HSE Health & Safety

Executive

Development of internal company standards of good management practice and a task-based risk

assessment tool for offshore work-related stressors

Prepared by Birkbeck College and The Keil Centre for the Health and Safety Executive 2003

RESEARCH REPORT 107

HSE Health & Safety

Executive

Development of internal company standards of good management practice and a task-based risk

assessment tool for offshore work-related stressors

Rob B Briner PhD Organizational Psychology Department

Birkbeck College Malet Street

London WC1E 7HX

and

Chiara Amati MA and Ronny Lardner MSc, CPsychol The Keil Centre

Chartered Psychologists 5 South Lauder Road

Edinburgh EH9 2LJ

This report describes a project which developed a set of fourteen internal, company-specific management standards for common work-related stressors. A “bottom-up” stress risk assessment approach was used to identify work-related stressors affecting team members in two organisations, BP and East of Scotland Water. The final versions of the standards, and a description of the process used in their development, are provided. In addition, a set of human factors triggers for use during a task­based risk assessment was developed and implemented.

Although the standards and human factors triggers were developed within specific industries, it is likely that they will be relevant and useful to many organisations who wish to adopt a preventative approach to work-related stress.

This report and the work it describes were part-funded by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). Its contents, including any opinions and/or conclusions expressed, are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily reflect HSE policy.

HSE BOOKS

© Crown copyright 2003

First published 2003

ISBN 0 7176 2225 8

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may bereproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted inany form or by any means (electronic, mechanical,photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the priorwritten permission of the copyright owner.

Applications for reproduction should be made in writing to: Licensing Division, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, St Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich NR3 1BQ or by e-mail to hmsolicensing@cabinet-office.x.gsi.gov.uk

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Acknowledgements

The realisation of this project involved the contribution of many people in BP, East of Scotland Water 1 and the Health and Safety Executive, who are too numerous to list. The main contributors are shown below, and we thank them and the others involved for their cooperation, enthusiasm, help and guidance.

BP B Trevor Garlick, Delivery Team Leader, Bruce Asset B Bryan Millar, Tim Dines and Peter Haynes, Offshore Installation Managers,

Bruce platform B Bernie Smith, and Gordon McLeod HSE Advisors, Bruce Asset B Martin Delaney, Occupational Health Advisor, BP Dyce

East of Scotland Water B Frank Sharp, HR DirectorB Judith Wood, HSE Advisor

Health and Safety Executive

B Bob Miles, Human Factors Team Leader

The copyright for the management standards and human factors task-based risk assessment triggers contained in this report is owned by The Keil Centre Ltd. The standards and triggers can be freely reproduced, provided their source is acknowledged and their use is not for commercial gain.

1 During 2000 East of Scotland Water, West of Scotland Water and North of Scotland Water amalgamated to form Scottish Water. As this project commenced under East of Scotland Water this term has been used throughout.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................1

2 ABOUT THIS REPORT ..........................................................................2

2.1 REPORT STRUCTURE.............................................................................................. 2

2.2 INTENDED AUDIENCE .............................................................................................. 2

3 BACKGROUND TO THIS RESEARCH PROJECT ................................3

3.1 HEALTH AND SAFETY EXECUTIVE’S REQUIREMENTS....................................... 3

3.2 BP’s REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................................. 3

3.3 EAST OF SCOTLAND WATER’S REQUIREMENTS................................................ 4

4 DESIRED OUTCOMES...........................................................................5

4.1 DESIRED OUTCOMES FOR HEALTH AND SAFETY EXECUTIVE......................... 5

4.2 DESIRED OUTCOMES FOR BP ............................................................................... 5

4.3 DESIRED OUTCOMES FOR EAST OF SCOTLAND WATER.................................. 5

4.4 OVERALL PROJECT AIMS & OUTPUTS ................................................................. 5

5 PROJECT PARTICIPANTS ....................................................................6

5.1 BP ............................................................................................................................... 6

5.2 EAST OF SCOTLAND WATER ................................................................................. 6

5.3 THE KEIL CENTRE.................................................................................................... 7

5.4 BIRKBECK COLLEGE............................................................................................... 7

6 PROJECT DELIVERY ............................................................................8

6.1 INDUSTRY STEERING GROUPS ............................................................................. 86.1.1 BP steering group ............................................................................................. 86.1.2 ESW steering groups ....................................................................................... 8

6.2 RESEARCH METHODS............................................................................................. 8

7 WORK-RELATED STRESSORS............................................................9

7.1 OVERLAP BETWEEN WORK-RELATED STRESSORS AND ACCIDENT CAUSES .......... 9

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8 COMPANY-SPECIFIC WORK-RELATED STRESSORS .....................11

8.1 NEED FOR STRESS RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS .......................................... 11

8.2 SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING STRESS RISK ASSESSMENT METHODS .. 11

8.3 STRUCTURE OF THE SIMPLE STRESS RISK ASSESSMENT METHOD ........... 118.3.1 Risk Assessment: the 5 stages ................................................................... 128.3.2 Psychosocial Hazards and Risk Assessment ......................................... 128.3.3 Component parts of the stress risk assessment method .................... 12

9 USE OF STRESS RISK ASSESSMENT METHOD..............................14

9.1 STEERING GROUPS ............................................................................................... 14

9.2 DATA COLLECTION................................................................................................ 14

9.3 DATA ANALYSIS AND FEEDBACK........................................................................ 15

9.4 WORK-RELATED STRESSORS AND MANAGEMENT STANDARDS.................. 15

10 MANAGEMENT STANDARDS..........................................................17

10.1 FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................. 1710.1.1 Other human resource management standards ................................ 1710.1.2 Views of industrial partners..................................................................... 1710.1.3 Other considerations ................................................................................. 1710.1.4 Framework summary ................................................................................. 17

10.2 SELECTION OF TOPICS FOR STANDARDS......................................................... 1810.2.1 Reasons for not developing a standard ............................................... 18

10.3 STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT PROCESS ............................................................ 19

10.4 STRUCTURE OF STANDARDS .............................................................................. 1910.4.1 Definition of work-related stressor ........................................................ 1910.4.2 Hazard-harm link ......................................................................................... 2010.4.3 Desired states .............................................................................................. 2010.4.4 Appropriate control measures ................................................................ 20

11 EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT STANDARDS............................21

11.1 EVALUATION PURPOSE AND PROCESS ............................................................. 21

11.2 TIME 1 RESULTS .................................................................................................... 21

11.3 SUMMARY OF TIME 1 RESULTS........................................................................... 23

11.4 TIME 2 RESULTS .................................................................................................... 2311.4.1 Use of the standards and practical examples..................................... 2411.4.2 Effectiveness of actions taken ................................................................ 2411.4.3 Stress and other business agendas ...................................................... 2511.4.4 Obstacles to the use of standards ......................................................... 25

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11.5 STANDARDS AND THE RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS..................................... 26

12 TASK-BASED RISK ASSESSMENT TRIGGERS.............................26

12.1 WHAT IS A TASK-BASED RISK ASSESSMENT? ................................................. 26

12.2 WHY DEVELOP HUMAN FACTORS TRIGGERS? ................................................ 27

12.3 HUMAN FACTORS .................................................................................................. 27

12.4 CURRENT TBRA PRACTICE ON BP BRUCE........................................................ 27

12.5 DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN FACTORS TRIGGERS............................................ 2712.5.1 Human factors list ...................................................................................... 2712.5.2 TBRA interviews.......................................................................................... 28

12.6 HUMAN FACTORS TRIGGERS .............................................................................. 2812.6.1 Workload ....................................................................................................... 2812.6.2 Training.......................................................................................................... 2912.6.3 Communications and Information.......................................................... 2912.6.4 Team Working.............................................................................................. 29

12.7 VIEWS ON THE UTILITY OF HUMAN FACTORS TRIGGERS .............................. 2912.7.1 Utility of human factors triggers............................................................. 2912.7.2 Making the best use of the human factors triggers .......................... 3012.7.3 BP Bruce’s use of the human factors triggers ................................... 30

13 DISSEMENATION OF RESULTS .....................................................32

14 OTHER DEVELOPMENTS ...............................................................33

15 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................34

16 APPENDIX 1: 14 MANAGEMENT STANDARDS .............................35

16.1 COMMUNICATION .................................................................................................. 35

16.2 EFFORT-REWARD IMBALANCE............................................................................ 41

16.3 JOB DESIGN............................................................................................................ 48

16.4 JOB INSECURITY.................................................................................................... 56

16.5 LONG WORKING HOURS....................................................................................... 60

16.6 MANAGEMENT SUPPORT ..................................................................................... 64

16.7 PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK ................................................................................. 70

16.8 ROLE AMBIGUITY................................................................................................... 76

16.9 SKILL UNDERUTILISATION ................................................................................... 81

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16.10 TEAM-WORKING..................................................................................................... 87

16.11 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT ...................................................................................... 96

16.12 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ......................................................................... 101

16.13 WORK-LIFE BALANCE ......................................................................................... 108

16.14 WORKLOAD .......................................................................................................... 114

17 APPENDIX 2: TASK-BASED RISK ASSESSMENT HUMANFACTORS TRIGGERS ............................................................................. 122

18 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………133

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1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report describes a project which developed a set of fourteen internal, company-specific management standards for common work-related stressors. A “bottom-up” stress risk assessment approach was used to identify work-related stressors affecting team members in two organisations, BP and East of Scotland Water. The final versions of the standards, and a description of the process used in their development, are provided. In addition, a set of human factors triggers for use during a task-based risk assessment was developed and implemented.

Although the standards and human factors triggers were developed within specific industries, it is likely that they will be relevant and useful to many organisations who wish to adopt a preventative approach to work-related stress.

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2 ABOUT THIS REPORT

2.1 REPORT STRUCTURE

This report describes a research project, which involved the development, use and evaluation of

1. 14 internal, company-specific management standards for common work-related stressors

2. A set of human factors “triggers” for use during a task-based risk assessment

The project involved five stakeholders:-

Regulator B The Health and Safety Executive’s Offshore Safety Division

Industrial partners B BP Exploration and Production B East of Scotland Water (now Scottish Water)

Contractors B The Keil Centre Ltd, Chartered Psychologists B Birkbeck College

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and the two industry partners each had different interests in the project, and this shaped its realisation. Specific parts of this report will describe each of these stakeholders’ interests separately.

2.2 INTENDED AUDIENCE

This report and the project it describes will be of interest to anyone wishing to learn more about the development and use of management standards for common work-related stressors, and the inclusion of human factors considerations during task-based risk assessments.

The integration of human factors related to safety with common work-related stressors will also make this report particularly useful to health and safety professionals wishing to extend their existing knowledge.

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3 BACKGROUND TO THIS RESEARCH PROJECT

This research project was established as a joint initiative between HSE and commercial partners BP and East of Scotland Water (ESW). The Keil Centre and Birkbeck College were the contractors who jointly delivered the project. At the outset of the project, the partners had differing yet complementary aims, which are described below.

3.1 HEALTH AND SAFETY EXECUTIVE’S REQUIREMENTS

In 2000 the Health and Safety Executive announced its intention to work in partnership with other organisations to develop clear, agreed standards of good management practice for a range of work-related stressors, as part of their ‘Securing Health Together’ occupational health strategy1. ‘Securing Health Together’ aims to achieve by 2010:

B a 20% reduction in work-related ill health to both workers and the public B a 30% reduction work days lost to work-related ill health B an opportunity for everyone not working due to ill health to rehabilitate back to work or gain

access to work as appropriate

An important aspect of achieving these targets is addressing the topic of work-related stress, as HSE estimates stress-related illness to be responsible for the loss of 6.5 million working days each year2

At the time of initiating this project in November 2000, HSE was planning to fund research3 (since completed) to establish the scientific knowledge base upon which to create a set of national, generic management standards for common work-related stressors, to be delivered by 2005. These national standards would be based on the 7 main categories of work-related stressors outlined in HSE’s guidance on work-related stress4:, namely role; support; demands; control; culture; change and relationships.

Due to interest expressed to HSE from offshore oil and gas operators, specifically BP, an opportunity arose to trial the development and use of internal company management standards. These internal company management standards would be developed ‘bottom-up’, with the topic of each standard being derived by identifying the main work-related stressors for specific groups of workers in the participating organisations. Although the final standards might prove sufficiently generic to be relevant to other organisations, their initial development would be heavily influenced by the organisation they originated in. It was anticipated that lessons learned during the standard development process might in turn complement and inform HSE’s thinking during development of HSE’s management standard framework.

In order to maximise the impact of the project, wide dissemination of the results to industry was a priority. This has been achieved through conference attendance, practitioner articles and by publication of this report.

3.2 BP’s REQUIREMENTS

During 1999, BP’s Aberdeen-based Occupational Health Team had been working extensively with BP’s Bruce, Brae and Miller (BBM) North Sea oil and gas production business on ways of tackling work-related stress. This followed concerns that a number of both onshore and offshore BBM staff might be experiencing stress due to a range of work-related stressors. A stress strategy devised in July 1999 had resulted in a series of actions including:-

B short senior management briefings on the business impact of stress B internal marketing of resources available within BP to deal with work-related stress

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B a stress audit B a series of stress awareness sessions for the offshore workforce.

To further their strategy, BBM wished to “move the prevention of work-related stress agenda out of the occupational health department, and into the management arena”. Specifically, they wished to develop a simple risk assessment tool for identifying and preventing / mitigating common work­related stressors during task-based risk assessments. It was suggested that this tool could possibly be extended to include human factors relevant to safety. This fitted with a previous BP Exploration strategy which sought to “harness human factors in pursuit of organisational excellence”5. In addition, BP wanted to develop internal standards of good management practice to prevent or mitigate the effects of a range of identified work-related stressors relevant to BP personnel.

3.3 EAST OF SCOTLAND WATER’S REQUIREMENTS

At the start of this project, ESW had just completed a company-wide survey which revealed high levels of work-related stress in some of its business units. The survey did not provide sufficient detail about the work-related stressors affecting specific teams, nor the practical actions which would help prevent or mitigate them. During feedback of the stress survey results to unit managers, the opportunity was taken to gain their commitment to the development of internal company management standards.

Including ESW in the project was important, as this allowed a comparison to be made between the processes and outcomes involved in developing management standards with an offshore (BP) and onshore (ESW) workforce, and in two different industrial sectors, namely oil and gas exploration and production and a water utility.

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4 DESIRED OUTCOMES

The desired outcomes for each stakeholder (HSE, BP and ESW) are described below, and overall project aims and outputs are summarised.

4.1 DESIRED OUTCOMES FOR HEALTH AND SAFETY EXECUTIVE

B Working with an influential offshore industry partner to develop novel management-based approaches to prevent or mitigate work-related stress

B Comparing the process and outcomes of the above, in two different industry sectors and with at least two different occupational groups: offshore industrial workers (BP) and onshore water utility administrative, professional and managerial staff (ESW)

B Describing the process of developing and implementing internal, company-specific standards of good management practice

B Dissemination of results within HSE and to external audiences

4.2 DESIRED OUTCOMES FOR BP

B Prioritisation of occupational stress as an important business management issue requiring action

B Demonstrating to staff BP’s willingness to tackle work-related stress, in line with BBM leadership’s commitment and HSE’s published stress strategy and guidance

B Involving BBM managers and staff in formulating what to do next about levels / sources of stress in their business unit

B Inclusion of work-related stressors into BP’s task-based risk assessment process, by developing and testing a simple risk assessment process

4.3 DESIRED OUTCOMES FOR EAST OF SCOTLAND WATER

B Prioritisation of occupational stress as an important business management issue B Educating / informing internal human resource advisors about best practice in managing work­

related stress, through involving them in taking action in selected business units B Involving selected local business unit managers and their staff in formulating what to do about

levels / sources of stress in their business unit B Demonstrating to staff ESW’s willingness to tackle work-related stress, mindful of HSE

guidance B Aligning their response to work-related stress with recent internal changes in leadership style

4.4 OVERALL PROJECT AIMS & OUTPUTS

The project overall aimed to :

B Develop a simple task-based stress risk assessment for common work-related stressors B Identify the main work-related stressors for three specified teams in each of the two industry

partner’s organisations B Develop at least ten internal management standards for the main work-related stressors B Describe the process of developing the standards, and any difficulties or obstacles to their

effective implementation B Evaluate the usefulness of the standards over time

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5 PROJECT PARTICIPANTS 5.1 BP

The project involved personnel from BP’s Bruce, Brae & Miller (BBM) North Sea assets, mainly onshore and offshore staff working for the Bruce oil and gas production platform. The Bruce platform is located 340km north-east of Aberdeen. The Bruce field is a structure of three reservoirs of oil and gas condensate which has been developed since the early 1980s.

A major consideration in selecting teams to include in the project was gaining participation from a wide range of occupations. The following BBM teams were selected:

B BBM Business Unit Leadership Team (BULT) This small team of senior managers are responsible for the efficient running of the BBM assets. Some members of this team were also part of a steering group formed to guide implementation of the project. BULT members are primarily based in BP’s onshore Aberdeen offices, however occasional offshore travel is an integral part of their job. This team was chosen as they wished to provide a leadership example through their involvement in this health and safety initiative.

B Bruce platform Business Operations Team This team of 40 offshore operations technicians and team leaders are responsible for the day-to-day operation of the oil and gas production platform. During their two-week offshore tours of duty, they work twelve-hour day and night shifts, providing cover 24 hours per day / 365 days per year. This team was chosen as there had been anecdotal reports of work-related stress during a previous safety culture assessment and improvement exercise.

B Bruce Catering Team This contractor team of 24 chefs and stewards, split over two shifts, are responsible for providing catering, accommodation, laundry and housekeeping services on the Bruce platform. This team was chosen as: (a) team members often feel excluded from the main health and safety initiatives on board; and, (b) it was desirable to include a contractor team, as the other teams were comprised of core BP staff.

5.2 EAST OF SCOTLAND WATER

Three ESW teams participated in the project, as described below. These teams were chosen as they had been identified as having “high team stress levels” via an earlier stress survey conducted by ESW.

B Waterway This team of around 100 project managers, engineers and support staff had recently diversified from providing internal engineering consultancy to ESW, to also offering engineering consultancy services to external clients. Their workload is organised primarily according to current projects, and the majority of staff work in short-term project teams. The staff are mainly of a professional level, with qualifications in engineering and related disciplines.

B Service Delivery Team This team of 100 water technicians and support staff are employed throughout the east of Scotland, and operate and maintain the water supply network. They respond to customer complaints about water supply and quality, interfacing with the ESW Customer Service Centre, described below.

