running head: chronic absenteeism and the ......chronic absenteeism and achievement gap 2 abstract...

Running head: CHRONIC ABSENTEEISM AND THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP 1

Chronic Absenteeism among Low-Income Students Feeding the Achievement Gap: A Literature

Review and Suggestions for School Counselors

A Research Paper

_________________________

Presented to

The Faculty of Adler Graduate School

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

The Degree of Master of Arts in

Adlerian Counseling and Psyhotherapy

_________________________

By:

Paula Anderson

_________________________

Chair: Doug Pelcak

Member: Amy Foell

_________________________

May 2016

CHRONIC ABSENTEEISM AND ACHIEVEMENT GAP 2

Abstract

The achievement gap has been acknowledged and discussed for many years in its effects on

student success rates. Students who chronically miss school create a roadblock to a schools

ability to gain competency for all students. For low income families, some of the reasons for

absenteeism are preventable illnesses, lack of health care, lack of transportation, chronic

mobility, language barriers, or a general mistrust of the educational system. School counselors

need to understand the factors contributing to chronic absence as the first step in determining

actions needed to create solutions for those families who may be underserved by the schools.

School counselors must also consider the implications for the faculty and peers of those students

who are missing school on a frequent basis. School counselors need to facilitate the collaborative

efforts between the families, schools, and the students. Since chronic absenteeism typically

begins in the earliest school years but has effects that last through high school, these strategies

must be undertaken early and utilize a preventative rather than reactive nature. Interventions to

improve school attendance and the role of the school counselor in them will be discussed.


Table of Contents

Chronic Absenteeism among Low-Income Students Feeding the Achievement Gap .................... 5

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 5

Attendance Gap ............................................................................................................................... 5

Achievement Gap............................................................................................................................ 7

Analysis of the Problem .................................................................................................................. 8

Reasons for Chronic Absenteeism .................................................................................................. 9

Discretion .................................................................................................................................. 10

Barrier........................................................................................................................................ 10

Aversion .................................................................................................................................... 11

Effects of Chronic Absenteeism ................................................................................................... 12

School Counselor Suggestions ...................................................................................................... 13

Data Collection .......................................................................................................................... 14

Building Strong Relationships .................................................................................................. 16

Ready4Routines . ................................................................................................................... 17

Check and connect . ............................................................................................................... 18

Minnesota’s School Counseling Struggle ................................................................................. 19

Educating Public on Effects of Absence ................................................................................... 20

School-Wide Training ............................................................................................................... 21

Response to Intervention (RtI) .................................................................................................. 22

Tier 1 ..................................................................................................................................... 23

Tier 2...................................................................................................................................... 23

Tier 3 ..................................................................................................................................... 24

Potential Complications ................................................................................................................ 26

ASCA Model ................................................................................................................................ 28

Adlerian Perspective ..................................................................................................................... 30

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 31

References ..................................................................................................................................... 34

Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 39

Appendix B ................................................................................................................................... 40


Appendix C ................................................................................................................................... 41

Appendix D ................................................................................................................................... 42

Appendix E ................................................................................................................................... 44

Appendix F.................................................................................................................................... 45

Helpful Resources for School Counselors .................................................................................... 52


Chronic Absenteeism among Low-Income Students Feeding the Achievement Gap

Introduction

According to Warren and Mapp (2011) education is the civil rights issue of our

generation. Access to quality education continues to be more attainable for non-minority people

who are living outside of poverty and especially those who come from well-educated families.

The attendance and achievement gaps persist across our nation for those in poverty, especially

those in poor communities. The following literature review attempts to understand not only the

differences in student achievement but then to address the mindset and strategies school

counselors and their schools can use in bridging these gaps and why it is important to consider

the effects of chronic absenteeism on achievement and academic differences between the social

economic classes.

This paper will first focus on understanding the commonly used definitions of the

attendance and achievement gaps and the population of students who are most frequently lost in

the gaps. Next, the focus will shift to understanding the nature of the problem itself. Following

that, school counselors will be given some ways of understanding how to approach the gaps and

some interventions to dealing with the gaps. Approaches by the American School Counseling

Association will follow with goals in mind for attaining school success for all students. Finally

the paper will end with Adlerian views on not only the basis for the issues addressed, but also the

approaches Adler himself may have used in helping the parents, schools, and students find their

way into a more productive focus and effective means of gaining equity and social justice.

Attendance Gap

According to Balfanz and Byrnes (2012, p. 3) “Educators and policy makers cannot truly

understand achievement gaps or efforts to close them without considering chronic absenteeism.”


Chronic absenteeism, also known by some as the attendance gap, is finally receiving much

attention among those attempting to solve the achievement gap problem. The attendance gap is

typically defined as “missing ten percent of a school year for any reason,” (Balfanz & Byrnes,

2012, p. 3) excused or unexcused. It is different from truancy, which is defined by unexcused

absence.

As will be discussed further later in the paper, many schools lack adequate data

collection, and as a result, students who are chronically absent may not be noticed as such for

extended periods of time. “Because it is not measured, chronic absenteeism is not acted upon”

(Balfanz & Byrnes, 2012, p. 6). “Indeed it is the rare state education department, school district,

or principal that can tell you how many students have missed 10 percent or more of the school

year or in the previous year missed a month or more school” (2012, p. 3). Due to the limited

data available, experts have made an educated guess that the “national rate of 10 percent chronic

absenteeism seems conservative and it could be as high as 15 percent” (2012, p. 3). Within these

numbers, significantly higher percentages of students experiencing chronic attendance issues are

living in poverty and are especially pronounced in high-poverty schools. See Appendix A, from

an article by Henderson, Hill, and Norton (2014), which indicates the difference in students

attendance based on wealth.

