at,

bei

ng

bas

edon

lies

and

erro

r,it

dece

ives

men

,mak

esth

emcr

edu

lou

san

dsu

pers

titi

ous,

and

dro

wn

sth

etr

ue

wor

ship

ofth

eD

ivin

ity

[Rou

ssea

u’s

phra

se]

inem

pty

cere

mon

ies.

Itis

also

bad

wh

enby

bec

omin

gty

ran

nic

alan

dex

clu

sive

itm

akes

ape

ople

bloo

dth

irst

yan

din

tole

ran

t,br

eath

ing

mu

rder

and

mas

sacr

e,an

dre

gard

ing

asa

sacr

edac

tth

ekill

ing

ofan

yon

ew

ho

doe

sn’t

bel

ieve

init

sgo

ds.

This

puts

such

ape

ople

into

an

atu

rals

tate

ofw

ar

wit

hev

eryo

ne

else

,so

that

its

secu

rity

isde

eply

enda

nge

red.

70

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u48.

Civ

icre

ligio

n

Th

ere

rem

ain

s(a

)th

ere

ligio

nof

man

,i.e.

Ch

rist

ian

ity—

not

toda

y’s

Ch

rist

ian

ity

but

the

enti

rely

diff

eren

tC

hri

stia

nit

yof

the

Gos

pel.

By

mea

ns

ofth

ish

oly,

subl

ime,

and

gen

uin

ere

ligio

nal

lm

en,

asch

ildre

nof

one

God

,ac

kn

owle

dge

one

anot

her

asbr

oth

ers,

and

the

soci

ety

that

un

ites

them

isn

’tdi

ssol

ved

even

atde

ath

.B

ut

this

relig

ion

,h

avin

gn

osp

ecia

lre

lati

onto

the

bod

ypol

itic

,le

aves

the

law

sw

ith

only

the

forc

eth

eydra

wfr

omth

emse

lves

wit

hou

tad

din

gan

yth

ing

toit

;w

hic

hm

ean

sth

aton

eof

the

grea

tbon

ds

for

un

itin

gth

eso

ciet

yof

the

give

nco

un

try

isle

ftid

le.

Wor

se:

sofa

rfr

ombin

din

gth

eci

tize

ns’

hea

rts

to• t

he

stat

e,it

deta

ches

them

from

• th

atan

dfr

omal

lea

rth

lyth

ings

.I

know

ofn

oth

ing

mor

eco

ntr

ary

toth

eso

cial

spir

it.

Th

eyte

llu

sth

ata

pop

ula

ceof

tru

eC

hri

stia

ns

wou

ldfo

rmth

em

ost

per

fect

soci

ety

imag

inab

le.

Ise

ein

only

one

grea

tdi

fficu

lty

abou

tth

isid

ea,

nam

ely

that

aso

ciet

yof

tru

eC

hri

stia

ns

wou

ldn

’tbe

aso

ciet

yof

men

.I

gofu

rth

er:

such

aso

ciet

y,w

ith

all

its

per

fect

ion

,w

ould

n’t

be

the

stro

nge

stor

the

mos

tdu

rable

;it

sve

ryper

fect

ion

wou

lddep

rive

itof

its

bon

dof

un

ion

;th

eflaw

that

wou

ldde

stro

yit

wou

ldlie

init

spe

rfec

tion

.E

very

one

wou

lddo

his

du

ty;

the

peo

ple

wou

ldbe

law

-ab

idin

g;th

eru

lers

wou

ldbe

just

and

tem

per

ate,

and

the

mag

istr

ates

upri

ght

and

inco

rru

pti

ble

;th

eso

ldie

rsw

ould

rega

rdde

ath

asa

min

orth

ing;

ther

ew

ould

ben

ova

nit

yor

extr

avag

ant

luxu

ry.

So

far,

sogo

od;bu

tle

t’slo

okfu

rth

er.

Ch

rist

ian

ity

isan

enti

rely

spir

itu

alre

ligio

n,

occu

pie

dso

lely

wit

hh

eave

nly

thin

gs;

the

Ch

rist

ian

’sco

un

try

isn

otof

this

wor

ld.

He

doe

sh

isdu

ty,

cert

ain

ly,

bu

tdoe

sit

wit

ha

dee

pla

ckof

inte

rest

inw

het

her

the

wor

kh

eh

aspu

tin

has

prod

uce

dgo

odor

bad

resu

lts.