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B Customer Services ESW’s Customer Services Centre is a call centre operation, with over 100 staff in 3 sub-teams: customer service, telephone billing and customer accounts These staff deal with telephone enquiries and complaints from ESW’s business and residential customers .

5.3 THE KEIL CENTRE

The Keil Centre is private, limited company of Chartered Psychologists based in Scotland. The current project was delivered by a team of occupational psychologists specialising in the human and organisational factors which affect health and safety. Ronny Lardner, the team leader, has an in-depth knowledge of BP and ESW gained through a 5-year consulting relationship with both companies. This included being involved with both companies in previous interventions aimed at tackling work-related stress. The Keil Centre also has previous experience of conducting several successful action research / applied psychology joint industry projects for HSE.

5.4 BIRKBECK COLLEGE

Dr Rob Briner from Birkbeck College, University of London is an established contributor to the academic debate on work-related stress. He is renowned for his critical overview of current academic and industry understanding of stress, which made him an invaluable contributor to the current project. Rob has also been involved in HSE-sponsored research before, for example jointly authoring a review of currently available methods to measure psychosocial hazards6.

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6 PROJECT DELIVERY

The project’s realisation was complicated by the need to co-ordinate different stakeholders and their interests. This section briefly describes the different contribution of the various stakeholders and examines the main issues involved with integrating academic knowledge with the need to take practical actions.

6.1 INDUSTRY STEERING GROUPS

Co-ordination of the project within the two industry partners was achieved through setting up steering groups.

6.1.1 BP steering group

For BP, this was composed of

B a senior management representative B one of the three Bruce offshore installation managers B the Bruce health and safety advisor B a Bruce medical advisor.

The catering contract manager was informed and kept up-to-date with all project developments.

6.1.2 ESW steering groups

For ESW, three separate steering groups were set up, one for each of the teams involved. The steering groups included volunteer representatives from the team and, in two of the three ESW teams, their managers. Project progress within ESW was also monitored through regular contact with the ESW project officer, a health and safety advisor.

6.2 RESEARCH METHODS

An action research approach was adopted, which involves simultaneously seeking to understand a phenomenon, whilst taking action which is intended to change the phenomenon. In this project, the researchers sought to understand what the main work-related stressors affecting team members were and, via the development and implementation of management standards, take action to influence the effect of those stressors, and observe the process and its effects.

A variety of research methods were used including qualitative and quantitative empirical work and the use of existing literature. These methods were chosen in order to most effectively meet the expectations and desired outcomes of the stakeholders and the overall project outcomes. Given the particular requirements to ensure that (a) the project was relevant and seen to be relevant to the two industry partners and (b) that the standards developed should be company-specific and based on local issues, the general approach was a participatory one. This approach involved ensuring that users of the research and relevant stakeholders contributed to key aspects of the project and were also kept informed more broadly of its progress.

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7 WORK-RELATED STRESSORS

Given the project objective of developing company-specific management standards for key work­related stressors affecting the six teams previously described, it was necessary to develop a means of identifying those stressors. The first step was to review the existing literature on work­related stressors, including stressors specific to the demands of the offshore oil and gas industry.

Table 1 illustrates the main references consulted, and the main categories of stressor identified in each study, tabulated using Cox’s 1993 framework7.

7.1 OVERLAP BETWEEN WORK-RELATED STRESSORS AND ACCIDENT CAUSES

One of BP’s objectives for this project was to develop a simple risk assessment tool for identifying and preventing / mitigating common work-related stressors during task-based risk assessments. The main aim of a task-based risk assessment is to reduce the likelihood of having accidents at work, and thus improve safety8. Work-related stressors are typically conceptualised as causing harm to psychological health. The degree of overlap between what are regarded as common work-related stressors and recognised root causes of accidents was therefore examined. This was achieved by comparing two root cause analysis models used in the UK offshore oil and gas industry9,10 and HSE’s human factors guidance11 with the Cox categories in Table 1. This established that approximately 70% of common work-related stressors are also potential root causes of accidents. For example, “lack of training to do my job” is a recognised work-related stressor. Having a lack of training is also a recognised potential root cause of accidents.

Establishing a link between preventing psychological harm and preventing accidents under the banner “human factors” was judged likely to increase the relevance and uptake of actions to prevent work-related stress task-based risk assessment.

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Table 1 Categories of work-related stressors, and overlap with accident causes

WORK CONTEXT WORK CONTENT

Reference Organisational Role Career Decision Inter- Home/ Task Workload/ Work function / culture Development latitude/

control personal relations

work interface design

work pace schedule

Categories of Psychosocial Hazards

Cox (1993) 7 X X X X X X X X X

Stansfeld et al (2000) 12 X X X X

Smith et al (2000) 24 X X X X X X X X X

Stress in the Offshore Industry

Sutherland & Cooper (1996) 13 X* X X X X X X X

Sutherland & Cooper (1991) 14 X* X X X X X X X

Sutherland & Cooper (1986) 15 X* X X X X X X X X

Parkes (1998)16 X* X X X X

Human Factors Root Causes of Accidents

Gordon et al. (2000) 17 X X X X X X

BP Human Factors Root Causes 10 X X X X X X

HSG 48 18 X X X X

* refers to physical working environment/

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8 COMPANY-SPECIFIC WORK-RELATED STRESSORS

8.1 NEED FOR STRESS RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS

As described earlier, one of the main objectives of the current project was to develop company­specific management standards for work-related stressors. In order to be able to do this, therefore, a simple method of identifying the main sources of work-related stress for each of the six BP and ESW teams was required.

A simple stress risk assessment method was designed for this purpose. It followed the main steps in a risk assessment19 and allowed the evaluation of :

- levels of harm (levels of work-related stress) - main hazards (main work-related stressors) - risks posed by hazards - what control measures need to be introduced to prevent or mitigate the impact of the main

work-related stressors?

It was also important that the simple stress risk assessment method gathered information which would be relevant and appropriate to the development of company-specific management standards. In particular, the assessment had to gather information which would help to identify specific hazard-harm links, and suitable control measures.

8.2 SHORTCOMINGS WITH EXISTING STRESS RISK ASSESSMENT METHODS

A previous review6 of existing measures for assessing work-related stressors concluded future methods should be

B focused on particular organisations, jobs or roles B specific and short B based on local knowledge and understanding of the context B informed by best practice (e.g. use a frequency-based format) B incorporated into some form of risk management framework.

These considerations were built into the design of the simple stress risk assessment method.

8.3 STRUCTURE OF THE SIMPLE STRESS RISK ASSESSMENT METHOD

The method was developed in accordance with HSE’s guidance on work-related stress4. This recommends the use of a risk assessment process for the identification of work-related stressors.

The following section describes the main stages in a risk assessment for hazards in general and how these can be translated to apply to work-related stressors in particular. It also outlines some of the main problems with applying a risk assessment process, developed for physical hazards, to psychosocial hazards. Psychosocial hazards are aspects of the work environment that are thought to have the potential to harm the well-being of employees. Examples of psychosocial hazards include aspects of the way work is organised and shared and features of the relationships with colleagues and managers.

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8.3.1 Risk Assessment: the 5 stages

The aim of a risk assessment is the identification of relevant hazards in the working environment and reduction of associated risks. EU and UK legislation requires employers to conduct a risk assessment of all risks to employees’ health and safety and to take action to reduce these risks to as low as is reasonably practicable.

The HSE has published guidance on how to carry out a risk assessment19. The basic steps involved in a risk assessment are:

1. Identify hazards 2. Assess who might be harmed and how 3. Evaluate the risks from the hazards and decide whether existing precautions are

adequate, or if more should be done 4. Record significant findings 5. Periodically review and revise the assessment if necessary

8.3.2 Psychosocial Hazards and Risk Assessment

Recent HSE guidance4 recommends that the 5 risk assessment steps be followed when tackling work-related stress. However, there are some difficulties in applying the risk assessment methodology, originally developed for physical hazards, to the examination of psychosocial hazards 20,21,22 . A risk assessment for physical hazards is based quantifying the hazard-harm relationship in order to gauge associated risk. Attempts to specify this relationship for psychosocial hazards are problematic, as for example, psychosocial hazards may also be beneficial at some levels and the relationship between hazard and harm may be strongly influenced by individual differences.

These two kinds of difficulties can be illustrated through an example. Workload (potential hazard) may be perceived as positive and stimulating when at a certain optimum level, but can become a source of harm if too high, leading to feelings of stress and tiredness, or if too low, leading boredom and frustration. The main problem is that what is considered to be an optimum level will depend on the individual. Moreover, the harmful consequences of excessively high or low work demands may only be revealed after long periods of time, when the person’s physical and mental health deteriorates, and may not be readily linked to the original hazard.

These difficulties have led some to argue that a traditional risk assessment methodology is not a ‘fruitful’ method for the assessment of psychosocial risk. However, the opposing argument is that, compared to other stress management techniques, the risk assessment approach to stress is likely to be more effective, as the source is being addressed rather than the symptoms. In addition, practitioners are skilled in using traditional risk assessment techniques and hence are more likely to be able to successfully use the same approach for the risks posed by stress. The key issue is not that risk assessment methods cannot be used for psychosocial hazards, but rather that they need to be adapted to reflect what is known about the nature of psychosocial hazards.

8.3.3 Component parts of the stress risk assessment method

The 5-step risk assessment approach was adapted for the purpose of this project into a self-report workbook with the following four steps.

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8.3.3.1 Step 1 - measuring harm

There is a general difficulty in measuring work-related stress, as it is not always possible to distinguish between psychosocial harm caused by work from harm caused by other factors. In other words, it can be difficult to isolate work-related harm from other causes of harm. In addition, there is no single accepted definition or measure. Therefore, the workbook included a number of well-researched and validated self-report measures, all of which had available benchmark data. These were:

B The General Health Questionnaire – a general (i.e. non work-related) measure of symptoms of psychological (dis)stress23

B Bristol work-related stress measure : a single question taken from an HSE-sponsored epidemiological study on the scale of occupational stress24

B a Job Satisfaction Questionnaire and a Job-related Wellbeing Measure25.

8.3.3.2 Step 2 - checklist of common work-related stressors

The identification of the main work-related stressors in each of the six BP and ESW teams was achieved via individual completion of a self-report checklist of work-related stressors. Team members were asked to rate how often in the previous month each of the stressors listed had been a source of stress for them on a 4-point scale ranging from ‘never’ to ‘always’.

As it was important that this checklist was comprehensive it:

B included 38 common work-related stressors based on findings of the literature review described in Table 1

B included additional local work-related stressors identified during focus groups conducted with each team.

8.3.3.3 Steps 3 & 4 - assessment of risk

Whilst it is easy to ask team members to complete the Step 2 checklist, this only yields information about how often they have been exposed to a stressor recently, but not about its impact on their psychological health. For example, lack of car parking space may be a frequent hassle, with little adverse impact on psychological health, whereas infrequent bullying may have a very significant adverse impact.

Each of the team members was therefore asked to identify up to three of their top sources of stress. For each of the top stressors chosen, they were asked to report

B How or why each stressor causes stress B Whether each stressor was getting better, worse or staying the same B Management actions which, in their opinion, would prevent/ mitigate each stressor causing

stress B Individual actions which, in their opinion, would prevent/ mitigate each stressor causing stress.

Asking team members to identify up to three of their top sources of stress was judged a simple method of assessing individual perception of risk associated with each stressor. Team member’s opinions of the management and individual actions which could prevent or mitigate the effects of work-related stressors were helpful in three ways:

(a) specifying the stressor / stress link (or hazard/harm link) (b) assisting in the development of local action plans (c) feeding into the development of company-specific management standards.

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9 USE OF STRESS RISK ASSESSMENT METHOD

A stress risk assessment was conducted with six different teams, three in ESW and three in BP. Two of the BP groups were based offshore on the Bruce platform, and these data were gathered by the researchers during two offshore trips.

9.1 STEERING GROUPS

A steering group made up of representatives of the team was established for each team involved in the project and had a specific role to play before and after the stress risk assessment. The steering groups were typically a mixture of management and frontline staff.

Before commencing data collection, the steering group members were used as a focus group to identify local work-related stressors. This information was then used to tailor the stress risk assessment method to their specific circumstances, ensuring that the list of work-related stressors included all locally-relevant stressors. The steering group was also then responsible for building support for the project among their colleagues, and overseeing data collection.

Once the stress risk assessment data had been gathered, the results were analysed by The Keil Centre. Initially the results were fed back only to the steering groups. The steering groups were guided though the results and their implications as they were then responsible for feeding back the results to the rest of their team. The steering groups were also responsible for developing an action plan to tackle the main work-related stressors, and were responsible for ensuring that corrective action was taken where necessary. During the project, they were regularly contacted by the researchers to monitor action plan progress and help was offered to overcome any difficulties encountered.

9.2 DATA COLLECTION

For BP offshore groups, time was taken out of the working day for the researchers to explain the purpose of the project, and to allow time to complete the stress risk assessment method.

For the ESW groups, steering group members co-ordinated data gathering in their own teams. A member of the steering group gathered around 15 staff together and introduced them to the aims of the project using to a pre-prepared presentation pack. The stress risk assessment method was distributed, and time was allowed for its completion during the briefing session. Completed stress risk assessments were thereafter sent in batches to The Keil Centre for data input and analysis. All data were collated by The Keil Centre and the steering group members did not have access to individual workbooks.

The following table describes the response rates for the six teams. The very high response rates are probably a consequence of briefing team members on the nature and purpose of the project and allowing time away from work to complete the stress risk assessment method.

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Table 2 Team response rates for stress risk assessment method

Total number in team

Total responses

Team % response rate

BP -Business operations team 40 37 93 %

BP - Catering team 26 24 92 %

BP - BULT 10 8 80%

ESW - Waterway 88 79 90 %

ESW - Service Delivery Team 115 95 83 %

ESW - Customer Service Team 105 96 91 %

Totals 384 339 88%

9.3 DATA ANALYSIS AND FEEDBACK

Step 1 data were used to understand levels of stress and job satisfaction within each occupational group. Data from each of the four measures were compared to available benchmark data, and conclusions were drawn on whether team levels of stress and job satisfaction differed from what might be expected.

Step 2 data were analysed to understand what the most frequent work-related stressors had been in the past month, for each team. This was then compared with data gathered from Step 3 which indicated what the most significant work-related stressors were. Qualitative data from Step 4 were also fed back to the steering groups.

Once the main work-related stressors for each team had been identified and agreed with the steering group, defined as those judged most significant by the largest proportion of team members, a series of draft management standards were developed, as indicated in Table 3.

When the stress risk assessment results were fed back to the steering groups, they were also presented with those draft management standards already developed which were relevant to their team’s main work-related stressors.

The steering group members were then guided through writing an action-plan for tackling the main work-related stressors for their team. The action plan was based on (a) the stress risk assessment results, and (b) the information contained in the draft management standards.

9.4 WORK-RELATED STRESSORS AND MANAGEMENT STANDARDS

Table 3 indicates how the 14 management standards related to the six teams. Many of the standard topics were relevant across several teams. For example, the workload management standard was relevant to all six teams and the job insecurity and effort/reward imbalance standards were relevant to five of the six teams.

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Table 3 Relevance of management standard to each team

Management standard

BP – Business

Operations Team

BP - Business Unit Leadership

Team

BP-Catering

Team

ESW – Waterway

ESW – Customer Service

Team

ESW – Service Delivery

Team

1 Workload á á á á á á

2 Job insecurity á á á á á 3 Teamworking

á

4 Performance feedback á á á

5 Training & development á á á

6 Hours of work á 7 Job design á á 8 Management

support á

9 Tools and equipment á á

10 Communication á á á 11 Role ambiguity á 12 Skill under­

utilisation á á

13 Work-life balance á

14 Effort-reward imbalance á á á á á

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10 MANAGEMENT STANDARDS

10.1 FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT

One of the main aims of this research was to further understanding of the development and use of management standards for tackling work-related stressors.

No existing literature about management standards for work-related stress was available, as at the time none had been produced. Three main methods were used to design a stress management standard framework (1) examining other human resource management standards, e.g. Investors in People26 (2) consulting the project’s industrial partners on what they believed a standard should contain (3) thinking about additional considerations (e.g. relevant health and safety law, other human resource practices) which might shape the form and content of a management standard.

10.1.1 Other human resource management standards

The main point learned from examining the form and content of the Investors in People standard was the desirability of a format which allowed a clear and unambiguous identification of any gap between (a) an ideal desired state and (b) current practice.

10.1.2 Views of industrial partners

Industrial partners wanted the standards to be relatively concise, written in management terminology avoiding unnecessary jargon, and to include descriptions of how work-related stressors might adversely impact on the business, in addition to causing individual psychological harm.

10.1.3 Other considerations

One of the main pieces of health and safety law relevant to work-related stress is the Management of Health and Safety Regulations 1999. These regulations require organisations to conduct risk assessments to identify and control risks to health and safety. HSE guidance on work-related stress4 clarifies that these regulations apply to risks to psychological health. The regulations also contain the concept of the hierarchy of controls, which describes the order in which actions should be taken to reduce risks to health and safety, beginning with preventing the hazard at source. Consideration of the hierarchy of controls principle dictated the order in which control measures were presented in the standards.

The broader literature on human resource management practices suggests that a very wide range of practices and policies may impact on or mitigate stress even though such practices are not usually related to work stress. In other words, when identifying the content of the standards the full range of human resource management practices was considered.

10.1.4 Framework summary

As a result of considering other standards, the views of industrial partners and relevant legislation, a standards framework was developed which included:-

B concise, jargon-free management terminology B description of how stressor can cause individual harm B description of how stressor can cause harm to a business or organisation B facility to compare current and ideal practice, and identify gaps

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B actions which will prevent the stressor at source presented first, followed by mitigating actions

B linking relevant human resource management practices to the prevention and management of work-related stress.

10.2 SELECTION OF TOPICS FOR STANDARDS

The work-related stressors for which management standards were developed were chosen on the basis of the stress risk assessment results for each of the six BP and ESW teams.

A total of 14 standards were developed, as shown below and in Table 3.