Attendance gap, like the achievement gap, exists in a bigger proportion among low

income families. “Gender and ethnic background do not appear to play a role in this” (Balfanz &

Byrnes, 2012, p. 4). In recent years, organizations such as Attendance Works and Everyone

Graduates have attempted to bring awareness of the issues associated with students missing too

much educational time. These organizations have showcased interventions and public service


announcements that have made gains in attendance. One such intervention used wake up calls

from famous athletes to encourage students to make it to school on time.

The good news is that when students attend school regularly, they can see outsized

literacy gains. Ready’s study showed that low-income kids who attended regularly

appeared to benefit from the instruction more than their higher income peers. They

gained 8 percent more literacy skills in kindergarten and nearly 7 percent more in first

grade. This narrows the reading gap between rich and poor by nearly a third. (Ginsburg,

Jordan, & Chang, 2014)

Although research has continued to prove the gains achieved by reducing the amount of

absenteeism, progress in improving absenteeism has not yet been noticeable on a wide scale.

Thus the achievement gap which, as noted earlier, is greatly influenced by the level of attendance

of students remains.

Achievement Gap

The achievement gap basically explains the inequity in standard-based testing scores and

academic performance between low-income and/or ethnically diverse students and their white

middle and upper class peers. The gap “denotes which groups of students with relatively equal

ability don’t achieve in school at the same levels. In fact, one group often far exceeds the

achievement level of the other” (Holcomb-McCoy, 2007, pp. 5-6). The achievement gap is

many times thought to be a problem as students reach middle or high school, but “the gap first

opens in the preschool years” (Holcomb-McCoy, 2007, p. 10) and continually grows to create

greater disparity in opportunities for children as students and even more so as they become

adults. School counselors need to be aware of several factors when addressing the achievement

gap; community, home, and student.

Holcomb-McCoy (2007, p. 12) suggests that communities have varying degrees of

discrimination that affect the “belief that one can or cannot succeed.” These beliefs convey to

students that they cannot succeed can be a deterrent to student success. In addition, a student’s


home life where there may exist issues such as “poor nutrition, substandard housing, and

substance abuse…influence students’ ability to learn” (2007, p. 12). There are many additional

potential barriers to student success which are derived from home environments such as chronic

stress due to financial barriers and physical and mental illness among family members. Added to

these community and home factors then are effects on “students’ emotional and social

development” which “contributes to their low achievement” (2007, p. 12). School counselors can

look for the reasons why this can be a problem in their schools.

Analysis of the Problem

Both chronic absenteeism and the achievement gap bring challenges to all involved in the

school setting. Classrooms must spend time helping students with gaps in their learning to help

them to a reasonable level of competency prior to transitioning to more difficult work. The lack

of consistent data collection across schools, “districts will be unable to assess the needs of its

students and provide appropriate interventions” (Spradin, Cierniak, Shi, & Chen, 2012, p. 8).

Action needs to be taken early. Attendance issues typically begin in the preschool and

Kindergarten years. In a report named Mapping the Early Attendance Gap, “absenteeism in the

early years can set a pattern of academic trouble and poor attendance in later grades” (Davis,

Chang, Jordan, Bishop, & Mays, 2015). See Appendix B retrieved from Henderson, Hill, and

Norton’s (2014) article for more information about reading scores in students who miss chronic

amounts of school. If it is true that a student who starts school lagging academically also stays

behind, this is particularly troubling. Of course academics are only one discouraging aspect.

When educating students, school counselors need to look holistically at students. This means the

academic, career, and social/emotional development.


Social and emotional needs of students cannot be met when there is chronic absence.

Students who chronically miss school also struggle with social skills, ability to concentrate and

work independently, and adapt to change according to Ginsburg, Jordan, and Chang (2014). This

is also a reflection of the amount of engagement in the school. These “soft skills” are critical for

social needs, but also helpful later in careers. “Giving students soft skills could make the

difference in their being hired for a job in their field (Evenson, 1999), and the lack of soft skills

can sink the promising career of someone who has technical ability and professional expertise

but no interpersonal qualities (Klaus, 2010)” (Robles, 2012). According to the American School

Counselor Association recommendations, these skills would be taught to students through all

three domains of career, academic, and social/emotional throughout a student’s school career.

However, if students are missing too much school, they are also missing these important learning

opportunities. If it stands to be true that low-income families are missing chronic amounts of

school and thus achieving below students of higher income families and communities and

missing crucial information offered, the next necessary step is to understand the causes of

missing school.

Reasons for Chronic Absenteeism

Chronic absenteeism is measured in differing ways across school districts. Some

published documents agree on 10% absence as the standard to define the condition as chronic.

However schools choose to define it, there are three categories to explain absenteeism;

discretion, aversion, and barriers (Balfanz & Chang, 2013). Each of these categories provides

crucial information to make changes for growth within the school and community. School

counselors must be prepared to ask difficult questions to determine which category a student,

family, or culture are experiencing when absenteeism is approaching chronic levels in order to


find appropriate interventions. The following provides more information on each of these

categories, beginning with understanding discretion.

Discretion

Discretion, otherwise known as students who do not attend school, requires attention to

be focused on building a trusting relationship with the school, acknowledging the reasons for

mistrust, providing information about the benefits of receiving an education, and communicating

the detriment to educational development that absenteeism creates. “With parent/caregiver

discretion being a challenge for nearly one out of three chronically absent students, it is clear that

it is not only students who face multiple obstacles, but parents, as well” (SCUSD, 2014).

Although this sounds simple on paper, factors such as chronic stress that may predicate the level

of importance school plays among low income families particularly. In fact, “parents who have

gone beyond a high school education are found to be more involved with their infants and

children than those who did not finish high school…many less educated parents simply have

more unmanaged stress in their lives, and this stress interferes with ability and opportunity to

interact with their child” (Sclafani, 2004, p. 88). Discretion was identified as the second most

frequent contributing factor according to the Sacramento City Unified School District. (2014)

The only pretext used more frequently than discretion is barriers which contribute to students

missing school.