Prov

ided

he

has

not

hin

gto

repro

ach

him

self

wit

h,

itdoe

sn’t

mat

ters

mu

chto

him

wh

eth

erth

ings

gow

ello

rill

her

ebe

low

.If

the

stat

epr

ospe

rs,

he

har

dly

dare

sto

shar

ein

the

publ

ich

appi

nes

s,fo

rfe

arh

em

aybec

ome

pu

ffed

up

wit

hpri

de

inh

isco

un

try’

sgl

ory;

ifth

est

ate

goes

dow

nh

ill,h

eble

sses

the

han

dof

God

that

ish

ard

upo

nH

ispe

ople

.F

orth

eso

ciet

yto

be

pea

ceab

lean

dfo

rh

arm

ony

tobe

mai

nta

ined

,a

llth

eci

tize

ns

wou

ldh

ave

tobe

equ

ally

good

Ch

rist

ian

s.If

ther

eh

appen

edto

be

asi

ngl

ese

lf-s

eeker

orh

ypoc

rite

—a

Cat

ilin

eor

aC

rom

wel

l,fo

rin

stan

ce—

he

wou

ldce

rtai

nly

get

the

bet

ter

ofh

ispio

us

com

pat

riot

s.C

hri

stia

nch

arit

ydo

esn

’tm

ake

itea

syfo

ra

man

toth

ink

illof

anot

her

man

.A

sso

onas

our

bad

man

has

wor

ked

out

aw

ayof

• dec

eivi

ng

ever

yon

eel

sean

d• g

etti

ng

hol

dof

ash

are

inth

epu

blic

auth

orit

y,yo

uh

ave

am

anes

tabl

ish

edin

dign

ity;

God

wan

tsu

sto

resp

ect

him

.Th

enbe

fore

lon

g,yo

uh

ave

apo

wer

;G

odw

ants

us

toob

eyit

.If

the

per

son

wh

oh

asth

epow

erab

use

sit

,th

atis

the

wh

ipG

odu

ses

topu

nis

hh

isch

ildre

n.

Th

ere

wou

ldbe

scru

ple

sab

out

dri

vin

gou

tth

eu

surp

er:

itw

ould

invo

lve

dist

urb

ing

publ

icpe

ace,

usi

ng

viol

ence

,sp

illin

gbl

ood;

non

eof

this

squ

ares

wit

hC

hri

stia

nge

ntl

enes

s;an

dan

yway

wh

atdoe

sit

mat

ter

inth

isva

leof

sorr

ows

wh

eth

erw

ear

efr

eem

enor

serf

s?Th

ees

sen

tial

thin

gis

toge

tto

hea

ven

,an

dre

sign

atio

n—

·i.e.

pu

ttin

gu

pw

ith

har

dsh

ippat

ien

tly

and

wit

hou

tco

mpl

ain

ing·

—is

just

one

mor

ew

ayof

gett

ing

ther

e.If

afo

reig

nw

arbr

eaks

out,

the

citi

zen

sm

arch

read

ilyou

tto

batt

le;

not

one

ofth

emth

inks

offli

ght;

they

doth

eir

duty

,bu

tth

eyh

ave

no

pas

sion

for

vict

ory;

they

kn

owh

owto

die

bett

erth

anth

eykn

owh

owto

con

quer

.W

hat

does

itm

atte

rw

het

her

they

win

orlo

se?

Doe

sn’t

Pro

viden

cekn

owbet

ter

than

they

do

wh

atsh

ould

hap

pen

toth

em?

Imag

ine

wh

ata

pro

ud,

impet

uou

san

dpas

sion

ate

enem

yco

uld

mak

eof

this

·Ch

rist

ian·s

toic

ism

!S

etth

isC

hri

stia

nar

my

agai

nst

the

71

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u48.

Civ

icre

ligio

n

dee

p-f

eelin

gpeo

ple

sw

ho

wer

eco

nsu

med

by

arden

tlo

veof

glor

yan

dof

thei

rco

un

try;

imag

ine

you

rC

hri

stia

nre

publ

icu

pag

ain

stS

par

taor

Rom

e:th

epio

us

Ch

rist

ian

sw

illbe

beat

en,c

rush

edan

dde

stro

yed,

befo

reth

eykn

oww

her

eth

eyar

e;or

they

’llbe

safe

only

bec

ause

thei

ren

emy

rega

rded

them

asn

eglig

ible

....

Bu

tI’m

wro

ng

tosp

eak

ofa

Ch

rist

ian

repu

blic

—th

ose

two

term

sar

em

utu

ally

excl

usi

ve.

Ch

rist

ian

ity

pre

ach

eson

lyse

rvit

ude

and

dep

enden

ce.