B Workload B Job insecurityB TeamworkingB Performance feedbackB Training & developmentB Hours of workB Job design B Management supportB Tools and equipmentB Communication B Role ambiguityB Skill under-utilisation B Work-life balance B Effort-reward imbalance

10.2.1 Reasons for not developing a standard

It became apparent that it was not desirable or feasible to develop a standard for certain work­related stressors. Three main reasons for not developing standards were identified:

1. There is already a relevant standard available

For some work-related stressors, a standard was already available for use in preventing or managing the stressors. For example, a work-related stressor relevant to the BP Operations Team was “poor ergonomic design of aspects of the control room”. This stressor can be addressed via reference to the existing ISO standard 11604 ‘Ergonomic design of control centres 27 .

2. There is already existing guidance which closely resembles a standard

Some work-related stressors could be addressed by consulting information already available to the organisation which closely resembles a standard. For example, a stressor for the BP Catering Team was “not being treated with respect by other staff” , which was already covered by BP in­house policy and guidance on respect and dignity at work.

3. A standard is not appropriate

Industrial relations issues were judged inappropriate topics for management standard development. For example, some BP staff had recently been affected by a change in their shift rotas, which caused anger, anxiety and frustration for a minority who were adversely affected. As, by their very nature, there is not an accepted “right answer” to such industrial relations issues, a standard would be impossible to agree or apply.

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10.3 STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

The standards developed are internal, company-specific management standards. This means that they were developed with specific reference to the local circumstances in the BP and ESW teams, although arguably they are generic enough to be usefully applied in other companies.

The development of the standards followed three separate phases.

In the first phase, each team’s stress risk assessment results were discussed by The Keil Centre’s psychologists with the relevant steering group. Agreement was reached on whether and why management standards would be developed for the main work-related stressors in that team, according to the standards selection criteria previously described.

The second phase involved standards development, which was led by Rob Briner of Birkbeck College. He was sent the agreed list of work-related stressors suitable for standards development for each team, as they became available, together with the stress risk assessment data for that team. The qualitative stress risk assessment data were deliberately withheld at this point, so that the first draft of the standard was produced without reference to team member’s written comments. Information to inform initial standard development was gathered from relevant academic literature, knowledge of industrial best practice and other appropriate sources. In particular, human resource management literature describing and evaluating practices formed the basis for much of the general content. In addition, more specific literatures such as those around teamworking and job design were consulted to assist with developing the more detailed content of particular standards. This information was then developed into a draft standard, following the framework previously described.

In phase three, after the completion of each draft management standard, access the relevant qualitative stress risk assessment data was provided to Rob Briner. This written data provided more local information on stressor / stress mechanisms, and actions which could be taken by the employer or by individuals to prevent or mitigate the effects of work-related stressors to be added to the standard. In many cases this resulted in significant alterations and additions to the draft standards in order to improve their fit and relevance to the organisation.

10.4 STRUCTURE OF STANDARDS

The standards were developed to be consistent with a risk assessment framework. Each standard covered the following areas:

10.4.1 Definition of work-related stressor

Each management standard begins with a comprehensive definition of the work-related stressor, e.g. workload. Facets of the stressor are described, for example that workload may be high, low, variable, unpredictable etc. Information is also presented on the type of situations or events which might increase the likelihood of the stressor causing stress.

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10.4.2 Hazard-harm link

Each standard has a section detailing the possible links between the hazard (i.e. the work-related stressor) and harm (i.e. individual experience of stress or harm to business goals such as performance or safety). This was made explicit in the standards in order to make it clear how stressors may cause harm and the various ways this might happen. In addition, the need to become aware of any specific issues relating to the stressor in particular contexts was emphasised. In other words, the standards emphasised the importance of thinking about the processes and mechanisms through which stressors cause harm and what these processes and mechanisms might be in the local context where the standard is being applied.

The existing stress literature is not very helpful in providing detailed explanations of how certain stressors cause stress. The qualitative data from the stress risk assessment were therefore of great value as this contained team member’s descriptions of how the stressor / stress link worked at a local, individual level.

10.4.3 Desired states

To permit users of the standards to compare their current practice with ideal practice, a series of “desired states” were described. These states allow a comparison to be made between the current and desired state, and the identification of any existing gaps.

10.4.4 Appropriate control measures

At the request of the industrial partners, practical examples were included in the final versions of the standards of the types of practices which, if present and properly implemented, could prevent the specific work-related stressor causing stress were included in the final versions of the standards. These practical examples were identified via

B the researcher’s knowledge of the stress and human resource management literature, more specific literatures (e.g. teamwork) and existing industry practice

B the views of industry partners and steering group members B the written comments about each stressor, provided by team members.

The desired states and practical examples were arranged so as to be consistent with the hierarchy of controls principle. Actions which seek to eliminate the stressor at source were listed first, followed by those which are more concerned with managing or mitigating its effects.

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11 EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT STANDARDS

11.1 EVALUATION PURPOSE AND PROCESS

The evaluation of the standards was carried out at two different times. Time 1 evaluation was carried out during the initial process of standards development , and was intended to influence the process where appropriate. Time 1 evaluation involved interviews with the project main stakeholders.

Time 2 evaluation was carried out a few months after presentation of the stress risk assessment results and standards to the each steering group. Time 2 evaluation was focused on the utility of the completed standards, specifically whether and how the standards had proved helpful or had generated any specific actions. Time 2 evaluation involved interviews with steering group members, and examination of related documents and actions plans.

11.2 TIME 1 RESULTS

Time 1 evaluation focused on reactions to the draft standards’ content and the way their content was structured. Of particular interest was gaining understanding of whether the standard was a useful addition to the stress risk assessment results and whether the standard generated additional ideas for taking action to prevent or manage the top work-related stressors identified within each team.

The following table summarises Time 1 reactions to the standards from representatives of each BP and ESW team. Comments were gathered on each part of the standards when possible.

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Table 4 Reactions to internal management standards – time 1

Group Definition of Stressor / Desired / current states stressor stress link

- brought structure to consideration of the issue

- table format is useful BP steering group no comment no comment - need for practical examples of what could help to achieve desired state

- (after addition of practical examples) example column really useful – now we have to concentrate on why some of the things we are doing are not having the desired effect.

- whilst some of this - helped to clarify that is quite obvious,

BP – Catering team

people can experience job insecurity even if there is objectively no threat to jobs (i.e.

but it’s never easy to take a step back and appreciate these issues – the

- useful as it identifies what may have been the initiating factor to some current stress issues

- need to focus on whether measures currently in place actually work, not just on them being there

- had some of these issues been taken into account before, things would have been done differently and better

jobs are ‘safe’) standard helps with this

HSE project manager

- good to have definition as highlights the importance of perception in stress

- good to clarify link between hazard and harm at start

- could introduce

- good - easy for managers to take away and use

(e.g. issues associated with job

idea of ‘corporate harm’

insecurity)

ESW – Customer Service Team no comment

- more info on corporate harm would be useful

- more practical examples of control measures needed

- good that they are not overly prescriptive, as some managers had had feared

- how would I know if I had successfully implemented controls?

ESW –

Service Delivery Team

no comment no comment

- useful to have a standard to measure current state against

- more practical examples of desired state would be helpful

- broad range of people needed to assess current state

- helped to realise that mechanisms might be in place, but that people might not be aware of this

ESW – Waterway - useful as gives an alternative way to analyse the problem

no comment - helps to recognise some of the root causes of current problems

- would be useful to supplement this section of the standards with more department-specific information

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11.3 SUMMARY OF TIME 1 RESULTS

The reactions to the standards were generally very positive. Steering group members were all drawn to the parts of the standard containing a table which indicated the ‘desired states’, however reactions to the other sections of the standards were also positive. In particular, the detailed information provided on the nature of each stressor and how this could cause harm was considered useful. Though some suggested that this information might already be known, most agreed that having it made explicit and structured allowed for a common understanding of the issue.

As a result of the feedback summarised in Table 4, some changes were made to the content of the standard. The following were the main changes:

B Inclusion of ‘corporate harm’

This was suggested by the HSE project manager as a way of increasing awareness of the business benefits of tackling work-related stressors, which can extend beyond health benefits to safety economic and financial benefits.

B Addition of practical examples for control measures

These were added as a result of comments from many of the steering group members. They requested examples of the types of things which organisations could do to achieve the desired states described in the standard. This was judged useful for (a) considering whether the company had adequate controls in place already and (b) suggesting other possible controls to introduce. The addition of examples is not intended to be an exhaustive “must do” list of actions that would lead to the desired state, but were emphasised as “could do” suggestions. The need for examples was felt to be especially relevant to some standards, for example communications, as the desired states described were found to be difficult to translate into practical actions.

11.4 TIME 2 RESULTS

Time 2 evaluation of the management standards focused on gaining an understanding of how the standards had been used in practice and, in particular, whether they had been useful in suggesting to the steering group specific actions which they could take to tackle their team’s main work-related stressors. Attention was also paid to understanding whether there had been any obstacles in their implementation.

Interviews were conducted with members of each of the steering groups to gather information on how the standards had been put to use. These interviews were carried out on average about six months after the feedback of the stress risk assessment results and relevant standards to the steering groups.

Time 2 evaluation revealed that the steering group members rated the standards to be, overall, a very useful approach to tackling work-related stressors. Their comments were in general very positive, and all the groups felt that their projects had been a success. The following are some of the main issues raised at Time 2.

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11.4.1 Use of the standards and practical examples

It was interesting to note that each of the steering groups had used the management standards, in particular the list of desired states and practical examples, in different ways. Feedback from steering group members indicated that the standards were useful in suggesting practical actions to be taken to tackle their main work-related stressors. Several commented that this had been made easier with the addition of the practical examples of possible control measures.

When the standards were designed, it was expected that the introductory sections would help readers to better understand the nature of the work-related stressor, and that the desired states and practical examples would then be systematically worked through. This process would include understanding the desired state, analysing the current state within their team, and deciding on appropriate actions to ‘bridge the gap’. Some steering groups did follow this systematic approach when reviewing the standards relevant to their team’s work-related stressors.

Other uses for the standards included

B listing the practical examples as recommendations B using the desired states from the workload standard as objectives in a resource

planner’s job description

In most cases, the steering group did not consider all the practical examples on desired states, but focused on those that seemed most applicable to their particular local circumstances, taking into account the stress risk assessment results. It was felt by steering group members that this was a realistic and effective use of the standards.

The steering groups also mentioned that the standards were useful for future reference, as they were considered a comprehensive guide to tackling each work-related stressor. The standard’s format also allowed the steering groups to distinguish between preventative actions intended to remove the stressor, and those intended to manage or mitigate its effects.

One senior manager commented that, by reading the standard, she could clearly identify why a stress problem had arisen, and what could be done to prevent the same problem arising again in the future.

11.4.2 Effectiveness of actions taken

Steering group members were asked to judge the effectiveness of the actions which had been taken as a result of considering the standards. In doing so, the following sources of information were taken into account

B formal and informal feedback from team members B comments from their management team B comments from new staff.

The actions taken were generally perceived to have been effective. Steering groups which did not include members of the management team reported that comments from

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management had been very positive, and that support had been given to the actions recommended. Some steering group members indicated that, in their opinion, the work­related stressors they had been targeting were improving.

A problem in judging the effectiveness of actions taken is that some steering groups were uncertain whether, at the time the actions were taken, the reasons for the actions had been explicitly linked to the results of the stress risk assessment. It was therefore believed that some team members may not be aware that the actions taken were as a result of their involvement with the stress risk assessment project.

At the time of the interviews, none of the steering groups had carried out a repeat stress risk assessment, though some of the steering groups had plans to do this.

11.4.3 Stress and other business agendas

During some of the interviews, it emerged that the stress management standards had sometimes suggested actions which were already on the management agenda, but had not yet been implemented. In this case the standards and the results from the stress risk assessment helped to bring forward the timing of these actions, and invest them with greater importance. One steering group member also described the relief felt by management when they realised the actions they had already decided to take for other reasons were in line with those suggested by the stress management standard.

These comments reinforce the idea that there is not only a health and safety case for tackling work-related stress, but also a business case and that organisations may see these as linked. Many of the issues to emerge as work-related stressors for each of the teams were also considered by local management to be directly related to general organisational effectiveness.

For example, the stress risk assessment process conducted in the ESW call centre revealed very low levels of work-related stress amongst team members. This result was contrary to the commonly-held perception of call centre work as being very stressful. It could be argued that, as work-related stress levels were low, call centre management did not need to do anything further to manage work-related stress. In fact, the call centre management decided to act on the information generated via the stress risk assessment and management standards as (a) by acting now, they might prevent stress problems developing in the future and (b) the stress risk assessment highlighted ways in which they could improve customer service and business efficiency.

11.4.4 Obstacles to the use of standards

Steering group members were also asked to comment on any obstacles they encountered in translating the standards into practice. In general, after the addition of the practical examples, the steering groups felt that the standards were easy to translate into practice.

One of the main difficulties the steering groups experienced was the lack of time available to them to dedicate to follow-up actions. For example, one steering group member commented on the difficulty of carrying out ‘steering group duties’ alongside their usual day to day workload. Some other steering group members commented on how they were disappointed

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by the unequal contributions made by some members of the team. Whereas some steering group members had made a considerable effort to develop effective actions, and follow these actions through, others had initially participated with enthusiasm which had quickly waned.

Some steering group members commented that this might be due to a perception that the majority of the effort is needed “up front”, when setting up the stress risk assessment, rather than being maintained until the end when recommendations and actions need to be delivered.

11.5 STANDARDS AND THE RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS

Steering group members were also asked to reflect on whether the stress management standards would have been useful tools to use on their own, without the results of a local stress risk assessment.

The majority of steering group members interviewed thought that the management standards would not have been as useful without the stress risk assessment results. They argued that the stress risk assessment results provided a clear indication of what the main work-related stressors were for that particular team. The stress risk assessment results also provided a detailed understanding of local aspects of the problem, as well as an indication of levels of stress within the team. All of this was regarded by steering group members as useful information to help them to decide on which areas or stressors to focus upon as a priority.

The stress risk assessment also provided with insight into the team members’ very local perception of the problem, which would not be conveyed by the standards alone. In addition, some locally-defined stressors were not covered by the existing standards. The stress risk assessment results also provided useful information to argue for the necessity to take action, and gain support and commitment from other team members and the management team.

Some steering group members considered that if there had been no management standards available, their perspective on the stressors would not have been so complete. The standards provided a more comprehensive view of what the problem might be, and a wide variety of actions which could be taken to prevent or mitigate the effects of each stressor. The steering groups commented that this would not necessarily have been achieved through conducting a stress risk assessment on its own. This is because team member’s suggestions about what might prevent or mitigate a stressor could be limited by what they believe is possible or appropriate.

In conclusion, feedback from the steering group suggests that the use of management standards are most effective when linked to a stress risk assessment process. The most effective use of both methods appears to be when they are used in conjunction with the standards providing a comprehensive overview of the work-related stressor, and the risk assessment allowing a more complete and detailed understanding of that stressor at a local level.

12 TASK-BASED RISK ASSESSMENT TRIGGERS

12.1 WHAT IS A TASK-BASED RISK ASSESSMENT?

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A task-based risk assessment (TBRA) is a safety management process conducted in many high-hazard industries to identify hazards associated with forthcoming tasks, and implement controls to reduce risks to health and safety to acceptable levels. A TBRA is typically conducted by a small team familiar with the TBRA process and possessing detailed knowledge of the task involved.

12.2 WHY DEVELOP HUMAN FACTORS TRIGGERS?

On the BP Bruce platform, teams conducting a TBRA consult a set of “triggers”, which is a list of possible physical hazards associated with a forthcoming task, for example flammable substances, working at height or in confined spaces. Human factors hazards, for example lack of competence, are not formally considered as part of the TBRA process. However, like many other offshore operators, BP has found that human factors issues have often featured amongst the causes of accidents. BP therefore wished to include a set of human factors triggers in their TBRA process which would complement the existing focus on physical hazards.

12.3 HUMAN FACTORS

Human Factors (HFs) are defined by the HSE as ’environmental, organisational and job factors and human and individual characteristics which influence behaviour at work in a way which can affect health and safety’11. This definition highlights the importance of HFs for health and safety performance. The inclusion of human factors into the TBRA process is argued on the basis of the potential for reducing accidents and harm.

12.4 CURRENT TBRA PRACTICE ON BP BRUCE

In order to establish whether any human factors issues were being formally considered on BP Bruce, about 100 TBRA records dating from December 2000 to June 2001 were examined. This identified that the main human factors hazard formally considered in their TBRAs was lack of, or difficulties with, communications. This was mentioned in around a third of the TBRA records. Other human factors elements occasionally mentioned in TBRAs were issues relating to competence and training among staff, usually linked to manual handling or to the introduction of new staff on the job. It is important to note the examination of TBRA records only establishes what has been formally considered and recorded by the TBRA team. Human factors issues may also have been informally considered and addressed.

12.5 DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN FACTORS TRIGGERS

A set of human factors triggers was developed by using a variety of methods. Literature reviews were combined with interviews with operational TBRA experts who regularly conduct TBRAs to develop a workable, practical set of human factors triggers. The development process used is described in more detail below.

12.5.1 Human factors list

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To develop a comprehensive set of human factors triggers relevant to tasks, two types of literature was consulted (a) literature on work-related stressors and (b) human factors root causes of accidents literature (see Table 1 for details). This resulted in a list of 44 human factors issues potentially relevant to a TBRA, which was later used during interviews with TBRA experts on BP Bruce.

It became apparent that a significant proportion of work-related stressors were not suitable for inclusion in a task-based risk assessment. For example, job insecurity is a recognised work-related stressor. However, identifying that high levels of job insecurity were present in an industry or company during a task-based risk assessment would be of little or no practical use, as those conducting the TBRA are typically not in a position to control job insecurity. A means of limiting those work-related stressors and human factors root causes of accidents to a workable number which were relevant at the level of the task and potentially within the control of the TBRA team was required.

12.5.2 TBRA interviews

As discussed, data from TBRA records might not provide a comprehensive picture of how human factors hazards are informally considered during an offshore TBRA. A series of one-to-one structured interviews was therefore carried out with a range of people considered to be TBRA experts on Bruce, including the two HSE coordinators and two Business Operations Team Leaders and production technicians/ Area Owners. Their experience of conducting TBRAs ranged from 3 to 25 years, and all conducted approximately 4 TBRAs during each two-week offshore tour of duty. The aim of the interviews was to elicit from these subject-matter experts their views on on (a) the relevance of human factors to the safe performance of a task and (b) the utility of including a set of human factors triggers in the TBRA.

Interviewees were given a brief description of the project, and were shown 44 human factors topics drawn from the review of work-related stressors and human factors root causes of accidents. They were asked to rate how relevant each topic was to the safe performance of a task. A total of 24 items were considered the most important as they were rated, on average, as either ‘very’ or ‘extremely’ relevant to how safely a task is performed. These items were then developed into a set of human factors triggers, as described below.