Barrier

Barriers are also known as cannot attend. Something is standing in the way of this

student’s ability to be at school consistently. This category of absenteeism may offer the most

specific and concrete information, however, may feel insurmountable from a school’s

perspective. In the case of low income families, barriers may be lack of health care which lead


to illness, lack of necessary supplies, nutrition, and learning conditions at home, lack of

transportation and higher family transiency. While this information provides greater insight to

the needs of a student and the student’s family, the school and community may not be able to

access the necessary funds to supply the student with those needs. In a brief presented by the

Sacramento City Unified School District (SCUSD), it was found that a “student’s physical health

was the most frequently identified factor contributing to chronic absenteeism” (2014). And in

addition to the student’s health, the parent’s health also contributes to a significant amount of

missed school days. School counselors must be aware of community and government resources

in order to assist students and their families in locating appropriate resources to overcome

barriers to attendance.

Aversion

Aversion, also known as will not attend, is defined by the student’s lack of will to attend

school. This, of course, could be influenced by the parent’s discretion also, so would the

categories would overlap. According to Balfanz and Chang (2013), aversion may be created by

learning difficulties, bullying, or mental health issues such as depression or anxiety. According

to a study at Sacramento City Unified School District, “Mental health was a factor in about one

quarter of all chronically absent cases” (2014). A potential roadblock in discovering the reason

for aversion can be students who present with physical symptoms, such as stomachache and

headache which result from the stress of learning difficulties, bullying, or mental health issues.

However, it is crucial for school counselors to seek the origins of aversion.

Aversions may lead the student to feel unsupported within the school setting. In order to

build connections with students who avoid school, school counselors seek to understand the

reasons for the aversion. Quality interventions cannot be found without first understanding the


cause. It may be necessary in cases of aversion to seek outside resources such as therapy or

additional educational support to make gains in attendance if a child is avoiding school. School

counselors must reach out students to help guide them to realistic solutions to these concerns.

Whether chronic absence is due to discretion, barrier, or aversion, school counselors must

reach out to families and understand the cultures within their school district to gain this

information. According to Spradin, Cierniak, Shi, and Chen (2012), chronic absenteeism, which

stems from any of the above categories, “is associated with higher levels of poverty” (p. 4) with

urban schools experiencing the highest levels of absenteeism. Understanding the obstacles to

students maintaining an adequate level of attendance will provide useful information for a school

counselor. This information can shape the strategies built to respond to chronic absenteeism, but

also to work to prevent it. The following pages will discuss not only the effects of these

absences but also potential methods for reaching students and families.

Effects of Chronic Absenteeism

Chronic absenteeism has far-reaching effects that begin early in a student’s school career.

“A recent study in California found that only 17 percent of children chronically absent in both

kindergarten and 1st grade were proficient readers by the end of 3rd grade as compared to 64

percent of their peers who attended regularly(missing less than 5 percent of school” (Bruner,

Discher, & Chang, 2011). In addition, students who do not read by the end of third grade are

four times more likely to drop out of school. These effects are especially great among children

living in poverty. Bruner, Discher and Chang also noted that, “Among poor children, chronic

absence in kindergarten predicts the lowest levels of educational achievement at the end of 5th

grade” (2011). The Center for Mental Health in Schools at ULCA states that chronic absence

undermines the teachers and students attempts to high quality education. Further, they state that


not only can schools not effectively teach, but that absence may be a “symptom of

disengagement and academic difficulties” (2008). Which speaks to individual difficulties, but

there are impacts which are wider to consider too.

There are also societal factors which are affected by school absence. Hennepin County in

Minnesota has an initiative named be@school which is found under the Hennepin County

Attorney’s website. Mike Freeman, Hennepin County Attorney, stated in a video about school

absences that “98% of kids who commit a felony were truant first.” Also, that chronic school

absence is a “risk factor for substance abuse, teen pregnancy, criminal behavior, and chronic

unemployment later in life.” (2016) Each of these risk factors has associated with it a price for

which the public will eventually need to pay. School counselors should understand the

importance of equity rather than equality in improving programs to reach all students and

families, but especially those who are typically underserved.

This is not to say that the attendance gap or achievement gaps are problems only for those

who are ethnically diverse or low income. All students and school staff are affected by these

concerns. Classrooms spend much of their time helping students to catch up on material that was

covered during student absences. Also, students who have frequent absences have a higher rate

of behavior concerns which are likely due to the frustration of falling behind and feeling

unsupported. Without support to help students and families overcome these barriers, students

continue to experience obstacles to educational success.

School Counselor Suggestions

While interventions are a necessary component to improving the attendance and

achievement gaps, there are two critical components school counselors need to address first.

These are data collection and building relationships. Without first attaining the reasons for


absences and then building relationship with families, school counselors cannot hope to provide

the most effective change. Without understanding who is missing school and why, school

counselors do not have adequate information for change processes.

Data Collection

The lack of consistent and shared data collection is likely the biggest deterrent to finding

effective interventions for improving student attendance. Schools have the option of determining

their own data collection processes and currently have no formal means of sharing this data when

a student changes school districts. Some families frequently change districts to avoid facing

governmental interventions for truancy. The students who have chronic absenteeism with

parental support, excused absences, will not be recognized for longer periods of time. Whether

data collection systems begin at the government or local district level, schools must begin to take

notice of the students who are chronically missing school and build bridges of possibility to get

them back into the classroom.

The National Forum on Education Statistics (the Forum) created a publication titled

Every School Day Counts in reaction to the need to begin collecting data. This taxonomy in the

publication is intended for any level of information collection; local, state, or national. This

allows schools or governments to begin the process of data collection with a template for

gathering that data. Once the data is gathered, organizations can determine interventions which

would be the most appropriate. Technical challenges could hinder the use of this model. The

guide is not intended to change policy but could be useful if future change is desirable.

