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Running head: RECESS AND BEHAVIORAL OUTCOMES 1

Recess and Behavior: The Correlation Between Active Recess and

In-School Behavioral Outcomes of Students with Disabilities

Tessah M. Webb

EDU 520-33

Nazareth College of Rochester

RECESS AND BEHAVIORAL OUTCOMES 2

Abstract

This study examines whether a correlation exists between the in-school behaviors of students

with disabilities and the provision of an active recess. The researchers reviewed current research

on this topic, specifically studies by Barros, Silver and Stein (2009), Chomitz et al., Fagerstrom

and Mahoney (2009), and Ridgway, Northup, Pellegrin, LaRue, and Hightshoe (2003).

Following the literature review, the researchers developed and executed a quantitative study on

the topic. Participants included 9 fifth-grade students with disabilities from a northeastern

United States urban elementary school. Data was collected through time coding of naturalistic

observation into table format and triangulated by the special education teacher’s anecdotal notes

(Ary, Jacobs & Sorenson, 2010). Results suggested increased on-topic behavior when students

did have recess and increased off-topic behavior when recess was revoked. Therefore, the

researchers concluded that, in this small pilot study, students’ behavioral outcomes and recess

are certainly correlated. Furthermore, this study in conjunction with current research seems to

support a relationship between student behavior and recess in classrooms across America.


Recess and Behavioral Outcomes: The Correlation Between Active Recess and

In-School Behavioral Outcomes of Students with Disabilities

Play is essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social,

and emotional well-being of children and youth (Ginsburg, 2007). Play is recognized as an

important aspect of child development and therefore is encouraged both at home and in school

(Barros, Silver, & Stein, 2009). Recess is generally defined as a break during the school day

designed to allow children time to actively play (Barros et al.). Due in part for this need for play,

and more generally, physical activity, recess has been a part of the school day from the

development of formal educational systems (Ridgway, Northup, Pellegrin, LaRue, & Hightshoe,

2003). Currently however, many school children are given less time for recess and in some

districts the practice has been abandoned altogether (Chomitz et al., 2009). Some researchers

argue that this diminishing of recess may be, in part, a response to the No Child Left Behind act

(NCLB) of 2001 (Chomitz et al.). Chomitz et al. also contend that because NCLB calls for an

increased focus on math and English (NCLB, 2001), districts are reducing time committed to

recess, the creative arts, and even physical education in an effort to focus on academics.

Teachers and researchers alike are left wondering about the cost of this shift.

In the face of changing times and increased standardized testing, teachers are constantly

trying to make the school day more effective, engaging, and fun while still challenging their

students to their full potential. As a result, they often wonder how recess really impacts students,

especially students with disabilities. Does recess help students feel less anxious and stressed?

Furthermore, does recess allow students to burn off excess energy and, as a result decrease off-

topic behavior in the classroom? Despite these important questions and a potential correlation

there is no written rule governing recess in many school districts. Traditionally, recess is given


once a day for at least 15 minutes (Barros et al., 2009). However, in today’s society of high-

stakes testing and massive curriculum to be covered, some teachers treat recess as an optional

reward if the students are achieving high grades and completing all of their work.

In classrooms across the United States teachers also struggle on a daily basis with

students off-topic behavior. The question is raised then, is recess correlated in any way with

student’s behavioral outcomes? The present pilot study focused on the impact of having recess

(versus lack of recess) on fifth grade students with disabilities. To investigate this question

further the researchers studied current relevant articles (see Table 1). For complete articles,

please see Appendix A.

Table 1 Summary of Research ArticlesAuthor(s) and Year

Title of Article

Primary Purpose(s)/Objective(s)

Participant(s) Method(s) Results Conclusions/Discussion

Barros, R. M., Silver, E. J., & Stein, R. E. K.(2009)

School Recess and Group Classroom Behavior

Examines the amount of recess that children 8 to 9 years old receive in the U.S. and compares the group classroom behavior of children who receive recess to those who do not.

15,305 children between 8 and 9 years old. The students were mainly in first, second, and third grade (99%). “Third-graders who repeated secondor third grade, recent immigrants, and children whodid not have the chance to be in the sample in kindergartenor first grade were not included” (Barros, Silver & Stein, 2009, p. 432)

Using a public-use data set (ECLS) this study categorizes children into 2 levels of recess exposure (none/minimal and some – which is further categorized into 5 levels based on frequency and duration). Child, parent, school and classroom characteristics of each category was compared. Additionally, group classroom behavior was assessed by teacher rating.

Children exposed to none/minimal break (30%) were much more likely to be black, to be from families with lower incomes and lower levels of education, to live in large cities, to be from the Northeast or South, and to attend public school, compared with those with recess. Teacher’s rating of classroom behavior scores were better for children with some recess than for those with none/minimal break. However, level of exposure did not correlate with teacher rating of class behavior.