12.6 HUMAN FACTORS TRIGGERS

The 24 items identified via the TBRA expert interviews were grouped under four topic headings. These were supplemented by triggers, which describe specific aspects of each topic heading (see Appendix 2 for final version). The topic headings and triggers are shown below.

12.6.1 Workload - Inadequate planning of workload - Inadequate resources to complete job - Inadequate or inflexible time-scheduling - Inadequate co-ordination of team workload with other demands - Long working hours

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- Lack of individual control over workload - Conflicting tasks - Difficult, complex or unfamiliar tasks - Constant interruptions

12.6.2 Training

− Lack of necessary skills or competence within team− New working methods introduced without training− New or inexperienced staff on the job

12.6.3 Communications and Information - Lack of clarity about roles and responsibilities – individually and within the

team - Lack of sufficient information about how to do the job - Lack of clear lines of communication between team members - Inadequate communication/ information from other teams/ departments - Not knowing who to ask for help or advice - Communicating across a crew or shift change - Lack of knowledge about changes affecting the job

12.6.4 Team Working - Team members do not know each other/ have not worked together before - Lack of clarity about each others’ roles and responsibilities - Difficulties in co-operation within the team - Lack of clear direction for the team - Lack of support within the team - Personal conflicts within the team

As indicated earlier, many of the items listed above are both recognised work-related stressors and root causes of accidents.

12.7 VIEWS ON THE UTILITY OF HUMAN FACTORS TRIGGERS

TBRA interviewees were also asked for their views on the utility of introducing a set of human factors triggers to the TBRA process, and about any suggestions they had to make such triggers more useful.

12.7.1 Utility of human factors triggers

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Most of the people interviewed agreed that a set of human factors triggers for consideration during a TBRA was a good idea. The interviewees acknowledged that this would make the consideration of human factors issues an explicit issue which could otherwise be taken for granted or assumed during a TBRA.

However, there were two main criticisms of the idea. First, some interviewees thought that some human factors issues were not applicable offshore as they were already controlled by established working practices. An example concerned clarity of information exchanges. As many communications offshore are regulated via the platform control room, it was felt that clear communication channels were already established. A second, more specific, concern was whether the TBRA is the best time to consider human factors. Several interviewees questioned whether this was the most appropriate and effective time to undertake an analysis of human factors issues. Half the interviewees mentioned that there is already a significant amount of time and resources dedicated to the planning and organising of larger tasks during TBRAs, whereas the smaller, routine tasks not covered by TBRAs are perhaps the ones where human factors issues can get overlooked. Some interviewees therefore suggested that greater benefits would come with an examination of human factors on a day-to-day basis, such as via the permit system or during non-permit work, or in terms of organisational functioning as a whole.

12.7.2 Making the best use of the human factors triggers

When asked for advice on how to maximise use of the human factors triggers, most interviewees agreed that the key concern was to make the format concise and clear. Having a few general headings was considered more useful than having a longer list that might be overlooked. For this reason, the final version of the trigger checklist shown in Appendix (2) groups issues into 4 main trigger headings, with related subheadings.

A related concern was about raising awareness of human factors. A series of triggers would only work if people conducting the TBRA had sufficient knowledge to be able to accurately identify and understand the human factors hazards involved. Concerns were also expressed about how the list would be integrated into the current system for categorisation of risk. These issues point to the need for the checklist to be introduced alongside some information about human factors and their importance in terms of health and safety.

12.7.3 BP Bruce’s use of the human factors triggers

Discussion between the Bruce platform’s management team and their internal health and safety advisors has led to (from December 2002)

B use of the human factors triggers in all Bruce TBRAs on a pilot basis. If the pilot is judged successful, the triggers will be recommended for addition to BP’s computer­based control of work system which is used throughout their North Sea operations

B use of the triggers by supervisors during daily team briefings

30

B use of triggers by platform management during safety tours.

31

13 DISSEMENATION OF RESULTS

One of HSE’s objectives for the project was to disseminate knowledge via academic and practitioner channels as the project progressed. Table 5 below lists events where Birkbeck College and The Keil Centre staff have described the project and its progress to key audiences. Written publications are also being prepared.

Table 5 BIRKBECK COLLEGE

Date Event Audience February 2001 The Royal Society of

Medicine, Section of Occupational Medicine

Occupational medicine practitioners and researchers

April 2001 Health First Workplace Stress Conference

HR managers, trade union officials, employees

January 2002 BPS Annual Occupational Psychology Conference

Occupational Psychologists and academics

May 2002 The Brooke Lecture. Royal Society of Medicine, section of Epidemiology and Public Health

Epidemiology and public health practitioners and researchers

THE KEIL CENTRE Date Event Audience

February 2001 Occupational Health Offshore Conference, Aberdeen

Occupational health and safety professionals

November 2001 Ergonomics of call centres seminar, Glasgow

Call centre managers

April 2002 CIPD 2002 Scottish conference, Dunblane

Human resource management professionals

September 2002 RoSPA 2002 Scottish conference, Glasgow

Occupational health and safety professionals

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14 OTHER DEVELOPMENTS

The management standards have been shown to a wide range of organisations across many sectors, including health care, local and national government, pharmaceuticals, prison service, and financial services. The prevailing view is that the standards are generally useful, relevant and widely applicable, despite the fact they were developed for two specific industries.

With BP, The Keil Centre has developed a piece of software which contains 3 different stress risk assessment methods, and the set of 14 management standards. This software, named StressTools 28, is also available to other organisations via The Keil Centre. BP is currently implementing StressTools in several of its UK businesses.

As an indirect result of their involvement with HSE and The Keil Centre in developing preventative approaches to work-related stress, a BP Grangemouth team won a European Safety and Health at Work 2002 award for preventing work-related stress29.

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15 CONCLUSIONS

This project demonstrated the feasibility of developing a set of internal, company-specific management standards for key work-related stressors. Using a simple risk assessment method, standards were developed “bottom-up”, with a high degree of employee involvement. The standards proved useful to employees tasked with taking action to prevent / mitigate the effects of work-related stressors affecting fellow team members. Inclusion within the standards of practical examples of the type of actions which could help prevent or mitigate the effects of key work-related stressors were judged particularly useful.

Although the standards were developed for internal company use, they are arguably generic enough to be used elsewhere.

The process of developing standards has also been described, which may prove useful to other organisations considering designing their own.

Industry partners concluded that standards can be used to maximum effect when combined with the results of a local stress risk assessment. This enables the local context to be integrated with the strategic overview provided by the standards to identify main options for preventing or mitigating the effects of key work-related stressors.

Finally, a simple set of human factors triggers for use during task-based risk assessments was developed and implemented. This may be useful to other high-hazard industries seeking to include consideration of work-related stressors and human factors root causes of accidents into their daily routines.

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16 APPENDIX 1: 14 MANAGEMENT STANDARDS

16.1 COMMUNICATION

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which communication can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, communication will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Communication refers to the passing of information. This can take place in many different ways, be about different things about work, and can be more or less formal. However, we are referring here to explicit, formal communication that is relevant to the way jobs and tasks are done. In other words, the communication of information which is useful, helpful or even vital for doing the job effectively.

This may, for example, be communication concerning: B The roles of external contractors B The activities of other departments or other parts of the organization B What’s happening in the rest of the team B New products, services, clients or customers B Changes to the external environment which may have implications for the way work

is carried out B The views of staff about proposed changes B Information from staff to senior management

2. THE WAYS IN WHICH COMMUNICATION CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

Communication problems can be harmful in a number of ways. Exactly how this happens depends a lot on the organization. However, there are some general processes such as: B If staff are not told about the activities and roles of external contractors they may find

they are duplicating effort which may lead to frustration B Staff may feel angry that they are not provided with the information about changes in

a way that allows them to give their views and opinions about the changes B If changes in the procedures or responsibilities of other parts of the organization are

not communicated effectively staff may unknowingly follow the wrong procedures and have to repeat or redo work which can cause frustration

B Not being told about changes to deadlines or deliverables can mean extra work or having to work very quickly which can cause fatigue

B Getting information from informal channels which should have been communicated formally and explicitly can make staff feel undervalued

B Being given lots of information which is not relevant can lead to a sense of overload, and having to work hard to identify which information is actually important

35 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Communication or the lack of effective communication is not a single problem, and the effects of communication problems may vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around communication and what particular problems, if any, it is causing or may cause staff.

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm communication may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organisation as a whole.

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell if communication is a problem now or may become so at some future point? If staff repeatedly report the following kinds of problems, it is possible that poor communication is the cause: B Being ‘kept in the dark’ about what is happening B Repeatedly asking to be kept informed B Being concerned that they only hear about things ‘through the grapevine’ B Being ‘overloaded’ with information B Not being given the opportunity to give their opinions or information to line managers

or more senior staff B Being shocked or surprised about what is happening

Communication may become a problem in the future if: B There are likely to be changes in the physical structure of the organization which may

impact on communication channels B There will be increases in the extent to which staff need accurate and comprehensive

information in order to carry out their jobs effectively B There are likely to be changes to communication systems and information resources

(e.g., email, intranet)

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

The table on the next page is intended to help organisations who wish to prevent communication causing stress, now or in the future.

The table contains practical steps that can be taken that may help to prevent or resolve communication problems.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the table are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken at an organisational level. Those lower down the table are more concerned with actions that can be taken at an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing communication problems.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by communication.

First examine Column 1, which describes various “states” which, if present, are likely to prevent communication causing stress. Consider the extent to which and how each state accurately describes the current situation in your organisation*, and record in Column 2.

36 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Where a gap exists between Column 1 and 2, consider what can be done to ensure the gap is closed.

Column 3 includes some practical examples of actions which could help to bridge any gap between the desired state and the current state. Please note this is not an exhaustive list and you should carefully consider what is most appropriate for your particular circumstances, taking into account employees views and opinions.

Finally, in Column 4, record your next steps to prevent communication causing stress.

37 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing communication problems

1. There are mechanisms through which senior management acknowledge and respond to communication problems reported by line managers.

B Communication is a regular item on senior management team agendas

B Dedicated internal communications function

B Regular two way briefing meetings with line managers

B Regular attitude surveys B ‘Open door’ policy

2. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impact of organizational or external changes on the level and nature of communication which will be required.

B Communication audits before and during change

B Building communication considerations into change strategy

3. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impact of outsourcing and contracting on the level and nature of communication that will be required.

B The communication implications of outsourcing and contracting on existing staff are considered during planning

B The communication requirements with outsourced and contracted staff are considered when drawing up contracts and planning work

4. There are mechanisms in place which promote the flow of information across different parts of the organisation.

B An intranet to provide news and information, with access for all staff

B Company newsletter B Regular briefings within and between

teams and departments B Analysis of communication needs

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* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Job design and recruitment

5. There are organizational procedures and policies about communication which aim to ensure that all staff receive information that is accurate, timely and relevant to their work.

B Written policies about what communication processes are in place

B Regular reviews of communication needs of all staff and whether these are being met

B Procedures for preventing information ‘overload’ (e.g. emails, memos)

B Email etiquette guidelines 6. Jobs are designed such that the information required to do the job effectively is assessed and mechanisms for providing such information is built into the design of the job.

B Job analysis considers communication demands and requirements of roles and tasks

B Ways of providing necessary information and communication channels are considered in job design

7. Recruitment and promotion processes make clear the level and nature of information-giving and information-receiving that will be required in the role.

B Job and competency analysis used to provide detailed and accurate descriptions of communication requirements

B Realistic job previews demonstrate communication requirements

8. There are mechanisms through which staff can report communication problems to line managers.

B Weekly team briefing meetings B Regular ‘one-to-ones’ B Appraisals/performance reviews

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* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Roles, responsibilities and mechanisms for managing communication for staff and their line managers

9. Line managers are required to monitor the communication concerns and needs of those they manage and to respond accordingly.

B Regular discussion with staff about communication effectiveness

B Monitoring of complaints or comments about communication

B Notice boards B Question and answer site on

intranet 10. Formal mechanisms exist through which supervisors and line managers can report communication problems to more senior management.

B Regular two way briefing meetings with senior managers

B Use of company intranet B Identification of gaps in

communication flows 11. Supervisors and line managers have access to the information they need to communicate to those they manage.

B Key performance indicators are available

B Regular cascading of relevant and timely information

12. Supervisors and line managers communicate relevant information to those they manage.

B Regular discussions with staff about salient issues

B Use of short briefing meetings 13. Supervisors receive training in communication skills and the use of briefings

B Running effective meetings B Presenting information usefully B Presentation skills B Effective communication B Report-writing skills

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* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.2 EFFORT-REWARD IMBALANCE

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING EFFORT-REWARD IMBALANCE PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which effort-reward imbalance can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, effort-reward imbalance will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS EFFORT-REWARD IMBALANCE?

Effort-reward imbalance refers to a situation where staff feel they are putting more into the job than they are getting back from the job itself or the organisation as a whole. This may feel unfair and cause a number of negative feelings and also may make staff be less prepared to put in as much effort in the future.

On the other hand, staff may feel that what they are getting back for what they put into the job is fair and the deal is a reasonable one. In such a situation staff are more likely to feel motivated, committed and have a sense of satisfaction and well­being.

It is important to note that the effort made by staff is not just about how hard staff work, it may also involve effort around: B Having a concern for quality B Being conscientious B Helping out colleagues when they are having difficulties B Occasionally ‘going beyond the call of duty’ B Being concerned for customers and clients B Loyalty to the organisation and its products and services

It is also important to note that the rewards given by the organisation are not just about financial rewards but also involve rewards such as: B Respect and recognition from colleagues and line managers B Opportunities to utilise skills B Appropriate responsibilities and trust B Practical concern from Senior Management about the welfare of staff B Training and development opportunities B Promotion and progression

41

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

2. THE WAYS IN WHICH EFFORT-REWARD IMBALANCE CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

Effort-reward imbalance can be harmful in a number of ways. Exactly how this happens depends a lot on the organisation and the job. However, there are some general processes such as: B Where staff constantly feel they are getting less back than what they put in

they may feel angry and resentful B If staff feel that in general their employment deal is an unfair one, they may

feel dissatisfied and they may withhold effort and work less effectively leading to a sense of dissatisfaction, or change jobs

B If staff feel that they are not respected or that management has little concern for their welfare they may feel depressed and de-motivated.

Effort-reward imbalance is not a single problem, and the effects of effort-reward imbalance may vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around effort-reward imbalance and what particular problems, if any, it is causing or may cause staff.

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm effort-reward imbalance may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organisational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance, which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organisation as a whole.

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell if poor effort-reward imbalance is causing problems now or may at some future point? If staff repeatedly report the following kinds of problems, it is possible that effort-reward imbalance is the cause: B Not being prepared to take on additional tasks B Reporting that what is expected of them is unfair B Not getting enough back from the organisation in terms of rewards B Feeling angry about what they are expected to do

Effort-reward imbalance may become a problem in the future if: B The demands for staff to make an effort are likely to increase B There will be a reduction in the rewards available to staff B Changes external to the organisation (e.g., a new and ‘better’ employer

moving into the locality) mean that staff will evaluate their ‘deal’ in less favourable ways

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

The table on the next page is intended to help organisations who wish to prevent effort-reward imbalance causing stress, now or in the future.

The table contains practical steps that can be taken that may help to prevent or resolve effort-reward imbalance problems.

42

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the table are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken at an organisational level. Those lower down the table are more concerned with actions that can be taken at an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing effort-reward imbalance problems.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping prevent or resolve employee problems caused by effort-reward imbalance.

First examine Column 1, which describes various “states” which, if present, are likely to prevent effort-reward imbalance causing stress. Consider the extent to which and how each state accurately describes the current situation in your organisation*, and record in Column 2. Where a gap exists between Column 1 and 2, consider what can be done to ensure the gap is closed.

Column 3 includes some practical examples of actions which could help to bridge any gap between the desired state and the current state. Please note this is not an exhaustive list and you should carefully consider what is most appropriate for your particular circumstances, taking into account employees views and opinions.

Finally, in Column 4, record your next steps to prevent effort-reward imbalance causing stress.

43

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing effort-reward imbalance problems

1. There are mechanisms through which senior management acknowledge and respond to effort­reward imbalance problems reported by line managers.

B Regular briefing meetings with line managers

B Annual performance awards and ceremonies

2. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impact of internal organisational change or change to the external environment on effort- reward imbalance.

B In planning organisational change the implication for changes in effort required by staff are considered along with changes in the available rewards and possible imbalances between the two

B The implications of changes in the external environment (eg economic, competitors) for changes in effort required by staff are considered along with changes in the available rewards and possible imbalances between the two

B Close monitoring of industrial relations through times of organisational change, mergers etc

44

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

3. There is awareness within senior management about the range of rewards that are on offer and the extent to which these are matched to the efforts made by staff.

B

B

B

B

Use of attitude surveys to assess efforts and rewards and perceived imbalance Consideration is given to the what rewards (especially monetary ones) are available to staff and whether these are matched appropriately to effort Criteria for performance-related pay Public criteria for awards

4. There are mechanisms for examining and evaluating the full range of rewards delivered to staff across the organisation as a whole and how these can, if necessary, be enhanced.

B

B

B

B

Audits of all kinds of rewards are undertaken to see if they are being delivered New levels and types of reward are considered Staff are consulted about the types of reward they would value Variety in categories under which awards can be won

5. Jobs are designed such that there is a balance between the efforts made by the job holder and the rewards they receive.

B

B

Job analysis looks at the full range of types of effort (for example, making effort outside formal job description) required and the level and nature of the rewards available Where there are likely to be gaps between the effort required and the rewards available steps are taken reduce such gaps

45

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Roles, responsibilities and mechanisms for managing effort-reward imbalance for staff and their line managers

6. Recruitment and promotion processes include realistic information about the efforts expected by staff and the rewards that will be given in return.

B Job descriptions make clear the full range and types of effort that will be required

B Job descriptions make clear the full range and types of reward that will be available and on what basis they will be provided (eg performance-related)

B Information on company policy on rewards and bonuses available (eg performance­related pay)

7. There are mechanisms through which staff can report effort-reward imbalance problems to line managers.

B Weekly briefing meetings B Annual pay reviews B Regular one-to-ones B Appraisals

8. Line managers and supervisors are required to monitor the effort­reward imbalance concerns of those they manage.

B Monitoring of staff effort and achievements (e.g. performance targets, working hours etc)

B Awareness of all rewards staff are receiving (including non­monetary rewards)

B Monitoring of complaints or problems which are likely to be caused by effort-reward imbalance

B Job satisfaction surveys

46

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

9. Formal mechanisms exist B Briefing meetings with senior through which supervisors and line management managers can report effort-reward B Annual pay reviews imbalance problems to more senior management.

