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Runaway Scrape

Territorial division of Mexicoduring the First and Second

Centralist Republics (1835 - 1846)

Departments

Separatist movements

Frontier claimed by Texasafter independence(1836 - 1848)

Current frontier

Alta California

Yucatn

ChiapasOaxaca

VeracruzTlaxcala

Veracruz

TabascoPuebla

Mexico

MichoacnColima

Quertaro

Guanajuato

Jalisco

San LuisPotos

ZacatecasTamaulipas

Durango

Aguas-calientes

SinaloaCoahuila

NuevoLen

Texas

Nuevo Mxico

Chihuahua

Sonora

Baja California

UNITED STATESOF AMERICA

UNITED PROVINCESOF CENTRAL

AMERICA

Occidente state was divided into Sonora and Sinaloa in1830.Aguascalientes was separated from Zacatecas in 1835.The Siete Leyes converted the states into departments.After its approval, the Federal District was abolishedand reincorporated into the Department of Mxico.

Zacatecas declared independence in 1835, but wasdefeated by the army of the Republic.Texas declared independence 2 October 1835 andachieved it when Santa Anna signed the Treaty ofVelasco (14 May 1836, never recognized by Mexico).

In 1840, Nuevo Len, Coahuila and Tamaulipasdeclared ephemeral independence as theRepublic of the Ro Grande.Yucatn was independent 1841-1843 and 1846-1848.

A map of Mexico, 183546, showing administrative divisions.

TheRunaway Scrapewas the 1836 evacuation by Texas

residents fleeing the Mexican Army of Operations dur-

ing theTexas Revolution, from theBattle of the Alamo

through the decisive Battle of San Jacinto. Thead in-

terim government of the new Republic of Texas and

much of the civilian population fled eastward, ahead of

the Mexican forces. The conflict arose after Antonio

Lpez de Santa Anna abrogated the 1824 constitution

ofMexicoand establishedmartial lawinCoahuila y Te-

jas. The Texians resisted and declared their indepen-

dence. It was Sam Houston's responsibility, as the ap-

pointed commander-in-chief of theProvisional Army of

Texas(before such an army actually existed), to recruit

and train a military force to defend the population against

troops led by Santa Anna.

In what would be an event replayed across Texas, resi-

dents on the Gulf Coast and at San Antonio de Bxar

began evacuating in January upon learning of the Mex-

ican armys troop movements into their area. During

early skirmishes some Texian soldiers surrendered believ-

ing they would becomeprisoners of war, but Santa Anna

demanded their executions. The news of the Battle of

the Alamo and theGoliad massacreinstilled fear in the

population and resulted in the mass exodus of the civilian

population ofGonzales, where the opening battle of the

Texian revolution had begun, and where only days before

the fall of the Alamo they had sent a militia to reinforce

the defenders at the mission. The civilian refugees were

accompanied by the newly forming provisional army, asHouston bought time to train soldiers and create a mili-

tary structure that could go up against Santa Annas larger

forces. Houstons actions were viewed as cowardice by

thead interimgovernment, as well as by some of his own

troops. As he and the refugees from Gonzales escaped

first to theColorado Riverand then to the Brazos, evac-

uees from other areas trickled in and new militia groups

arrived to join with Houston.

The towns of Gonzales and San Felipe de Austin were

burned to keep them out of the hands of the Mexi-

can army. Santa Anna was intent on executing mem-

bers of the Republics ad interim government, who fled

from Washington-on-the-Brazos to Groces Landing toHarrisburg andNew Washington. The government of-

ficials eventually escaped toGalveston Island, and Santa

Anna burned the towns of Harrisburg and New Wash-

ington when he failed to find them. Approximately 5,000

terrified residents of New Washington fled from the Mex-

ican army. After a little over a month of training the

troops, Houston reached a crossroads where he ordered

some of them to escort the fleeing refugees farther east

while he took themain army southeast to engage theMex-

ican army. The subsequent Battle of San Jacinto resulted

in the surrender of Santa Anna and the signing of the

Treaties of Velasco.

1 Prelude

1.1 Ad interim government

In 1834, Mexican president Antonio Lpez de Santa

Annashifted from a Federalist political ideology to cre-

ating a Centralist government and revoked the countrys

Constitution of 1824.[FN 1] That constitution had not only

established Coahuila y Tejas[FN 2] as a new Mexican state,

but had also provided for each state in Mexico to cre-ate its own local-level constitution.[3] After eliminating

state-level governments Santa Anna had in effect created

a dictatorship and put Coahuila y Tejas under the mil-

itary rule of General Martn Perfecto de Cos.[4] When

Santa Anna madeMiguel Barragntemporary president,

he also had Barragn install him as head of the Mexican

Army of Operations.[5] Intending to put down all rebel-

lion in Coahuila y Tejas, he began amassing his army on

November 28.[6] General Joaqun Ramrez y Sesmaled

the Vanguard of the Advance across theRio Grandein

December.[7]

Stephen F. Austin was commander of the existing un-paid volunteer Texian army, and at his urging[8] the

Consultation of 1835convened inSan Felipe de Austin

1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_Constitution_of_1824https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_F._Austinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Felipe_de_Austin,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consultation_(Texas)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_F._Austinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Grandehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Ram%C3%ADrez_y_Sesmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_Barrag%C3%A1nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Perfecto_de_Coshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coahuila_y_Tejashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_Constitution_of_1824https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_L%C3%B3pez_de_Santa_Annahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_L%C3%B3pez_de_Santa_Annahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaties_of_Velascohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galveston_Islandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan%2527s_Point,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrisburg,_Houstonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington-on-the-Brazos,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Felipe_de_Austin,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_River_(Texas)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_interimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzales,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goliad_massacrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoners_of_warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antoniohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texian_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texian_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Houstonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coahuila_y_Tejashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coahuila_y_Tejashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martial_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_L%C3%B3pez_de_Santa_Annahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_L%C3%B3pez_de_Santa_Annahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_interimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_interimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_San_Jacintohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alamohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Revolution


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2 1 PRELUDE

Sam Houston army recruitment proclamation December 12,

1835

on November 3. Their creation of a provisional govern-

ment based on the 1824 constitution[9] established the

General Council as a legislative body with each munic-

ipality allotted one representative.[10] Henry Smithwas

elected governor without any clearly defined powers of

the position.[11] Sam Houstonwas in attendance as the

elected representative from Nacogdoches, and also served

as commander of the Nacogdoches militia.[12] The Con-

sultation approved the creation of the Provisional Army

of Texas, a paid force of 2,500 troops. Houston was

named commander-in-chief of the new army and issued

a recruitment Proclamation on December 12.[FN 3][FN 4]Edward Burlesonreplaced Austin as commander of the

volunteer army on December 1, but they disbanded on

December 20.[15] Harrisburg was designated the seat of

a deeply divided provisional government on December

30.[16] Most of theGeneral Council wanted to remain part

of Mexico, but with the restoration of the 1824 consti-

tution. Governor Smith supported the opposing faction

who advocated for complete independence. Smith dis-

solved the General Council on January 10, 1836, but it

was unclear if he had the power to do that. He was im-

peached on January 11. The power struggle effectively

shut down the government.

