running head: school culture; educator retention 1 school

Running head: SCHOOL CULTURE; EDUCATOR RETENTION 1

School Culture as a Systematic Determinant of Educator Retention

A Master’s Project

Presented to

The Faculty of the Adler Graduate School

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Master of Arts in

Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy

By:

Sarah Jane Ryan

Chair: Amy Foell

Reader: Doug Pelcak

April 2017

SCHOOL CULTURE; EDUCATOR RETENTION 2

Abstract

Teacher attrition continues to be a challenge for education in the United States. Students who

are continuously being taught by new and changing teachers show lower achievement than

students working with seasoned teachers. The reasons as to why teachers leave their positions

have been researched by various authors. It is the purpose of this paper to explore how creating

a positive school culture will impact teacher retention. Positive school culture is developed

through the interaction of school administrators with teachers, students, parents and all

community members. The school administrator and often school counselors are in the position

to act as moral and ethical guides for school contributors. School administrators can work to

develop a positive school culture by providing induction and mentoring programs for new and

veteran teachers. Creating a positive school culture is an ongoing and systematic process that

requires dedication to education. Positive school culture will lead to a strong familial

environment that benefits student achievement, and teacher retention.


Table of Contents

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4

Role of School Culture ................................................................................................................ 4

Role of Leadership .................................................................................................................... 12

Creating a Sustainable Work Force ........................................................................................... 17

Retention vs. attrition ............................................................................................................ 17

Mentoring and induction ....................................................................................................... 24

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 27

Intervention ................................................................................................................................... 28

Teacher Mentorship and Support .............................................................................................. 28

Leadership Roles ....................................................................................................................... 30

Teachers as leaders ................................................................................................................ 30

Counselors and administration .................................................................................................. 32

Creating or Changing Culture ................................................................................................... 34

References ..................................................................................................................................... 36


School Culture as a Systematic Determinant of Educator Retention

Introduction

The research surrounding school culture is a critical part of teacher retention, leadership

roles and student achievement. The concept of a school culture has been around for over a

century but has recently begun to garner more attention (Cohen, McCabe, Michelli, & Pickerall,

2009; Deal & Peterson, 2016; Turan & Bektaş, 2013). School culture reflects the beliefs, needs

and values of the individuals who make up a community. Although much research has been

completed on school culture, there is not one agreed upon set of rules. Typically, culture

includes safety, interpersonal relationships, teaching and learning practices, and the external

environment. Each of these areas will impact the creation and authenticity of the culture (Cohen

et al., 2009; Smith, Connolly & Pryseski, 2014; Thapa, Cohen, Guffey, Higgins-D’Alessandro,

2013). “Culture is a complex web of traditions and rituals built up over time as teachers,

students, parents and administrators work together and deal with crises and accomplishments”

(Deal & Peterson, 2016, p. 7). Does having this web of traditions and rituals among staff,

students, and community increase retention and student achievement? How can a culture be

developed that encourages teachers to developed strong attachment to community and students

that also creates an engaging school for teachers and students? What is the common dominator

that creates strong community, student attachment and teachers who want to stay in the

classroom? What is the role of leaders in the creation and sustaining of culture?

Role of School Culture

Culture is an undercurrent of accepted norms that are adhered to by people coexisting in a

shared location (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Turan & Bektaş, 2013). The aspects of culture are as

diverse and unique as the individuals involved. Culture looks different in each setting based on


both the stated and unstated goals and norms of the population (Fraise & Brooks, 2015; Smith et

al., 2014). Every culture can be looked at through multiple components including; artifacts,

architecture, history, myths, visions, values, stories, rituals, ceremonies and traditions (Deal &

Peterson, 2016). Collectively these components determine how things are done within each

unique culture. The creation of culture occurs over time and is continuously being challenged

and adjusted through the local resources, individuals, ethnic groups, subcultures, and unique

history surrounding the school (Cohen et al., 2009; Fraise & Brooks, 2015). It is prudent to

consider the idea that all members of a school have their own culture based in the lived

experiences of the individual (Fraise & Brooks, 2015).

School culture contains rules or traditions that have developed and existed throughout

time. It is either clearly defined and well known or undefined and difficult to articulate. Each

component of culture plays a crucial role in the creation and sustaining of culture. Each member

of a community, each event that takes place and the individual response to changes can impact

the creation of a culture (Deal & Peterson, 2016). The key role of culture is to create a common

goal for students, staff and parents (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Dinkmeyer, Carlson, & Michel,

2016). When common goals are achieved, greater work place satisfaction and teacher happiness

occurs. Research supports a correlation between job satisfaction and higher levels of student

learning (Pedota, 2015; Smith et al., 2014). Making the creation of common goals a beneficial

venture.

The leader plays a crucial role in the development of culture because leaders can identify

each of the informal roles, goals, values, beliefs and norms that currently exist (Deal & Peterson,

2016; Smith et al., 2014). Once identified, the leader then works to challenge the members of

the culture to identify the current norms and see if it genuinely fits with the desired goals and


beliefs (Peterson & Deal, 2016; Dinkmeyer et al., 2016; Jennings, Frank, Snowberg, Coccia &

Greenberg, 2013; Turan & Bektaş, 2013). Ideally representing the values and beliefs of a

community or family. Discrediting or removing any aspect of a culture can lead to negativity

(Deal & Peterson, 2016). A more in depth look at the role of leadership in creating and

sustaining culture will be explored later in this paper.

The values maintained within culture are greater than what may be realized or expected.

Artifacts maintained by a school will give outsiders a lens into the culture of a school. Many

schools have artifacts ranging from sports trophies or district awards, to representations of

student academic achievement. Schools with a strong understanding of culture will have

thoughtfully chosen artifacts represented in the public spaces of a school (Deal & Peterson,

2016). Each artifact can represent a different value or belief within a school and promote a

different message or unique meaning. It is not always the physical appearance of the artifact but

the meaning behind the artifact that creates connection and cultural support.

Architecture can impact the culture if the stakeholders of a school are involved in the

development of the plan for the physical school building. Decisions can deliberately be made

that impact how students, teachers and staff will feel within the school (Deal & Peterson, 2016;

Dinkmeyer, et al., 2016). For example, by placing a library at the center of the building, one

may assume that literacy is a core value. Whereas a large gymnasium may suggest the

importance of athletic excellence (Deal & Peterson, 2016). While architecture can influence the

creation, or sustainability of a culture, it is not always the most important factor for positive

school culture (Smith et al., 2014). Especially, if a school is existing within an established space.

Decisions surrounding how funding will be spent can lead to remodeling efforts that would

support the core values of the institution, or in other areas that administration and staff see as


most beneficial (Deal & Peterson, 2016). Architecture is not always a high priority in cultural

discourse, but promoting care of the physical space can increase ownership and commitment

among students, staff and other stakeholders (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Jain, Cohen, Huang,

Hanson, & Austin, 2015; Smith et al., 2014; Thapa et al., 2013).