10. Supervisors and line managers B Redistribution or reduction of have the means to change the workloads effort-reward imbalance such that staff feel it is less imbalanced.

B Increased provision of other kinds of rewards desirable to the individual staff member (e.g. more responsibility, praise, feedback, involvement)

B Team/department budget for performance rewards

B Local (e.g. team-based, department-based) reward schemes

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* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.3 JOB DESIGN

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING JOB DESIGN PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which poor job design can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, job design will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS JOB DESIGN?

Job design refers to the design of jobs as a whole. Jobs have many features or characteristics such as how much work they involve, how much control over tasks is available, the variety of tasks involved, the support and help which is present, and the feedback provided. Job design considers how all these features work together to affect the well-being and performance of staff who work in the job.

Good job design takes account of all the different features of jobs and how they operate together to affect the well-being of job holders. For example, a job may be very demanding and place great pressures on whoever is working in that role. Having a very demanding job can potentially be harmful. However, if people in that job are also given the resources, support and control which are necessary for them to cope effectively it is unlikely the workload will be harmful.

The kinds of aspects of jobs which are important when considering job design as a whole include: B The amount, pace, and difficulty of the workload B The nature and quality of feedback about performance B How clearly roles and responsibilities are specified within the job B The amount of control people have over the way they do their job B The extent to which the job contains variety in terms of different types of

tasks B The demands of working with others in teams and how team-working is

designed B The physical working environment

2. THE WAYS IN WHICH JOB DESIGN CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

Job design can be harmful in a number of ways. Exactly how this happens depends a lot on the organization and the job. However, there are some general processes such as: B A job design which involves many different kinds of tasks but which gives

only limited control over the way those different tasks are scheduled can lead to confusion and frustration

B A job design which involves very repetitive work with little variety may lead to fatigue and/or boredom

B A job design which requires the learning of new tasks but also allows little opportunity for learning may lead to anxiety

48

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

B A job design which makes certain physical demands but where the physical environment makes it difficult to meet those demands

Job design is not a single problem, and the effects of poor job design may vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around job design and what particular problems, if any, it is causing or may cause staff.

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm poor job design may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organization as a whole.

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell if poor job design is causing problems now or may at some future point? If staff repeatedly report the following kinds of problems, it is possible that poor job design is the cause: B General lack of job satisfaction B Complaints that resources and support are inadequate for the effective

completion of tasks B Staff feeling they are unable to fully use their skills B A sense amongst staff that their jobs contain too much or too little of a

particular feature (e.g., control, workload, support, variety, opportunity to use skills)

Job design may become a problem in the future if: B New technology is being introduced B There are likely to be changes in what jobs require B Support services or other resources which people staff need to do their jobs

are changing

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

These are some of the practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve problems of poor job design causing stress.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the list are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organizational level. Those lower down the list are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing job design problems and concerns.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by poor job design.

49

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

The following list of practical steps can be used in a number of ways. However, probably the best initial approach is to consider the extent to which and how each item in the list accurately describes the current situation in your organization. Where it does not accurately describe the current state of affairs you may wish to consider what could be done in order to ensure such practices are in place.

50

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing job design problems

1. There are mechanisms through which senior management acknowledge and respond to job design problems reported by line managers.

B Organisational design reviews B Review of current or planned

working practices B Steering group for working

practices improvement 2. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impact of internal organisational change or change to the external environment on the design of jobs.

B Business strategy process B Business planning and resourcing

process B Employee consultation when

planning organisational change 3. There is an awareness and commitment from senior management to consider the nature of whole jobs and their design throughout the organisation.

B Human resource policy which supports the benefits of workforce involvement and development

B Consultation about improving job enrichment and employee involvement; eg self-managed teams

B Organisational re-structuring planned according to current and future needs

B Regular review of effectiveness of current organisational working practices: eg training and development, employee involvement, performance feedback, task sharing etc

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors 51

4. Jobs are designed according to the best principles of job design.

B B B

B

B

B

B

Jobs are designed to include 1. A variety of meaningful tasks 2. A degree of discretion and autonomy for the job holder 3. Opportunities for feedback on performance 4. Maximising use of job-holder’s skills Employee consultation methods exist Encouragement of participative decision-making

5. The design of jobs is regularly reviewed and there is scope for changing aspects of job so as to improve their overall design.

B

B

B

B

Review of departmental/team design and working practices Training and advice is available for topics relevant to job design: eg performance feedback; delegation; team-building; task sharing; employee involvement etc Staff-lead steering groups to improve working practices and job design Working practices are flexible to review depending on current team/ departmental needs or projects

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors 52

6. Recruitment and promotion processes include realistic information about the job design and the characteristics of the job as a whole.

B

B B B

B B

B B

Job specification includes information on: 1. Workload and task structuring 2. Reporting relationships 3. Degree of autonomy and discretion 4. Support and help available 5. How performance feedback is provided Realistic job previews Regular up-dating of job specifications to reflect changes in job design

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors 53

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Roles, responsibilities and mechanisms for managing poor job design for staff and their line managers

7. There are mechanisms through which staff can report poor job design problems to line managers.

B Weekly briefing meetings B Team/departmental meetings B Performance review/appraisal B Annual employee job satisfaction

surveys B Staff suggestions on organisational

/team/department re-structuring 8. Line managers are required to monitor the job design concerns of those they manage.

B Monitoring staff satisfaction with their jobs is an explicit line management responsibility

B Line manager’s appraisal includes review of staff’s job satisfaction and consequent management action

B Exit interviews focused on job design

9. Formal mechanisms exist through which supervisors and line managers can report job design problems to more senior management.

B Input to human resource planning meeting

B Input in organisational re­structuring reviews

B Staff consultation sought about organisational re-structuring

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors 54

10. Supervisors and line managers have the means to change or alter job design.

B B

B

B

B

B

B

Discretion over: 1. Re-distribution of tasks and workload 2. Re-allocation of support and resources 3. Delegation of decision-making to individuals or staff groups Introduction of flexible working patterns (semi-)/autonomous working groups Regular job specification reviews or revisions

* Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors 55

16.4 JOB INSECURITY

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING JOB INSECURITY PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which job insecurity can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, job insecurity will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS JOB INSECURITY?

Job insecurity occurs when staff are concerned that they may lose their job or current post within the organization because of structural or other changes within the organization. Job insecurity may cause concern for a number of reasons. There are, the financial and other consequences of actually losing one’s job. Second, other kinds of concerns arise because of the prospect of having the level or nature of one’s current responsibilities changed or being moved to another post. Finally, some of the concerns around job insecurity may be caused by anticipating the increased workload which will result if one remains in the organization but with a much reduced team or workforce and with the same level of demands.

It should be noted that although staff may actually have no need to be concerned about their job security, as their jobs are reasonably safe, perceptions and feelings that jobs are in some way under threat does have real impacts on the stress experienced by staff.

2. WHAT IS EXCESSIVE JOB INSECURITY?

Excessive job insecurity occurs when the worries and anxieties experienced by staff in relation to job insecurity are causing, or may cause in the future, some sort of harm in terms of health or well-being for members of staff. Such harm may not be caused directly by job insecurity but may be caused indirectly, for example through accidents, as these are more likely occur when people have worries and anxieties and may not be able to give their full attention to the task at hand. If concerns about job insecurity are excessive, individuals may feel distracted from their work, anxious, and perhaps frustrated or angry because they want greater clarity about their future position.

3. THE WAYS IN WHICH JOB INSECURITY CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

Job insecurity can become excessive and therefore harmful in a number of ways. Exactly how this happens depends a lot on the organization. However, there are some general processes such as: B Being anxious about the future can mean it is more difficult to concentrate and can lead to so

fall behind with work, thus causing additional problems meeting deadlines. B Wanting to think ahead and plan the best way of going about work tasks may be difficult in

conditions of high job insecurity. B Trying to find out about one’s future job prospects can be frustrating if little information is

available or forthcoming. B If it is perceived that information relevant to job insecurity is being deliberately withheld this

may cause anger B The general distraction caused by job insecurity may result in people paying less attention to

their work and be more prone to accidents and injuries B Believing that the job will soon change radically will make it difficult to feel commitment to on­

going work tasks

56 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Job insecurity is not a single problem, and the effects of job insecurity may vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around job insecurity and what particular problems, if any, it is causing or may cause staff.

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm job insecurity may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organization as a whole.

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

How can we tell if job insecurity is excessive or may become so at some future point? If staff repeatedly report the following kinds of problems, it is possible that job insecurity is excessive: B Feeling uncertain about their future B Finding it difficult to be focused and committed on immediate tasks B Not being able to find out what will happen to their jobs B Feeling anxious about their prospects

Job insecurity may become a problem in the future if:B There will be a perceived or actual change in the wider industry sector which may threaten

jobs B The number of direct competitors increases B There are national or international economic trends which are likely to affect the organization

in a negative way New legislation may have a negative impact, in terms of jobs and required capacity, on the organization and what it does

5. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

These are some of the practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve problems of excessive job insecurity causing stress.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the list are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organizational level. Those lower down the list are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing job insecurity problems and concerns.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by excessive job insecurity.

The following list of practical steps can be used in a number of ways. However, probably the best initial approach is to consider the extent to which and how each item in the list accurately describes the current situation in your organization. Where it does not accurately describe the current state of affairs you may wish to consider what could be done in order to ensure such practices are in place.

57 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing job insecurity problems

1. There are mechanisms for evaluating whether short term and insecure employment contracts, if these are used, are actually necessary or desirable and whether more secure contract arrangements could be put in place

B Human resource strategy process

B Organisational strategy which concerns outsourcing of work to external suppliers

2. There are mechanisms through which senior management acknowledge and respond to job insecurity problems reported by line managers.

B Regular business planning meetings

B Regular reviews of human resource strategy implementation

3. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impact of internal organizational change or change to the external environment on the levels of job insecurity.

B Peer review of impact of forthcoming change

B Risk assessment of forthcoming change

B Involvement of employee representations in assessing likely impact of change

B Post­implementation review of actual impact of change

4. There are mechanisms for responding to and communicating information relevant to job insecurity.

B Employee newsletter B Team briefings B Consultation with employee

representatives B Additional, timely, two-way

communication during periods of job insecurity, designed to dispel rumours and address employee’s concerns

58 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Job design and recruitment

5. Recruitment and promotion processes include realistic information about the levels of job security that can reasonably be expected and where changes are likely what form such changes may take.

B Terms and conditions of employment

B Realistic job preview B Opportunity to meet current

job-holders

6. There are mechanisms through which staff can report job insecurity problems to line managers.

B Regular team briefings, which allow two-way communication

B Performance appraisals B Opportunities for informal

discussion with line manager B Periodic employee opinion

survey, which includes questions about job security

7. Line managers are required to monitor the job insecurity concerns of those they manage.

B Line manager’s job description includes requirement to listen to and respond to staff concerns

B Line managers performance appraisal assesses their ability to listen to and respond to staff concerns

B Management development programmes advocate a consultative style of management

8. Formal mechanisms exist through which supervisors and line managers can report job insecurity problems to more senior management.

B Regular business meetings B Regular human resource

meetings B Regular health and safety

meetings

59 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.5 LONG WORKING HOURS

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING LONG WORKING HOURS PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which long working hours can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, long working hours will be defined and described.

1. WHAT ARE LONG WORKING HOURS?

Working hours refers to the length of time someone is engaged in work-related tasks. Such work may take place in the workplace but may also be undertaken at home, in other locations (e.g., on client sites), or during travel and includes time away from home due to work-related travel.

There is no single definition of long working hours. One definition may be that it is over contracted hours. Another definition is that it exceeds limits that have been set legally, for example, the UK’s Working Time Regulations 1998. And another definition may be that it is where the individual becomes harmed in some way or is less effective if they work over a particular number of hours.

2. THE WAYS IN WHICH LONG WORKING HOURS CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

Long working hours can be harmful in a number of ways. Exactly how this happens depends a lot on the organization and the job. However, there are some general processes such as: B If staff constantly work long hours, they are likely to become fatigued, less effective, and

more likely to make mistakes and/or be involved in accidents B Where staff feel they have to work long hours this may cause anger and resentment

perhaps leading them to seek other work B If staff are working long hours they will have less time to attend to problems and issues

outside work. In this circumstance it is likely that these other problems may then start to interfere with their work

Long working hours is not a single problem, and the effects of long working hours may vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around long working hours and what particular problems, if any, it is causing or may cause staff.

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm long working hours may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organization as a whole.

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell if long working hours is causing problems now or may at some future point? If staff repeatedly report the following kinds of issues, it is possible that long working hours is a problem: B Fatigue and inability to concentrate

60 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

B Making mistakes and/or becoming involved in accidents or “near-misses” B Not having time to attend to matters outside workB A sense of feeling obligated to work long hours (e.g., ‘long hours culture’)

Long working hours may become a problem in the future if:

B Demands for the organizations products and services are likely to increase with noincrease in workforce

B Staff will leave and not be replaced immediately or at all B Working long hours becomes seen as a sign of commitment to the company or

organisation.

It is particularly important to monitor and manage the working hours of all staff involved in safety­critical or hazardous work.

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

The table on the next page is intended to help organisations who wish to prevent long working hours causing stress, now or in the future.

The table contains practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve long working hours problems.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the table are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organizational level. Those lower down the table are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing management standard problems.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by long working hours.

First examine Column 1, which describes various “states” which, if present, are likely to prevent long working hours causing stress. Consider the extent to which and how each state accurately describes the current situation in your organisation*, and record in Column 2. Where a gap exists between Column 1 and 2, consider what can be done to ensure the gap is closed.

Column 3 includes some practical examples of actions which could help to bridge any gap between the desired state and the current state. Please note this is not an exhaustive list and you should carefully consider what is most appropriate for your particular circumstances, taking into account employees views and opinions.

Finally, in Column 4, record your next steps to prevent long working hours causing stress.

61 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing long working hours problems

1. There are mechanisms through which senior management acknowledge and respond to long working hours problems reported by line managers.

B Long working hours issues discussed at top team meetings

B Regular briefing meetings with line managers

B Strategic workload planning 2. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impact of internal organisational change or change to the external environment on long working hours.

B Assessment of implications of changes upon working hours

B Evaluation of impact of staff reductions on working hours

B Assessment of minimum staffing levels

3. Senior managers display behaviours which indicate they do not work excessive hours.

B Starting and leaving work at reasonable times

B Target maximum working hours per week

B Demonstrating concern where others are working long hours

B Clear policy about home-work balance/against long hours culture

4. Jobs are designed such that they can be done effectively within usual working hours.

B Job analysis considers whether time on tasks and time on other essential activities can be completed during normal working hours

5. Recruitment and promotion processes include realistic information about working hours requirements and potential seasonal or other fluctuations in working hours

B Job descriptions specify working hours and likely fluctuations

B Realistic job previews demonstrate demands of job and working hours required

62 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Roles, responsibilities and mechanisms for managing long working hours for staff and their line managers

6. There are mechanisms through which staff can report long working hours problems to line managers.

B Regular one-to-ones B Appraisals B Use of time sheets handed in

weekly or monthly 7. Line managers and supervisors are required to monitor the long working hours concerns of those they manage.

B System to record hours worked (including overtime and rest­day working), and alert managers when defined limits are exceeded

B Collating information from staff time sheets

B Observing the hours staff are working

B Questioning staff about their hours

8. Formal mechanisms exist through which supervisors and line managers can report long working hours problems to more senior management.

B Briefings with senior management

B Providing information from time sheets

9. Supervisors and line managers have the means to reduce working hours.

B Redistribution of work B Appointment of extra staff B Reduction or removal of non­

essential tasks 10. Supervisors receive training in dealing with long hours problems.

B Awareness of relevant law, and company policy on working hours

11. Staff receive training in managing workloads within working hours.

B Assertiveness training B Planning and prioritising B Time management

63 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.6 MANAGEMENT SUPPORT

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING MANAGEMENT SUPPORT PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which management support can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, management support will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS MANAGEMENT SUPPORT?

Management support refers to a range of formal and informal activities undertaken by supervisors and line or senior management that practically or emotionally support the work of other staff. If such support is effective, then staff are likely to feel better at work and to undertake their work more effectively.

However, if such support is ineffective or inadequate, staff may feel that management have relatively little concern for them and do little to help them practically do their jobs. In such a situation staff are likely to feel less motivated and will not be able to do their work to the best of their ability.

There is no single definition of management support and one key aspect of such support is that it is appropriate and useful to the individuals involved at the particular time it is given. Examples of management support include: B Demonstrating to staff that management have a high level of awareness of the practical

problems faced by staff in their work B Being prepared to practically help out if staff face problems they cannot deal with

effectively without such help B Demonstrating an awareness of the emotional and motivational issues that staff face B Intervening to offer emotional support by showing concern, empathy, or simply

acknowledging the staff member’s feelings B Behaving in ways which make it easy for staff members to approach and ask for support in

some way

2. THE WAYS IN WHICH MANAGEMENT SUPPORT CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

Inadequate or inappropriate management support can be harmful in a number of ways. Exactly how this happens depends a lot on the organization and the job. However, there are some general processes such as: B If staff feel that management do not support or have concern for their problems they are

likely to feel de-motivated, resentful, and pay less attention to the quality of tasks

64 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

B Where a relatively minor problem does arise for a member of staff, if this is not dealt with effectively through offering appropriate practical and/or emotional support this problem is more likely to escalate leading to more serious problems or issues which may affect staff well-being and motivation

B If staff do not feel they can ask for help they may continue to work ineffectively on tasks perhaps leading to accidents or poor quality work

B If a member of staff has an emotional concerns at work and this is not dealt with effectively by their manager, such concerns are likely to distract them from working effectively

Management support is not a single problem, and the effects of inadequate management support may vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around management support and what particular problems, if any, it is causing or may cause staff.

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm inadequate management support may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance, which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organization as a whole.