[17]

On December 10, the General Council called new elec-

tions to choose delegates to determine the fate of the

region.[18] TheConvention of 1836met atWashington-

on-the-Brazoson March 1.[19] The following day, the 59

delegates created theRepublic of Texasby affixing their

signatures to theTexas Declaration of Independence.[20]

Houstons military authority was expanded on March 4,

to include the land forces of the Texian army both Regu-

lar, Volunteer, and Militia.[21] The delegates elected theRepublicsad interimgovernment on March 16,[22] with

David G. Burnetas president,Lorenzo de Zavalaas vice

president, Samuel P. Carson as secretary of state, Thomas

Jefferson Ruskas secretary of war,Bailey Hardemanas

secretary of the treasury, Robert Potter as secretary of

the navy, andDavid Thomasas attorney general.[23]

1.2 Battle of Gonzales

Battle of Gonzales cannon

TheBattle of Gonzaleswas the onset of a chain of events

that led to what is known as the Runaway Scrape. The

confrontation began in September 1835, when the Mex-

ican government attempted to reclaim a bronze cannon

that it had provided to Gonzalesin 1831 to protect the

town against Indian attacks. The first attempt by Cor-

poral Casimiro De Len resulted in De Lens detach-

ment being taken prisoners, and the cannon being buried

in a peach orchard.[24] James C. Neill, a veteran who had

served at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend under Andrew

Jackson, was put in charge of the artillery after it was

later dug up and wheel mounted.[25] When LieutenantFrancisco de Castaedaarrived accompanied by 100 sol-

diers and made a second attempt at repossessing the

cannon, Texians dared the Mexicans to come and take

it.[24] John Henry Mooreled 150 Texian militia on Oc-

tober 2 in successfully repelling the Mexican troops. A

Come and Take It flag was later fashioned by the women

of Gonzales.[26] The cannon was moved toSan Antonio

de Bxarand became one of the artillery pieces used by

the defenders of the Alamo.[FN 5]

The immediate result of the Texian victory at Gonza-

les was that two days later the number of volunteers had

swelled to over 300, and they were determined to drivethe Mexican army out of Texas.[28] Simultaneously, a

company of volunteers under George M. Collinsworth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_(military_unit)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio_de_B%C3%A9xarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio_de_B%C3%A9xarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Henry_Moore_(Texas)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_de_Casta%C3%B1edahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Jacksonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Jacksonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1814)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_C._Neillhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzales,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gonzaleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Thomas_(Texas_politician)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Potter_(U.S._politician)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailey_Hardemanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Ruskhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Ruskhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_P._Carsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo_de_Zavalahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_G._Burnethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_interimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Declaration_of_Independencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington-on-the-Brazos,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington-on-the-Brazos,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_of_1836https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrisburg,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Burlesonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacogdoches,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Houstonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Smith_(Texas_Governor)


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1.4 Battle of the Alamo 3

captured the Presidio La Baha from the Mexicans on Oc-

tober 9 at theBattle of Goliad.[29] The Mexican govern-

ments response to the unrest in Texas was an October

30 authorization of war.[30] On the banks of the Nueces

River 3 miles (4.8 km) from San Patricio on November

4 during theBattle of Lipantitln, volunteers underIra

Westovercaptured the fort from Mexican troops.[31]

1.3 Bxar

By October 9, Cos had taken over San Antonio de

Bxar.[30] Stephen F. Austin sent an advance scout troop

of 90 men under James Bowie and James Fannin to

observe the Mexican forces. While taking refuge atMission Concepcinon October 28, they repelled an at-

tack by 275 Mexicans underDomingo Ugartecheaduring

thebattle.[32] Austin continued to send troops to Bxar.

Bowie was ordered on November 26 to attack a Mexican

supply train alleged to be carrying a payroll. The result-

ing skirmish became known as the Grass Fight, after it

was discovered that the only cargo was grass to feed the

horses.[33] When Austin was selected to join Branch T.

Archer and William H. Wharton on a diplomatic mis-

sion to seek international recognition and support, Ed-

ward Burleson was named as commander.[34] On Decem-

ber 5, James C. Neill began distracting Cos by firing ar-

tillery directly at the Alamo, whileBenjamin Milamand

Frank W. Johnson led several hundred volunteers in a sur-

prise attack. The fighting at theSiege of Bxarcontinued

until December 9 when Cos sent word he wanted to sur-

render. Cos and his army were sent back to Mexico, but

would later unite with Santa Annas forces.[35]

Approximately 300 of the Texian garrison at Bxar

departed on December 30 to join Frank W. John-

son and James Grant on the Matamoros Expedition,

in a planned attack to seize the port for its financial

resources.[36] Proponents of this campaign were hoping

Mexican Federalists[FN 1] would oust Santa Anna and re-

store the 1824 constitution.[37] When Sesma crossed the

Rio Grande, residents of the Gulf Coast began fleeing

the area in January 1836.[38] Santa Anna ordered General

Jos de Urrea on February 16 to secure the Gulf Coast.[39]

About 160 miles (260 km) north of Matamoros at San

Patricio, Urreas troops ambushed Johnson and members

of the expedition on February 27 at the Battle of San

Patricio. Sixteen Texians were killed, six escaped, and 21

were taken prisoner.[40] Urreas troops then turned south-

west by some 26 miles (42 km) to Agua Dulce Creek

and on March 2 attacked a group of the expedition led

by Grant, killing all but 11, six of whom were taken pris-

oner. Five of the men escaped theBattle of Agua Dulceand joined Fannin who wanted to increase the defense

force at Goliad.[41]

1.4 Battle of the Alamo

Main article:Battle of the Alamo

Neill was promoted to lieutenant colonel during his par-

ticipation in the Siege of Bxar,

[25]

and 10 days laterHouston placed him in charge of the Texian garrison

in the city.[42] In January residents had begun evacuat-

ing ahead of Santa Annas approaching forces.[43] Neill

pleaded with Houston for replenishment of troops, sup-

plies and weaponry. The departure of Texians who joined

the Matamoros Expedition had left Neill with only about

100 men. At that point Houston viewed Bxar as a mil-

itary liability and did not want Santa Annas advancing

army gaining control of any remaining soldiers or ar-

tillery. He dispatched Bowie with instructions to remove

the artillery, have the defenders abandon theAlamo mis-

sionand destroy it.[FN 6] Upon his January 19 arrival[17]

and subsequent discussions with Neill, Bowie decided themission was the right place to stop the Mexican army in its

tracks. He stayed and began to help Neill prepare for the

coming attack. Lieutenant ColonelWilliam B. Travisar-

rived with reinforcements on February 3.[45] When Neill

was given leave to attend to family matters on February

11, Travis assumed command of the mission, and three

days later he and Bowie agreed to a joint command.[46]

Santa Anna crossed the Rio Grande on February 16, and

the Mexican armys assault on the Alamo began February

23.[39] CaptainJuan Segunleft the mission on February

25, carrying a letter from Travis to Fannin at Goliad re-

questing more reinforcements.[47]

Santa Anna extendedan offer of amnesty to Tejanos inside the fortress; a non-

combatant survivor, Enrique Esparza, said that most Te-

janos left when Bowie advised them to take the offer. [48]

In response to TravisFebruary 24 letter To the People of

Texas, 32 militia volunteers formed the Gonzales Rang-

ing Company of Mounted Volunteers and arrived at the

Alamo on February 29.[FN 4]

If you execute your enemies, it saves you

the trouble of having to forgive them.

General Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna,

February 1836

[49]

2 Flight

2.1 Houston begins forming his army

As the closest settlement to San Antonio de Bxar,

Gonzales was the rallying point for volunteers who re-

sponded to both the Travis letter from the Alamo and

Houstons recruitment pleas. Recently formed groups

came from Austin and Washington counties and fromthe Colorado River area.[50] Volunteers from Brazoria,

Fort Bend and Matagorda counties organized after ar-
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matagorda_County,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Bend_County,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazoria_County,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_the_People_of_Texas_&_All_Americans_in_the_Worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_the_People_of_Texas_&_All_Americans_in_the_Worldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Segu%C3%ADnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_B._Travishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alamohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alamohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alamohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Agua_Dulcehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_San_Patriciohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_San_Patriciohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Patricio,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Patricio,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Urreahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matamoros_Expeditionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Grant_(Texas)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_B%C3%A9xarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_W._Johnsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Milamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Whartonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branch_T._Archerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branch_T._Archerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass_Fighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Concepci%C3%B3nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domingo_Ugartecheahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_Concepci%C3%B3nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Fanninhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bowiehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ira_Westoverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ira_Westoverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lipantitl%C3%A1nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Goliad


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4 2 FLIGHT

riving in Gonzales.[51] The Kentucky Rifle company

under Newport, Kentucky business man Sidney Sher-

man had been aided by funding from Cincinnati, Ohio

residents.[52]

Alamo commandant Neill was in Gonzales purchas-

ing supplies and recruiting reinforcements on March 6.When Seguin learned en route that Fannin would be un-

able to reach the Alamo in time,[53] he immediately began

mustering an all-Tejanocompany of scouts.[54] His men

combined with Lieutenant William Smiths and volun-

teered to accompany Neills recruits. They encountered

the Mexican army 18 miles (29 km) from the Alamo on

March 7, and Neills men turned back while the Seguin-

Smith scouts moved forward.[55] As the scouts neared the

Alamo, they met only silence.[56] Andrew Barcena and

Anselmo Bergara from Seguins other detachment inside

the Alamo showed up in Gonzales on March 11, telling of

their escape and delivering news of the slaughter. Their

stories were discounted; Houston, who had arrived thatsame day, denounced them as Mexican spies.[57]

Smith and Seguin confirmed the fate of the mission

upon their return. Houston dispatched orders to Fan-

nin to abandon Goliad, blow up the Presidio La Baha

fortress, and retreat to Victoria,[58] but Fannin delayed

acting on those orders. Believing the approach of Urreas

troops brought a greater urgency to local civilians, he sent

29 men under Captain Amon B. King to help evacuate

nearbyRefugio.[59]

Houston promptly began organizing the troops at Gonza-

les into the First Regiment under Burleson who had ar-

rived as part of theMina volunteers.[60] A second regi-

ment would later be formed when the army grew large

enough.[61] As others began to arrive, individual volun-

teers not already in another company were put under Cap-

tain William Hestor Patton.[62] Houston had 374 volun-

teers and their commanders in Gonzales on March 12.[63]

Santa Anna sent Susannah Dickinson with her infant

daughter Angelina, Travis slave Joe, and Mexican

ColonelJuan Almonte's cook Ben to Gonzales, with dis-

patches written in English by Almonte to spread the news

of the fall of the Alamo.[64] ScoutsDeaf Smith,Henry

Karnes and Robert Eden Handy encountered the sur-

vivors 20 miles (32 km) outside of Gonzales on March

13. When Karnes returned with the news, almost imme-

diately 25 volunteers deserted. Wailing filled the air when

Dickinson and the othersreached the town with their first-

hand accounts.[38]

There was not a soul left among the

citizens of Gonzales who had not lost a father,

husband, brother or son ... That terrible

massacre had, for a time, struck terror into

every heart.

John Milton Swisher, private in WilliamW. Hills volunteers.[65]

The SamHouston Oak[FN 7] where the Provisional Army of Texas

rested after the burning of Gonzales

Although civilian evacuations had begun in January for

the Gulf Coast and San Antonio de Bxar, the Texian

military was either on the offensive or standing firm untilthe smaller Gulf Coast skirmishes happened in February.

Houston was now facing a choice of whether to retreat to

a safe place to train his new army, or to meet the enemy

head-on immediately.[66] He was wary of trying to defend

a fixed position the debacle at the Alamo had shown that

the new Texian government was unable to provide suffi-

cient provisions or reinforcements.[67]

2.2 The burning of Gonzales

Houston called for a Council of War. The officers votedthat the families should be ordered to leave, and the

troops would cover the retreat. By midnight, less than

an hour after Dickinson had arrived, the combined army

and civilian population began a frantic move eastward,[66]

leaving behind everything they could not immediately

grab and transport. Much of the provisions and artillery

were left behind, including two 24-pounder cannons.[68]

Houston ordered Salvador Floresalong with a company

of Juan Seguins men to form the rear guard to protect

the fleeing families. Couriers were sent to other towns in

Texas to warn that the Mexican army was advancing.[69]

The retreat took place so quickly that many of the Texianscouts did not fully comprehend it until after the town was

evacuated.[70] Houston ordered Karnes to burn the town

and everything in it so nothing would remain to benefit the

Mexican troops. By dawn, the entire town was in ashes

or flames.[71]

Volunteers from San Felipe de Austin who had been or-

ganized under Captain John Bird on March 5 to rein-

force the men at the Alamo[72] had been en route to San

Antonio de Bxar on March 13 when approximately 10

miles (16 km) east of Gonzales they encountered fleeing

citizens and a courier from Sam Houston. Told of the

Alamos fall, Birds men offered assistance to the fleeingcitizens and joined Houstons army at Bartholomew D.

McClures plantation on the evening of March 14.[FN 7]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvador_Floreshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Karneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Karneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaf_Smithhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Almontehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susannah_Dickinsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastrop,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugio,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidio_La_Bah%C3%ADahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tejanohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnatihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Shermanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Shermanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newport,_Kentucky


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2.3 Colorado River crossings 5

At Washington-on-the-Brazos, the delegates to the con-

vention learned of the Alamos fall on March 13.[74] The

Republics new ad interim government was sworn in on

March 17, with a department overseeing military spy op-

erations, and adjourned the same day.[75] The govern-

ment then fled to Groces Landing where they stayed for

several days before moving on to Harrisburg on March21 where they established temporary headquarters in the

home of widow Jane Birdsall Harris.[76]

Kings men at Refugio had taken refuge in Mission Nues-

tra Seora de la Rosario when they were subsequently at-

tacked by Urreas forces. Fannin sent 120 reinforcements

underWilliam Ward, but the March 14Battle of Refugio

cost 15 Texian lives.[77] Wards men escaped, but Kings

men were captured and executed on March 16.[78]

2.3 Colorado River crossings

2.3.1 Burnams

Upon learning of the flight, Santa Anna sent General

Joaqun Ramrez y Sesma with 700 men to pursue Hous-

ton, and 600 men under General Eugenio Tolsa as rein-

forcements. Finding only burned remains at Gonzales,

Sesma marched his army toward theColorado River.[79]

The Texian army camped March 1518 on the Lavaca

River property of Williamson Daniels[80] where they were

joined by combined forces under Joe Bennett and Cap-

tain Peyton R. Splane.[81] Fleeing civilians accompanied

Houstons army turning north at the Navidad River as theycrossed to the east side of the Colorado River at Burnams

Crossing.[82] The ferry and trading post, as well as the

family home of Jesse Burnam, were all burned at Hous-

tons orders on March 17 to prevent Santa Annas army

from making the same crossing.[FN 8]

2.3.2 Beasons and DeWees

Beasons Crossing was located where Columbus is

today.[84] DeWees Crossing was 7 miles (11 km) north

of Beasons. From March 19 through March 26, Hous-ton split his forces between the two crossings.[85] Addi-

tional Texian volunteer companies began arriving at both

crossings, including three companies of Texas Rangers,

the Liberty County Volunteers and the Nacogdoches

Volunteers.[86]

Sesmasbattalionof approximately 725 men and artillery

camped on theopposite side of the Colorado, at a distance

halfway between the two Texian camps.[87] To prevent

Sesmas troops from using the William DeWees log cabin,

Sherman ordered it burned.[88] Three Mexican scouts

from Sesmas army were captured by Shermans men, and

although Sherman argued for an attack on Sesmas troops,Houston was not ready.[89]