Rituals give meaning to our everyday lives. If we proceed through life without rituals,

we begin to forget the purpose of our actions. It is human nature to find comfort in repetition

(Deal & Peterson, 2016). In the classroom setting, students follow a class schedule day to day,

but will also find rituals in assembly schedules, chapter quizzes in math, weekly spelling tests,

mile run test in physical education or a semiannual concert for music classes. In these ways,

students’ can rely on the ritual to give purpose and meaning to school and their role as a student

(Deal & Peterson, 2016; Dinkmeyer et al., 2016). Staff can also count on similar events to

maintain their rituals as well within the school year. Again, as it is for students, staff will

maintain purpose and meaning through the creation of rituals. When an entire school is brought

together through rituals, significance for the members of the school will be established (Deal &

Peterson, 2016). When individuals feel significant they begin to contribute to their community

which leads to the betterment of their institution thus developing positive school culture

(Ansbacher, & Ansbacher, 1956). Having a set schedule for how each day will progress is a way

to communicate the culture of a school. Ceremonies tend to be larger rituals that reinforce the

commitment to the school, students and the school’s mission. It is a way throughout the year to

reconnect staff to the common goal of the school. Ceremonies can occur for a variety of reasons

throughout a school year (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Smith et al., 2014). They can represent a

variety of achievements, memorials, or celebrations throughout the year. A positive school

culture will hold ceremonies throughout the year to reinvigorate staff or remind the community


of core beliefs and missions. Traditions, like ritual and ceremony, allow staff members to

connect and remember the core beliefs of the school culture (Deal & Peterson, 2016). Each

tradition can reinforce a belief in culture (Smith et al., 2014). Utilizing ceremonies and traditions

in a school is a way to encourage staff and students’ participation in school culture.

Every school has a culture, but not all schools are aware of the culture they have. It is

necessary to spend time looking at the past as well as looking to the future to determine what

matters to the school (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Jain, Cohen, Huang, Hanson & Austin, 2015).

School culture is cemented in history. Where did we come from? How did we arrive here?

Looking at why a school was founded and the goals the founders established will help dictate

current and future decisions. It can be helpful for new teachers, administration and parents to

explore the development of core values that drive the work of a district. “Culture takes form

over the years as people cope with problems, stumble onto routines and rituals, and create

traditions and ceremonies to reinforce underlying values and beliefs” (Deal & Peterson, 2016, p.

55). If the history of a school is forgotten or not preserved, many members of the school

community can end up feeling alienated or undervalued. Identifying who within the staff is the

storyteller or the historian can work to prevent loss of significance. Experiencing significance in

life is a crucial aspect to feeling connected to the community (Ansbacher, & Ansbacher, 1956).

By building relationships between staff, administration, students, parents, and community

members; core-stories will continue to be shared and respected by each member of the

community. It is helpful to look at the current and past leadership for how they honored the

history of the school. Taking time to look at and remember the history of the school is a

necessary job for leaders (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Smith et al., 2014). Understanding change

that has occurred and how reform was presented and completed can help explain current feeling


surrounding reform. Knowing this information and the impact it has had on stakeholders is

necessary prior to presenting ideas for change to an existing culture (Deal & Peterson, 2016;

Dinkmeyer et al., 2016).

It is easier to remember details when they are presented in the form of a story. By telling

myths or stories about a school, the vision and values of the school will be easier to recall. All

communities have stories to share, but each community will have a different story. The story or

myth can explain many aspects of culture (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Turan & Betkaş, 2013). From

why a school started to how a school developed their vision. It is easy to set aside the story and

only focus on the facts. Yet within in a school the story or myth is the connection between

individuals. Stories are often used to pass along a message, purpose or values from one

generation to the next. Stories can convey positive or negative memories. As they continue to

be told, stories can become part of the core message of a school. How teachers change lives, or

how the school impacted the community are often stories that stay with the school. By doing this

a positive culture can prevail. Good story telling has existed within schools for a long time, but

some have started to discontinue this practice (Deal & Peterson, 2016). It is important to

continue to tell stories that support progress and culture because humans are prone to act based

on lessons learned from stories and experiences. This knowledge of learning can influence the

way teachers teach and how leaders lead. Stories can be about anyone involved in the school;

students, teachers, administration, support staff, parents or community members (Dinkmeyer et

al., 2016; Smith et al., 2014). If the story’s core message aligns with the school’s mission and

culture, it can be used to encourage individuals to continue to support each other and their school

(Deal & Peterson, 2016; Turan & Bektaş, 2013). Additionally, providing time for members of


the school community to tell their stories and discuss ways the stories impacted those involved

can support the building of a strong positive culture (Deal & Peterson, 2016).

Without a reason, as to why, it is difficult for people to support the what. In the attempt

to improve the school system in the United States the underlying meaning behind education, the

why we teach and learn, has been lost (Johns & McGrath, 2015; Smith et al., 2014). It has

become focused on data accrued through standardized test (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Dinkmeyer

et. al., 2016). Teachers, students and community use rising or falling test scores as a school’s

mission statement. When in fact, the mission has a greater meaning based in the past, existing in

the present and evolving toward the future. Determining a mission in a school can be

challenging. It can be easy to have the mission be one of perceived success in sports, academics

or teacher performance (Deal & Peterson, 2016). But when taking a closer look, it is important

to make sure students are at the core, learning what they need to know to be successful

(Dinkmeyer et al., 2016; Smith et al, 2014).

Values, beliefs, assumptions and norms are additional factors that can be looked at when

determining culture for a school (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Turan & Bektaş, 2013). Values

represent, what matters to an organization, and is desirable (Deal & Peterson, 2016). Values

often stands alone as important. A belief is something intangible, giving meaning to the

otherwise meaningless. Assumptions guide our behavior, so it is important to understand the

origination of our personal assumptions and to accept that assumptions are based on myth and

personal experience (Smith et al., 2014). Norms are how a group of people will interact with one

another, they also will dictate how we dress, teach, speak and live within the culture where we

exist. All schools can have positive or negative norms. It is important to take a critical look at

the norms of a culture to determine if they are supporting or destroying the cultural community


(Deal & Peterson, 2016; Smith et al., 2014). Changing norms can be extremely difficult but

when approached with patience, and kindness; they can be adjusted. By working to create

culture within schools it can allow students to be taught by teachers who believe in themselves

and experience a community who believes in the school (Cohen et al., 2009; Jain et al., 2015).

Knowing, stating and understanding the vision of a school culture will play a critical role

for the success of the school and its members (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Turan & Bektaş, 2013).

Each member of the staff should know the vision of the school. If some staff members are

unaware of the vision they may place more emphasis on ideas and values that clash with the

vision of the administration. These situations can cause confusion and division among not only

students but also among the staff, parents and community stakeholders. Also, a school without a

strong established vision will leave students and teachers searching for the purpose and

significance of their role within the school (Cohen et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2014; Jain et al.,

2015).

