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Routing• Distance Vector Routing• Link State Routing• Hierarchical Routing• Routing for Mobile Hosts• Subnetting• Classless Inter-Domain Routing (Supernet)• Border Gateway Protocol• Routing in Ad-hoc Networks• IPv6

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Overview• Forwarding vs Routing

– forwarding: to select an output port based on destination address and routing table

– routing: process by which routing table is built• Network as a Graph

• Problem: Find lowest cost path between two nodes• Factors

– static: topology– dynamic: load

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3

6

21

9

1

1D

A

FE

B

C

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Desired Properties of Routing Algorithm

• Correctness• Simplicity• Robustness• Stability• Fairness• Optimality

– Minimizing mean packet delay

– Maximizing total network throughput

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Distance Vector• Each node maintains a set of triples

– (Destination, Cost, NextHop)

• Exchange updates directly connected neighbors– periodically (on the order of several seconds)– whenever table changes (called triggered update)

• Each update is a list of pairs:– (Destination, Cost)

• Update local table if receive a “better” route– smaller cost– came from next-hop

• Refresh existing routes; delete if they time out

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Example

Destination Cost NextHop B 1 B C 1 C D - E 1 E F 1 F G -

D

G

A

F

E

B

C

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Routing Loops• Example 1

– F detects that link to G has failed– F sets distance to G to infinity and sends update t o A– A sets distance to G to infinity since it uses F to reach G– A receives periodic update from C with 2-hop path to G– A sets distance to G to 3 and sends update to F– F decides it can reach G in 4 hops via A

• Example 2– link from A to E fails– A advertises distance of infinity to E– B and C advertise a distance of 2 to E– B decides it can reach E in 3 hops; advertises this to A– A decides it can read E in 4 hops; advertises this to C– C decides that it can reach E in 5 hops…

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Loop-Breaking Heuristics

• Set infinity to 16

• Split horizon

• Split horizon with poison reverse

• The Core of the Problem:– When X tells Y that it has a path somethere, Y has

no way of knowing whether it itself is on the path.

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Link State Routing• Strategy

– send to all nodes (not just neighbors) information about directly connected links (not entire routing table)

• Five Parts– Discover its neighbors and learn their network

addresses– Measure the delay or cost to each of its neighbors– Construct a packet telling all it has just learned– Send this packet to all other routers– Compute the shortest path to every other router

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Link State Routing …

• Measuing Line Cost– ECHO packet– Round Trip Time (RTT) divide by two– Load ??

• Link State Packet (LSP)– id of the node that created the LSP– cost of link to each directly connected neighbor– sequence number (SEQNO)– time-to-live (TTL) for this packet

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Reliable Flooding

• Reliable flooding– store most recent LSP from each node– forward LSP to all nodes but one that sent it– generate new LSP periodically

• increment SEQNO, no wrap

– start SEQNO at 0 when reboot– decrement TTL of each stored LSP

• discard when TTL=0

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Route Calculation• Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm• Let

– N denotes set of nodes in the graph– l (i, j) denotes non-negative cost (weight) for edge (i, j)– s denotes this node– M denotes the set of nodes incorporated so far– C(n) denotes cost of the path from s to node n

M = {s}for each n in N - {s}

C(n) = l(s, n)while (N != M)

M = M union {w} such that C(w) is the minimum for all w in (N - M)

for each n in (N - M)C(n) = MIN(C(n), C (w) + l(w, n ))

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Shortest Path Algorithm

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Metrics • Original ARPANET metric

– measures number of packets enqueued on each link– took neither latency or bandwidth into consideration

• New ARPANET metric– stamp each incoming packet with its arrival time (AT)– record departure time (DT)– when link-level ACK arrives, compute

Delay = (DT - AT) + Transmit + Latency– if timeout, reset DT to departure time for retransmission – link cost = average delay over some time period

• Fine Tuning– compressed dynamic range– replaced Delay with link utilization

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Hierarchical Routing

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MobilityThe ability to change locations, while connected to the network, accessing information services.

• Maintain connection during movement– All messages sent to the mobile node are redirected to its real

location

• More than portability– Operate at any point of attachment

– Connections have to be shutdown when nodes is moved.

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Routing for Mobile Hosts

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Route Optimization in Mobile IP

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How to Make Routing Scale

• Flat versus Hierarchical Addresses• Inefficient use of Hierarchical Address Space

– class C with 2 hosts (2/255 = 0.78% efficient)

– class B with 256 hosts (256/65535 = 0.39% efficient)

• Still Too Many Networks– routing tables do not scale

– route propagation protocols do not scale

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Internet StructureRecent Past

NSFNET backboneStanford

BARRNETregional

BerkeleyPARC

NCAR

UA

UNM

Westnetregional

UNL KU

ISU

MidNetregional…

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Internet Structure

Today

Backbone service provider

Peeringpoint

Peeringpoint

Large corporation

Large corporation

Smallcorporation

“Consumer ” ISP

“Consumer” ISP

“ Consumer” ISP

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Subnetting• Add another level to address/routing hierarchy: subnet• Subnet masks define variable partition of host part• Subnets visible only within site

Network number Host number

Class B address

Subnet mask (255.255.255.0)