Fannin had begun evacuating Presidio La Baha on March

Campaigns of the Texas Revolution

19. The estimated 320 troops were low on food and wa-

ter, and the breakdown of a wagon allowed Urreas men

to overtake them atColeto Creek, ending in Fannins sur-

render on March 20.[90] Peter Kerr, who had served with

Fannin and claimed to have been held prisoner, arrived

at DeWees on March 25. Houston announced Fannins

surrender,[91] but would later claim to have uncovered ev-

idence that Kerr was a spy for the Mexicans.[92]

The Texian army was a force of 810 volunteers and staff

at this point,[93] but few had any military training and ex-

perience. Faced with past desertions, discipline flaws,

and individual indecisiveness of volunteers in training,

Houston knew they were not yet ready to engage the Mex-

ican army. Compounding the situation were the civilian

refugees dependent upon the army for their protection.[94]

The news of Fannins capture, combined with his doubts

about the readiness of theTexian army, led Houston to or-

der a retreat on March 26.[95] Some of the troops viewedthe decision as cowardice with Sesma sitting just on the

other side of the Colorado, and several hundred men

deserted.[96]

... the only army in Texas is now present ...

There are but few of us, and if we are beaten,

the fate of Texas is sealed. The salvation of

the country depends upon the first battle had

with the enemy. For this reason, I intend to

retreat, if I am obliged to go even to the banks

of the Sabine. Sam Houston[97]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kerr_(Texas_settler)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Coletohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battalionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Rangers_Divisionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navidad_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavaca_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavaca_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_River_(Texas)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Refugiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ward_(Texas)


6/14

6 2 FLIGHT

2.4 Brazos River training camp

2.4.1 Groces Landing

Texian survivors of the Battle of Coleto Creek believed

their surrender agreement with Urrea would, at worst,mean their deportation. Santa Anna, however, adhered to

the 1835Tornel Decreethat stated the insurrection was

an act of piracy fomented by the United States, and or-

dered their executions.[FN 9] Although he personally dis-

agreed with the need to do so, Urrea carried out his com-

manders orders on March 27.[99] Of the estimated 370

Texians being held, a few managed to escape the mas-

sacre. The remainder were shot, stabbed with bayonets

and lances and clubbed with gun butts. Fannin was shot

through the face and his gold watch stolen. The dead were

cremated on apyre.[100]

It would be a week before word of the Goliad mas-sacrereached Sam Houston. The retreating Texian army

stopped at San Felipe de Austin[101] on March 2829

to stock up on food and supplies.[102] Houstons plan to

move the army north to Groces Landing on the Brazos

River was met with resistance from captains Wyly Mar-

tin and Moseley Baker, whose units balked at further re-

treat. Houston reassigned Martin 25 miles (40 km) south

to protect the Morton Ferry crossing at Fort Bend, and

Baker was ordered to guard the river crossing at San Fe-

lipe de Austin.[103]

News of approaching Mexican troops and Houstons re-

treat caused panic among the population in the coun-ties of Washington, Sabine, ShelbyandSan Augustine.

Amid the confusion of fleeing residents of those counties,

two volunteer groups under captains William Kimbro and

Benjamin Bryant arrived to join Houston on March 29.

Kimbro was ordered to San Felipe de Austin to reinforce

Bakers troops, while Bryants men remained with the

main army.[104]

After an erroneous scouting report of approaching Mex-

ican troops, Baker burned San Felipe de Austin to the

ground on March 30.[105] When Baker claimed Hous-

ton had given him an order to do so, Houston denied

it.[106] Houstons account was that the residents burnedtheir own property to keep itout of the hands of the Mexi-

can army.[91] San Felipe de Austins residents did as those

before them in escaping the Mexican army, and fled to the

east.[105]

During a two-week period beginning March 31, the Tex-

ian army camped on the west side of theBrazos River

inAustin County, near Groces Landing (also known as

Groces Ferry).[107] As Houston led his army north to-

wards the landing, the unrelenting rainy weather swelled

the Brazos and threatened flooding.[108] Groces was

transformed into a training camp for the troops.[109] Ma-

jor Edwin Morehouse arrived with a New York battalionof recruits who were immediately assigned to assist Wyly

Martin at Fort Bend.[110] Civilian men who were flee-

ing the Mexicans enlisted at Groces,[111] and displaced

civilian women in the camp helped the armys efforts by

sewing shirts for the soldiers.[112]

Samuel G. Hardaway, a survivor of Major William

Wards group who had escaped the Battle of Refugio and

re-joined Fannin at the Battle of Coleto, also managedto escape the Goliad massacre. As he fled Goliad, he

was eventually joined by three other survivors, Joseph

Andrews, James P. Trezevant and M. K. Moses. Spies

for the Texian army discovered the four men and took

them to Bakers camp near San Felipe de Austin on April

2.[113] Several other survivors of the Goliad massacre

were found on April 10 by Texian spies. Survivors Daniel

Murphy, Thomas Kemp, Charles Shain, David Jones,

William Brenan and Nat Hazen were taken to Houston at

Groces Landing where they enlisted to fight with Hous-

tons army.[114]

Houston learned of the Goliad massacre on April 3. Un-aware that Secretary of War Rusk was already en route

to Groces with orders from President Burnet to halt the

armys retreat and engage the enemy, he relayed the Go-

liad news by letter to Rusk.[115]

The enemy are laughing you to scorn. You

must fight them. You must retreat no further.

The country expects you to fight. The salvation

of the country depends on your doing so.

David G. Burnet, ad interim president of

the Republic of Texas[116]

Empowered to remove Houston from command and take

over the army himself, Rusk instead assessed Houstons

plan of action as correct, after witnessing the training at

Groces. Rusk and Houston formed the Second Regiment

on April 8 to serve under Sherman, with Burleson retain-

ing command of the First Regiment.[FN 10]

2.4.2 Yellowstonesteamboat

The steamboat Yellowstone[112] under the command of

Captain John Eautaw Ross was impressed into service forthe Provisional Army of Texas on April 2, and initially

ferried patients across the Brazos River when Dr. James

Aeneas Phelps established a field hospital at Bernardo

Plantation.[118] Three days later, Santa Anna joined with

Sesmas troops,[119] and had them build flatboats to cross

the Brazos as the Mexicans sought to overtake and defeat

the Texians.[120] Wyly Martin reported on April 8 that

Mexican forces had divided and were headed both east

to Nacogdoches and southeast to Matagorda.[121] Hous-

ton reinforced Bakers post at San Felipe de Austin on

April 9,[122] as Santa Anna continued moving southeast

on April 10.

[123]

The Texian army was transported by the Yellowstoneover

to the east side of the Brazos on April 12, where they set
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowstone_(steamboat)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin_County,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazos_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Augustine_County,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelby_County,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabine_County,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goliad_massacrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goliad_massacrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornel_Decree


7/14

2.5 Burning of Harrisburg and the crucial crossroads 7

up camp at the Bernardo Plantation.[124] After walking

50 miles (80 km) from Harrisburg, future president of

the RepublicMirabeau B. Lamararrived at Bernardo to

enlist as a private in Houstons army and suggested using

the steamer for guerilla warfare.[125]

Had it not been for its service, the enemycould never have been overtaken until they had

reached the Sabine ... use of the boat enabled

me to cross the Brazos and save Texas.