Culture consists of more than just the individuals who occupy the physical school

building day to day. It also includes parents, community members and other stakeholders. It is

critical to maintain trusting relationships between these individuals, school staff, and

administration (Cohen et al., 2009; Deal & Peterson, 2016). Stereotypes surrounding parents

can range from distant and not caring about education to overly involved and caring too much

about education. Working to create an environment that address the needs and desires of both

staff and parents is crucial to having a positive culture. Many parents express feeling

disconnected from the school or feeling unwelcome. It is up to the staff and administration to

make parents feel not only welcome but wanted (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Pedota, 2015). Various

cultural tools can be utilized to create a welcoming environment. Celebrations, rituals and


storytelling are simple ways to bring parents into the cultural community. Taking time to learn

the values of parents and how the correlate with the school’s values and mission can lead to the

development of rituals honoring both the values of parents and schools. Respect is an additional

component that needs to exist between parents and schools. If parents do not feel their thoughts,

opinions, and values are respected by school employees this can lead to a loss of trust (Cohen et

al., 2009; Deal & Peterson, 2016).

Once a culture is established it is important to keep the core beliefs, values and missions

in the forefront of everyone’s mind (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Smith et al., 2014). This can be

done in various ways including, verbal and visual reinforcement, traditions, ceremonies, rituals,

cooperation, and socializing new members. Verbal reinforcement can be through newsletters,

personal communication and conversations between cultural members (Deal & Peterson, 2016;

Dinkmeyer et al., 2016; Long, 2010). Through this, individuals will be reminded of their

common goals and beliefs for student success. Open discussions can take place to reinforce and

restructure mission statements and visions that create the core of the culture (Smith et al., 2014).

Visually, schools can have the mission statement printed on posters and placed on classroom

walls. Symbols of the school can be seen in the hallways, on letter head or in the cafeteria. In

doing this, anyone who is within the school building will have the mission statement and vision

reinforced (Deal & Peterson, 2016).

Role of Leadership

The way a leader interacts and exists within the school community can send a message

about the values and beliefs of the school community (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Smith et al., 2014;

Norton, 2002; Weiss, 1999). The language a school administration uses to discuss goals,

motivations and strategic planning can impact the perception of culture (Deal & Peterson, 2016;


Turan & Bektaş, 2013). Leaders within school culture can be either formal or informal (Deal &

Peterson, 2016; Norton, 2002). While the principal is the traditional leader in cultures, there are

other members of the school community who may be able to fill the position of leader (Turan &

Bektaş, 2013). These people include not only school level leaders but also district and federal

level leaders (Cohen et al., 2009). A leader is someone who others in the building look to in

times of crisis, as well as celebration (Deal & Peterson, 2016). To be successful it is necessary

for formal leaders to delegate out tasks to informal leaders. For example, there are

priests/priestesses, storytellers, gossips, spies, heroes/heroines, navigators, nodes, social media

gurus, compasses, explorers, pioneers, and spirit guides. Each of these roles represents an aspect

of positive culture. Priests maintain the cultural values and beliefs of the school. They make

sure everyone in the school understand how things are done. Depending on the message being

shared and the focus of the message. Gossips make sure that all information passed around the

informal network is accurate and up-to-date.

It is possible for many informal roles to be carried out by, the principal, a veteran teacher,

a school counselor, a custodian, or a popular student (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Dinkmeyer et al.,

2016). The job of the leader is to provide guidance for members of the school community (Deal

& Peterson, 2016; Turan & Bektaş, 2013). There are many different avenues that can be tapped

into to help create positive culture in the building. In a positive culture students, staff, parents

and community members will feel physically and social-emotionally safe while at the school

(Cohen et al., 2009; Deal & Peterson, 2016; Jain et al, 2015). There will be attention placed on

creating and maintain relationships between members of the culture (Norton, 2002; Smith et al.,

2014). The leadership of a culture will influence the creation and maintenance of the status quo.

Equitable respect, collaboration and connectedness play a vital role in the maintenance of


culture. Looking to the leader or principal will help cultural members understand the values,

mission and norms of the culture (Cohen et al., 2009; Turan & Bektaş, 2013).

The principal is also in the position to question cultural members about the ideal vision

and mission of the school and community (Cohen et al., 2009; Thapa et al., 2015). The kind of

teaching and learning that exist within a school is directly linked to the core values and norms of

a culture (Cohen et al., 2009; Ingersoll, 2012; Turan & Bektaş, 2013). The quality of instruction,

social, emotional and ethical learning, professional development and leadership are all aspects

that lead to productive education with in the culture (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Ingersoll, 2003).

Finally, the physical structure and overall aesthetic quality of a building will impact the creation

of culture (Deal & Peterson, 2016). If there is a positive school climate the community will see,

greater attendance, stronger connection to school, teacher retention and engaged learning (Cohen

et al., 2009, Deal & Peterson, 2016; Jain et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2014)

In a toxic or noxious culture, there are informal leaders that maintain the status quo of the

current culture. The roles carried out by these leaders are, destructive spies, saboteurs,

pessimistic taletellers, keepers of the nightmare, negaholics, prima donnas, space cadets, martyrs,

rouge pirates, equipment and resource vultures, deadwood, driftwood, ballast, free riders,

rumormongers, antiheroes, apathy famers, and devils (Deal & Peterson, 2016). They maintain

mediocrity and prevent growth or improvement (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Ingersoll, 2003). They

often spread negative thoughts about education and promote bias about students and parents.

They pride themselves in maintaining negativity and doing things how it has always been done.

It is not for the betterment of students but rather for trying to manage the chaos.

The leader can be pivotal in determining whether the culture is toxic or nontoxic.


Becoming a toxic school can occur quickly or can erode over time. In a toxic culture the leader

sustains the unease and continues to promote a negative agenda among schools through

comments and actions. Others will follow this path and those who oppose the leader and the

toxic nature of the school, are discouraged and may choose to leave. A leader can support or

create a toxic culture in a variety of ways, including, a new principal trying to make changes

without honoring the current culture, negative individuals or groups enduring without being

addressed, or the demographics of the student population changes but is not addressed (Deal &

Peterson, 2016). Any one of these scenarios can occur and if left unaddressed can transform a

positive culture into a noxious one. Once a culture is toxic it is extremely difficult to transition

back into a positive culture. Trust is usually damaged or gone in a toxic culture and the first step

to building up the culture is to build up trust (Cohen et al., 2009; Pedota, 2015; Smith et al.,

2014).

The roles of leaders are parallel in toxic vs. non-toxic cultures. Each culture will have

different motivations and goals. In a non-toxic culture, everyone is working toward a common

goal of student achievement and community (Cohen et al., 2009; Deal & Peterson, 2016; Fraise

& Brooks, 2015; Smith et al., 2014; Turan & Bektaş, 2013). They pull in the history of the

school, honor the artifacts and traditions while also leaving themselves open to the possibilities

of change and new techniques (Deal & Peterson, 2016). In a toxic culture, the leaders consist of

destructive spies, negaholics, prima donnas, martyrs, free riders, rumormongers, antiheros and

apathy famers. Individuals are working against each other or together to reach a common goal of

staying the same, or preventing growth. The leaders in these roles work to maintain the current

status quo. They are resistant to change, they do not believe it can get better, and they take pride

in mediocrity. Many members of a toxic culture have come to this point in their career because


of what has happened in the past (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Jain et al., 2015). They have not been

able to look at the past as a learning opportunity or as a time to experience growth. They see

change as unhelpful and bad for their community. It can be extremely difficult to work with

people stuck in this toxic culture and to help them determine how to transform into a non-toxic

culture. It can seem impossible to try and counter the beliefs of members of a toxic culture, yet

that is what leaders need to do to build a positive culture.

