ruben folio

8/2/2019 Ruben Folio

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Great Pyramid of Giza

The Great Pyramid of Giza (also called the Pyramid of Khufu

and the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the threepyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now El Giza,Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World,and the only one to remain largely intact. Egyptologists believe thatthe pyramid was built as a tomb forfourth dynastyEgyptianPharaoh Khufu (Cheops in Greek) over an approximately 20 year

period concluding around 2560 BC. Initially at 146.5 metres(480.6 ft), the Great Pyramid was the tallest man-made structure in

the world for over 3,800 years , the longest period of time ever heldfor such a record. Originally, the Great Pyramid was covered bycasing stones that formed a smooth outer surface; what is seen todayis the underlying core structure. Some of the casing stones that oncecovered the structure can still be seen around the base. There have

been varying scientific and alternative theories about the GreatPyramid's construction techniques. Most accepted constructionhypotheses are based on the idea that it was built by moving hugestones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.

There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. Thelowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was

built and was unfinished. The so-called Queen's Chamber andKing's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. TheGreat Pyramid of Giza is the only pyramid in Egypt known tocontain both ascending and descending passages. The main part ofthe Giza complex is a setting of buildings that included two

mortuary temples in honor of Khufu (one close to the pyramid andone near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives, aneven smaller "satellite" pyramid, a raised causeway connecting thetwo temples, and smallmastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid fornobles.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kheops-Pyramid.jpg


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Hanging Gardens of Babylon

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are considered to be one ofthe original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. They were built

in the ancient city-state ofBabylon, near present-day Al Hillah,Babil, in Iraq. They are sometimes called the Hanging Gardens ofSemiramis (in reference to the legendary Queen Semiramis).The gardens were supposedly built by the Babylonian king

Nebuchadnezzar II around 600 BC. He is reported to haveconstructed the gardens to please his homesick wife, Amytis ofMedia, who longed for the trees and fragrant plants of herhomeland.The gardens were destroyed by several earthquakes after

the 2nd century BC.

The lush Hanging Gardens are extensively documented byGreekhistorians such as Strabo and Diodorus Siculus. Through theages, the location may have been confused with gardens that existedatNineveh, since tablets from there clearly show gardens. Writingson these tablets describe the possible use of something similar to anArchimedes screw as a process of raising the water to the required

height.

Nebuchadnezzar II also used massive slabs of stone, whichwas unheard of in Babylon, to prevent the water from eroding theground.

Statue of Zeus at Olympia
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The Statue of Zeus at Olympia was made by the GreeksculptorPhidias, circa 432 BC on the site where it was erected inthe Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece. It was one of the Seven

Wonders of the Ancient World.

The seated statue, some 12 meters (43 feet) tall, occupied half ofthe width of the aisle of the temple built to house it. "It seems that if[Zeus]were to stand up," the geographerStrabo noted early in the1st century BC, "he would unroof the temple."TheZeus was achryselephantine sculpture, made of ivory and gold-plated bronze.

No copy in marble or bronze has survived, though there are

recognizable but approximate versions on coins of nearby Elis andon Roman coins and engraved gems. A very detailed description ofthe sculpture and its throne was recorded by the travelerPausanias,in the 2nd century AD. The sculpture was wreathed with shoots ofolive worked in gold and seated on a magnificent throne ofcedarwood, inlaid with ivory, gold, ebony, and precious stones. InZeus' right hand there was a small statue of crownedNike, goddessof victory, also chryselephantine, and in his left hand, a sceptre

inlaid with gold, on which an eagle perched.

Plutarch, in hisLife ofthe Roman general Aemilius Paulus, records that the victor overMacedon, when he beheld the statue, was moved to his soul, as ifhe had seen the god in person, while the 1st century AD GreekoratorDio Chrysostom declared that a single glimpse of the statuewould make a man forget all his earthly troubles.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zeus_Hermitage_St._Petersburg_20021009.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Statue_of_Zeus.jpg


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Temple of Artemis

The Temple of Artemis (Greek: , orArtemision/),also known less precisely as the Temple ofDiana, was a Greektemple dedicated to a goddess Greeks identified as Artemis and wasone of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was sited atEphesus (the modern town ofSelukin present-day Turkey), andwas completely rebuilt three times before its eventual destruction in401.[1] Only foundations and sculptural fragments of the latest of thetemples at the site remain.