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell if poor management support is causing problems now or may at some future point? If staff repeatedly report the following kinds of problems, it is possible that management support is the cause: B Feeling they have nobody to turn to for help B A sense that managers do not know or care about the problems they experience B Management being out of touch with what’s happening on the ground B Small problems that get out of hand very quickly and lead to more major problems B De-motivation

Management support may become a problem in the future if: B Jobs are teams are to be redesigned such that reporting relationships and level or type of

supervision will change B Changes to jobs means that the nature or level of the practical or emotional support

required will change B New services or products are to be provided which will place new demands on staff which

may in turn mean they require extra support while they learn to deliver these new services and products

B Internal organizational changes will make staff feel less secure or more concerned B Changes external to the organization are likely to cause concern or practical problems for

staff in doing their work

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

The table on the next page is intended to help organisations who wish to prevent management support causing stress, now or in the future.

65 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

The table contains practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve management support problems.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the table are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organizational level. Those lower down the table are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing management standard problems.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by management support.

First examine Column 1, which describes various “states” which, if present, are likely to prevent management support causing stress. Consider the extent to which and how each state accurately describes the current situation in your organisation*, and record in Column 2. Where a gap exists between Column 1 and 2, consider what can be done to ensure the gap is closed.

Column 3 includes some practical examples of actions which could help to bridge any gap between the desired state and the current state. Please note this is not an exhaustive list and you should carefully consider what is most appropriate for your particular circumstances, taking into account employees views and opinions.

Finally, in Column 4, record your next steps to prevent management support causing stress.

66 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing management support problems

1. There are mechanisms through which senior management acknowledge and respond to management support problems reported by line managers.

B Support issues discussed at top team meetings

B Regular briefing meetings with line managers

2. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impact of internal organizational change or change to the external environment on management support.

B Assessment of potential increases in need for support in planning change

B Changes in external environment analysed in terms of their potential impact on need for support

B Forward planning review of demands on manager’s time

3. Senior managers display appropriate support behaviours to each other and to less senior management

B Assessment of whether the nature and level of support demonstrated is adequate

B Consideration of problems which may have been caused by inappropriate support from senior management

B ‘Open door’ policy B Management training B 360º feedback, including

assessment of management support

67 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

4. Jobs are designed such that there is appropriate practical and emotional support built in

B Job analysis considers what support may be required in order to complete tasks effectively

B Task-sharing / group-based working

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Job design and recruitment

5. Recruitment and promotion processes include realistic information about management support.

B Job descriptions clarify nature of support which will be provided in role

B Realistic job previews demonstrate nature of support available

6. There are mechanisms through which staff can report management support problems to line managers.

B Weekly briefing meetings B Regular one-to-ones B Appraisals

7. Line managers and supervisors are required to monitor the management support concerns of those they manage.

B Considering whether problems reported by staff are caused by inadequate support

B Being aware of emotional problems faced by staff

B 360º feedback 8. Formal mechanisms exist through which supervisors and line managers can report management support problems to more senior management.

B Briefings with senior management

B Line managers aware of and report their own issues relating to support from senior management

68 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

9. Supervisors and line managers have the means to change levels and types of support.

B Time to provide support is built into a supervisor or line manager’s job

B Work reallocation is possible to reduce demands on staff members while support is provided

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Training

10. Supervisors receive training in providing support

B Basic counselling skills B Coaching skills B Awareness of other forms of

support available in organisation (e.g. Occupational Health Service, Welfare Department, Human Resource Department, Employee Assistance Programme)

69 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.7 PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which performance feedback can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, both performance feedback and performance feedback problems will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK?

Performance feedback is information staff receive on their performance. Such information can come in many different forms ranging from formal appraisals, productivity figures, and informal day-to-day comments from colleagues, line managers, customers and clients. Such feedback may concern any aspect of performance such as speed, accuracy, quality and effectiveness. It may also reflect performance on a single task or part of a task or relate more broadly to a range of performance indicators.

Effective performance feedback has a number of qualities including: timeliness; accuracy; fact rather then opinion based; perceived fairness; based around something that can be changed. Effective feedback is likely to help with motivation, skill development, and lead to increased well­being.

2. THE WAYS IN WHICH PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

As indicated, performance feedback happens in many ways and can be about a number of aspects of performance. While, in general, performance feedback if done effectively can be beneficial, it can also be harmful in a number of different ways. Exactly how this happens depends on the person, their line manager or source of feedback, and the nature of the job itself. However, there are some general processes such as:

B Receiving negative feedback on performance but feeling that such feedback is based on an unfair or inaccurate perception is likely to lead to anger or feeling let down

B Receiving feedback that is confusing or ambiguous can lead to concern or anxiety about what is expected

B Working very hard on a task and receiving no feedback can be disappointing and depressing

B Being given more negative or different feedback than that given to co-workers who perform at the same level can lead to feelings of injustice or anger

B Output or performance indicators may not be available or be delayed which could lead to frustration

Performance feedback problems are varied and the effects of ineffective feedback can also vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around performance feedback and what particular problems, if any, it is causing or may cause staff.

70 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm inadequate performance feedback may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organization as a whole.

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell performance feedback is causing problems or may do so at some future point? If the following kinds of issues occur, it is possible performance feedback is a problem:

B Being unclear about what is expected of them B Feeling they are being treated unfairly around their performance B Making the same kinds of errors or mistakes and not learning from them B Low levels of performance B Staff not feeling it’s worth putting in the effort B Limited improvement in skill levels B The efficiency of work processes showing little improvement

Performance feedback may become a problem in the future if: B New staff unfamiliar with the role and job tasks are being recruited who may require more

or different forms of feedback B There are to be changes to the way work is organised through job resign or technology,

which means feedback requirements are likely to change B The relationship between pay and reward and performance is going to change (e.g., the

introduction of bonus schemes)

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

The table on the next page is intended to help organisations who wish to prevent Performance Feedback causing stress, now or in the future.

This table contains practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve performance feedback problems.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the table are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organizational level. Those lower down the table are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing performance feedback problems.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by performance feedback.

First examine Column 1, which describes various “states” which, if present, are likely to prevent Performance Feedback causing stress. Consider the extent to which and how each state accurately describes the current situation in your organisation*, and record in Column 2. Where a gap exists between Column 1 and 2, consider what can be done to ensure the gap is closed.

71 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 3 includes some practical examples of actions which could help to bridge any gap between the desired state and the current state. Please note this is not an exhaustive list and you should carefully consider what is most appropriate for your particular circumstances, taking into account employees views and opinions.

Finally, in Column 4, record your next steps to prevent Performance Feedback causing stress.

72 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing performance feedback problems

1. There are formal mechanisms in place for assessing performance and giving feedback at all levels. Such mechanisms should be based around principles of effective feedback which include making feedback regular, basing it on data, making it a two-way discussion, linking it to longer term goals and objectives.

B Range of organisational, team and individual performance measures

B Balanced score card B Performance management and

appraisal system B Regular team and individual

constructive 2-way discussion of performance against short and longer term objectives

Job design and recruitment mechanisms 2. Jobs are designed such that as much feedback as possible is available from the job itself

B Clear goals and objectives for each job and task

B Performance standards for jobs and tasks against which individuals can measure their performance

B Equipment and machinery provides accurate and timely feedback on job performance

4. Job specifications for particular posts describe clearly the nature of the performance that will be required, the nature of feedback that can be expected (ie What kinds of feedback? From whom? When?), and how such feedback will be used.

B Performance standards for the job

B Frequency and nature of performance appraisals

B Extent of unsupervised work B Reporting relationships B Performance-related rewards B Disciplinary procedure B Opportunities for promotion and

development

73 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Roles, responsibilities and mechanisms for managing performance feedback for staff and their line managers

4. Recruitment and promotion processes include realistic job previews about the nature and level of performance required and the performance feedback that will be received.

B Realistic exercises used to assess candidates

B Candidates meet current job­holders and visit workplace

5. Line managers are required to monitor the performance of their staff according to an explicit set of criteria.

B Ongoing collation and analysis of team and individual performance data

6. There are mechanisms through which line managers give performance feedback to staff. These mechanisms should be based on the principles of effective feedback.

B Team meetings/away days B Performance appraisals B Informal discussion B End of project review B Review of business plan B Salary review/bonuses/prizes B Displaying performance data B Thanks and encouragement

7. There are formal mechanisms through which staff can raise concerns about the nature of the performance feedback they receive.

B Grievance procedure

Training 8. Line managers are trained in monitoring and assessing performance and in giving performance feedback.

B Appraisal and performance management training

B Inter-personal skills training B Training in business planning

and objective setting

74 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

9. Staff are given training in how to receive and respond to performance feedback.

B B B B

Appraisee training Inter-personal skills training Assertiveness training Negotiation skills training

75 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.8 ROLE AMBIGUITY

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING ROLE AMBIGUITY PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which role ambiguity can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, role ambiguity will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS ROLE AMBIGUITY?

Role ambiguity occurs when staff are in some way unsure about precisely what their job involves and what their responsibilities are. For example, staff may not be sure about precisely what they are expected to do, when they are supposed to do it, who is responsible for overseeing their work, or what the responsibilities of their co-workers are.

Many jobs have a degree of role ambiguity as part of doing a job may involve working out and defining exactly what the job involves and negotiating this with other people. However, the amount of role ambiguity can become excessive and pose problems for staff.

While line managers may believe that a particular role or job is clearly defined the job holder may not understand precisely what is required of them. Likewise, even a clear job description does not in itself guarantee the job holder has a full understanding of what their role requires.

2. THE WAYS IN WHICH ROLE AMBIGUITY CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

Role ambiguity can be harmful in a number of ways. Exactly how this happens depends a lot onthe organization. However, there are some general processes such as:B Not being sure about exactly what is expected of one can cause anxiety as one may be

fearful about making a mistake or doing something wrong B Not being sure about what one’s responsibilities are may mean spending a lot of time on

tasks that one later learns should be done by someone else which can lead to frustration B Under conditions of role ambiguity, people may assume that others have certain

responsibilities which in fact they do not which could lead to confusion about who to ask for help, or lead to no-one doing critical tasks

B If people are unsure about what to do they may spend a lot of extra time and effort trying to work out what they should be doing rather than actually doing it which could lead to extra work, fatigue and frustration

B If one’s role is not clear, it is very difficult to plan and schedule workload leading to frustration

Role ambiguity is not a single problem, and the effects of role ambiguity may vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around role ambiguity and what particular problems, if any, it is causing or may cause staff.

76 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm role ambiguity may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organization as a whole.

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell if role ambiguity is excessive or may become so at some future point? If staff repeatedly report the following kinds of problems, it is possible that role ambiguity is excessive: B Finding it hard to plan B Not being clear about deliverables and timing B Uncertainty about precisely what their job involves B Often having to ask for guidance and clarification

Role ambiguity may become a problem in the future if: B There are plans to restructure or reorganise the ways in which work is carried out B There are plans to introduce completely new areas of responsibility and work activities B There are plans to re-grade roles or positions or remove or add layers in the hierarchy B Some tasks currently undertaken by staff in the organization are likely to be out-sourced or

moved to other departments or sections B A significant number of new staff are to be recruited

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

These are some of the practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve problems of excessive role ambiguity causing stress.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the list are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organizational level. Those lower down the list are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing role ambiguity problems and concerns.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by excessive role ambiguity.

The following list of practical steps can be used in a number of ways. However, probably the best initial approach is to consider the extent to which and how each item in the list accurately describes the current situation in your organization. Where it does not accurately describe the current state of affairs you may wish to consider what could be done in order to ensure such practices are in place.

77 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing role ambiguity

1. There are mechanisms through which senior management acknowledge and respond to role ambiguity problems reported by line managers.

B Human resource strategy meetings B Organisation design reviews

2. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impact of internal organisational change or change to the external environment on the levels of role ambiguity.

B Human resource strategy input to business strategy decisions

3. The organisation is designed such that there are clear reporting relationships and structures.

B Organigrams provided to job holders B Organisation design according to

current needs and objectives B Organisation’s mission statement

translates into departmental goal-setting 4. Jobs are designed such that as much information about what the role or job requires is provided.

B Descriptive job titles B Jobs designed according to

departmental/team strategy and action plan

B Explicit links are made between job objectives and team/departmental goals

B Team/staff effectiveness monitored through goal-setting

B Handover period for new recruits B Reporting relationships identified in job

specifications

78 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing role ambiguity

5. Recruitment and promotion processes include realistic information about the levels of role ambiguity that can reasonably be expected

B Realistic job previews B Job specifications include: main roles

and responsibilities; reporting relationships; minimum training requirements; standards of performance; level of autonomy; amount of supervision; support available

6. There are mechanisms through which staff can report role ambiguity problems to line mangers.

B Weekly briefing meetings B Regular team workload meetings B Staff surveys B Performance appraisal

7. Line managers are required to monitor the role ambiguity concerns of those they manage.

B Staff goal-setting is line management responsibility

B Action plan for target achievement and regular review is line management responsibility

8. Formal mechanisms exist through which supervisors and line manager can report role ambiguity problems to more senior management.

B Line management input to human resources planning process

B Line management input to organisational re-structuring

79 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

9. Supervisors and line managers give clear and unambiguous information to those they manage about what is required in the role, job or specific task.

B

B

B

B

B

B

Clear display of team/department targets and objectives Team workload meetings to agree action plan for target achievement Team progress monitored and information displayed publicly Specific standards of performance set for jobs and individual tasks Individual personal and professional development plans Training for line managers in: eg effective communication, goal-setting and delegation

80 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.9 SKILL UNDERUTILISATION

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING SKILL UNDERUTILIZATION PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which skill underutilization can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, skill underutilization will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS SKILL UNDERUTILIZATION?

Skill underutilization occurs when staff perceive that they are not given sufficient opportunities in their jobs to exercise or make use of their skills, knowledge and abilities. For example, staff may be highly trained or experienced in dealing with complex tasks but most of the time the job only requires them to deal with relatively simple routine tasks.

2. THE WAYS IN WHICH SKILL UNDERUTILIZATION CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

Skill underutilization can be harmful in a number of ways. Exactly how this happens depends a lot onthe organization. However, there are some general processes such as: B If staff feel they have a certainly level of competence yet are constantly being asked to do

things that are well below this level of competence they may feel frustrated and bored. B People may be concerned that they are not being sufficiently developed or ‘stretched’ to build

upon their existing skills B Staff may be worried that if skills and the knowledge they already have are not used on a

regular basis these skills and the knowledge may become out of date or deteriorate

Skill underutilization is not a single problem, and the effects of skill underutilization may vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around skill underutilization and what particular problems, if any, it is causing or may cause staff.

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm skill underutilization may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organization as a whole.

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell if skill underutilization is excessive or may become so at some future point? If staff repeatedly report the following kinds of problems, it is possible that skill underutilization is excessive: B Feeling bored or frustrated B Wanting to take on different roles or more challenging kinds of work B Not feeling they are developing their skills and knowledge

81 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Skill underutilization may become a problem in the future if: B There are plans to restructure or reorganise the ways in which work is carried out which may

result in a reduction in the levels of skills required

Some tasks currently undertaken by staff in the organization are likely to be out-sourced or moved to other departments or sections which may result in a reduction in the levels of skills required

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

These are some of the practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve problems where skill underutilization is causing stress.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the list are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organizational level. Those lower down the list are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing skill underutilization problems and concerns.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by skill underutilization.

The following list of practical steps can be used in a number of ways. However, probably the best initial approach is to consider the extent to which and how each item in the list accurately describes the current situation in your organization. Where it does not accurately describe the current state of affairs you may wish to consider what could be done in order to ensure such practices are in place.

82 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing skill underutilization

1. There are mechanisms through which senior management acknowledge and respond to skill underutilization problems reported by line managers.

B Training and development budget

B Organisational human resource and training and development strategy reviews

B Human Resource manager position whose responsibilities include monitoring of staff training and development delivery

2. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impact of organisational changes on the levels of skill underutilization.

B Human Resource management input to business strategy decisions

B Line management input to organisational restructuring

3. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impacts of outsourcing on the levels of skill underutilization.

B Outsourcing decisions reached only after internal human resources review

B Human Resource planning input to outsourcing decisions

4. There are policies that incorporate views about the levels of skill underutilization required across the organisation.

B Human resource policy B Training and development

policy B Policies available about:

recruitment according to skill levels required for all jobs; flexibility of tasks within teams

B Policies explained during introduction

83 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps?

Job design and recruitment 5. Jobs are designed such that the skills of staff are sufficiently utilised.

B Support, encouragement and incentives for personal and professional development

B Avoidance of technology which ‘de­skills’ the job to such an extent that it is de-satisfying to the job holders

B Flexible job specification according to holder’s skills

B Autonomous/self-managed teams B Task sharing within teams B Multi-skilling opportunities available B Regular performance reviews focused

on development B Individual training and development

targets B Opportunities for job rotation available

6. There is clarity over the potential pitfalls of the recruitment of over­qualified staff

B Selection decisions are based on ‘best fit’ between applicant’s skills and the skills required by:

B Job analysis used to identify the nature and level of skills required for the position to be filled

B Selection techniques appropriate for assessment of relevant skills are used

B Objective techniques used to compare each candidate against skills require for the job, and choose the candidate with the most appropriate skills

84 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Job design and recruitment

7. Recruitment and promotion processes make clear the level and nature of the skill required in the role.

B Job specification includes clear description of the skills required by job incumbent and standard of performance expected

B Full job specification is available to all applicants

B Realistic job previews available 8. Promotion and recruitment processes are used to move staff to roles which are more appropriate to their level of skill.

B Succession planning B Advertising of vacant posts with

clear description of skills required

B Internal recruitment/promotion is prioritised

B Promotion and development opportunities are targeted at people with relevant skills

B HR intranet resource used to publicise courses, training, vacancies across the organisation

B Records of staff skills and knowledge are kept by HR and regularly updated

9. There are mechanisms through which staff can report skill underutilization problems to line managers.

B Weekly briefing meetings B Performance reviews, which

include use of skill and expertise

B Team/department workload allocation meetings

B Staff training and development suggestions collated

85 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

10. Line managers are required to monitor the skill underutilization concerns of those they manage.

B Responsibility for training and development is specified in the line manager’s job specification

B Line manager’s appraisal includes assessment of their effectiveness in training and development of their staff

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Job design and recruitment

11. Formal mechanisms exist through which supervisors and line managers can report skill underutilization problems to more senior management.

B Line manager input to human resource planning process

12. Supervisors and line managers are able to re-allocate or change the work tasks of those they manage so that their skills are sufficiently utilised.