Creating a new or positive culture begins with the leader of change determining the

existing culture (Cohen et al., 2009; Deal & Peterson, 2016; Smith et al., 2014). Rebuilding a

culture requires an understanding of the local resources, individuals, ethnic groups, subcultures,

and unique history surrounding the school. Cultures are as unique as the members who make up

the community (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Fraise & Brooks, 2015; Ingersoll, 1999). Understanding

and discussing the history of a toxic culture is especially important during the transition to a new

culture. It can be a tedious balance of opening the dialogue, of airing toxicity, and venting, while

simultaneously providing the opportunity to believe things can get better, and offering hope

(Deal & Peterson, 2016). It is necessary for the leaders in a school to maintain positive stories

and limit the negative stories (Turan & Bektaş, 2013). A plan on how a group will coalesce

toward a more positive culture needs to accompany these conversations. The process of

changing a culture needs to begin within the school but should be supported by outside

resources. It is never an easy process, but when it can be achieved, it is well worth while (Deal

& Peterson, 2016; Jain et al., 2015).

Once the work has been done to create a new or repair an existing culture, the culture will

begin to impact the members. Although, the work of the cultural leaders is never done.

Historians will still need to share the history of the school. Storytellers will need to continue to


share stories and tell tales that exemplify the core beliefs of the culture. The visionary will

continue to listen to the thoughts, needs and desires of students, staff, parents and community

members to ensure the mission and values are still congruent (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Smith et

al., 2014). Each member of the cultural community plays a role and it is necessary for everyone

to continue to help the culture grow and become more stable (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Jain et al.,

2015). Culture is not static but continuously evolving. Leaders are relied on to uphold the

culture and to continue to create a balance between cultural awareness and high academic

standards. This can be done through dualistic thinking. Leaders must find the balance between

legal requirements and maintaining a positive culture. It may seem impossible but it is critical

that a balance is found (Cohen et al., 2009).

Creating a Sustainable Work Force

School culture is best sustained through having a stable staff who is known by parents,

students and community members. A current challenge in education is retention of classroom

teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Ingersoll, 1999, 2003). Much research has focused on the

cause of attrition, and how to combat the cause. While some researchers support the use of

mentors and induction processes as the best form a retention, still other believe that

understanding what causes teachers to leave is more pertinent (Borman & Dowling, 2008;

Kardos, Johnson, Peske, Kauffman, & Liu, 2001; Ingersoll, 2012; Tamir, 2013).

Retention vs. attrition. To explore the concept of retention, it is necessary to understand

causes of attrition. Teacher attrition refers to individuals leaving their position, either by moving

to a different school or by leaving the field of teaching (Boyd, Grossman, Lankford, Loeb, &

Wyckoff, 2008; Darling-Hammond, 2000; Ingersoll, 1999, 2003). Attrition versus retention is

an important topic because it impacts the probability of students having access to highly


qualified teachers. For many years, reports have been made stating the growing number of open

teaching positions are being caused by retirement and increasing student population (Darling-

Hammond, 2000; Ingersoll, 1999, 2003; Quartz, 2003; Weiss, 1999). The current response of

policy makers, at the federal and state level, is to saturate the market with new teachers (Darling-

Hammond, 2000; Ingersoll, 1999). States have created licensing pathways that shorten the

training time, and/or have lowered standards required to receive a teaching license, so far as

placing uncertified teachers into classrooms. Yet, why are some schools reporting difficulty

filling teaching positions while other schools report having a waiting list of highly qualified

teachers? One possibility is that teachers who are coming to the profession through these

alternative licensing programs have greater attrition rates than teachers who completed four or

five-year preparation programs (Boyd et al., 2008; Cochran-Smith, Cannady, McEachern,

Piazza, Power, & Ryan, 2011; Darling-Hammond, 2000; Quartz, 2003; Tamir, 2013). Cultural

aspects that contribute to teacher attrition are, isolation of teachers, lack of induction or

mentoring programs, and low administrative support (Borman & Dowling, 2008; Kardos,

Johnson, Peske, Kauffman, & Liu, 2001; Ingersoll, 2012; Tamir, 2013). Per the research more

teachers leave the profession each year than are being hired. This is not the same as the number

of teachers being trained (Cochran-Smith et al., 2011; Ingersoll, 2003). Only about half of

individuals holding education degrees will use them within four years of graduation. This

suggests that enough teachers are being trained nationally, but the path from college to

employment is being disrupted (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Ingersoll, 2003; Quartz, 2003). What

is causing the disruption is currently unknown and could benefit from focused research. What is

known is teacher retention is the most effective solution for teacher shortages (Boyd, Grossman,

Lankford, Loeb, & Wycoff, 2008; Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; Quartz, 2003).


To enhance the struggle, there is no national standard that teachers need to meet to

become licensed across various states (Darling-Hammond, 2000). This causes teachers to need a

new license in each state in which they wish to teach. So, a teacher licensed in Minnesota, where

there tends to be teacher surpluses, must take a licensing test, or even additional course work to

teach in Massachusetts, where shortages are reported. This can cause a delay in the hiring

process or even lead to a qualified teacher leaving the profession altogether. Teacher shortage is

not impacting all fields of education. In fact, elementary, arts and English departments often

have a surplus of high qualified candidates, while mathematics, science and bilingual education

is experiences shortages (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Ingersoll, 2003). These findings suggest the

shortages do not exist due to lack of teachers, but to issues found at the organizational level of

schools, i.e. the school culture (Boyd et al., 2011; Ingersoll, 1999, 2003; Ingersoll, Merrill &

May, 2016).

There is not one current reason agreed upon as to why teachers choose to leave or stay

teaching, but many possible factors play a role (Borman & Dowling, 2008; Boyd et al., 2011;

Ingersoll et al., 2016). Borman and Dowling (2008) developed five categories to organize the

factors; teacher demographic characteristics, teacher qualifications, school organizational

characteristics, school resources and school student body characteristics. Within each of these

categories various patterns are formed. Individual teacher factors are identified less often by

teachers than school related factors, for reasons to leave a position (Borman & Dowling, 2008;

Boyd et al., 2011). School factors that lead to attrition are; low teacher salary, lack of

collegiality, lack of administrative support, lack of networking and mentoring programs and

student behavior (Borman & Dowling, 2008; Ingersoll, 1999, 2003). While increasing the salary

in teaching could retain some teachers, due to the vast scope of the teaching profession, this


solution may not be fiscally responsible (Ingersoll & Smith, 2003). What is feasible is to look at

the culture and policy of a school. Providing new teachers opportunities to work with mentors,

have access to administrative support and then as a culture improve student discipline and

motivation are all feasible approaches that often have a minimal fiscal cost associated. The role

of school organization or school culture can impact not only a teacher’s decision to stay at the

school but also to move to a different school or leave teaching although (Kardos et al., 2001).

Lack of leadership and administrative support continuously rank high in reasons teachers give to

leaving or moving (Borman & Dowling, 2008; Ingersoll, 1999, 2003).