Within the appendices of the Forum (National Forum on Education Statistics, 2009) the

reader can see that how each state determines school present or absent differs. For instance, in

11 states, students who are not in the classroom due to extracurricular or co-curricular activities


are still considered present. Approximately half of the states consider students attending

religious services as absent, while the other half consider them present. Added to these

differences, are the inconsistencies in what districts consider excused and unexcused absences.

These are only two of the potential obstructions in gathering consistent, valuable information.

Another potential barrier to data collection relates to students who miss school

sporadically. Absence becomes less noticeable when students miss two or three days in a month,

which can accrue to 10% which denotes chronic absenteeism. Appendix C (Henderson, Hill, &

Norton, 2014) shows an example of a student who seemingly only missed small numbers of

days, but ultimately leads to numbers considered chronic. Data collection in this type of

scenario shows the need for collecting information consistently, from school year to school year,

and from other schools for transfer students. Also, many schools rely on average daily

attendance (ADA) and “mistakenly assume that 95 percent ADA is an indicator of good

attendance” (Bruner, Discher, & Chang, 2011). Being aware of potentially misunderstood

information will help school counselors overlooking students who may be an attendance

concern.

The Forum has made suggestions for improving data collection for improving the quality

of the data beginning with establishing a “comprehensive, yet manageable taxonomy.” which

would cover “all situations with minimal chance of confusion” (National Forum on Education

Statistics, 2009, p. 12). And build a culture within the school which understands the importance

of complete and accurate data. Next, update information systems as necessary for ease of use of

the data collection. Additionally utilize automated communication systems for ease of

communication with families regarding data collection.


When accurate data is collected, schools need to put that information into action. “Once

education leaders understand how student absences are affecting their community, they are in a

position to make the case for changes that will improve student attendance” (National Forum on

Education Statistics, 2009, p. 17). At this point, schools and school counselors can begin the

process of building relationships with the students and families whom they serve.

Building Strong Relationships

Before beginning to discuss potential interventions to serve students and families who

tend to have difficulty in school attendance, it is important to first look at human behavior and

the importance of relationship. The book Reclaiming Youth at Risk, stated

Research shows that the quality of human relationships in schools and youth programs

may be more influential than the specific techniques or interventions

employed…Counselors trained in different methodologies succeed or fail to a large

extent based on the quality of rapport they build with clients. Behavior modification

systems can work well for some adults, but backfire if authority figures cannot build a

tone of positive relationships. (Brendtro, Brokenleg, & Van Bockern, 2002, p. 71)

According to Chris Ferguson (2005), author of Reaching out to Diverse Populations: What Can

Schools Do to Foster Family-School Connections, schools that are successful at breaking down

barriers to meaningful participation address the following problems: “Build on the cultural

values of families, stress personal contact with families, foster communication with families, and

facilitate accommodations for family involvement, including transportation, translators, and

other similar services.” Ferguson stated that Schools need to “practice trust and relationship

building strategies and recognize that it takes time” (2005, p. 5).

The best anti-absentee programs involve close tracking of attendance, diagnosing reasons

for absence, building strong relationships with students and families, recognizing students

for good attendance ,and often having a "second shift" of adults in schools to follow up

with absent students. This second shift could be in the form of mentors or incentives

from community organizations, but tracks attendance and reinforces the importance of

attending school. (American Federation of Teachers, 2012)


And while communication is vitally important in building student success and

collaboration, it has been found that “too often teacher-parent communication is problem driven”

(Blagg, 2009, para. 12). School staff needs to communicate at times other than when there is a

problem with a student to help build these connections. And as Karen Mapp wrote in her article

Link it to Learning, we need to learn from each other as “families and communities have funds of

knowledge that we need [in order] to be better educators” (2014, para 7). Part of our

responsibility as school counselors is development of students and their families. Mapp (2014)

stated that we need to help families build skills.

Building relationship with families is so important because parent involvement has been

shown to be positively related to children’s educational performance (cited in Lee & Bowen,

2006, p. 194). According to Lee and Bowen (2006) the type of parent involvement may change

the degree of academic gains. Because of obstacles to parent involvement, such as transportation

or schedules, it is the low income families who are also struggling with attendance and

achievement who have difficulty becoming engaged in school involvement.

Because of the inequity of access to parent involvement, schools need to be aware of the

types of opportunities they offer to parents. Holcomb-McCoy (2007) created a list of ideas for

overcoming obstacles to parent attendance in school activities. Within that list are suggestions

such as providing child care, arranging transportation, encouraging parents to share their

viewpoints, and learning the cultural norms and customs of parents. Researchers at Harvard

University’s Center on the Developing Child have been designing interventions that can help

build skills in students and their parents. One such intervention is named Ready4Routines.

Ready4Routines. Harvard University’s program “seeks to strengthen executive function

skills in adults and children, while also increasing predictability within young children’s lives”


(Harvard University Center on the Developing Child, 2016, para 1). The intervention is aimed at

low income parents and its goal is to help improve executive function skills. The skills are

taught to the parents and the children to help households create consistent routines and filter

distractions. This particular intervention is costly and only targets a small number of families at

a time. Ready4Routines runs for eight weeks and takes 20 families at a time utilizing numerous

staff for the program itself and follow-up activities. However, it builds in the participants a great

deal of relationship with the school and skills that will be helpful for the families in encouraging

school attendance.

Check and connect. This program, which started as a dropout prevention program in a

Minneapolis high school, expanded to all school levels and other districts due to its success

(Spradin, Cierniak, Shi, & Chen, 2012). This system uses mentors to help bridge gaps for

students in both attendance and achievement. The Check portion of this intervention refers to

monitoring a student’s attendance. The Connect portion signifies the goal that mentors

encourage engagement and with the child, build engagement in the school (2012). Like

Ready4Routines, Check and Connect also builds relationships but in this case primarily with the

students. Students have a caring adult in their school building who helps them create goals and

build relationship. And while the program itself primarily works with students, part of the

training is teaching the mentors tips for relating to the students, but also their families.