The first sanctuary (temenos) antedated the Ionic immigration by

many years, and dates to the Bronze Age. Callimachus, in hisHymnto Artemis, attributed it to the Amazons. In the seventh century theold temple was destroyed by a flood. Its reconstruction beganaround 550 BC, under the Cretan architectChersiphron and his sonMetagenes, at the expense ofCroesus ofLydia: the project tooksome 120 years to complete, only to be destroyed in an act of arson

by the infamous Herostratus. It was later rebuilt.
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Mausoleum of Halicarnassus

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus orTomb of Mausolus(inGreek, ) was a tomb built

between 353 and 350 BC at Halicarnassus (presentBodrum,Turkey) forMausolus, a satrap in the Persian Empire, andArtemisia II of Caria, his wife and sister. The structure wasdesignedby the Greekarchitects Satyros and Pythis. It stoodapproximately 45 m (148 ft) in height, and each of the four sideswas adorned with sculptural reliefs created by each one of fourGreek sculptorsLeochares, Bryaxis, Scopas of Paros andTimotheus.The finished structure was considered to be such an

aesthetic triumph that Antipater of Sidon identified it as one ofhis

The word mausoleum has now come to be used generically forany grand tomb.
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Colossus of Rhodes

The Colossus of Rhodes was a statue of the GreekTitanHelios,erected in the city ofRhodes on the Greekisland ofRhodes by

Chares of Lindos between 292 and 280 BC. It is considered one ofthe Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was constructed tocelebrate Rhodes' victory over the ruler of Cyprus, Antigonus IMonophthalmus, who unsuccessfully besieged Rhodes in 305 BC.Before its destruction, the Colossus of Rhodes stood over 30 meters(107 ft) high, making it one of the tallest statues of the ancientworld.
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Lighthouse of Alexandria

The Lighthouse of Alexandria, also known as the Pharos ofAlexandria (in Ancient Greek), was a tower built between 280 and247 BC on the island of Pharos at Alexandria, Egypt. Its purposewas to guide sailors into the harbour at night time.

With a height variously estimated at somewhere in-between 393and 450 ft (120 and 140 m), it was for many centuries among thetallest manmade structures on Earth. It was one of the SevenWonders of the Ancient World.

Taj Mahal

Lighthouse of Alexandria

Drawing by archaeologist Hermann Thiersch (1909).

Location Pharos,Alexandria,Egypt

Coordinates311250.15N 295308.38E31.2139306N 29.8856611ECoordinates:

311250.15N 295308.38E 31.2139306N 29.8856611E

Year firstconstructed

c. 280 BC

Deactivated 1303/1323Foundation Stone

Construction MasonryHeight 393450 ft (120140 m)Range 47 km (29 mi)
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The Taj Mahal from Persian/Urdu crown of buildings",also

"the Taj" is a mausoleum located in Agra, India. It is one of themost recognisable structures in the world. It was built by Mughal

emperorShah Jahan in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Itis widely considered as one of the most beautiful buildings in theworld and stands as a symbol of eternal love.

Taj Mahal is the finest example ofMughal architecture, a stylethat combines elements from Persian, Islamic and Indianarchitectural styles In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site. While the white domedmarble mausoleum is

the most familiar component of the Taj Mahal, it is actually anintegrated complex of structures. The construction began around1632 and was completed around 1653, employing thousands ofartisans and craftsmen.The construction of the Taj Mahal wasentrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision,including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, and UstadAhmad Lahauri. Lahauriis generally considered to be the principaldesigner.

Great Wall of China
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The Great Wall of China is a series of stone and earthenfortifications in northern China, built originally to protect thenorthern borders of the Chinese Empire against intrusions byvarious nomadic groups. Several walls have been built since the 5th

century BC that are referred to collectively as the Great Wall, whichhas been rebuilt and maintained from the 5th century BC throughthe 16th century. One of the most famous is the wall built between220206 BC by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang. Little ofthat wall remains; the majority of the existing wall was built duringthe Ming Dynasty.

The Great Wall stretches from Shanhaiguan in the east, to Lop

Lake in the west, along an arc that roughly delineates the southernedge ofInner Mongolia. The most comprehensive archaeologicalsurvey, using advanced technologies, has concluded that the entireGreat Wall, with all of its branches, stretches for 8,851.8 km(5,500.3 mi). This is made up of 6,259.6 km (3,889.5 mi) sections ofactual wall, 359.7 km (223.5 mi) of trenches and 2,232.5 km(1,387.2 mi) of natural defensive barriers such as hills and rivers.