Sam Houston on the Yellowstones

contributions[126]

With Baker guarding the crossing at San Felipe de Austin,

and Martin guarding the Morton Ferry crossing[127] at

Ford Bend, Santa Anna opted on April 12 to cross the

Brazos halfway between at Thompsons Ferry,[128] with

Sesmas men and artillery crossing over the next day.[129]The Mexican army attacked the steamer numerous times

in an attempt to capture it, but Ross successfully used cot-

ton bales to protect thesteamer and its cargo, and was able

to keep the Yellowstoneaway from Mexican control.[129]

Houston released the steamboat from service on April 14,

and it continued to Galveston.[130]

2.5 Burning of Harrisburg and the crucial

crossroads

The ad interim government departed Harrisburg on the

steamboat Cayuga forNew Washingtonahead of Santa

Annas April 15 arrival,[131] thwarting his plans to elimi-

nate the entire government of the Republic of Texas. [132]

Three printers still at work on the Telegraph and Texas

Registertold the Mexican army that everyone in the gov-

ernment had already left, and Santa Anna responded

by having the printers arrested and the printing presses

tossed intoBuffalo Bayou.[133] After days of looting and

seeking out information about the government, Santa

Anna ordered the town burned on April 18.[134] He

later tried to place the blame for the destruction on

Houston.[135]

Before the Texian army left Bernardo Plantation, they

welcomed the arrival of two cannons cast in Novem-

ber 1835 by Greenwood and Webb inCincinnati, Ohio,

funded entirely by the people of that city as a donation to

the Texas Revolution. The idea had arisen as a suggestion

from Robert F. Lytle, one of the businessmen who helped

fund Shermans Kentucky Riflemen.[136] Arriving in New

Orleansafter a lengthy trip from Ohio on the Mississippi

River, the cannons were transported to the Gulf Coast

aboard the Pennsylvania schooner. The cannons were

nicknamed the Twin Sisters, perhaps in honor of the

twins Elizabeth and Eleanor Rice traveling aboard the

Pennsylvania, who were to present the cannons upontheir arrival at Galveston in April 1836.[137][138] At Galve-

ston, Leander Smith had the responsibility of transport-

Replicas of the Twin Sisters cannons atSan Jacinto Battleground

State Historic Site

ing the cannons from Harrisburg to Bernardo Plantation

in Waller County. Along the way, Smith recruited 35

men into the army.[139] Lieutenant Colonel James Neill

was put in charge of the cannons once they arrived in

camp.[140]

Martin and Baker abandoned the river crossings on April

14 and re-joined Houstons army which had marched

from Bernardo to the Charles Donoho Plantation near

present-day Hempsteadin Waller County.[141] As news

spread of the Mexican armys movements, residents of

Nacogdoches andSan Augustine began to flee east to-

wards the Sabine River. After refusals to continue with

the army, Martin was ordered by Houston to accompany

displaced families on their flight eastward. Hundreds of

soldiers left the army to help their families. The main

army parted from the refugees at this point, and acting

Secretary of War David Thomas[FN 10] advised Houston

to move southward to secure Galveston Bay.[142] Hous-

ton, however, was getting conflicting advice from the cab-

inet members. President Burnet had sent Secretary of

State Carson to Louisiana in hopes of getting the United

States army and individual state militias involved in the

Texas fight for independence. While he attempted to se-

cure such involvement, Carson sent a dispatch to Hous-

ton on April 14 advising him to retreat all the way to the

Louisiana-Texas border on the Sabine River, and bide histime before engaging the Mexican army.[143]

The Texian army camped west of present-dayTomball

on April 15, at Sam McCarleys homestead.[144] They

departed the next morning[145] and 3 miles (4.8 km)

east reached a crucial crossroads.[FN 11] One road led

east to Nacogdoches and eventually the Sabine River and

Louisiana, while the other road led southeast to Harris-

burg. The army was concerned that Houston would con-

tinue the eastward retreat. Although Houston discussed

his decision with no one, he led the army down the south-

east road. Rusk ordered that a small group of volun-

teers be split from the army to secure Robbinss Ferry onthe Trinity River.[147] Houstons troops stopped overnight

on April 16 at the home of Matthew Burnet, and the
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomball,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Augustine,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hempstead,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jacinto_Battleground_State_Historic_Sitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jacinto_Battleground_State_Historic_Sitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati,_Ohiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo_Bayouhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph_and_Texas_Registerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph_and_Texas_Registerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan%2527s_Point,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirabeau_B._Lamar


8/14

8 6 NOTES

next morning continued marching towards Harrisburg, 25

miles (40 km) southeast.[148]

With the refugee families being accorded a military es-

cort eastward and Houston marching southeast, the re-

treat of the Provisional Army of Texas was over. On

the march which would lead to San Jacinto, moving theheavy artillery across rain-soaked terrain slowed down

the armys progress.[140] The army had previously been

assisted in moving the Twin Sisters with oxen borrowed

from refugee Pamela Martin when she believed the army

was fleeing towards Nacogdoches. When she learned the

army was headed towards Harrisburg and a confrontation

with the Mexican army, she reclaimed her oxen.[149] The

Texian army had expanded to twenty-six companies by

the time they reached Harrisburg on April 18 and saw

the destruction Santa Anna had left behind.[150]

3 New Washington

On orders of Santa Anna, Almonte went in pursuit of

the ad interim government at New Washington. During

their flight the Republic officials switched from steamer

to ferry to skiff. On the final leg of the trip, Almonte fi-

nally had them in his sights, but refused to fire after he

saw Mrs. Burnet and her children on the skiff. [151] In ad-

dition to letting the government get away one more time,

Almontes spies had misread Houstons troop movements

and Santa Anna was told that the Texian army was still

retreating eastward, this time throughLynchburg.[152]

New Washington was later looted and burned by Mexican

troops,[153] and as many as 5,000 civilians fled, either by

boat or across land. Those attempting to cross theSan

Jacinto Riverwere bottlenecked for three days, and the

vicinity around the crossing transformed into a refugee

camp. Burnet ordered government assistance all across

Texas for fleeing families.[154]

4 Aftermath

Main article:Battle of San Jacinto

In a troop movement that took all night on a makeshift

raft, the Texian army crossed Buffalo Bayou at Lynch-

burg April 19 with 930 soldiers, leaving behind 255 oth-

ers as guards or for reasons of illness.[155] The idea had

been floated of leaving the Twin Sisters behind as protec-

tion, but Neill was adamant that the cannons be taken into

the battle.[156] In an April 20 skirmish the day before the

main battle Neill was severely wounded,[157] andGeorge

Hockleytook command of the heavy artillery.[158] Esti-

mates of the Mexican army troop strength on the day of

the main battle range from 1,250 to 1,500.