Its

spir

itis

sofa

vou

rable

toty

ran

ny

that

ital

way

spr

ofits

bysu

cha

régi

me.

Gen

uin

eC

hri

stia

ns

are

mad

eto

besl

aves

,an

dth

eykn

owit

and

don

’tm

uch

min

d:th

issh

ort

life

cou

nts

for

too

littl

ein

thei

rey

es.

Ch

rist

ian

troo

psar

eex

celle

nt,

we

are

told

.Id

eny

it.

Sh

owm

ean

exam

ple!

For

my

part

,I

don

’tkn

owof

any

Ch

rist

ian

troo

ps.

The

Cru

sade

s?W

ith

out

disp

uti

ng

the

cou

rage

ofth

eC

rusa

ders

,Ian

swer

that

far

from

bein

gC

hri

stia

ns

they

wer

eth

epri

ests

’tro

ops,

they

wer

eci

tize

ns

ofth

eC

hu

rch

:th

eyfo

ugh

tfo

rth

eir

spir

itu

alco

un

try,

wh

ich

the

Ch

urc

hh

adso

meh

owm

ade

tem

por

al.

Pro

per

lyu

nder

stoo

d,

this

goes

back

topa

gan

ism

:be

cau

seth

eG

ospe

ldoe

sn’t

esta

blis

han

yn

atio

nal

relig

ion

,th

ere

can

’tpos

sibly

be

ah

oly

war

amon

gC

hri

stia

ns.

Un

der

the

pag

anem

per

ors,

the

Ch

rist

ian

sold

iers

wer

efin

e;ev

ery

Ch

rist

ian

wri

ter

says

so,

and

Ibel

ieve

it;

they

wer

eh

onou

rabl

ym

odel

ling

them

selv

eson

the

paga

ntr

oops

.A

sso

onas

the

empe

rors

wer

eC

hri

stia

n,

this

mod

ellin

gw

asex

tin

guis

hed

;an

dw

hen

the

cros

sh

addr

iven

out

the

eagl

e,R

oman

valo

ur

wh

olly

disa

ppea

red.

Let

us

now

set

pol

itic

alco

nsi

der

atio

ns

asid

ean

dco

me

back

to·q

ues

tion

sab

out·

wh

atis

righ

t,an

dse

ttle

our

prin

-ci

ple

son

this

impor

tan

tpoi

nt.

[Inth

ispa

ssag

e,‘r

igh

t’tr

ansl

ates

dro

it,w

hic

hca

nal

som

ean

‘law

’.]Th

eri

ght

that

the

soci

alco

mpa

ctgi

ves

the

sove

reig

nov

erth

esu

bje

cts

doe

sn

ot,

we

hav

ese

en,in

clu

dean

yth

ing

that

isn

’tgo

odfo

rth

epu

blic

.28

The

subj

ects

then

owe

the

sove

reig

nan

acco

un

tof

thei

rop

inio

ns

only

inso

far

asth

eop

inio

ns

mat

ter

toth

eco

mm

un

ity.

Now

,it

mat

ters

very

mu

chto

the

com

mu

nit

yth

atea

chci

tize

nsh

ould

hav

ea

relig

ion

that

mak

esh

imlo

veh

isdu

ty;

bu

tth

atre

ligio

n’s

• dog

mas

are

no

con

cern

ofth

est

ate’

sor

ofit

sm

ember

s’ex

cept

inso

far

as• t

hey

invo

lve

mor

alit

yan

dth

ebel

ieve

r’s

du

ties

tow

ards

oth

ers.

Inad

dit

ion

toal

lth

at,

am

anm

ayh

ave

any

opin

ion

sh

elik

esw

ith

out

that

bein

gan

yof

the

sove

reig

n’s

busi

nes

s.H

avin

gn

ost

andi

ng

inth

eot

her

wor

ld,

the

sove

reig

nh

asn

oco

nce

rnw

ith

wh

atm

aylie

inw

ait

for

its

subje

cts

inth

elif

eto

com

e,pro

vided

they

are

good

citi

zen

sin

this

life.

So

ther

e’s

apu

rely

civi

lpro

fess

ion

offa

ith

,th

eco

nte

nt

ofw

hic

hsh

ould

be

fixe

dby

the

sove

reig

n—

not

exac

tly

asre

ligio

us

dogm

as,bu

tas

soci

alse

nti

men

tsth

atar

en

eede

dfo

rto

bea

good

citi

zen

and

afa

ith

fuls

ubj

ect.