Leaning Tower of Pisa
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The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italian: Torre pendente di Pisa) orsimply the Tower of Pisa (Torre di Pisa) is the campanile, orfreestanding bell tower, of the cathedral of the Italian city ofPisa. Itis situated behind the Cathedral and is the third oldest structure in

Pisa's Cathedral Square (Piazza del Duomo) after the Cathedral andthe Baptistry.

The height of the tower is 55.86 m (183.27 ft) from the groundon the low side and 56.70 m (186.02 ft) on the high side. The widthof the walls at the base is 4.09 m (13.42 ft) and at the top 2.48 m(8.14 ft). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 metric tons (16,000 shorttons). The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two

fewer steps on the north-facing staircase. Prior to restoration workperformed between 1990 and 2001, the tower leaned at an angle of5.5 degrees, but the tower now leans at about 3.99 degrees. Thismeans that the top of the tower is displaced horizontally 3.9 metres(12 ft 10 in) from where it would be if the structure were perfectlyvertical.

A popular tourist activity is to pose for photographs pretending

to "hold up" the leaning tower and preventing it from falling. Theillusion is created through the principle offorced perspective.
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Colosseum

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the FlavianAmphitheatre (Latin:Amphitheatrum Flavium, ItalianAnfiteatro

Flavio orColosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of thecity of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It isconsidered one of the greatest works ofRoman architecture andRoman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its constructionstarted in 72 AD under the emperorVespasian and was completedin 80 AD underTitus, with further modifications being made during

Domitian's reign (8196). The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium"derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius,from thegens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,the Colosseum was used forgladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles,animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, anddramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be

used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reusedfor such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religiousorder, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because ofdamage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, theColosseum is an iconic symbol ofImperial Rome. It is one ofRome's most populartourist attractions and still has closeconnections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday

the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts inthe area around the Colosseum.
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Burj Khalifa

Burj Khalifa (Arabic: "Khalifa Tower"), known asBurj Dubai prior to its inauguration, is a skyscraper in Dubai,United Arab Emirates, and is currently the tallest structure ever

built, at 828 m (2,717 ft). Construction began on 21 September2004, with the exterior of the structure completed on 1 October2009. The building officially opened on 4 January 2010, and is partof the new 2 km2 (490-acre) flagship development called DowntownDubai at the 'First Interchange' along Sheikh Zayed Road, nearDubai's main business district.

The tower's architecture and engineering were performed bySkidmore, Owings and Merrill ofChicago, with Adrian Smith aschief architect, and Bill Bakeras chief structural engineer.[10][11] The

primary contractor was Samsung C&T ofSouth Korea.[12]

The total cost for the project was about US$1.5 billion; and for theentire "Downtown Dubai" development, US$20 billion. In March2009, Mohamed Ali Alabbar, chairman of the project's developer,Emaar Properties, said office space pricing at Burj Khalifa reached

US$4,000 per sq ft (over US$43,000 per m) and the ArmaniResidences, also in Burj Khalifa, sold for US$3,500 per sq ft (overUS$37,500 per m).

The project's completion coincided with the global financial crisisof 20072010, and with vast overbuilding in the country, led to highvacancies and foreclosures. With Dubai mired in debt from its hugeambitions, the government was forced to seek multibillion dollar

bailouts from its oil rich neighborAbu Dhabi. Subsequently, in a

surprise move at its opening ceremony, the tower was renamedBurj Khalifa, said to honour the UAE President Khalifa bin ZayedAl Nahyan for his crucial support.

Due to the slumping demand in Dubai's property market, therents in the Burj Khalifa plummeted 40% some ten months after its
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opening. Out of 900 apartments in the tower around 825 were stillempty at that time.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2f/Burj_Khalifa_building.jpg


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Angel Falls

Angel Falls (Spanish: Salto ngel; Pemon language:Kerepakupai vena, meaning "waterfall of the deepest place", or

Parakupa-vena, meaning "the fall from the highest point") is awaterfall in Venezuela.

It is the world's highest waterfall, with a height of 979 m(3,212 ft) and a plunge of 807 m (2,648 ft). The waterfall drops overthe edge of the Auyantepui mountain in the Canaima National Park(Spanish: Parque Nacional Canaima), a UNESCO World Heritagesite in the Gran Sabana region ofBolvar State.

The base of the falls feeds into the Kerep River (alternatively knownas the Ro Gauya), which flows into the Churun River, a tributary ofthe Carrao River.