One suggestion as to how culture impacts retention and attrition is the type of

professional culture existing within a school. There are three typical cultures that can be found

in most schools, veteran-oriented culture, novice-oriented culture and integrated culture (Kardos

et al., 2001). The type of culture in the school can impact the way new teachers are treated,

teacher’s response to schools and the approach of leadership.

In a veteran-oriented culture, the veteran teachers are the focus of the culture. There is

little support or professional development that is geared toward novice teacher development.

Often, norms and expectations exist, yet new teachers are not informed on their role in the

current culture. Although new teachers are unique, they are not viewed as a high priority. The

leadership within this type of culture is generally the type to let the school run itself. Staff

meetings are extremely prescribed and focused on providing information from the district. They

are not used to build relationships or collaborate to support students. Also, leaders may sit in

their office and allow the veterans to dictate the cultural norms and procedures. In a veteran-

oriented culture, new teachers feel isolated and unsupported. There is a lack of a collegial

approach and a sense of baptism by fire (Kardos et al., 2001).


The next common professional culture is the novice-oriented culture. In this culture, the

staff is compiled of novice teachers. While novice teachers bring new ideas, strong ideals and

are willing to put in long hours. Often the culture demands using the newest and latest

approaches to teaching without guidance on how best to implement these approaches (Kardos et

al., 2001). Due to the lack of veteran teachers providing support or guidance, novice teachers

feel as though they are reinventing the wheel. Novice oriented cultures often create values

surrounding, high commitment, long work days and maintain high aspirations. This approach to

teaching is often difficult to sustain and can lead to burnout. Burnout in turn creates a low

retention rate. The leaders of novice-oriented cultures work with such a large number of new

teachers, none are special or unique, so supporting new teachers becomes challenging. There are

few resources that can be giving to new teachers. Also, if it is a new school, they are required to

spend time on keeping the school running, or being the public face of the school. They rely on

other leaders in the school to take care of the staff. They may encourage staff to work

collaboratively and democratically to make decisions, but do not provide the required resources

to help novice teachers grow (Kardos et al., 2001). When all the teachers are new, specific

programs designed to support new teachers become more challenging. Often there are more

teachers than resources.

The final professional culture type is called an integrated culture. In an integrated

culture, there is a blend of novice and veteran teachers who are working together to create a

collaborative school culture. In this culture, there are generally fewer novice teachers, they are

given a special place within the faculty (Kardos et al., 2001). The veteran teachers see the value

of new teachers and work to offer support, and guidance. Additionally, veteran teachers are open

to learning from new teachers and see their recent education as a benefit. The leadership in an


integrated culture not only celebrates veteran teachers work, but also identifies the special role

novice teachers bring to the school (Kardos et al., 2001). The overall community believes in

lifelong learning and works to improve the skills of all teachers.

In the New York Public School District, the teachers leaving are often the teachers who

are viewed as the best and the brightest (Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2005; Boyd et al.,

2008). Teachers who are ranking in the top 25 percent in licensing exams that are hired in low-

income schools are more likely to move or leave than teachers who score in the bottom 25

percent. This leads to students who are low-performing, continuously being taught by new and

inexperienced teachers who are less effective. Programs are being developed across the nation

looking to address the growing need of placing teachers in high-poverty urban settings (Tamir,

2013). One such program, Center X, was developed at UCLA and works with Los Angeles area

schools (Olsen & Anderson, 2007; Quartz, 2003). The approach is to teach graduate students

how to be social justice advocates for the students and community. Teachers who enter this

program are interviewed to determine the likelihood of retention and career path thus leading to

retention rates greater than the national average for low-income urban schools (Cochran-Smith et

al., 2011). Teachers who have gone through this program view themselves as being advocates

for their students and the families they serve. Teachers working in these setting experience

similar issues surrounding lack of administrative support, low community involvement and

student apathy (Quartz, 2003). They have been trained to approach teaching from a non-deficit

approach, citing the importance of the network of support given by teachers, peers, parents, and

community members all while focusing on what is available and not what is missing (Olsen &

Anderson, 2007). For many teachers, the role of the teacher is to show compassion, support and

belief in abilities of students and parents. In situations where administration was described as


unsupportive, teachers expressed wanting to stay in education but to move on to a different

school or a different position, or questioning how to sustain the current level of commitment.

Many teachers in high-poverty urban schools see teaching as a 10-hour work day and without

this level of commitment they would not be a successful teacher. This mentality often leads to

burnout (Ingersoll, 2003; Olsen & Anderson, 2007). It may be that some plan on staying only

for loan forgiveness and then will either move on to a different education setting or leaving

teaching completely. Research supports the use of professional teacher education training

programs that, admit applicants based on rigorous application processes. Also, these programs

usually have an overarching belief about the goal of education that aligns teachers with specific

school types (Cochran-Smith et al., 2011). For example, social justice focus, or specific

religious affiliation.

Culture, family support, and societal norms also play a role in the retention of teachers.

How teachers are first brought into the teaching profession and how they are viewed by those

around them can identify how they perceive their role in teaching (Olsen & Anderson, 2007).

Some feel that moving on to a PhD, or becoming a principal or administrator is the logical next

step, thus the plan to leave the classroom. The concept of shifting versus leaving teaching is one

to consider when looking at the goals of retention. Teachers willing to remain in the classroom

until retirement is ideal, yet, it does not fit with the current approach to careers within the USA.

Many individuals will change jobs up to 7 times over their life time. Teachers who wish to

expand their education will maintain their core beliefs that lead them to teaching. Yet they see a

different systematic role that will allow them to effect change at a greater level, and may cause

them to leave the classroom (Olsen & Anderson, 2007; Quartz, 2003). Finding a balance

between keeping teachers in the classroom while also supporting individuals who wish to expand


their personal education to shift into a different position within education is an additional

challenge. Retention is not about supply, it is about training teachers, and administration how to

develop, work and succeed in the school environment (Quartz, 2003).

Mentoring and induction. Most teachers will develop their skills, techniques and

approaches to teaching during the first five years. It is also during this time that many teachers

make the decision of whether to stay or leave teaching. If a teacher feels unqualified or

inadequate, they may make the decision to leave teaching (Callahan, 2016). The question at hand

is, do induction programs support teachers and lead to decisions to remain in the classroom?

Induction and mentoring are often used as interchangeable terms; however, induction covers

more practices than mentoring alone. Induction can also include, meeting with administration,

collaboration, seminars, reduced schedules, and additional support in the classroom (Smith &

Ingersoll, 2004).

While some of the induction programs support the reduction of turn over, others do not

seem to make much of a difference. Research shows that mentoring, collaborating with staff and

positive rapport with administration supports teachers staying at a greater rate than reduced

teaching schedules or additional support in the classroom (Callahan, 2016; Smith & Ingersoll,

2004). It may surprise some that teachers who have modified schedules or additional classroom

support are more likely to leave. One hypothesis is that these teachers, who qualify for classroom

support or reduced schedules, were already at a higher risk to leave than other teachers (Smith &

Ingersoll, 2004). Mentoring new teachers, and veterans can help improve the quality of teaching

that is occurring in classrooms as well as the retention of teachers. Teachers who receive high

quality mentoring are more likely to remain in a position than teachers who do not receive

mentoring (Callahan, 2016; Darling-Hammond, 2000; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Additionally,


induction programs work best when paired with other programs. For example, mentoring that is

occurring alongside active collaboration among grade level teachers will lead to retention greater

than mentoring alone.