Subnetted address

111111111111111111111111 00000000

Network number Host IDSubnet ID

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Subnet Example

Forwarding table at router R1Subnet Number Subnet Mask Next Hop

128.96.34.0 255.255.255.128 interface 0

128.96.34.128 255.255.255.128 interface 1

128.96.33.0 255.255.255.0 R2

Subnet mask: 255.255.255.128Subnet number: 128.96.34.0

128.96.34.15 128.96.34.1

H1R1

128.96.34.130Subnet mask: 255.255.255.128Subnet number: 128.96.34.128

128.96.34.129128.96.34.139

R2H2

128.96.33.1128.96.33.14

Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0Subnet number: 128.96.33.0

H3

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Forwarding Algorithm

D = destination IP addressfor each entry (SubnetNum, SubnetMask, NextHop) D1 = SubnetMask & D if D1 = SubnetNum if NextHop is an interface deliver datagram directly to D else deliver datagram to NextHop

• Use a default router if nothing matches• Not necessary for all 1s in subnet mask to be contiguous • Can put multiple subnets on one physical network• Subnets not visible from the rest of the Internet

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Supernetting

• Assign block of contiguous network numbers to nearby networks

• Called CIDR: Classless Inter-Domain Routing• Represent blocks with a single pair

(first_network_address, count)• Restrict block sizes to powers of 2• Use a bit mask (CIDR mask) to identify block size• All routers must understand CIDR addressing

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Route Propagation• Know a smarter router

– hosts know local router– local routers know site routers– site routers know core router– core routers know everything

• Autonomous System (AS)– corresponds to an administrative domain– examples: University, company, backbone network– assign each AS a 16-bit number

• Two-level route propagation hierarchy– interior gateway protocol (each AS selects its own)– exterior gateway protocol (Internet-wide standard)

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Popular Interior Gateway Protocols

• RIP: Route Information Protocol– developed for XNS– distributed with Unix– distance-vector algorithm– based on hop-count

• OSPF: Open Shortest Path First– recent Internet standard– uses link-state algorithm– supports load balancing – supports authentication

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EGP: Exterior Gateway Protocol• Overview

– designed for tree-structured Internet– concerned with reachability, not optimal routes

• Protocol messages– neighbor acquisition: one router requests that another be

its peer; peers exchange reachability information– neighbor reachability: one router periodically tests if the

another is still reachable; exchange HELLO/ACK messages; uses a k-out-of-n rule

– routing updates: peers periodically exchange their routing tables (distance-vector)

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BGP-4: Border Gateway Protocol• AS Types

– stub AS: has a single connection to one other AS• carries local traffic only

– multihomed AS: has connections to more than one AS• refuses to carry transit traffic

– transit AS: has connections to more than one AS• carries both transit and local traffic

• Each AS has:– one or more border routers– one BGP speaker that advertises:

• local networks• other reachable networks (transit AS only)• gives path information

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BGP Example• Speaker for AS2 advertises reachability to P and Q

– network 128.96, 192.4.153, 192.4.32, and 192.4.3, can be reached directly from AS2

• Speaker for backbone advertises– networks 128.96, 192.4.153, 192.4.32, and 192.4.3 can be reached along

the path (AS1, AS2).• Speaker can cancel previously advertised paths

Backbone network(AS 1)

Regional provider A(AS 2)

Regional provider B(AS 3)

Customer P(AS 4)

Customer Q(AS 5)

Customer R(AS 6)

Customer S(AS 7)

128.96192.4.153

192.4.32192.4.3

192.12.69

192.4.54192.4.23

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Features of IPv6 • Larger Address – 128 bits

• Extended Address Hierarchy

• Increased addressing flexibility – concept of anycast address, and improved scalability of multicast routing

• Flexible Header Format, Improved Options

• Provision For Protocol Extension

• Support For Resource Allocation – real time services, differentiated services

• Support For Autoconfiguration and Renumbering

• Support for authentication, data integrity and confidentiality at the IP level

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IPv6 Address Notation

• 128-bit addresses unwieldy in dotted decimal; requires 16 numbers 105.220.136.100.255.255.255.255.0.0.18.128.140.10.255.255

• Groups of 16-bit numbers in hex separated by colons – colon hexadecimal 69DC:8864:FFFF:FFFF:0:1280:8C0A:FFFF

FF05:0:0:0:0:0:0:B3 can be written

FF05::B3

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IPv6 Address Space Allocation

Prefix Use

0000 0000 Reserved (IPv4 compatibility)

…… …….

001 Aggregatable Global Unicast Addresses

…… ……

1111 1110 00 Link local use addresses

1111 1110 11 Site local use addresses

1111 1111 Multicast Addresses

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Aggregatable Global Unicast Addresses

001 Registry ID Provider ID Subscriber ID Subnet ID Interface ID

3 m n o p 64

001 Global Routing Prefix Subnet ID Interface ID

RFC3587, August 2003

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The IPv6 Header

version(4)Traffic class(8) Flow Label (20)

Payload Length (16) Next header(8)Hop Limit (8)

Source IP address (128)

Destination IP address (128)

Bit 0 Bit 31

40bytesIPV6

version(4) hlen Total length

identification flags Frag offset

protocol

Source address

Bit 0 Bit 31

20bytesIPV4

TOS(8)

TTL header checksum

Destination address

Options and padding

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Routing in Ad Hoc Networks

Possibilities when the routers are mobile:• Military vehicles on battlefield.

– No infrastructure.• A fleet of ships at sea.

– All moving all the time• Emergency works at earthquake .

– The infrastructure destroyed.• A gathering of people with notebook computers.

– In an area lacking 802.11.

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Route Discovery

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Route Discovery (2)

Format of a ROUTE REQUEST packet.

Format of a ROUTE REPLY packet.

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Route Maintenance

(a) D's routing table before G goes down.(b) The graph after G has gone down.

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Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches, Routers and Gateways

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Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches, Routers and Gateways (2)

(a) A hub. (b) A bridge. (c) a switch.