Before reaching the ground, muchof the water is dissipated asmist. The height figure 979 m (3,212 ft) mostly consists of the main

plunge but also includes about 400 m (0.25 mi) of sloped cascadesand rapids below the drop and a 30 m (98 ft) high plunge

downstream of the talus rapids. While the main plunge isundoubtedly the highest single drop in the world, some feel thatincluding the lower cascades stretches the criteria for themeasurement of waterfalls somewhat, although there are nouniversally recognized standards of the subject
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Mount Everest

Mount Everest is the world's highest mountain at 8,848 metres(29,029 ft) above sea level. Everest is in the Mahalangursection of

the Himalaya on theNepal-China (Tibet) border. Its massifincludesneighboring peaks Lhotse (8516m),Nuptse (7855m), and Changtse(7580m).

In 1856, the Great Trigonometric Survey ofBritish Indiaestablished the first published height of Everest, then known asPeak XV, at 29,002 ft (8,840 m). In 1865, Everest was given itsofficial English name by the Royal Geographical Society uponrecommendation ofAndrew Waugh, the BritishSurveyor Generalof India at the time, who named it after his predecessor in the post,and former chief, Sir George Everest. Chomolungma had been incommon use by Tibetans for centuries, but Waugh was unable to

propose an established local name becauseNepal and Tibet wereclosed to foreigners.

The highest mountain in the world attracts many well-experienced mountaineers as well as novice climbers who are

willing to pay substantial sums to professional mountain guides tocomplete a successful climb. The mountain, while not posingsubstantial technical climbing difficulty on the standard route (othereight-thousanders such as K2 orNanga Parbat are much moredifficult), still has many inherent dangers such as altitude sickness,weather, and wind.

By the end of the 2008 climbing season, there had been 4,102ascents to the summit by about 2,700 individuals.Climbers are a

significant source oftourist revenue for Nepal, whose governmentalso requires all prospective climbers to obtain an expensive permit,costing up to US$25,000 per person.By the end of 2009 Everest hadclaimed 216 lives,including eight who perished during a 1996 stormhigh on the mountain. Conditions are so difficult in the death zone

altitudes higher than 8,000 metres (26,000 ft)that most corpses
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have been left where they fell. Some of them are visible fromstandard climbing routes.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Everest_kalapatthar_crop.jpg


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Grand Canyon

The Grand Canyon is a steep-sided canyon carved by theColorado Riverin the United States in the state ofArizona. It is

largely contained within the Grand Canyon National Park, one ofthe first national parks in the United States. President TheodoreRoosevelt was a major proponent of preservation of the GrandCanyon area, and visited it on numerous occasions to hunt andenjoy the scenery.

The Grand Canyon is 277 miles (446 km) long, up to 18 miles(29 km) wide and attains a depth of over a mile (6,000 feet / 1,800metres)Nearly two billion years of the Earth's geological history

have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut theirchannels through layer after layer of rock while the ColoradoPlateau was uplifted.While the specific geologic processes andtiming that formed the Grand Canyon are the subject of debate bygeologists,recent evidence suggests the Colorado River establishedits course through the canyon at least 17 million years ago.Sincethat time, the Colorado River continued to erode and form thecanyon to its present-day configuration.

Before European immigration, the area was inhabited byNative

Americans who built settlements within the canyon and its manycaves. The Pueblo people considered the Grand Canyon("Ongtupqa" in Hopi language) a holy site and made pilgrimages toit.The first European known to have viewed the Grand Canyon wasGarca Lpez de Crdenas from Spain, who arrived in 1540.
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Ayers Rock

Uluru is also known as Ayers Rock, is a large sandstone rockformation in the southern part of theNorthern Territory, central

Australia. It lies 335 km (208 mi) south west of the nearest largetown, Alice Springs; 450 km (280 mi) by road. Kata Tjuta andUluru are the two major features of the Ulu u-Kata Tju a National Park. Uluru is sacred to the A angu , the Aboriginal people of thearea. The area around the formation is home to a plethora of springs,waterholes, rock caves and ancient paintings. Uluru is listed as aWorld Heritage Site.
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7 WONDERS OF THE WORLD

* THE GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA

* HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON

* STATUE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA

* TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS

* MAUSOLEUM OF HALICARNASSUS

* COLOSSUS OF RHODES

* LIGHTHOUSE OF ALEXANDRIA


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MAN-MADE WONDERS

* TAJ MAHAL

* THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA

* LEANING TOWER OF PISA

* COLOSSEUM ROME

* BURJ KHALIFA

NATURAL WONDERS

* ANGEL FALLS

* MOUNT EVEREST

* GRAND CANYON

* AYERS ROCK


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ruben folio

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