School counselors would likely not serve as the mentors for Check and Connect within

their school buildings, but could advocate for the program to be implemented in their school. In

addition, the Check and Connect website is a resource for school counselors in tips for building

relationships with students and families. There is also a goal-building form which can be helpful

for school counselors who are guiding students through academic difficulties. Appendix D,


which is used by permission from the University of Minnesota Check and Connect (2015),

shows this form.

Minnesota’s School Counseling Struggle

According to the report named Minnesota’s School Counseling Crunch, “school

counselors are in a key position to assist schools to reduce the achievement gap” (Fitzgerald,

2009, p. 6). This report stated that school counselors help prevent students from dropping out of

school, they help with academic achievement, social and emotional skills and career and life

planning. When it comes to lessening chronic student absence, school counselors can focus on

the following areas to help them succeed.

In Minnesota the ratio of school counselors to students is the second worst in the nation.

Given the potential benefits that school counselors can create in student engagement, which

would ultimately increase attendance and achievement, Minnesota is losing opportunities for

students, especially those from low-income families who need the support the most.

“Minnesota as a whole lags in that support, especially for at-risk students. Schools here spend

2.6 percent of their education dollars on pupil support, a smaller portion than every other state”

(Yuen & Williams, 2016, p. 3). In fact from the same article it is stated that students in

Minnesota who are not white are less likely than in any other state to graduate high school.

Because of the frustrating statistics in the state, school counselors and legislators are

attempting to build legislation that would increase school counselor presence in school buildings

across the state. Minnesota Senator Susan Kent (SF 1364 / HF 2045), has proposed legislation

to provide funding for grants which would pay a portion of the salaries of additional student

support services, including school counselors, for a period of six years. Due to the lack of

legislation requiring school counselors, this bill hopes to expand services and gain significant


enough benefits to create a need for schools to someday be required to staff a reasonable ratio of

counselors to students.

School counselors in Minnesota are responsible for educating their staff, communities,

and families about the lack of services they are able to currently provide. Encouraging the public

to understand and support this type of legislation may be a necessary step in building progress.

A part of this education must address the needs for more school counselors in the state and how

school counselors can make improvements in achievement and attendance if the time and

resources are available. One step in this process will be making the public aware of the effects

on students of chronic absenteeism.

Educating Public on Effects of Absence

Education must be provided for students, their families, and the public in general.

Because there has not been much focus on the effects of chronic absenteeism, not enough energy

has been placed in correcting the problem. Low income families in particular need to be made

aware of the potential opportunities provided for those who complete high school and post-

secondary graduates. Advertising campaigns have been created for use as Public Service

Announcements for increasing awareness of the importance of attending school regularly.

Appendix E, from Attendance Works, has an example of such a poster.

School counselors need to teach students about career choices. Students, especially those

from impoverished homes, do not have knowledge of the vast number of career choices that

could be available to them. According to Jawanza Kunjufu (2006), teaching young African

American individuals about entrepreneurship and exposing them to a variety of options could

create a step toward eradicating poverty. Kunjufu (p. 60) said, “If our young people can sell

crack, they can sell CISCO. If they can sell rap CDs from the trunk of their cars, they can


develop a business plan.” If low income students are provided the information regarding the

steps needed to succeed, the outlook of the students may not appear limited. But education is

needed beyond the realm of the students. School employees need to understand their

responsibility in helping each student achieve to their potential.

School-Wide Training

Understanding the culture of the students and treating them respectfully requires

awareness, training and sensitivity. “Groups cannot simply demand that educators teach well

and get results” (Warren & Mapp, 2011, p. 27). School counselors can help school staff by

providing multicultural training and support in connecting with students’ families. However,

“many school counselors are not trained to assist students to overcome societal, familial, and

educational barriers” (Holcomb-McCoy, 2007, p. 3). Teachers are not required to take classes in

multi-culturalism. And while a class does not guarantee mastery in a topic, exposure would

indicate some level of understanding.

For the purpose of helping teachers understand and motivate students who are not

engaged, Galassi’s book, Strengths Based School Counseling, recommends school counselors

spend time with teachers incorporating the importance of autonomy and relatedness as being as

important as competence for learning. Galassi (2007, p. 132) stated that because of the focus on

standardized testing in our schools, “there is little attention (given) to students’ affective need for

belonging and relatedness. These are the characteristics that can help students gain a more

positive connection to their schools. “Feeling that they are cared about and worthy of respect

from teachers is also an important factor that enhances belongingness in students” (2007, p. 133).

Schools need help in determining the difference between involvement and engagement

with families. While having some parents attend conferences for their students is good, imagine


parents having an active role in the school and community with their children. The book A

Match on Dry Grass discusses many communities who have put this idea into action.

Once there is a shared understanding of the importance of attending school and the

process of building relationships and gathering data has occurred, it is time to take into

consideration the specific steps a school counselor should take with appropriate interventions.

This can begin with a response to intervention.

Response to Intervention (RtI)

RtI is effective in reducing school absenteeism because it is a familiar process to schools

and educators and it seeks to serve all students. “RtI is a seamless system of interventions and

resources which allows students to make significant progress” (Colorado Department of

Education, 2008, p. 3). It is noted, however, that the success of an RtI is determined by the

degree of schools moving their focus from “philosophical understanding to actual practice”

(2008, p. 4). Utilizing an RtI with research-based Positive Behavioral Supports (PBS), including

collaboration with parents and community resources increases the success rate.

There are many potential interventions and school counselors need to utilize the data

from their own schools to determine which choice would be the most beneficial for them.

Following are some approaches which could be used in an RtI based on articles found in an

internet search. This main goal for the following approaches is reducing absenteeism. However,

it’s secondary and tertiary goals would be that of increased achievement and increased school

engagement. The RtI follows the typical three tiered approach and addresses the needs of all

students accordingly. While the intention of an RtI is to reach each and every student, the

interventions are changeable based on data tracking and effectiveness.