29W

hile

itca

n’t

com

pela

nyo

ne

tobe

lieve

them

,it

can

ban

ish

from

the

stat

ean

yon

ew

ho

doe

sn’t

bel

ieve

them

—ban

ish

ing

him

not

for

impi

ety

but

for

bein

gan

ti-s

ocia

l,in

capa

ble

oftr

uly

lovi

ng

the

law

san

dju

stic

e,an

dif

nec

essa

rysa

crifi

cin

gh

islif

eto

his

duty

.If

anyo

ne

publ

icly

reco

gnis

esth

ese

dogm

asan

dth

enbeh

aves

asif

he

doe

sn’t

bel

ieve

them

,le

th

imbe

pu

nis

hed

by

dea

th:

he

has

com

mit

ted

the

wor

stof

all

crim

es—

lyin

gbe

fore

the

law

.28

‘Inth

ere

publ

ic,’

says

the

Mar

quis

d’A

rgen

son

,‘e

ach

man

ispe

rfec

tly

free

inw

hat

does

n’t

har

mot

her

s.’

That

isth

ein

vari

able

limit

;I

can

’tde

fine

itm

ore

exac

tly.

...

29C

aesa

r,ar

guin

gfo

rth

ede

fen

cein

Cat

ilin

e’s

tria

l,tr

ied

toes

tabl

ish

the

dogm

ath

atth

eso

uli

sm

orta

l.C

ato

and

Cic

ero,

spea

kin

gfo

rth

epr

osec

uti

on,

didn

’tw

aste

tim

ein

philo

soph

isin

g,an

dsi

mpl

yar

gued

that

Cae

sar

had

spok

enlik

ea

bad

citi

zen

,pu

shin

ga

doct

rin

eth

atw

ould

beh

arm

ful

toth

est

ate.

Tha

t,an

dn

ota

prob

lem

ofth

eolo

gy,

was

wh

atth

eR

oman

sen

ate

had

toju

dge.

72

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u49.

Con

clu

sion

The

dogm

asof

civi

lrel

igio

nou

ght

tobe

few

,si

mpl

e,an

dex

actl

yw

orded

,w

ith

no

expla

nat

ion

orco

mm

enta

ry.

Its

posi

tive

dogm

asar

e:• t

he

exis

ten

ceof

am

igh

ty,

inte

llige

nt

and

ben

efice

nt

Div

init

y,po

sses

sed

offo

resi

ght

and

prov

iden

ce,

• th

elif

eto

com

e,• t

he

hap

pin

ess

ofth

eju

st,

• th

epu

nis

hm

ent

ofth

ew

icke

d,• t

he

san

ctit

yof

the

soci

alco

ntr

act

and

the

law

s.A

nd

just

one

dog

ma

ofex

clu

sion

,n

amel

yth

eex

clu

sion

ofin

tole

ran

ce,w

hic

his

afe

atu

reof

the

cult

sw

eh

ave

reje

cted

.Th

ose

wh

odi

stin

guis

h• c

ivil

from

• th

eolo

gica

lin

tole

ran

cear

e,to

my

min

d,m

ista

ken

.Th

etw

oin

tole

ran

ces

are

inse

pa-

rabl

e.Yo

uca

n’t

poss

ibly

live

atpe

ace

wit

hpe

ople

you

rega

rdas

dam

ned

;lo

vin

gth

emw

ould

beh

atin

gG

odw

ho

pun

ish

esth

em:

we

abso

lute

lym

ust

eith

erre

form

them

orto

rmen

tth

em.

Wh

erev

erth

eolo

gica

lin

tole

ran

ceis

adm

itte

d,it

mu

stin

evit

ably

hav

eso

me

civi

leff

ect;

30an

das

soon

asit

doe

sth

eso

vere

ign

isn

olo

nge

rso

vere

ign

even

inth

ete

mpo

rals

pher

e;fr

omth

enon

,pri

ests

are

the

real

mas

ters

,an

dkin

gson

lyth

eir

min

iste

rs.

Now

that

ther

en

olo

nge

rar

e,an

dn

olo

nge

rca

nbe

,an

y

excl

usi

ven

atio

nal

relig

ion

s,to

lera

nce

shou

ldbe

give

nto

all

• rel

igio

ns

that

tole

rate

oth

ers,

solo

ng

as• t

hei

rdog

mas

con

tain

not

hin

gco

ntr

ary

toth

edu

ties

ofci

tize

nsh

ip.