Results showed that for 8 to 9-year-old children having one 15 minute daily recess was associated with better teacher rating of class behavior.This study suggests that school children in this age group should be provided with daily recess.

Chomitz, V. R., Slining, M. M., McGowan, R. J., Mitchell, S. E., Dawson, G. F., & Hacker,

Is There a Relationship Between PhysicalFitness and Acade

To determine relationships between physical fitness and academic

The setting for the study was the Cambridge PublicSchool Department (CPSD), a racially and economically diverse urban public school

This cross-sectional study used public school data from 2004 to 2005. Academic achievement was assessed as a passing score on two state tests (Math and English).Fitness achievement was assessed as the number of physical fitness tests passedduring physical education. Multivariate logistic regression

The odds of passing both the MCAS Mathematics test and the MCAS English test increased as the number of fitness tests passed increased (p , .0001 and p , .05, respectively).

Results show statistically significant relationships between fitness and academic achievement, though the direction of causation is not known. Promoting fitness by increasing opportunities for physical activity


K. A. (2008)

mic Achievement?Positive Results From Public SchoolChildren in the Northeastern United States

achievement in diverse, urban public school children.

district. In 2004-2005, there were 3990 students enrolled in 12 CPSD elementary grades (kindergarten through eighth grade).For the purposes of this study, school record data that included standardized test scores, fitness, andBMI information for students who were enrolled in grades 4-8 during the 2004-2005 academic year wereused.

analyses were conducted to assess the probability of passing the MCAS tests, controlling for students’ weight status (BMIz score), ethnicity, gender, grade, and socioeconomic status (school lunch enrollment).

during PE, recess, and out of school time may support academic achievement.

Fagerstrom. T, K. Mahoney(2009)

Give Me a Break! Can Strategic Recess Scheduling Increase On-Task Behavior For First Graders?

To determine whether strategically scheduled recess breaks throughout the school day will increase student on-task behavior during the time when they work independently.

Participants in this study consisted of 16 first-grade students ranging in age from 6 to 7 years old. They were Caucasian students: 9 males and 7 females.

Recess breaks were approximately 25 minutes and consisted of students either playing in the classroom or outside on the playground, depending on the weather. Students were free to choose what they did during these breaks. Recess was strategically placed either before or after the mathematics lesson, alternating every other day for two weeks (10 days) This action research study was designed as a quasi-experimental design with baseline data collected prior to the intervention, during and after. Using a checklist, students were observed for on and off-task behavior during math lessons when completing independent practice activities.

Results of field notes taken by the teacher/researcher yielded all positive comments from students about having more recess throughout the day, even if for less time per recess.Recess before mathematics showed the most on-task behavior and the least off-task behavior. On-task behavior occurred most during the intervention when recess was placed before mathematics followed by recess after mathematics, then at the very end of the day. In addition, off-task behavior occurred the least during the intervention when recess was placed before mathematics followed by recess-after-mathematics, then recess at the end of the day.

More on task behavior was exhibited when recess was offered before math, followed by recess after math, and lastly the traditional recess at the end of the day. When students are more on task, learning takes place. This study suggests that scheduling recess breaks directly before or after an academic lesson promotes greater on task behaviors during independent practice sessions.

Ridgway, A., Northup, J., Pellegrin, A., LaRue, R., &

Effects of Recess on the Classroom Behavior of

The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the

All children participating in the investigation were 8 years old and in Grade 2 at a private school. The primary

Participants were observed during 10-minute classroom observations while engaged in their regular classroom activities. Scheduled classroom activities occurred at the same time each day and included journal writing, spelling,

The overall results appear similar for both the children with a diagnosis of ADHD and the children nominated as typical peers. Both groups showed similar trends

The results of this study show that levels of inappropriate behavior were substantially higher on days when the three participants with a diagnosis of ADHD


Hightshoe, A. (2003)

Children with and without Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

effects of a traditional recess on the subsequent classroom behavior of children with a diagnosis of Attention-Deficit Hyper- activity Disorder (ADHD).

participants were three boys who had a prior diagnosis of ADHD based on the criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV as reported by the primary participants’ parents. All three students who had a prior diagnosis of ADHD were receiving medication.

phonics, handwriting, math, and reading activities. Observers recorded each of the following target behaviors: off task, inappropriate vocalizations, out of seat, fidgeting, and playing with objects. All participants were initially observed in the classroom at periodic intervals from the beginning of the school day until their normally scheduled lunch break. The purpose of these observations was to determine the most appropriate time for recess to be introduced for each child based on the child’s level of inappropriate behavior at various times in the morning. The effects of recess and no-recess conditions on the subsequent classroom behavior of each participant were compared using a single-case, multi-element design. Recess and no-recess conditions were alternated daily with each condition occurring a minimum of three times.