Tier 1. Tier 1 consists of classroom instruction or whole school interventions

which are shared with all students. Based on the information gained by data collection, some

goals might be enhancing the school culture, health-based strategies, social/emotional learning,

or gaining parent involvement. This tier is prevention-focused. It attempts to give support to

students in areas that are “predictive of absenteeism” (Kearney & Graczyk, 2014, p. 6).

Tier 1 interventions could include bullying and violence prevention, educational health-

based strategies, coping skills, or character education. As noted earlier, parental involvement in

school is an indicator of school success. “Parents who are actively interested in a child’s daily

and long-term educational activities may have children with less truancy and other school-based

misbehaviors” (Kearney & Graczyk, 2014, p. 8).

One of the outcomes of the first tier is locating the students who need additional supports.

Homeroom teachers are sources of information regarding students of concern. According to

Kearney and Graczyk (2014, p. 6) these teachers can be given the task of listening for student

concerns and forwarding those concerns to the school counselor. The information gathered in

tier 1 is useful in determining the students who would then be transitioned into Tier 2.

Tier 2. Interventions at the tier 2 level must address specific goals for improving the

student’s attendance. Thus, it is crucial to determine whether the child is missing school due to

discretion, aversion, or a barrier. Tier 2 interventions can be done in small groups who have

similar goals or on an individual basis. This could mean removing barriers or reducing distress.

According to Kearney and Graczyk (2014) it could also mean ruling out other potential

distractions from school attendance. This could mean bullying, academic difficulties, or basic

needs not being met in the home.


At the tier 2 level, parental involvement is helpful in both determining the reason for

absences and also in gaining support for in getting the student back into school. Parental

assistance in school preparation behaviors, refraining from keeping a child home, and

implementing consequences for absence would provide an additional support for the school’s

goal of making gains in attendance (Kearney & Graczyk, 2014, p. 10). Outside of parental

support, there are interventions which help students build their own potential with the help of

community support. One such intervention is the Ready to Achieve Mentoring Program or

RAMP.

According to the website, “The Ready to Achieve Mentoring Program (RAMP)TM is a

high-tech, career-focused mentoring program for youth involved with or at risk of becoming

involved with the juvenile justice system.” According to the RAMP website (Ready to Achieve

Mentoring Program, n.d.), students involved in RAMP meet weekly with peers to discuss goal

setting and meet with adult mentors to develop individual goal plans. This intervention is

currently being used in thirteen communities around the United States. And while this

intervention is extensive, the gains for both the community and the students are plentiful.

For students experiencing psychological difficulties, referral to outside sources, and stress

reduction strategies can be helpful. Students who are avoiding school due to academic

difficulties require interventions to build success and skills to feel competent to complete school

work. Students who do not feel connected to the school can benefit from interventions which

utilize peer mentors or additional adult support, such as check and connect.

Tier 3. The students who are chronically absent and who have not responded positively

to the tier 1 and 2 interventions will be transitioned to tier 3. For students who are missing a


significant amount of school, academics become compromised and interventions need to have a

greater intensity than the prior tiers. Tier 3 is an expansion of the tier 2 interventions.

Possibilities for tier 3 interventions include mental health referrals, alternative

educational programs, 504 plans, and legal interventions. Appendix F (Erbstein et.al., 2014) is

an example of an interview done by school “attendance teams” in Sacramento, California. If the

first two tiers of an RtI are ineffective and absence rates continue to rise, they meet with the

student and a parent to discover what is hindering school attendance and attempts to discover

what makes school important for that student or family. Once this detailed information is

gathered, the school can determine the next steps. RtI is fluid in its tiers and students can be

transitioned from one tier to another seamlessly. Assessment of interventions must be performed

frequently and where progress in not made, changes must be instituted promptly. The RtI is only

as effective as the people who are creating and implementing it.

As schools experience increases in attendance, Attendance Works suggests that they

provide incentives and rewards to the students who are making gains. “Incentives should be part

of creating a school-wide culture of attendance and accompanied by a deep commitment to

ensuring students are engaged in the classroom once they show up” (Attendance Works, 2010, p.

1). These incentives do not need to be extravagant or expensive. Some suggestions from

Attendance Works are certificates at school assemblies, homework passes, positive notes to

students or parents, or extra time at the computer or in physical education. Providing incentives

can help schools build on their successes and continue to increase attendance in school which

makes gains in both the achievement and attendance gaps.

Even when utilizing effective interventions, data collection, and relationship building,

schools must be aware that there are potential complications involved in creating effective


change. The subsequent text discusses the potential complications of the proposed approaches to

chronic absenteeism. Many of the potential complications deal with a lack of understanding the

cultures and values of the families of students and bigger cultural roadblocks that school

counselors must be aware of in their goal of supporting all students in their schools.

Potential Complications

One of the biggest complications in gaining parent involvement seems to be finding ways

to connect with the families. In her book, The Essential Conversation: What Parents and

Teachers can Learn from Each Other, Sara Lawrence-Lightfoot describes the conflictual

relationship that can happen between school and home. Lightfoot (2003) describes issues such

as cultural mistrust and bias as two of the hindrances to schools forming beneficial relationships

with families. The biases exist due to narratives and experiences of both the parents and the

teachers. Teachers feel protective about their own job performance and ability and their faith or

lack thereof in the abilities of students and can “hold deficit views of the families of the children

they serve, often based on racial or class stereotypes” (Warren & Mapp, 2011, p. 28) and “if

teachers do not believe that students (low income or students of color) can achieve at high levels,

there are not likely to teach at that level (Warren & Mapp, 2011, p. 27). This reiterates the need

for continual education and growth for school staff on multiculturalism and acknowledging bias.