The type of professional culture that exists within the school can impact the type, style

and effectiveness of mentoring and other induction programs. In a veteran oriented culture,

mentoring does not always exist. The focus of these schools is on maintaining the status quo, but

mentoring may be required by a district or other governing body (Kardos et al., 2001; Tamir,

2013). When this is the case mentoring is either done by a supervisor, or is provided by someone

who works in a different subject, grade level or even school. In these situations, it is difficult for

the needs of new teachers to be met. It can be challenging to find time to meet up with a mentor.

When meetings do occur, they lack proper planning and address issues that are prescribed by the

mentor or the administration. The wants, needs and questions of the novice teacher are

dismissed, or left unaddressed. The administration has high expectations for new teachers,

expecting them to function as a veteran teacher without having the support or induction

procedures to learn from (Tamir, 2013). In novice-oriented cultures the lack of a veteran teacher

presence is most keenly felt in mentoring programs (Kardos et al., 2001). By working closely

and collaboratively with a veteran teacher, a novice teacher can learn work life balance,

pedagogy approaches and classroom discipline. In a setting where mentoring is not available,

learning from colleagues is more difficult to obtain (Tamir, 2013). While there is some benefit

of new teachers working together to support one another and try new ideas (Kardos et al., 2001).

Having the feeling that they are all in the same situation, trying to do their best, not feeling

judged or expected to be an expert, can be reassuring. But teacher growth is less likely to occur

if novice teachers are not being guided by an expert (Ingersoll, 2003). If a formal mentoring


system does exist within in a district where one school is a novice culture, the same pitfalls that

await in a veteran oriented culture can occur. Mainly the teachers may not be compatible, i.e.

teach different subject matter, personality clash, or have varying core beliefs (Kardos et al.,

2001; Long, 2010). Also in these setting the mentor teacher is typically from a different school,

which can cause meeting times to be difficult to arrange. In mentor relationships within

integrated cultures, there is an open flow of communication and ideas (Kardos et al., 2001; Tamir

2013). The mentor can provide feedback and tips on teaching, behavior management and school

policy. The novice teacher shares new approaches, and techniques that work. Both work

together to improve and continue to learn. The mentoring that occurs in an integrated culture

leads to greater success for both novice and veteran teachers (Tamir 2013).

The concept of mentoring programs for beginning teachers can be very attractive. Yet

depending on how they are approached, mentoring can produce varied results. In Australia, a

teacher mentor program for beginning teachers is mandated across all schools (Long, 2010). In

these schools, however, the implementation is determined by local powers. This has led to a

varied degree of effectiveness for retention of new teachers. Recommendations have been made

to support both beginning teachers and mentor teachers that will best lead to a successful

mentorship relationship. First it is necessary to give beginning teachers the choice of who their

mentor is and what skills and pedagogy should be developed. Second the mentor teacher should

not be the same as the supervisory teacher, who would be assessing the teacher and offering

feedback. This can lead to a detrimental change in the mentorship relationship. Finally, the

continued professional development of the beginning teacher should not exist in solitary

confinement. Having a group of teachers work and learn together will best support the need of

an inclusive community for beginning teachers. By providing these opportunities, beginning


teachers will be able to grow professionally, build up additional skills for dealing with student

behavior, and begin to feel like a valued and significant member of the school community (Long,

2010).

Conclusion

School culture, leadership and induction programs work together to create an

environment that supports teacher retention (Cohen et al., 2009; Deal & Peterson, 2016; Kardos

et al., 2001; Quartz, 2003). The retention of teachers is an issue effecting many students in our

country. Specifically, students in low income settings feel the effects of the large number of

teachers moving between schools and leaving teaching altogether (Boyd et al., 2011; Ingersoll,

1999, 2003). The research supports the need to work with administrators, policy makers, teacher

trainers and teachers to develop school cultures that support classroom teachers. Within a

positive school culture there is greater likelihood that teachers remain in their positions.

Additionally, higher levels of collegiality, anonymity, and administrative support will exist (Deal

& Peterson, 2016; Ingersoll, 2003). If there is a positive school climate the community will see,

greater attendance, stronger connection to school, teacher retention and engaged learning

(Pedota, 2015; Quartz, 2003).

Although the research shows a significant correlation between school culture and

retention (Ingersoll, 2001, 2003; Ingersoll et al., 2016). It is lacking in a few areas. The survey

data used in much of the research was specific to populations, districts, and regions (Boyd et al.,

2005; Boyd et al., 2008). There is limited access to data that can be generalized across the

nation. The final limitation to the research is there has been limited amount of data offered

connecting teacher retention to student engagement or achievement. To continue retention


efforts in our schools it will be necessary to continue to research the correlation between

retention and achievement.

Intervention

Based on the research, it is the best practice to look for various approaches to creating or

changing school culture. Offering multiple induction procedures will work toward retaining new

and veteran teachers (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Ingersoll, 2003; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). There

are multiple methods in which to begin the process of cultural change and induction. Most of the

methods rely on a committed, involved administration. The administrators are in a position that

allows them to; advocate for funding, distribute leadership roles among staff, and provide

inspiration and encouragement to staff, students and community members (Ingersoll & Strong,

2011; Turan & Bektaş, 2013).

Teacher Mentorship and Support

In the discussion surrounding mentorship and other variations of support for teachers,

culture, in addition to the type, length, and approach of induction presented to teachers, needs to

be considered (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Creating situations that, allow

teachers to work with mentors who are in similar positions, have detailed training for mentors,

and support of school and district administration will impact not only the retention of teachers,

but also student achievement (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011).

Understanding the necessity of a positive culture and the best way to work to promote a

positive culture can be done during teacher pre-service training programs. Currently, it is not a

requirement that school culture and how to develop a positive school culture be included in

teacher pre-service training programs. At the core of school culture is a shared commitment to

the development of norms and missions (Cohen et al., 2009; Deal & Peterson, 2016). If teachers


feel their opinion is included in the creation of the school culture, it is more likely that they will

feel a sense of ownership and dedication to the school (Pedota, 2015). Teachers who feel

ownership and dedication tend to stay at the same school for longer, put forth more effort in the

development of lesson plans, and put more energy into building relationships among other staff,

students, parents and community members.

Limitations exist with current studies. Specifically, the types of populations being tested,

the ability to control the type of induction, the duration of programs, and the style of induction

programs being presented to teachers. Additionally, it appears the traditional induction processes

benefit new teachers but take time for them to impact student achievement. The current research

is working to provide insight into effective policies for schools (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011).

Policy makers need to take into consideration the factors that impact the implementation of

induction programs, including, type of induction program, length of programs, impact on teacher

retention, and the impact on student achievement. Now, specific details as to which type of

induction programs would be most beneficial to students and to teachers is still debatable.