B Flexible allocation of tasks within teams/departments at line manager’s discretion

B Re-distribution of tasks within teams/departments, at line managers discretion

B Flexible team formation on basis of matching analysis of skills needed to skills available

86 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.10 TEAM-WORKING

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING TEAM-WORKING PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which team-working can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, both team-working and team-working problems will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS TEAM-WORKING?

Team-working involves a group of employees who are in some ways dependent on each other in order to complete group and individual tasks. In other words, if tasks within a group are done largely individually with little dependence on others in the group to complete these tasks, then individuals within that group are not really engaged in team-working.

2. HOW CAN TEAM-WORKING PROBLEMS CAUSE STRESS?

Team-working may be beneficial for both individuals within a team and for the organization as a whole. On the other hand, team-working can involve demands and cause problems which in turn may haveimplications for stress.

There are many ways in which team-working can cause problems for individuals within the team. Many ofthe problems that can arise are specifically because of the interdependence of team members. Havingto depend on others in order to do your own work (or part of a larger task) and likewise having othersdepend on you creates much higher demands for clarity, communication, co-ordination, and planning.Team-working may require higher levels of effort and skill than other kinds of work.

Team-working can therefore be harmful in a number of ways which depend a lot on the type of team, task and organization. However, examples of some general processes are:B The work of the team is not co-ordinated so that members are not always doing the right things at

the right time which can lead to frustration and anger B Team members are unclear about their own role or the roles of others which can lead to worry and

anxiety about what tasks should be undertaken, when and by whom B The composition of the team is such that no member is willing or able to undertake particular tasks

or roles which are vital to the successful functioning of the whole team which can lead to feelings of frustration

B Teams are unable to meet the goals set for them which may cause team members to feel ineffective and depressed

B Conflict between some team members leads to irritation for the whole team

Team-working is not a single problem, and the effects of team-working may vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around team-working and what particular problems, if any, it is causing or may cause staff.

87 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm team-working may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organization as a whole.

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell if team-working is excessive or may become so at some future point? If staff repeatedly report the following kinds of problems, it is possible that there are team-working problems causing stress: B Staff report conflicts with others in their team, or between teams B Teams are consistently failing to meet their targets B Team members report serious communication or coordination problems within their team, or

between teams

Team-working problems may become apparent in the future if: B There are plans to redesign or restructure the organization which will increase the number or

teams or change the types of teams B There will be changes in technology which are likely to affect the number or type of teams within

the organization

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

These are some of the practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve team­working problems causing stress.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the list are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organizational level. Those lower down the list are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing team-working problems.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by team-working.

The following list of practical steps can be used in a number of ways. However, probably the best initial approach is to consider the extent to which and how each item in the list accurately describes the current situation in your organization. Where it does not accurately describe the current state of affairs you may wish to consider what could be done in order to ensure such practices are in place.

88 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing team-working problems

1. There are mechanisms through which senior management acknowledge and respond to team­working problems reported by line managers.

B Regular reviews of team­working effectiveness

B Reviews of effectiveness of current working practices

2. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impact of internal organisational change or change to the external environment on the extent and nature of team­working.

B Business strategy planning B Employee consultation on

proposed changes in team­working

B Human resource input to business strategy planning

3. There are mechanisms for considering the levels and nature of support which the organisation needs to provide in order for team­working to be effective.

B Strategy implementation committee

B Assessment of minimum team training needs, technical and team skills

B Assessment of time-scale for training delivery

B Minimum manning requirement for team

89 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing team-working problems

4. Consideration is given as to whether or not team-working is the most appropriate way of organising work for that area of activity.

B Risk assessment for introduction of team-working

B Organisational design working group B Employee representation on team­

working steering group B Pilot team-working intervention and

evaluation B Clarification of strategic intent behind

team-working B Action plan for team-working

implementation with specific targets for individual phases

B Regular review of team-working implementation target achievement

B Analysis of training needs and realistic time-scale for delivery

B Resource available for collating learning from other sites/ businesses/ pilot project

90 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Job design and recruitment

5. The different jobs and roles within a team are designed so that the team as a whole can function effectively.

B Long term team strategy B Action plan for achievement of

team objectives B Clear performance criteria for

team as a whole B Jobs/tasks designed in

accordance to team strategy B Performance targets for each

team role, clearly linked to team targets

B Performance standards for each team role

B Jobs/tasks allocated through process of matching available resources to resource requirements

B Interdependent roles for team members

B Clear, flexible and broad job descriptions

B Clear articulation of training needs

B Regular feedback systems B Clear distinctions between areas

of individual and team responsibility

B Participative decision-making maximised

B Clear network of support internal and external to the team

91 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing team-working problems

6. Recruitment and promotion processes include realistic information about the nature of the teamwork demands that are likely to be involved in the role.

B Realistic job previews B Assessment of team-working

skills during recruitment (eg questionnaire, interview, group task) according to future role requirement

B Specified requirement in adverts

B Clear job specification available including: team targets, individual role targets, performance standard, examples of previous workload

7. There are mechanisms through which staff can report team­working problems to line managers.

B Weekly briefing meetings B Regular team effectiveness

meetings B 360º appraisal for team

members B Team surveys B Team performance reviews

8. Line managers are required to monitor the team-working problems of those they manage.

B Regular contact with team members, formal and informal

B Line manager’s appraisal to include team effectiveness review

B Compulsory team leader training for line managers

92 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

9. Formal mechanisms exist through which supervisors and line managers can report team-working problems to more senior management.

B

B

B

Regular team effectiveness reviews Line manager input to team­working strategy Line manager input to resource planning

93 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Roles, responsibilities and mechanisms for managing team-working problems for team members and their line managers and team

leaders 10. There are mechanisms through which team members can report team-working problems to line managers and team leaders.

B Regular team meetings B Informal 1:1 discussion

11. There are mechanisms through which the team as a whole can work on and resolve team­working problems.

B Regular team meetings B Team away-days B External team coaches B Regular collation of staff

suggestions for improvement 12. There are mechanisms through which the team as a whole can review and change the team’s goals and team member’s roles.

B Regular resource planning meetings to address potential mismatch between resource requirements and resources available

B Team strategy meetings B Team training budget

13. Team members receive training in how to work effectively in the specific type of team they will be working in.

B Identification of team training needs, to include both technical and team skills

B Provision of technical and team skills training

B Regular review of team training needs delivery

94 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Training

14. Team leaders receive training in working effectively in that role.

B Team leader competency profile developed and used to assess training and development needs

B Minimum training requirements described in job specification

B Training provided in eg team­management; performance feedback; effective communication; delegation; team-building; negotiation skills; conflict handling; people development; self-awareness etc

15. The team as a whole receives training in working together as a team particularly around issues concerned with communication and coordination. Such training should be focused specifically on the tasks and context of that particular team.

B Task analysis used to identify training needs

B Team training days/events B Group training exercises in eg:

problem-solving; effective communication; negotiation; team-building; goal-setting etc

95 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.11 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which tools and equipment can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, tools and equipment will be defined and described.

1. WHAT ARE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT?

Tools and equipment in this context refer to the tools and equipment staff need to do their job effectively. This may range from tools which are used in physical work to computers and communication equipment use for other kinds of tasks. While having tools and equipment is vital, it is also important that they are the right type for the job and are reliable.

2. THE WAYS IN WHICH TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

Tools and equipment can be harmful in a number of ways. Exactly how this happens depends a lot on the organization. However, there are some general processes such as: B If staff have the wrong kinds of tools and equipment tasks may take longer and

cause frustration and fatigue. B Unreliable tools and equipment mean that staff will not be able to be as effective

in completing their tasks, and may feel that tools are getting in the way of them doing their job rather than helping them do their job leading to irritation and annoyance.

B In work that is potentially dangerous, unreliable and inappropriate tools and equipment may make staff concerned about the increased likelihood of having an injury or accident leading to anxiety.

Tools and equipment can cause a wide range of different kinds of problems, and the effects of tools and equipment may vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around tools and equipment and what particular problems, if any, they are causing or may cause staff.

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm tools and equipment may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organization as a whole.

96 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell whether problems with tools and equipment are harmful, or may become so at some future point? If staff repeatedly report the following kinds of problems, it is possible that there are problems with tools and equipment: B Not having the right tools for the job B Being frustrated by ineffective or unreliable tools B Not being able to get on with the job effectively because of the limitations of tools

and equipment

Tools and equipment may become a problem in the future if:B There are plans to introduce new products or services that may require new or

different tools and equipment. B There are plans to change the ways in which work is undertaken which is likely to

require new or different tools and equipment. Increases in future demand are anticipated that require higher levels of effectiveness which in turn depends on having new or different tools and equipment.

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

These are some of the practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve stress problems caused by inadequate tools and equipment.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the list are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organizational level. Those lower down the list are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing problems and concerns caused by tools and equipment.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by tools and equipment.

The following list of practical steps can be used in a number of ways. However, probably the best initial approach is to consider the extent to which and how each item in the list accurately describes the current situation in your organisation. Where it does not accurately describe the current state of affairs you may wish to consider what could be done in order to ensure such practices are in place.

97 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing tools and equipment problems

1. There are mechanisms through which senior management acknowledge and respond to tools and equipment problems reported by line managers.

B Regular senior management review of tools and equipment availability, reliability and suitability for purpose

B Adequate budget for tools and equipment purchase, repair and replacement

2. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impacts of changes in work on the tools and equipment that will be required.

B Business strategy process B Maintenance strategy process B Employee involvement in

considering impact of changes to working practices on tools and equipment required

3. There are policies that incorporate views about commitment to the levels and quality of tools and equipment provided throughout the organisation.

B Quality policies and standards B Health and safety policy B Maintenance policy B Tools and equipment procedure

policy

4. Jobs are designed with due regard to the tools and equipment which will be required.

B Technical and ergonomic assessment of tools and equipment required for the job

B Regular updating of tools and equipment, to take advantage of new technology which becomes available

98 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

5. The implications of any changes in job design for the use of tools and equipment are considered (and vice versa)

B Technical and ergonomic assessment of what impact of changes in job design upon tools and equipment required (and vice versa), taking into account new technology which becomes available

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Roles, responsibilities and mechanisms for managing tools and equipment for staff and line managers

6. There are mechanisms through which staff can report tools and equipment problems to line managers.

B Regular briefing meetings, which allow for two-way communication of tools and equipment problems

B Informal communication with line manager

B Designated member of staff responsible for monitoring performance of tools and equipment and addressing problems encountered

B Tools and equipment helpdesk B Prompt repair/replacement of

defective tools and equipment

99 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

7. Line managers are required to monitor the tools and equipment concerns of those they manage.

B

B

B

B

Line management monitoring of key performance indicators relevant to tools and equipment (eg reliability, availability, maintenance backlog etc) Service-level agreements concerning performance of tools and equipment Regular employee opinion surveys, which incorporates questions on tools and equipment Consultation with users of tools and equipment and customers of service produced using tools and equipment

8. Formal mechanisms exist through which supervisors and line managers can report tools and equipment problems to more senior management..

B B B

Maintenance database Service-level agreement Operational planning meetings

100 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.12 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which training and development can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, both training and development and training and development problems will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT?

Training and development refers to any activity which helps employees develop the skills and knowledge they need to perform their job effectively and safely. Training and development encompasses a wide range of activities from formal off-the-job training courses to informal day-to-day on-the-job interactions, such as receiving advice from a colleague, which develop employee skills and knowledge.

Effective training and development is based around assessing the training needs of employees, given the tasks and roles they are expected to undertake, and providing opportunities for learning which will effectively meet these training needs. Effective training and development is likely to help with motivation, performance, and lead to increased well-being.

2. THE WAYS IN WHICH TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

As indicated above, training and development happens in many ways and although, if done well, can be very beneficial, can also be harmful in a wide variety of ways. Exactly how this happens depends on the person, the context, and the nature of the job itself. However, there are some general processes such as:

B Not having the necessary knowledge to complete a task can lead to frustration B Not knowing how to respond to a problem because of a lack of adequate briefing can lead

to uncertainty and anxiety B Having an insufficient level of skill to do the job effectively can be disappointing and

depressing B Making errors and taking an long time to complete tasks because of a lack of knowledge

can lead to tiredness and frustration

Training and development problems are varied and the effects of inadequate training and development can also vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around training and development and what particular problems, if any, they are causing or may cause staff.

101 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm inadequate training and development may cause individual employees; such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance, which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organization as a whole.

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell training and development is causing problems or may do so at some future point? If the following kinds of issues occur, it is possible training and development is a problem:

B High level of errors B Poor quality work B Tasks taking longer than they should B Time on task reduced because of need to explain every detail to employees B Employees feeling they are not progressing or learning new things

Training and development may become a problem in the future if: B New staff unfamiliar with the role and job tasks are being recruited who may require more

or different forms of training and development B There are to be changes to the way work is organised through job design or technology

which will require different skills and knowledge B There are likely to be a substantial number of promotions or reallocations of staff who may

be taking on work with which they are unfamiliar

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

The table on the next page is intended to help organisations who wish to prevent Training and Development causing stress, now or in the future.

The table contains practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve training and development problems.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the table are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organizational level. Those lower down the table are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing training and development problems.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by training and development.

First examine Column 1, which describes various “states” which, if present, are likely to prevent Training and Development causing stress. Consider the extent to which and how each state accurately describes the current situation in your organisation*, and record in Column 2. Where a gap exists between Column 1 and 2, consider what can be done to ensure the gap is closed.

102 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 3 includes some practical examples of actions which could help to bridge any gap between the desired state and the current state. Please note this is not an exhaustive list and you should carefully consider what is most appropriate for your particular circumstances, taking into account employees views and opinions.

Finally, in Column 4, record your next steps to prevent Training and Development causing stress.

103 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing training and development problems

1. There are mechanisms in place B Dedicated training and for assessing the training and development co-ordinator development needs and training B Adequate training and and development delivery within development budget, reviewed the organisation as a whole and regularly the relevant allocation of resources B Achievement of Investors in in order to meet those needs. People standard, and regular

re-assessment (see www.investorsinpeople.co.uk)

B Top­level analysis of current and future training and development needs

B Plan of how and when training and development will be delivered

B Training and development discussed at senior management meetings

B Review of whether planned training and development is actually delivered timeously

2. There are clear policies about B Training and development training and development that are policy, accessible to all understood by employees at all employees levels. B Policy explained during staff

induction process

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Job design and recruitment

104 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

3. Jobs are designed such that there are opportunities for learning and skill development within the job itself.

B

B

B

Opportunities exist to participate in projects and activities which broaden skills and knowledge and maximise use of existing skills and knowledge Staff rotate the tasks they perform A specified number of days are set aside annually for training and development

4. Job specification and job designs for particular posts specify the nature and level of knowledge and skills which will be required.

B

B

Job specifications exist, and are updated regularly, as jobs change A job analysis is performed to specify the nature and level of skill and knowledge necessary for jobs and updated

5. Recruitment and promotion processes include realistic job previews which allow for an assessment of the additional training needs candidates may require.

B

B

Realistic job previews are conducted During recruitment or promotion, additional training and development needs of candidates are identified

105 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Roles, responsibilities and mechanisms for managing training and development problems for line managers

6. Line managers have an awareness of the training and development needs of their staff and the training and development opportunities available.

B Managers have targets for conducting regular performance appraisals with staff, which include identification of training and development needs

B Accessible and comprehensive source of information about company training and development opportunities available (eg brochure, intranet site, training and development co-ordinator etc)

B Briefings provided for line managers on training and development opportunities

B Line managers re-assess training and development needs when allocating staff to new tasks or roles, and ensure training and development is delivered

7. Line managers are actively involved in the training and development of staff.

B Inclusion of staff development in core management competencies and job descriptions

B Line managers deliver some training and development activities

B Local training and development budgets exist, managed by line managers

106 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Training

9. Line managers are trained in B Appraisal training assessing the training and B Performance management development needs of staff and training the steps which can be taken to meet those needs.

B Coaching and mentoring training

B Train the trainer 10. Staff receive information and B Information explained during training about the training and induction process development opportunities which B Training and development are available and how these may updates provided to staff (eg be used. newsletter articles, posters,

team briefings) B Personal and career

development courses provided for staff

B User-friendly means of getting training and development information and booking onto courses provided

8. Line managers facilitate and B Training and development encourage learning to take place activities and needs discussed at between the co-workers they regular team meetings manage. B Informal opportunities to share

skills and learning sought and used

107 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.13 WORK-LIFE BALANCE

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING WORK-LIFE BALANCE PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which workload can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, both work-life balance and work-life balance problems will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS WORK-LIFE BALANCE?

Work-life balance refers to a perception that one is allocating the preferred levels of time and effort to work activities and to activities and roles outside work. In other words, one perceives that there is some sort of balance between the effort being expended in work and outside work.

Work-life balance causes problems when people perceive some form of imbalance such that the effort being expended either in work or outside work is greater or lesser than they would wish. While is certainly is possible that people feel that they are spending too much time on activities outside work this standard is concerned with those situations in which staff feel that the imbalance is such that they should be spending more time on activities outside work.

2. HOW DOES WORK-LIFE BALANCE PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF?

There are many different types of work-life balance problems and often these problems are not caused directly as consequence of failing to spend sufficient time on tasks and activities outside work.

Work-life balance problems can become excessive and therefore harmful in a number of ways. Exactly how this happens depends a lot on the organization. However, there are some general processes such as: B Feeling that excessive work demands means one cannot deal with responsibilities outside work

could lead to resentment and anger B Being very concerned about tasks and responsibilities outside work while at work may lead to

feeling distracted and anxious while actually at work and also would increase the chances of mistakes or accidents

B Having to work very hard to manage responsibilities outside work because there is little time to deal with them may result in tiredness while at work

Work-life balance problems are not a single problem, and the effects of such problems may vary a great deal. It is important therefore to be aware of what the specific issues are around work-life balance and what particular problems, if any, it is causing or may cause staff.

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm work-life balance may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organizational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organization as a whole.

108 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

3. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell if work-life balance is excessive or may become so at some future point? If the following kinds of problems are observed or reported by staff, it is possible that work-life balance problems are excessive: B Difficulty in recruiting or retaining staff, as working patterns are perceived as inflexible

or unattractive B Problems with making domestic arrangements B Lateness B Short absences B Tiredness at work caused by demands outside work B Staff having to use work time to deal with non-work problems B Relationship and family problems

Work-life balance may become a problem in the future if: B There are a significant number of staff whose life circumstances are likely to become more

demanding (e.g., increased travel time, greater domestic responsibilities) B There are likely to be increasing demands for staff to work overtime or work beyond contracted

hours

4. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

The table on the next page is intended to help organisations who wish to prevent work-life balance causing stress, now or in the future.