The parents’ negative historical experiences can also create a barrier in creating

connections with the school. Parents typically hear from the school with bad news regarding a

“troubled” student or a formal or non-parallel meeting for the teacher to “inform” the parent

about his or her child. In either instance, the arrangement lacks a united approach which would

promote educational gains. Low-income families have an especially hard time forming these

relationships. Lee and Bowen (2006) stated,


Parents with low levels of education, for example, may be less involved at school because

they feel less confident about communicating with school staff owing to a lack of

knowledge of the school system, a lack of familiarity with educational jargon, or their

own negative educational experiences. (p. 198)

If school counselors keep aware of this concept, the way they approach educating families can be

more productive and respectful.

Or parents from different cultures may value home educational involvement more than

involvement at school. While these variations in habitus may result in some parents

having less cultural capital vis-à-vis the school, the same parents may still be actively

involved at home in one or more ways consistent with the values and practices of the

school system. (p. 198)

Understanding that families may not see the value of formal education contributes to the idea

that school counselors are best served to understand the views of the families of their students in

order to find the best ways of providing services.

Another complication is the tendency to punish students and families rather than teach

and encourage. The report Every School Day Counts stated that in some states students are being

suspended for missing school making them “further excluded from learning opportunities as a

result of chronic absence” (National Forum on Education Statistics, 2009, p. 1). Penalties such

as these can lead to loss of credits and inability to graduate.

In some states students are dropped from enrollment after a set number of days of being

truant. While this only notices those students with unexcused absences there is an even bigger

issue with this solution. It becomes increasingly more difficult to locate these students and

determine whether they have been re-enrolled elsewhere which allows students to “fall through

the cracks in the system” (Bruce, Hayes, Kosek, Miao, & Thompson, 2013, p. 36). The study

completed by this group shows that there needed to be both a means of consistent data tracking

but then also statewide solution for “cross-checking of data from one school year to the next”


(2013, p. 37) and the ability to share information with other districts. Creating a solution to

issues of truancy would require a “statewide solution, possibly through revised legislation” and

modifying language on state statutes to change “school boards may hire attendance officers” to

“school boards shall designate attendance officers” (2013, p. 41) to elevate the importance of this

role and draw more attention to attendance tracking.

A third possible problem is that equal access to education does not exist in our country.

It has been found that there are a significantly higher number of first year teachers in low-income

schools than in higher-income schools. Resources available to these students may be lacking or

scarce. Despite efforts to reform public education, Warren and Mapp (2011, p. 4) stated that

“education [is] the civil rights issue of our time.” And that because equal access to quality

education does not exist, social and economic benefits of a good education are denied to many

based on that lack of good education.

ASCA Model

The American School Counseling Association (ASCA) provides a basis for creating

goals and domains which can affect student success. The ASCA Model suggests that the school

counselor focus on four key principles: foundation, management, delivery, and accountability.

These four principles are intertwined and are necessary for determining an intervention’s

effectiveness.

The foundation is the school counselor’s belief surrounding how to serve all students in

the school. “Beliefs drive behaviors, and school counselors must continuously ask themselves

how they view all students in the school. If school counselors do not believe in supporting all

students, they will not behave in ways that are helpful for all students” (American School


Counseling Association, 2012, p. 32). Collaboration with other staff and a defined mission are

essential components to a solid foundation.

Management is the data gathering and assessment. School counselors must focus on

academic, career, and personal/social development domains. Assessment on fulfilling these

competencies with all students must be the focus of the school counselor. “The assessments. . .

help school counselors develop, implement, and evaluate their school counseling program based

on clearly defined priorities reflecting student needs” (American School Counseling Association,

2012, p. 41).

ASCA (2012) states that delivery of services can be through direct, or in-person, or

indirect student services. Eighty percent or more of the school counselor’s time should be spent

in this area. Delivery means the “method of implementing the school counseling program to

students” and promoting “student achievement, equity, and access for all students.” (2012, p. 83)

In working to reduce the attendance gap, this could mean providing responsive services or

interventions or collaboration with other staff, families, or community.

Accountability means evaluating school counseling programming to determine its

effectiveness. Program results gained from data collection, both before an intervention and

afterward, can help determine effective programming and programming that requires

adjustments or elimination. In attendance and achievement gap reduction interventions,

accountability would gather data to determine effectiveness or lack-there-of. This information

would be useful in future planning and implementation.


Adlerian Perspective

School counselors who are attempting to understand students who are misbehaving need

only look to the child’s behavior and the adult’s reaction to that behavior. “A basic tenet of

Adlerian counseling is that all behavior is purposeful . . . Students begin by observing their

families and developing a set of beliefs and expectations based on those experiences” (Erford,

2010, p. 371). Erford’s insightful look into Adlerian thinking gives us a means of looking at how

we reach these students and families. We must first understand how the student and their

families “experience the world” (2010, p. 371) before we can provide appropriate tools and

interventions. This concept helps school counselors understand the need for building

relationships with students and families to create a system which truly serves all students and

brings into focus the need for recognizing discouragement.

The discouragement that a student may present is based on his or her experiences and

conclusions from the environment in which he or she is raised. “the child’s assessments of

immediate circumstances become integrated into a ‘view of life’” (Dreikurs Ferguson, 1984, p.

14). So if a child’s view is that people cannot be trusted or that success in not possible, that

child may approach education with a sense of discouragement or lack of purpose. “A student

with a diverse background may develop a sense of inferiority and become pessimistic about

being able to meet his own life goals” (Erford, 2010, p. 380). If school counselors are be aware

that these conditions exist they can help a student “understand his own innate worth and status to

raise that student’s self-esteem” (2010, p. 380). This diverse background could be a cultural

minority, a disability which is learning or physical, or differences in beliefs. In fact, Adler stated

that “learning is only possible when children look hopefully and joyfully toward the future. . .An

educator’s most important task- perhaps his or her holy duty - is to see that no child is


discouraged” (as cited in Evans, 1996). As Adler is stating, the way to reach students and build

success is through acknowledging and addressing his or her discouragement and guiding him or

her through encouragement. Another means of combatting discouragement is through the

introduction of social interest.