One additional form of support that can be offered to teachers is described by Dinkmeyer,

Carlson and Michel (2016). This method is based on the work of Alfred Adler and Rudolf

Dreikurs who discussed the importance of mindful education. In this approach, teachers are

encouraged to understand the skills of inner focus, empathy, and interdependence among school

culture approaches. It is recommended that teachers learn and master specific social emotional

skills including, self-awareness, self-management, empathy, social skills, and good decision

making (Dinkmeyer et al., 2016, pp. 136-137; Jennings et al., 2013). Teachers and parents

cannot teach what they do not know, so it is necessary to offer induction and continuing


education opportunities for teachers to learn these skills so that they can offer them to students.

Which will in turn lead to greater student achievement (Dinkmeyer et al., 2016).

The call for greater student achievement on standardized assessments, as well as new

and differing student behaviors has added to the stressors experienced by teachers. Cultivating

Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) is a professional development program

designed to immerse teachers in emotional skills, mindfulness, stress reeducation and caring and

listening practices (Jennings et al., 2013). This program is still being developed and refined to

best serve the needs of teachers. The creators believe there is need for teachers to have skills that

allow them to be more aware of surroundings and student needs. They believe this is reached

through teaching teachers to use meditation, active listening, self-care skills, and as well as being

able to self-regulate thoughts, feelings and reactions (Dinkmeyer et al., 2016; Jennings et al.,

2013). While this program is still in development, the data supports the need for such programs

in high need environments. Schools where teachers are faced with high need students, low

resources and/or low support can benefit most from the foundations of this program. In schools

where professional development is the norm, there are plentiful resources and larger teacher

retention. (Jennings et al., 2013). In the end teachers who have skills in self-care, self-regulation,

active listening, and awareness will be able to support students to the best of their abilities.

Leadership Roles

Teachers as leaders. While much of this paper has looked at the role administration and

counselors play in the development and implementation of positive school culture, it is necessary

to discuss ways that teachers will impact these areas as well (Deal & Peterson, 2016). Teacher

willingness and dedication will impact the likelihood of success of cultural reform within the

schools. When a school has a reputation in a community, there are many actions that can be


done by the teachers themselves to change the exterior perception of teachers, students and

education. First, teachers can work to take care of themselves through healthy eating and

exercise (Johns & McGrath, 2015). Next, teachers can make a choice on how to respond to

various stimulus throughout the day. Regardless of the negative or positive meaning of the

stimuli, teachers can choose to redirect their thoughts toward affirmation, positivity and joy.

Teachers are also a source of joy and hope for many students. They provide

encouragement, opportunities for success, and a safe community for students. By doing so,

teachers build one-to-one relationships that carry over into the creation of positive school culture.

Finally, teachers can share with community members and beyond the great work that is being

done in their schools. Teachers must think of how they present themselves visually and verbally

everywhere (Johns & McGrath, 2015). This includes in school, in stores, and on social media.

How teachers discuss education will feed into how the public discusses education.

Teachers are also the leader of their own classrooms. Teachers will develop a sub-culture

that exists within their own classroom, which in turn will interact with the overall school’s

culture. Research has supported looking at classroom culture through parenting styles (Pellerin,

2000). Schools looked at through the lens of parenting styles; authoritative, authoritarian,

permissive and neglecting (Pellerin, 2000). Findings suggest that authoritative classroom and

school cultures produce high engagement, high demand for behavior, and high responsiveness to

students. Where students can feel that teachers care about their thoughts and ideas, there is open

communication between the students and the teachers. If this openness is perceived by students

throughout the school, then there is a greater chance that students will stay in school. Moving

toward creating classroom environments that mimic an authoritative parenting approach has


created the need for skill development for teachers in social emotional competencies (Jennings et

al., 2013).

Counselors and administration. A school counselor is unique in that he/she works

closely with each of these roles within the school. Many of the leadership positions necessary to

create a strong school culture can be held by a school counselor (American School Counseling

Association, 2012; Deal & Peterson, 2016). As a leader, a school counselor is in a unique

position to help students through 4 leadership areas, including, structural, human resource,

political, and symbolic leadership (American School Counseling Association, 2012). Working in

these various areas of leadership a school counselor can be collaborative with both the staff and

community, and an advocate for academic achievement for every student, and for a

comprehensive school counseling program. In doing all this, a school counselor can help create

systemic change within the school community (Ryan, 2015). School counselors become an

inimitable resource for administration, teachers, students and community.

Consultation is a unique approach when working with teachers, parents, and other

community stakeholders within a school (Dinkmeyer et al., 2016). The consultant can be any

person with training and knowledge in student education. It is typically a member of

administration, a school counselor, or a school psychologist. In this process, there is a consultant

and a consultee. The consultee is typically a teacher or parent. The consultee is seeking

consultation because they are experiencing a problem. Often the individual with the problem

will want to find someone to fix or solve the problem for them. It is necessary, in the role of

consultant, to encourage the consultee to brainstorm solutions on their own.

Within the school setting, the consultation process will typically be done as an individual

consultation, or group consultation (Dinkmeyer et al., 2016). The ability to work as a group is a


way to support the development of community among teachers and staff. Developing

community is a key component to having a positive school culture (Deal & Peterson, 2016). The

benefits of individual consultation are: the consultant can focus on one person, and there is a

greater chance of confidentiality (Dinkmeyer et al., 2016). Also, when the consultant sits one-

on-one with the consultee, there is the perception that the individual’s voice and opinions are

being heard (Dinkmeyer et al., 2016; Ingersoll, 2003).

Either setting, group or individual, allows the consultant to offer encouragement to the

other employees of the school. Possible disadvantages to individual consultations are offering

advice based on limited to the knowledge and experience of the individuals involved (Dinkmeyer

et al., 2016). If the consultation develops a dualistic relationship, where a consultant slips into

the role of therapist for the consultee, advice giving becomes the norm. Then the consultation

will be less about helping the students and more about helping the teacher. It is important to

keep in mind the goal of the consultation, to fix the problem at the school, versus helping the

consultee with their life outside of school.

A different approach is to offer group consultations. In group consultations teachers are

brought together to work as a group to discuss challenges found in their own classrooms. The

role of consultant is that of a group monitor and teachers can work together to brainstorm

possible solutions. In the group setting, it is more likely that conversation will remain focused

on the school and the students’ needs. Also, when more teachers and staff are involved in

consultation discussions more experiences and ideas will arise (Dinkmeyer et al., 2016). As the

research has shown, creating opportunities for collegiality with in the school will increase

teacher satisfaction and retention (Borman & Dowling, 2008; Deal & Peterson, 2016; Ingersoll,


1999, 2003). Not only will group consultation support student needs, it will also support teacher

needs that lead to retention.

Administrators are an influential factor of schools and the community that they exist

within (Norton, 2002). They are in a position that allows them to act as moral and symbolic

guides for the rest of the staff. They can work to create an atmosphere that promotes the values

and believes of the cultural community. One study found that administrators create up to 28

percent of cultural change (Turan & Bektaş, 2013). When a leader understands the importance

of school culture and relationship; building a culture that supports teacher retention will benefit

all (Cohen et al., 2009; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011).