The table contains practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve workload problems.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the table are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organizational level. Those lower down the table are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing work-life balance problems.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by work-life balance.

First examine Column 1, which describes various “states” which, if present, are likely to prevent work­life balance causing stress. Consider the extent to which and how each state accurately describes the current situation in your organisation*, and record in Column 2. Where a gap exists between Column 1 and 2, consider what can be done to ensure the gap is closed.

Column 3 includes some practical examples of actions which could help to bridge any gap between the desired state and the current state. Please note this is not an exhaustive list and you should carefully consider what is most appropriate for your particular circumstances, taking into account employees views and opinions.

Finally, in Column 4, record your next steps to prevent work-life balance causing stress.

The following websites contain examples and good practice: www.employersforwork-lifebalance.org.uk; www.dti.gov.uk/work-lifebalance

109 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing work-life balance

1. There are formal mechanisms through which senior management can assess and respond to work­life balance problems.

B Survey of employee opinion about work-life balance and working patterns

B Work-life balance linked to business strategy and plan

B Work-life strategy working group B Inclusion of work-life balance

question in annual employee survey and exit interviews

2. There are clear policies about what work­l ife balance means in terms of specific behaviours. Senior management also adheres to and is seen to adhere to these policies and these specific behaviours.

B Policies on ♦ Flexible working ♦ Extended leave entitlement (eg

parental leave, career breaks) ♦ Dependent care support ♦ Employee assistance

programme B Defined maximum working hours,

which include overtime working B Agreed, published procedure to be

used by employees to request flexible working options

110 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

3. There are formal mechanisms for considering the relative flexibility of working patterns in terms of both time patterns and location and the extent to which these are meeting the needs of staff.

B The facility for employees to choose ♦ How much time they spend of

work (eg full and part time working, job-share, term time working, overtime)

♦ When they work (eg flexi-time, compressed hours, annualised hours, shifts, shift-swapping, extra hours, self-rostering)

♦ Where they work (eg on the employers’ premises or home)

♦ To take a break from work (short or long period, unpaid leave, sabbatical, study leave)

♦ From a range of employer benefits (eg childcare, health and fitness facilities etc)

4. Jobs are designed so as to be as flexible as possible in terms of when and where staff can choose to do their work.

B

B B B

B

Use of communications technology to enable work from home, whilst travelling etc Teleworking Homeworking Employer flexibility about where work is done Financial support for home work stations

5. Job specifications for particular posts make clear the nature of the demands of the job in relation to work-life balance. These state when and where tasks need to be undertaken and the extent to which there is flexibility.

B

B B

B

Hours and location of work in typical working week Amount of travel involved Typical extent of overtime on rest day working Annual holiday entitlement

111 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

6. Recruitment and promotion processes include realistic job previews about the ways in which the job may have implications for work-life balance.

B

B

Opportunity to speak to current job­holder “A week in the life of…” article

112 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Roles, responsibilities and mechanisms for managing work-life balance for staff and line managers 7. There are formal mechanisms through which staff can report work-life balance problems to line mangers or other sources of support and advice.

B Regular appraisals by line manager

B Grievance procedure B Confidential discussion with

Occupational Health or welfare professional

B Employee assistance programme

8. Line managers have scope to respond to staff demands for the short-term rescheduling or readjusting of work patterns.

B Authority delegated to line managers to exercise discretion in changing patterns of work

B Local scheduling of work patterns

113 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

16.14 WORKLOAD

MANAGEMENT STANDARDS FOR PREVENTING AND RESOLVING WORKLOAD PROBLEMS CAUSING STRESS

The purposes of these management standards are to outline: B The ways in which workload can produce problems for staff* B How to identify if such problems exist now or may do so in the future B Management practices that may prevent or resolve these problems

Before these are outlined, both workload and excessive workload will be defined and described.

1. WHAT IS WORKLOAD?

Workload generally means the amount of work people have to or are expected to complete. However workload is not just about the sheer amount of work it may also mean:

B How difficult the work is – difficulty is influenced by many factors including the skill level of staff. For example, how complex or difficult do staff find the work?

B How much the amount of workload varies (i.e. busy and quiet periods). For example, are there are there large fluctuations in work demands?

B The extent to which staff have control over their workload and the way they choose to carry out their work. For example, are staff given the discretion to organise tasks in the way they see fit?

B The novelty of the work to those staff carrying it out. For example, how familiar are staff with the tasks they are being asked to do?

B The length of time for which staff work at an intense rate without breaks. For example, do staff work hard for long periods with few or no breaks or longer rest periods?

Also, the nature of workload varies from job to job and it is worth being aware of the special features of the workload experienced by those people you manage. For example, some jobs may be repetitive, others may require dealing with people, and others require staff to constantly undertake new and unfamiliar tasks. Each of these features need to be considered when thinking about the kinds of steps you can take to help prevent and resolve workload problems.

2. WHAT IS EXCESSIVE WORKLOAD?

Workload can be thought of as excessive in a number of ways. If deadlines are often missed or the quality of work is not what it should be, this may indicate that workload is excessive. However, from a health and safety viewpoint, workload is excessive when it is causing, or may cause in the future some sort of harm in terms of health or well-being problems for members of staff. Such harms may not be caused directly by workload but may be caused indirectly through accidents as these are more likely occur when people are tired or working very quickly. When experiencing excessive workload, individuals may feel overwhelmed, anxious, fed-up, and become tired or irritable.

It is always difficult to say for sure when workload is excessive as it is probably usual in many jobs that people experience problems with workload from time to time. However, what we are interested in is not the normal and manageable ups and downs of workload, but rather when workload becomes or is potentially harmful.

114 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

3. THE WAYS IN WHICH WORKLOAD CAN PRODUCE PROBLEMS FOR STAFF

Workloads can become excessive and therefore harmful in a number of ways. Exactly how this happens is likely to vary from job to job. However, there are some general processes such as:

B Working very hard within normal hours can cause tiredness B Working very long hours for prolonged periods can lead to fatigue and further problems outside

work B Repeatedly trying to complete tasks that are impossible within time limits or available resources

may cause anxiety and frustration B Regularly failing to meet deadlines may lead to a sense of helplessness or depression B Not being given clear guidance about what a particular task involves can lead to frustration and

confusion B Accidents and mistakes are more likely to occur when people are tired and/or working very quickly

to meet deadlines.

While excessive workload is often in general about having ‘too much’ to do it is useful in each case to think through what ‘too much’ means and how exactly workload has become excessive so that solutions can be more focused and therefore more likely to work. The different types of workload mentioned in Section 1 above provide examples of some of the specific facets of workload that need to be considered.

In many cases, extra effort is required for a short period and then workload becomes manageable. However, if these problems are repeated frequently or experienced constantly over long periods of time, it becomes more and more likely that workload is excessive and may be harming staff in some way.

It is important to bear in mind that in addition to the problems and harm workload may cause individual employees, such problems may also cause corporate or organisational harm. If individual employees are experiencing these problems it is likely that this will impact on their performance which will in turn begin to affect the performance of the organisation as a whole.

4. HOW TO IDENTIFY IF SUCH PROBLEMS EXIST NOW OR MAY DO SO IN THE FUTURE

How can we tell if workload is excessive or may become so at some future point? If staff repeatedly report the following kinds of problems, it is possible that workload is excessive: B Fatigue and tiredness B Excessive overtime working B Working longer than contracted hours for extended periods B A sense of being overwhelmed B Constant worry about meeting deadlines B Failing to meet deadlines

Unless additional staff are recruited or existing workload is reduced, it is likely that workload may become a problem in the future if: B There will be increases in demand for existing products and services B New products and services will be provided B Staff will be spending more time on internal Organisational tasks and Organisation B Staff will leave and not be replaced immediately.

5. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY PREVENT OR RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS

115 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

The table on the next page is intended to help organisations who wish to prevent workload causing stress, now or in the future.

The table contains practical steps that can be taken that may help to or prevent or resolve workload problems.

These practical steps are ordered such that those at the top of the table are most closely connected with prevention and those actions that can be taken on an organisational level. Those lower down the table are more concerned with actions that can be taken on an individual level and are more related to resolving rather than preventing workload problems.

The term ‘mechanisms’ is used throughout when describing these management practices. However, these mechanisms do not have to be formal. The key is whether there are any processes or procedures or routine actions that are effective in helping preventing or resolving employee problems caused by workload.

First examine Column 1, which describes various “states” which, if present, are likely to prevent workload causing stress. Consider the extent to which, and how each, state accurately describes the current situation in your organisation*, and record in Column 2. Where a gap exists between Column 1 and 2, consider what can be done to ensure the gap is closed.

Column 3 includes some practical examples of actions which could help to bridge any gap between the desired state and the current state. Please note this is not an exhaustive list and you should carefully consider what is most appropriate for your particular circumstances, taking into account employees views and opinions.

Finally, in Column 4, record your next steps to prevent workload causing stress.

116 * Remember to consider all staff, including part time staff, temporary staff and contractors

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing excessive workload

1. There are mechanisms for considering the potential impact of internal organisational change or change to the external environment on the workload of the organisation. There are mechanisms for considering whether taking on additional work is necessary or desirable given the potential problems which may be caused by excessive and unmanageable workload.

B Business strategy process B Business planning and

resourcing process

2. There are mechanisms through which senior management acknowledge and respond to excessive workload problems reported by line managers. In planning new work, checks are made that the required workload can be met with the number and type of staff available.

B Regular operational planning meetings

B Manpower planning B Succession planning B Defined maximum working

hours

3. Mechanisms exist for workload or contingency planning in cases where required workload demands cannot be met by the number and type of staff available. Such planning should aim to find ways of resolving the mismatch between the workload demands and the staff available to undertake such work.

B Recruitment of additional staff on a permanent or temporary basis

B Overtime working B Introduction of shift-working B Revision of deadlines for

delivery B Cancelling or delaying

scheduled work B Declining to take on additional

work until peak workload diminishes

B Use of technological solutions to cope with workload

117

Column 1: Desired state Column 2: Current state Column 3: Practical examples Column 4: Next steps? Senior management level mechanisms for managing excessive workload

4. Mechanisms exist for workload or contingency planning in cases where the potential impact of internal organisational change or change to the external environment on the workload of the organisation is judged likely to lead to significantly increased workload. Such planning should aim to find ways of resolving the mismatch between the workload demands and the staff available to undertake such work.

B Calculation of minimum manning levels, taking into account peak workload, emergency response, and release of staff for holidays, training etc.

B Outsourcing of certain tasks to specialist providers

B Ceasing to perform certain tasks judged unnecessary

5. Workload planning takes into account the usual variations in staff numbers including sector norms for absence rates, holiday entitlements, and longer periods of absence because of illness.

B Sufficient staff to cover absences, illness etc

B Additional staff available to cover holiday periods, or workload reduced at such times

B On-call staff available to cover unplanned staff shortages

B Reallocation of workload to ensure work is shared and spread evenly between team members

118

Job design and recruitment 6. Job design takes into account the quantity and nature of workload such that jobs are designed to be do-able in reasonable comfort.

B Matching of job tasks and person (skills, knowledge, experience, physical capacity)

B Ergonomic assessment of job and tasks

7. Definition of devolved levels of authority, particularly authority to stop work due to any health and safety concerns.

B Acceptance by management that it is legitimate for staff to stop work due to health and safety concerns

8. Person specifications for particular posts take into account the quantity and nature of workload such that the particular skills, knowledge and abilities required to meet the workload are clearly specified.

B Job and competency analysis techniques used to determine key skills, knowledge and physical abilities necessary to meet workload

9. Recruitment and promotion processes include realistic job previews about the quantity and nature of workload that can be expected such that a person who is being recruited or promoted would be clear about what is required of them in terms of workload.

B Realistic job previews provided, which demonstrate workload involved

119

Roles, responsibilities and mechanisms for managing excessive workload for staff and their line managers 10. There are mechanisms through which staff can report workload problems to line managers. For example, through weekly briefing meetings, workload planning discussions and appraisals.

B Regular team meetings, during which current and future workload is discussed

B Staff appraisals B Informal discussions with staff

11. Line managers are required to monitor the workloads of the staff they supervise and have means for identifying when workloads are or may become excessive.

B Monitoring of: � Hours worked � Overtime budget � Holiday entitlement � Deadlines met � Quality measures � Customer satisfaction

12. Formal mechanisms exist through which supervisors and line managers can report excessive workload problems to more senior management.

B Input to strategy and planning discussions

13. Line managers have the scope to change of redistribute workloads.

B Line management authority to make such changes has been devolved

120

Training 14. Staff receive training in workload management.

B Training provided in: � Prioritising � Goal-setting � Planning � Time management etc

15. Line managers receive training in the use of formal mechanisms through which the staff they manage can report workload problems.

B Training in: � Conducting team

meetings � Appraisal training

16. Staff receive training in the use of formal mechanisms through which they can report workload problems to line managers.

B Appraisee training

121

17 Appendix 2: Task-based Risk Assessment Human Factors Triggers

WORKLOAD

- Inadequate planning of workload

- Inadequate resources to complete job

- Inadequate and/ or inflexible time-scheduling

- Inadequate co-ordination of team workload with other demands

- Long working hours - Lack of individual control

over workload - Conflicting tasks - Difficult, complex or

unfamiliar tasks - Constant interruptions

TEAM-WORKING

- Team members do not know each other/ have not worked together before

- Lack of clarity about each others’ roles and responsibilities

- Personal conflicts within the team

- Difficulties in co-operation within the team

- Lack of clear direction for the team

- Lack of support within the team

COMMUNICATIONS

- Lack of clarity about roles and responsibilities – individually and within the team

- Lack of sufficient information about how to do the job

- Lack of clear lines of communication between team members

- Inadequate communication/ information from other teams/ departments

- Not knowing who to ask for help or advice

- Communicating across a crew or shift change

- Lack of knowledge about changes affecting the job

TRAINING

- Lack of necessary skills or competence within team

- New working methods introduced without training

- New or inexperienced staff

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18 REFERENCES

1 HSE (2000) Securing Health Together : A long-term occupational health strategy for England, Scotland and Wales. HSE Books: Sudbury MISC 225

2 Health and Safety Commission (2001), Strategic Plan 2001-2004 www.hse.gov.uk/action/content

3 HSE (2002) Review of existing supporting scientific knowledge to underpin standards of good practice for key work-related stressors – Phase 1 RR024 – downloadable copy available at www.hse.gov.uk/research/rrhtm

4 HSE (2001) Tackling work-related stress: A manager’s guide to improving and maintaining employee health and well-being HSG 218 HSE Books: Sudbury

5 BP (undated) Occupational Stress – getting into action. Internal BP paper

6 HSE (2001) A Critical Review of Psychosocial Hazard Measures (CRR 356/2001) CRR 356/ 2001 HSE Books: Sudbury Downloadable at www.hse.gov.uk/research/crr_htm

7 Cox T et al (1993) Stress Research and Stress Management: Putting Theory to Work HSE Contract Research Report No. 61/1993 HSE Books: Sudbury

8 Step-Change in Safety (2000) Task Risk Assessment Guide Aberdeen – available via www.step.steel-sci.org

9 HSE (2000) Factoring the Human into Safety Offshore Technology Report OTO 2000/036 HSE Books: Sudbury

10 BP Amoco (undated) Incident Investigation: root cause analysis training manual

11 HSE (2000) Reducing Error and Influencing Behaviour HS(G)48 HSE Books: Sudbury

12 Stansfeld, S, Head, J & Marmot, M (2000) Work-related Factors and Ill Health: the Whitehall II Study HSE Contract Research Report No. 266/2000

13 Sutherland, VJ & Cooper, CL (1996) Stress Prevention in the Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Industry International Labour Office: Geneva – Conditions of Work and Welfare Branch

123

14 Sutherland, VJ & Cooper, CL (1991) Stress and Accidents in the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry Gulf Publishing Company: Texas, USA

15 Sutherland, VJ & Cooper, CL (1986) Man and Accidents Offshore: an examination of the costs of stress among workers on oil and gas rigs. Lloyd’s of London Press: UK

16 Parkes, KR (1998) Psychosocial aspects of Stress, Health and Safety on North Sea Installations Scand. Journal of Work Environ. Health, 24 (5), 321-333

17 Gordon, R; Mearns, K; Flin, R; O’Connor, P & Whitaker, S (2000) Factoring the Human into Safety: Translating research into practice. Volume 2 (3) The Development and Evaluation of a Human Factors Accident and Near Miss Reporting Form for the Offshore Oil Industry; HSE OTO 2000 036 HSE Books: Sudbury

18 HSE (1999) Reducing Error and Influencing Behaviour HS(G) 48 HSE Books: Sudbury

19 HSE (1999) 5 steps to risk assessment INDG 163 HSE Books: Sudbury

20 Briner, R.B. and Rick, J. (2003 – in press) Risk assessment for psychosocial hazards Occupational Health Review

21 Rick, J. & Briner, R.B. (2000) Psychosocial risk assessment: problems and prospects Occupational Medicine, 50, 310-314

22 Briner, R.B. and Rick, J.(1999) How different are psychosocial and physical hazards? Implications for psychosocial risk assessment at work Proceedings of the British Psychological Society Occupational Psychology Conference, 175-180

23 Goldberg, D.P. and Williams, P. (1988) A user’s guide to the General Health Questionnaire Windsor : NFER-Nelson

24 Smith, A; Johal, S, Wadsworth, E; Davey Smith, G & Peters, T (2000) The Scale of Occupational Stress: the Bristol Stress and Health at Work Study HSE Contract Research Project 265/ 2000 HSE Books: Sudbury

25 Institute of Work Psychology (1999) Measures of job satisfaction, mental health and job-related well-being: a benchmarking manual Sheffield : Institute of Work Psychology

26 Investors in People (2002) An introduction to Investors in People – downloadable via www.investorsinpeople.co.uk

27 International Organization for Standardization (2002) Ergonomic design of control centres - Parts 1&2 ISO 11064 – Geneva: ISO

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28 The Keil Centre Ltd (2002) StressTools: Stress risk assessment software – see www.keilcentre.co.uk

29 European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (2002) Prevention of psychosocial risks and stress at work in practice Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities ISBN 92-9191-012-0 Also downloadable at http://agency.osha.eu.int

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Printed and published by the Health and Safety Executive C1.25 08/03

ISBN 0-7176-2225-8

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