[159]

The Texians attacked in the afternoon of April 21 while

Santa Anna was still under the misconception that Hous-

ton was actually retreating.[160] He had allowed his army

time to relax and feed their horses, while he took a

nap.[161] When he was awakened by the attack, he im-

mediately fled on horseback, but was later captured when

Sergeant James Austin Sylvester found him hiding in

the grass.[162] Houstons own account was that the battle

lasted about eighteen minutes,[160] before apprehend-ing prisoners and confiscating armaments.[163] When the

Twin Sisters went up against the Mexican armys Golden

Standard cannon, they performed so well that Hockleys

unit was able to capture the Mexican cannon.[FN 12]

The Yellowstone saw war service for the Republic one

more time on May 7, when it transported Houston and

his prisoner Santa Anna, along with thegovernment Santa

Anna tried to extinguish, toGalveston Island.[FN 13] From

there, the government and Santa Anna traveled to Velasco

for the signing of thetreaties.[166] Houston had suffered

a serious wound during the battle,[167] and on May 28

boarded the schooner Flora for medical treatment in NewOrleans.[168]

Not until news of the victory at San Jacinto spread did

the refugees return to their homesteads and businesses,

or whatever was left after the destruction caused by both

armies.[38] Throughout Texas, possessions had beenaban-

doned and later looted. Businesses, homes and farms

were wiped out by the devastation of war. Often there

was nothing left to go back to, but those who went home

began to pick up their lives and move forward. San Fe-

lipe de Austin never really recovered from its total de-

struction. The few people who returned there moved else-

where, sooner or later. Secretary of War Rusk would latercommend the women of Texas who held their families to-

gether during the flight, while their men volunteered to

fight: The men of Texas deserve much credit, but more

was due the women. Armed men facing a foe could not

but be brave; but the women, with their little children

around them, without means of defense or power to resist,

faced danger and death with unflinching courage.[154]

5 See also

Timeline of the Texas Revolution

6 Notes

6.1 Footnotes

[1] In 19th century Mexico, Federalism was the empower-

ment of local governments, while Centralism sought to

eliminate local political power and give it all to the na-

tional government.[1]

[2] 193,600 square miles (501,000 km2), Mexican provinces

of Coahuila and Texas.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Texas_Revolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaties_of_Velascohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velasco,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galveston_Islandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Austin_Sylvesterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Hockleyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Hockleyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_San_Jacintohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jacinto_River_(Texas)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jacinto_River_(Texas)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynchburg,_Texas


9/14

6.2 Citations 9

[3] The Provisional Army of Texas consisted of three differ-

ent categories of enlistees. The Regular Army was much

like a modern-day army in its command structure, and

had a two-year enlistment period. Permanent Volunteers

ran a democratic structure allowing internal elections, and

was for the duration of the war. The Volunteer Auxiliary

was short-termed with an enlistment period of only sixmonths.[13]

[4] Locally organized volunteer militias were initially sepa-

rate from the Provisional Army of Texas and operated au-

tonomously. Whether or not they were paid, or had sup-

plies or uniforms, varied. Each had its own framework

and elected leaders. They decided as a unit which battles

they would fight. The Consultation only made Houston

commander-in-chief of the paid provisional army he was

to recruit and train. On March 4, 1836 at Washington-on-

the-Brazos , the Convention also put the volunteer militias

under Houstons command.[14]

[5] While it is not certain what became of the cannon, SantaAnna ordered all brass and bronze artillery seized afterthe

battle to be melted down.[27]

[6] Historians disagree as to the clarity of Houstons orders.

In a letter dated January 17, 1836, Houstons wording

seems to leave the final decision to provisional Governor

Henry Smith. Colonel Bowie will leave here in a few

hours for Bexar, with a detachment of from thirty to fifty

men. I have ordered the fortifications in the town of Bexar

to be demolished, and if you think well of it, I will remove

all the cannon and other munitions of war to Gonzales

and Copano, blow up the Alamo, and abandon the place,

as it will be impossible to keep up the Station with vol-

unteers. The fractious provisional government had im-peached Smith on January 11.[44]

[7] A historical plaque denotes the Sam Houston Oak in front

of theBraches House, which itself is on theNRHP.[73]

[8] The ferry and trading post had been built by Jesse Bur-

nam in 1824, and had survived numerous attacks from

Karankawa indians. Burnam later claimed Houston de-

stroyed his property because of personal issues between

the two, not because of any threat from the Mexican

army.[83]

[9] Historians Jack Jackson and John Wheat in their research

of Mexican government records believe that although thewording of the December 30, 1835 Tornel Decree spec-

ified foreigners, the document was a mere formality to

green-light Santa Annas broader plan of dealing with op-

position both foreign and domestic. In a letter to General

Joaqun Ramrez y Sesma on February 29, 1836, Santa

Anna wrote in this war there are no prisoners. At the

Battle of the Alamoprior to the final siege, he offered a

three-day amnesty to allow Tejanos inside the mission to

leave unharmed. At other skirmishes in the war, there is

no indication either he or his generals made that distinc-

tion. Jackson and White stated, When he learned that

Urrea had taken several hundred prisoners near Goliad,

Santa Anna expressed his amazement that they had not

been treated as pirates and swiftly executed as Tornels de-cree specified. He sent more letters until the tragic deed

was done. [98]

[10] Attorney General David Thomas was named as acting

Secretary of War when Rusk joined the army.[117]

[11] In Texas history and in historical works on Sam Houston,

this is referred to as the fork in the road where Hous-

ton stopped retreating and instead actively pursued Santa

Anna. The site is now designated as a Recorded Texas

Historic Landmark and located in the present day Harris

County city of Tomball.[146]

[12] The final fate of the Twin Sisters cannons is unknown.

After the Battle of San Jacinto, the cannons were sent to

Austin, Texas, to be used for ceremonial purposes. When

the cannons were discovered to be in New Orleans, Sam

Houston petitioned for their return to Texas at the onset of

the Civil War. Their last known whereabouts was in 1863

at theBattle of Galveston. Replicas are on display at the

San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site.[164]

[13] Houstons agreement when he impressed the Yellowstone

steamboat April 2 through April 14, was for Ross and the

17-man crew to receive at least 1/3 of a leagueof land

(more for officers) as payment. The crew was not obli-

gated to fight. When Stephen F. Austin died in Decem-

ber 1836, theYellowstonetransported his body to Brazo-

ria County for burial. Nothing is known about the steamer

after 1837.[165]

6.2 Citations

[1] Todishet al. (1998), pp. 2, 4, 6.

[2] Tucker (2012), pp. 151152.

[3] McKay, S. S.Constitution of Coahuila y Tejas. Hand-

book of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association.

Retrieved December 1, 2014.; Haley (2002), p. 116.

[4] Davis (2004), p. 143; Todishet al. (1998), p. 121.

[5] Davis (2004), p. 200.

[6] Todishet al. (1998), p. 125.

[7] Todishet al. (1998), p. 34.

[8] Todishet al. (1998), p. 23.

[9] Todishet al. (1998), p. 24.

[10] Steen, Ralph W.General Council. Handbook of Texas

Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved De-

cember 1, 2014.

[11] Steen, Ralph W.Henry Smith. Handbook of Texas On-

line. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved De-

cember 1, 2014.

[12] Haley (2002), p. 116.

[13] Todishet al. (1998), pp. 1415, 24; Proclamation of

San Houston, A Call for Volunteers, December 12, 1835.

Texas State Library and Archives Commission. State of

Texas. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[14] Todishet al. (1998), pp. 14, 44, 46, 75, 127.
https://www.tsl.texas.gov/exhibits/texas175/houstonscall.htmlhttps://www.tsl.texas.gov/exhibits/texas175/houstonscall.htmlhttp://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fsm23https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/mbg01http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/ngc01https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_(unit)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Galvestonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alamohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karankawahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Gonzales_County,_Texashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braches_House


10/14

10 6 NOTES

[15] Kelso, Helen Burleson. Edward Burleson. Handbook

of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Re-

trieved December 1, 2014.

[16] Muir, Andrew Forest. Harrisburg, Texas (Harris

County)". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State His-

torical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[17] Todishet al. (1998), p.126; Steen, Ralph W.Provisional

Government. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State

Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[18] Lack (1992), p. 76.

[19] Hardin (1994), p. 161.

[20] Hardin (1994), p. 161; Lack (1992), p. 83.

[21] Hatch (1999), p. 188; The Texas Revolution: Part C

(JanuaryMarch 7, 1836)". Handbook of Texas Online.

Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December

17, 2014.

[22] Ad interim government. Handbook of Texas Online.

Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved September

16, 2015.

[23] Lack (1992), p. 77.