Creating or Changing Culture

To begin the process of cultural change it is necessary to explore and understand the

existing culture (Cohen et al., 2009; Deal & Peterson, 2016; Thapa et al., 2013). Many districts

have done this by creating cultural surveys. However, these methods are not usually research

based approaches. A few research based evaluations currently exist. The two that have the most

statistical and research support are, High Performance Learning Community Assessments

(HiPlaces Assessments) and the Comprehensive School Climate Inventory (CSCI) (Cohen et al.,

2009). These surveys can be used to identify and report key cultural information as it currently

exists within the school. The intention is to use the surveys as a place to start a cultural overhaul.

Specific elements within the community need to come together to help develop or

reshape school culture (Deal & Peterson, 2016; Fraise & Brooks, 2015). These elements consist

of a supportive community, families, students and staff, goals to reach, and systematic

approaches. The main point for school culture reform is to create a culture that will best support

the needs of the students in the school, as well as make for an encouraging work environment.


Having a dedicated community environment is the only way to create a school culture that will

be best for the students and staff of a school (Cohen et al., 2009). Each member of the

community must be able to contribute their beliefs, values, goals, and missions to create a base

which will support a sustainable school culture (Cohen et al., 2009; Fraise & Brooks, 2015). The

creation of a school culture is a democratic process and the skills required to run a successful

democracy are the same skills needed to maintain a school with a positive culture (Cohen et al.,

2009, p. 199).


References

American School Counselor Association. (2012). The ASCA national model: A framework for

school counseling programs (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Author.

Ansbacher, H.L., & Ansbacher, R.R. (Eds.) (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler:

A systematic presentation in selections from his writings. New York, NY:

HarperPerennial.

Borman, G. D., & Dowling, N. M. (2008). Teacher attrition and retention: A meta-analytic and

narrative review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 78(3), 367-409.

Boyd, D., Grossman, P., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2008). Who leaves? Teacher

attrition and student achievement. CALDER Working Paper No. 23. Retrieved from

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED508275.pdf

Boyd, D., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2005). Explaining the short careers of high-

achieving teachers in schools with low-performing students. American Economic

Review, 95(2), 166-171.

Callahan, J. (2016). Encouraging retention of new teachers through mentoring strategies. Delta

Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 83(1), 6-11.

Cochran-Smith, M., Cannady, M., McEachern, K. P., Piazza, P., Power, C., & Ryan, A. (2011).

Teachers' education, teaching practice, and retention: A cross-genre review of recent

research. Journal of Education, 191(2), 19-31.

Cohen, J., McCabe, E. M., Michilli, N. M., & PickeralL, T. (2009). School climate: Research,

policy, practice, and teacher education. Teachers College Record, 111(1), 180-213.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Solving the dilemmas of teacher supply, demand, and standards:

How we can ensure a competent, caring, and qualified teacher for every child. New


York, NY: National Commission on Teaching & America’s Future. Retrieved from


Deal, T.E. & Peterson, K.D. (2016). Shaping school culture (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA:

Jossey-Bass.

Dinkmeyer, D. Jr., Carlson, J., & Michel, R.E. (2016). Consultation: Creating school-based

interventions (4th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Fraise, N. J., & Brooks, J. S. (2015). Toward a theory of culturally relevant leadership for

school-community culture. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 17(1), 6-21.

Ingersoll, R. M. (1999). Teacher turnover, teacher shortages, and the organization of schools. A

CTP Working Paper. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Center for the Study of

Teaching and Policy. Retrieved from

http://www.cpre.org/sites/default/files/researchreport/824_turnover-ing-01-2001.pdf

Ingersoll, R. M. (2003). Is there really a teacher shortage? doi:10.1037/e382722004-001.

Retrieved from

http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1133&context=gse_pubs

Ingersoll, R. M. (2012). Beginning teacher induction: What the data tell us. Phi Delta

Kappan, 93(8), 47-51.

Ingersoll, R., Merrill, L., & May, H. (2016). Do accountability policies push teachers

out? Educational Leadership, 73(8), 44-49.

Ingersoll, R. M., & Smith, T. M. (2003). The wrong solution to the teacher shortage. Educational

Leadership, 60(8), 30.


Ingersoll, R. M., & Strong, M. (2011). The impact of induction and mentoring programs for

beginning teachers: A critical review of the research. Review of Educational

Research, 81(2), 201-233. doi:10.3102/0034654311403323

Jain, S., Cohen, A. K., Huang, K., Hanson, T. L., & Austin, G. (2015). Inequalities in school

climate in California. Journal of Educational Administration, 53(2), 237-261.

Jennings, P. A., Frank, J. L., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., Greenberg, M. T. (2013).

Improving classroom learning environments by Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in

Education (CARE): Results of a randomized controlled trial. School Psychology

Quarterly, 28(4):374-390.

Johns, B. H., & McGrath, M. Z. (2015). Restoring the joy in teaching in a time of

turbulence. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 82(2), 36-39.

Kardos, S. M., Johnson, S. M., Peske, H. G., Kauffman, D., & Liu, E. (2001). Counting on

colleagues: New teachers encounter the professional cultures of their

schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 37(2), 250.

Long, J. (2010). The fatal attraction of mentoring: Mentoring for retention of beginning

teachers. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 5(2), 265-274.

Norton, M. (2002). Let’s keep our quality school principals on the job. High School Journals,

86(2), 50.

Olsen, B., & Anderson, L. (2007). Courses of action: A qualitative investigation into urban

teacher retention and career development. Urban Education, 42(1), 5-29.

Pedota, P. J. (2015). How can student success support teacher self-efficacy and

retention? Clearing House, 88(2), 54-61. doi:10.1080/00098655.2014.998600


Pellerin, L. A. (2000). Urban youth and schooling: The effect of school climate on student

disengagement and dropout. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED441883

Quartz, K. H. (2003). “Too angry to leave”: Supporting new teachers’ commitment to transform

urban schools. Journal of Teacher Education, 54(2), 99-111.

doi:10.1177/0022487102250284

Ryan, S. J. (2015). ASCA national model. Unpublished course assignment manuscript,

Department of School Counseling, Adler Graduate School, Richfield, Minnesota, United

States of America.

Smith, T. K., Connolly, F., & Pryseski, C. (2014). Positive school climate: What it looks like and

how it happens. Nurturing positive school climate for student learning and professional

growth. Baltimore, MD: Baltimore Education Research Consortium Retrieved from


Smith, T. M., & Ingersoll, R. M. (2004). What are the effects of induction and mentoring on

beginning teacher turnover? American Educational Research Journal, 41(3), 681-714.

Tamir, E. (2013). What keeps teachers in and what drives them out: How urban public, urban

Catholic, and Jewish day schools affect beginning teachers' careers. Teachers College

Record, 115(6), 1-36.

Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. (2013). A review of school

climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 357-385.

doi:10.3102/0034654313483907

Turan, S., & Bektaş, F. (2013). The relationship between school culture and leadership

practices. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, (52), 155-168.


Weiss, E. M. (1999). Perceived workplace conditions and first-year teachers' morale, career

choice commitment, and planned retention: A secondary analysis. Teaching and Teacher

Education, 15(8), 861-879. doi:10.1016/S0742-051X(99)00040-2

running head: school culture; educator retention 1 school

Documents