Social interest, another of Adler’s theories, is an applicable concept for school

counselors attempting to build useful interventions for students and families. If students or their

families feel a lack of significance and belonging they will not feel comfortable becoming

engaged in that community. “When a person has the conviction that he or she belongs to the

human community (school community in this case) and has a life goal of contributing to the

human community, the individual is not worried about personal prestige and not fearful about his

or her value as a human being” (Dreikurs Ferguson, 1984, p. 8). Experiencing social interest is,

according to Adler, the means to an end of feeling good about oneself and thus having a desire to

contribute to a greater good.

Conclusion

School counselors and staff must recognize that chronic absenteeism is feeding the

achievement gap. According to a research brief at University of Chicago,

Students cannot perform well academically when they are frequently absent. An

individual student’s low attendance is a symptom of disengagement and academic

difficulties. But when many students have low attendance in classes, such behavior

undermines the capacity of all students and teachers to pursue high quality education.

(Roderick, et al., 1997, p. 1)

And the first step in improving chronic absenteeism and the achievement gap is appropriate data

collection. Tracking students who are missing excessive amounts of school and creating

successful interventions begins with understanding the reasons for the absences. This cannot be

known without clear and consistent data. Whether on a state or a national level, consistent and


accurate data collection and accessibility of data can help individual districts determine the steps

necessary to find the interventions which would have the greatest effect.

Once schools are able to track attendance issues the next step is building relationships.

Schools need to seek various means of contacting families and inviting them to participate in the

educational process. Schools need to educate and empower families for the benefit of the

students. Parent involvement in education is the single greatest indicator of school success.

Because of the importance of reaching families, it is crucial that there not only be systems in

place to invite the families to participate, but also a culture that is welcoming to families from

multicultural backgrounds. Both students and their families should be provided meaningful

ways of becoming involved in the schools and contributing to the school’s success.

School counselors need to be educated on issues of bias and discrimination both

societally and in their school buildings. They need to provide, to all staff, adequate training and

understanding of other cultures which they serve in their school districts. This multicultural

training is especially of importance due to the typical background of the staff in comparison to

the students and also in creating cultures which are more welcoming to a diverse staff. Since a

higher proportion of educators are white and middle class or higher, it is important to draw

attention to the areas in which the staff may be reacting in a manner that is less than accepting or

encouraging. The book School Counseling to Close the Achievement Gap: A Social Justice

Framework for Success, which is listed in the Helpful Resources for School Counselors page,

has assessments for school counselors and school staff with the questions they need to ask

themselves and their schools when evaluating the needs of the community and how the school

can address those needs. Once these important questions are asked, the school can research

evidence-based interventions to support the students and families.


Evidence based interventions need to be utilized by school counselors to assist families in

creating solutions to attendance problems. School counselors also need to serve as educators for

the public in creating support for educational initiatives especially the effects of missing

excessive amounts of school at all age levels. RtI is a well-known and effective means for

working with reducing chronic absenteeism. Its seamless movement from one tier to another

provides services to all students while tracking which interventions prove to be the most

effective and which interventions need to be adjusted or changed. These interventions prove the

most effective when used within the framework of the ASCA model.

Utilizing the ASCA model provides the necessary information for school counselors to

follow a complete protocol including the responsibilities of foundation, management, delivery,

and accountability. School counselors who follow these methods and build on the domains of

academic, career, and social alongside the accurate data collected will have the scaffolding

necessary to provide effective services which collaborate with the schools and communities

which they are a part of. Utilizing the Adlerian theory a school counselor can discover the

mindset of the community members which the school serves.

Adler’s belief that all behavior is purposeful is an appropriate place to begin in

understanding the people school counselors work with. Fulfilling the needs of encouragement

and social interest can be the framework that the school counselor uses to create effective

programing. These ideas combined can build successful students and bridge the gap between

those students who are successful and those who are not.


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Appendix A

Percentage of Students Chronically Absent by grade and economic advantage.

1

Note: Retrieved from “The connection between missing school and health: A review of chronic

absenteeism and student health in Oregon,” by T. Henderson, C. Hill & K. Norton. Copyright

2014. Reprinted with permission.


2

Appendix B

Chronic absenteeism in kindergarten leads to reduce reading scores (RIT) in later grades.





Appendix C

Example calendar showing how 2-3 absences a month leads to chronic absenteeism.

3





Appendix D


4


Appendix E

5

Note: Retrieved from University of Minnesota website. Copyright 2015. Reprinted with

permission.

Note: Retrieved from Attendance Works. Copyright 2010. Reprinted with permission.


Appendix F


6

Note: Adapted from “Factors influencing school attendance for chronically absent students,” by

N. Erbstein, A. Lange, B. Kronick, & L. Shweky. Copyright 2014. Reprinted with permission.


Helpful Resources for School Counselors

Attendance Works www.attendanceworks.org, Organization provides research,

evidence-based interventions, recent new events, and education on improving

attendance in schools.

Check and Connect http://checkandconnect.umn.edu/, Organization provides

research-based intervention model to increase student engagement at school and

with learning.

Every School Day Counts, National Forum on Education Statistics

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2009/2009804.pdf Guide for collecting and assessing

attendance data.

Everyone Graduates Center www.every1graduates.org Organization created to

develop and disseminate the know-how required to enable all students to graduate

from high school prepared for college, career, and civic life.

School Counseling to Close the Achievement Gap: A Social Justice Framework

for Success, Cheryl Holcomb-McCoy, Book provides assessments and exercises

for school counselors to employ in determining how effective they are at closing

the achievement gap.

http://www.attendanceworks.org/

http://checkandconnect.umn.edu/

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2009/2009804.pdf

http://www.every1graduates.org/

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