[24] Lindley, Thomas Ricks. Gonzales Come and Take It

Cannon. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State His-

torical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[25] Hardin, Stephen L.James Clinton Neill. Handbook of

Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Re-


[26] Hardin, Stephen L.Battle of Gonzales. Handbook of



[27] Davis (2004), p. 223.

[28] Davis (2004), pp. 142145.

[29] Davis (2004), p. 147.

[30] Todishet al. (1998), p. 124.

[31] Guthrie, Keith. Battle of Lipantitln. Handbook of



[32] Davis (2004), pp. 157159; Barr, Alwyn.Battle of Con-

cepcion. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Histor-

ical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[33] Barr, Alwyn. Grass Fight. Handbook of Texas Online.


1, 2014.

[34] Denham, James M. (January 1994). New Orleans, Mar-

itime Commerce, and the Texas War for Independence,

1836. The Southwestern Historical Quarterly (Texas

State Historical Association) 97 (3): 510534. JSTOR

30241429. (subscription required (help)).;The Siege ofBxar. Texas Library and Archives Commission. Re-

trieved May 29, 2015.

[35] Davis (2004), pp. 182185.

[36] Todishet al. (1998), p. 29, 125.

[37] Davis (2004), pp. 75, 186187; Roell, Craig H.

Matamoros Expedition. Handbook of Texas Online.


1, 2014.

[38] Covington, Carolyn Callaway.Runaway Scrape. Hand-

book of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association.

Retrieved December 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), pp. 5556.

[39] Todishet al. (1998), pp. 126127.

[40] Todishet al. (1998), p. 128; Jackson, Wheat (2005), p.

372.

[41] Bishop, Curtis. Battle of Agua Dulce Creek. Hand-

book of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Associa-

tion. Retrieved December 1, 2014.; Hartmann, Clinton

P. James Walker Fannin Jr.. Handbook of Texas Online.


1, 2014.

[42] Todishet al. (1998), pp. 29, 125.

[43] Reid, Jan (May 1989). The Runaway Scrape. Texas

Monthly. p. 130. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[44] Todishet al. (1998), pp. 31, 139, 226; Hardin, Stephen

L. Battle of the Alamo. Handbook of Texas Online.


1, 2014.

[45] McDonald, Archie P. WilliamBarret Travis. Handbook

of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Re-trieved December 1, 2014.

[46] Todishet al. (1998), p.126; Moore (2004), p. 39.

[47] Todishet al. (1998), p. 43; Moore (2004), p. 28.

[48] Poyo (1996), p. 53, 58 Efficient in the Cause (Stephen

L. Harden); Lindley (2003), p. 94, 134.

[49] Todishet al. (1998), p. 142.

[50] Moore (2004), pp. 2224, 51.

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[59] Moore (2004), p. 47, 67.

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[62] Moore (2004), pp. 5152.

[63] Moore (2004), p. 51.

[64] Moore (2004), pp. 3738.

[65] Moore (2004), p. 56.

[66] Hardin, McBride (2001), p. 9.

[67] Hardin (1994), p. 179.

[68] Moore (2004), pp. 5760; Hardin, McBride (2001), p. 9.

[69] Moore (2004), p. 60.

[70] Moore (2004), p. 58.

[71] Moore (2004), p. 59.

[72] Moore (2004), pp. 6163.

[73] Moore (2004), pp. 6367; Sam Houston Oak.

Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks. Texas Historical

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House. NRHP Texas landmarks. Texas Historical Com-

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[74] Davis (2004), p. 241.

[75] Moore (2004), pp. 7779.

[76] Muir, Andrew Forest.Jane Birdsall Harris. Handbook


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[77] Todishet al. (1998), p. 129.

[78] Moore (2004), p. 68

[79] Moore (2004), pp. 7172.

[80] Moore (2004), p. 66;Site of the Camp of the Texas

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[81] Moore (2004), pp. 6973.

[82] Moore (2004), pp. 7576, 83; Route of the Texas

Army. Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks. Texas His-

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[83] Watts (2008), p. 18; Awbrey, Dooley (2005), p. 537;

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cember 19, 2014.; Largent, Jr., F. B. Jesse Burnam.

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[84] Allon Hinton, Don Allon.Columbus, Texas. Handbook


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[85] Moore (2004), pp. 90, 9495.

[86] Moore (2004), pp. 90, 97, 99103, 118120, 126.

[87] Moore (2004), pp. 94, 95.

[88] Moore (2004), pp. 9899.

[89] Moore (2004), pp. 107, 111.

[90] Roell, Craig H. Battle of Coleto. Handbook of Texas

Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved De-cember 1, 2014.; Todishet al. (1998), p.130.

[91] Moore (2004), p. 147.

[92] Moore (2004), pp. 114, 144, 171.

[93] Moore (2004), p. 100

[94] Moore (2004), pp. 126130.

[95] Moore (2004), pp. 114118.

[96] Moore (2004), pp. 117118.

[97] Haley (2002), p. 129.

[98] Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 374, 377, 386387; Poyo

(1996), pp. 53, 58 Efficient in the Cause (Stephen

L. Harden); Lindley (2003), pp. 94, 134; Todish et al.

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[99] Haley (2002), p. 130.

[100] Moore (2004), pp. 128133.

[101] Moore (2004), p. 128.

[102] Moore (2004), pp. 135136.

[103] Moore (2004), pp. 136137.

[104] Moore (2004), pp. 145146, 163164.

[105] Christopher, Charles. San Felipe de Austin de Austin,

Tx. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical

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[106] Moore (2004), pp. 140141.

[107] Berlet, Sarah Groce. Groces Ferry. Handbook of Texas


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[108] Moore (2004), p. 162.

[109] Moore (2004), pp. 151152.

[110] Cutrer, Thomas W. Edwin Morehouse. Handbook of


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[111] Moore (2004), pp.147148.

[112] Moore (2004), p. 149.

[113] Moore (2004), pp. 157158.

[114] Moore (2004), pp. 194195.

[115] Benham, Priscilla Myers. Thomas Jefferson Rusk.

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12 6 NOTES

[116] Moore (2004), p. 189.

[117] Kemp, L. W.David Thomas. Handbook of Texas On-


cember 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), pp. 183185.

[118] Moore (2004), p. 156.

[119] Moore (2004), p. 176.

[120] Moore (2004), pp. 179,181.

[121] Moore (2004), p. 182.

[122] Moore (2004), p. 186.

[123] Moore (2004), pp. 186187.

[124] Moore (2004), pp. 198200.

[125] Moore (2004), pp. 203204; Gambrell, Herbert.

Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar. Handbook of Texas On-


cember 1, 2014.

[126] Greene (1998), pp. 1921.

[127] John V. Morton. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas

State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1,

2014.

[128] Hardin, Stephen F. Thompsons Ferry. Handbook of



[129] Moore (2004), pp. 206207.

[130] Moore (2004), p. 212.

[131] Moore (2004), p. 207.

[132] Moore (2004), pp. 195197, 207.

[133] Moore (2004), pp. 219220; Fischer (1976), p. 88.

[134] Davis (2004), pp. 264165.

[135] Moore (2004), pp. 218219, 232233; Todish et al.

(1998), p.130.

[136] Moore (2004), pp. 15, 152153.

[137] Hunt, Jeffrey William. Twin Sisters. Handbook of



[138] Moore (2004), p. 185; Haley (2002), p. 137.

[139] Moore (2004), pp. 171173, 201202.

[140] Moore (2004), pp. 212213.

[141] Moore (2004), p. 214; Charles Donoho Plantation.

Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks. Texas Historical

Commission. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[142] Moore (2004), pp. 215217.

[143] Moore (2004), pp. 211212.