An

yon

ew

ho

ven

ture

sto

say:

‘Ou

tsid

eth

eC

hu

rch

isn

osa

lvat

ion

’sh

ould

be

dri

ven

from

the

stat

e,u

nle

ssth

est

ate

isth

eC

hu

rch

and

the

pri

nce

the

pop

e.S

uch

adog

ma

isgo

odon

lyin

ath

eocr

atic

gove

rnm

ent;

inan

yot

her

itis

fata

l.Th

ere

ason

Hen

ryIV

issa

idto

hav

eh

adfo

rem

brac

ing

the

Rom

anre

ligio

n—

·nam

ely

that

the

Rom

anC

ath

olic

sdid

,w

hile

the

Prot

esta

nts

didn

’t,sa

y‘O

ur

fait

his

the

only

poss

ible

rou

teto

hea

ven

’·—ou

ghtt

om

ake

ever

yh

ones

tman

leav

eit

,esp

ecia

llyan

ypr

ince

wh

okn

ows

how

tore

ason

.

9.

Con

clusi

on

Now

that

Ih

ave

laid

dow

nth

etr

ue

pri

nci

ple

sof

pol

itic

alri

ght,

and

trie

dto

plan

tth

est

ate

onit

sow

nba

se,th

en

ext

task

wou

ldbe

tost

ren

gth

enit

byit

sfo

reig

nre

lati

ons.

That

wou

ldbr

ing

inth

ela

wof

nat

ion

s,co

mm

erce

,th

eri

ght

ofw

aran

dco

nqu

est,

publ

icla

w,

leag

ues

,n

egot

iati

ons,

trea

ties

,et

c.B

ut

allt

his

adds

up

toa

new

subj

ect

that

isfa

rto

ova

stfo

rm

yn

arro

wsc

ope.

As

itis

,I

hav

era

nge

dfu

rth

erafi

eld

than

Iou

ght

toh

ave.

30M

arri

age,

for

inst

ance

,be

ing

aci

vil

con

trac

t,h

asci

vil

effe

cts

wit

hou

tw

hic

hso

ciet

yca

n’t

even

subs

ist.

Now

,su

ppos

eth

atth

ecl

ergy

colle

ctiv

ely

clai

mth

eso

leri

ght

ofpe

rmit

tin

gth

isac

t,a

righ

tth

atev

ery

into

lera

nt

relig

ion

isbo

un

dto

clai

m.

Isn

’tit

obvi

ous

that

ines

tabl

ish

ing

the

Ch

urc

h’s

auth

orit

yin

this

resp

ect,

itw

illbe

dest

royi

ng

the

prin

ce’s

,le

ttin

gh

imn

owh

ave

only

asm

any

subj

ects

asth

ecl

ergy

are

will

ing

toal

low

him

?B

ein

gin

apo

siti

onto

mar

ryor

not

tom

arry

peop

leac

cord

ing

to

• th

eir

acce

ptan

ceof

such

and

such

ado

ctri

ne,

• th

eir

adm

issi

onor

reje

ctio

nof

such

and

such

afo

rmu

la,

• th

eir

grea

ter

orle

sspi

ety,

isn

’tit

obvi

ous

that

ifth

eC

hu

rch

ispr

ude

nt

and

firm

itca

nco

me

toh

ave

sole

con

trol

ofal

lin

her

itan

ces,

offic

esan

dci

tize

ns,

and

even

ofth

est

ate

itse

lf?·D

oin

gal

lth

isth

rou

ghm

arri

age?

Bu

tw

hat

ifpe

ople

don

’tm

arry

but

hav

ech

ildre

nal

lth

esa

me?

That

isn

ota

solu

tion

,be

cau

se·t

he

stat

eco

uld

n’t

surv

ive

ifit

wer

eco

mpo

sed

enti

rely

ofba

star

ds.

‘Bu

t’,I

shal

lbe

told

,‘p

eopl

eca

nap

peal

onth

egr

oun

dsof

abu

se,

crea

tede

lays

,is

sue

decr

ees,

wor

kth

eco

ntr

ols

ofth

ew

hol

ete

mpo

ral(

see

Glo

ssar

y)le

galm

ach

ine.

’How

path

etic

!Th

ecl

ergy

will

take

no

not

ice

and

goit

sw

ay;to

doth

isit

won

’tev

enn

eed

cou

rage

,m

erel

ya

littl

ego

odse

nse

.It

will

calm

lyal

low

appe

als,

dela

ys,

decr

ees

and

seiz

ings

ofth

eco

ntr

ols,

and

still

end

up

asth

em

aste

r.It

isn

ot,

Ith

ink,

agr

eat

sacr

ifice

togi

veu

pa

part

,w

hen

one

issu

reof

secu

rin

gal

l.

73

The

Soc

ialC

ontr

act

Jean

-Jac

ques

Rou

ssea

u49.

Con

clu

sion

74