[144] Samuel McCarley Homesite. Recorded Texas Historic

Landmarks. Texas Historical Commission. Retrieved

December 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), pp. 220221.

[145] Moore (2004), p. 222.

[146] Moore (2004), p. 225; Abraham Roberts Homesite.

Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks. Texas HistoricalCommission. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[147] Robbinss Ferry. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas

State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1,

2014.; Moore (2004), pp. 226227.

[148] Matthew Burnett Homesite. Recorded Texas Historic

Landmarks. Texas Historical Commission. Retrieved

December 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), p. 229.

[149] Moore (2004), pp. 227228.

[150] Moore (2004), pp. 233235, 243.

[151] Moore (2004), pp. 230232.

[152] Moore (2004), p. 230; Lynchburg Town Ferry.

Recorded Texas Historical Landmarks. Texas Historical

Commission. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[153] Moore (2004), pp. 235237.

[154] Downs, Fane (19861987). ""Tryels and Trub-

bles":Women in Early Nineteenth-Century Texas. South-

western Historical Quarterly (Denton, TX: Texas State

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[155] Moore (2004), pp. 242, 295296;Sam Houston Crossed

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Moore (2004), p. 251.

[156] Moore (2004), p. 246.

[157] Moore (2004), pp. 264, 267.

[158] Moore (2004), p. 295.

[159] Moore (2004), p. 298; Todishet al. (1998), p. 131.

[160] Moore (2004), p. 230.

[161] Moore (2004), pp. 328329.

[162] Moore (2004), pp. 337,353,377.

[163] Moore (2004), pp. 344345.

[164] San Jacinto and the Mystery of the Twin Sisters Can-

nons. Texas State Cemetery. State of Texas. Retrieved

December 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), pp. 333336.

[165] Burkhalter, Lois Wood. Yellow Stone. Handbook of


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[166] Moore (2004), pp. 375386,405407.

[167] Moore (2004), pp. 338339.

[168] Moore (2004), p. 407.
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13

7 References

Awbrey, Betty Dooley; Dooley, Claude (2005).

Why Stop?: A Guide to Texas Historical Roadside

Markers. Lanham, MD:Taylor Trade Publishing.

ISBN 978-1-58979-243-2.

Davis, William C (2004). Lone Star Rising: The

Revolutionary Birth of the Texas Republic. New

York, NY:Free Press. ISBN 978-0-684-86510-2.

Fischer, Ernest G. (1976). Robert Potter: Founder

of the Texas Navy. Gretna, LA:Pelican Publishing

Company.ISBN 978-1-58980-473-9.

Greene, A. C. (1998). Sketches from the Five States

of Texas. College Station, TX:Texas A & M Uni-

versity Press.ISBN 978-0-89096-842-0.

Haley, James L. (2002). Sam Houston. Norman,

OK:University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-

8061-3644-8.

Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad-A Mili-

tary History of the Texas Revolution. Austin, TX:

University of Texas Press.ISBN 0-292-73086-1.

Hardin, Stephen; McBride, Angus (2001). The

Alamo 1836: Santa Annas Texas Campaign. Ox-

ford, UK:Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-

090-2.

Hatch, Thom (1999). Encyclopedia of the Alamo

and the Texas Revolution. Jefferson, NC: McFarland

& Company.ISBN 978-0-7864-0593-0.

Jackson, Jack; Wheat, John (2005). Almontes

Texas: Juan N. Almontes 1834 Inspection, Secret Re-

port & Role in the 1836 Campaign. Denton, TX:

Texas State Historical Association. ISBN 978-0-

87611-207-6.

Lack, Paul D. (1992). The Texas Revolutionary Ex-

perience: A Political and Social History 18351836.College Station, TX: Texas A & M University Press.

ISBN 0-89096-497-1.

Lindley, Thomas Ricks (2003). Alamo Traces: New

Evidence and New Conclusions. Plano, TX: Repub-

lic of Texas Press. ISBN 1-55622-983-6.

Moore, Stephen L. (2004). Eighteen Minutes: The

Battle of San Jacinto and the Texas Independence

Campaign. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press.

ISBN 1-58907-009-7.

Poyo, Gerald Eugene (1996). Tejano Journey,17701850. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

ISBN 978-0-292-76570-2.

Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted

(1998). Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehen-

sive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas

Revolution. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-1-

57168-152-2.

Tucker, Spencer C. (2012). The Encyclopedia ofthe Mexican-American War [3 volumes]: A Political,

Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, CA:

ABC-CLIO.ISBN 978-1-85109-853-8.

Watts, Marie W. (2008). La Grange (Images of

America: Texas). Charleston, SC:Arcadia Publish-

ing.ISBN 978-0-7385-5636-9.

8 External links

The Runaway Scrape
http://www.sonofthesouth.net/texas/runaway-scrape.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-5636-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadia_Publishinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadia_Publishinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-853-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC-CLIOhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57168-152-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57168-152-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-76570-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58907-009-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55622-983-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89096-497-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87611-207-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87611-207-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Historical_Associationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-0593-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McFarland_&_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McFarland_&_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-090-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-090-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osprey_Publishinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-73086-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3644-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3644-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89096-842-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_A_&_M_University_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_A_&_M_University_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58980-473-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelican_Publishing_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelican_Publishing_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86510-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58979-243-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Trade_Publishing


14/14

14 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text

Runaway ScrapeSource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaway_Scrape?oldid=716338969Contributors:Leandrod, Nv8200pa, MichaelDevore, Beginning, Deh, Bender235, JW1805, Woohookitty, NekoDaemon, Scott Mingus, Awiseman, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, IanRose, Bluebot, Elagatis, Shunpiker, Freek Verkerk, Onlinenow, Kuru, Spiel, Mr Stephen, Civil Engineer III, Ken Gallager, Cydebot,

LarryMColeman, Denarn, Mark Shaw, KConWiki, JaGa, Fiachra10003, Karanacs, Jeepday, Maile66, Kritikos99, Jackfork, Oldag07,MBK004, ClueBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Piledhigheranddeeper, Sturmvogel 66, Dank, Versus22, WikHead, Good Olfactory, Some jerk on theInternet, Ronhjones, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, LilHelpa, The Banner, Mononomic, NFD9001, Anotherclown, AustralianRupert,FrescoBot, JMilty, Chenopodiaceous, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Abductive, Serols, Trappist the monk, Dewritech, Dcirovic, CrewsGiles, DLS Texas, $1LENCE D00600D, Gjmokcb, Helpful Pixie Bot, MusikAnimal, DPL bot, The Illusive Man, Ireilly9, Niketitan,Acre1234567890, DavidLeighEllis, TFA Protector Bot, Savorycesar, FACBot, JorisEnter, SSTflyer and Anonymous: 50

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File:Braches_House_and_Sam_Houston_Oak.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Braches_House_and_Sam_Houston_Oak.JPGLicense:CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors:Own workOriginal artist: 25or6to4

File:Campaigns_of_the_Texas_Revolution.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Campaigns_of_the_Texas_Revolution.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors:derived from Pageant of America, Vol. 2, The Lure of the Frontier (1928),Yale University Press. Original artist:original image drawn by Joseph L. Cain; update bykaranacs

File:Gonzales_cannon_2005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Gonzales_cannon_2005.jpgLicense:

CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: 2005 Larry D. MooreOriginal artist:Larry D. Moore

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File:Sam_Houston_Army_of_Texas_recruitment_proclamation_Dec_12,_1835.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Sam_Houston_Army_of_Texas_recruitment_proclamation_Dec_12%2C_1835.jpg License: Public domainContributors: https://www.tsl.texas.gov/treasures/republic/proclamation-houston.htmlOriginal artist:Sam Houston

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9.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
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