of progressively increasing inappropriate behavior when no recess was provided. The children in both groups showed clear reductions in post recess in appropriate behavior on recess compared with no-recess days. However, a visual inspection of the results suggests that the effects of recess may have been greater for most of the participants with ADHD (i.e., Nathan and Tim) than for the peer groups.

did not have recess, compared with days when they did have recess. The results also show that the level of inappropriate behavior generally increased over time for all participants, including the typical peer groups that were matched to each student with a diagnosis of ADHD, on days when there was no recess. However, this progressive increase of inappropriate behavior over time did not occur on days when the participants did have recess. This effect of preventing further inappropriate behavior, rather than resulting in an immediate decrease in inappropriate behavior, may partially contribute to teachers’ informal reports that they do not observe any immediate benefits associated with recess.

Barros et al. (2009) examined the amount of recess that children 8 to 9 years of age

receive in the United States. They also compared the group classroom behavior of children

receiving daily recess with that of children not receiving daily recess. They found that teacher’s

rating of classroom behavior scores were better for children with some recess than for those with

none or minimal. Based on the teacher’s ratings, the researchers suggested that perhaps

schoolchildren in this age group should be given recess every day break (Barros et al.). This

direct, yet broad, look at recess was very helpful in considerations for the present research.

A study by Chomitz et al. (2008) attempted to determine a possible relationship between

physical fitness and academic achievement in a diverse, urban public school. They used public

school data to assess academic achievement and fitness achievement. Furthermore, the


researchers used quantitative methods of analysis to look for a relationship between these two

types of achievement. The results of their study suggest that passing scores on both achievement

assessments were positively correlated. They also propose that perhaps increased physical

activity for schoolchildren supports academic achievement (Chomitz et al.). Although this study

considered physical activity, the researchers considered this piece very valuable as the common

definition of recess which they utilized included physical activity.

Fagerstrom and Mahoney (2009) studied whether strategically scheduled recess breaks

increased student on-task behaviors during independent work time. This action research study

involved observations in a checklist format as well as field notes. Results of the study implied

that recess breaks which are scheduled directly before or after academic lessons positively

impact student on-task behaviors (Fagerstrom & Mahoney). The relationship between recess and

behavior was crucial to the considerations of this study as well.

Similarly to the work by Barros et al., Ridgway et al. (2003) studied the effects of

traditional recess on the classroom behavior of children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity

Disorder (ADHD). They evaluated results using single-case designs. The results of this research

showed that the level of inappropriate behavior was correlated with lack of recess. Interestingly,

they also found that” inappropriate behavior for all participants progressively increased over time

on days when they did not have recess,” (Ridgway et al., p. 253). Overall, these four studies

provided an excellent understanding for the researchers to base the present study off of.

Ultimately, our goal as teachers is to provide our students with the best education

possible. For us, the researchers, that means being informed of best practices, especially

practices that may directly impact the behavior of our students. The purpose of this study

therefore, was to investigate the relationship between half-hour active recess, versus lack of


recess, and the in-school behavioral outcomes of fifth grade students with disabilities.

Furthermore, this pilot study is especially important, and relevant to our future classroom

planning as elementary teachers. The scheduling of our daily routines rests on studies like these.

We hope increase our understanding of the possible correlation between recess and behavior so

that we might better serve our students.

Methods

In this small pilot study, the two researchers investigated the relationship between active

recess and in-school behavioral outcomes of students with disabilities. The research was focused

on fifth-grade students with disabilities as further detailed in the participants section of this

paper. The study was primarily conducted in a public elementary school through the means of

natural observation (Ary, Jacobs, & Sorensen, 2010).

Participants

Children in this study all attended an urban, full-day public elementary school in the

northeastern United States. The majority of students at this school were from lower socio-

economic class, African American families. Participants consisted of 9 fifth-grade students

ranging in age from 10 to 11 years old. There were five male and four female students and all

were English-speaking African Americans. All students observed were classified as students

with a disabilities and their instruction was provided in an inclusive classroom setting with two

teachers for the entire school day. This classroom supports 27 students total, all of whom

interacted with each other in most daily activities. No consent was required as this data was

collected through natural observation. Confidentiality was maintained by omitting names of

subjects. Furthermore, observing normal day-to-day activities rather than creating new

circumstances for the students prevented potential ethical issues.


Validity and Reliability

As previously mentioned, this study focused on children who had been classified as

‘students with disabilities.’ Also, these students all received instruction within the same

integrated classroom. Therefore, because subjects were not chosen randomly, external and

internal validity may be put at risk (Ary et al., 2010). The selection-treatment interaction may

have impacted the external validity as it is difficult to know whether this 'small handful' of

students with disabilities in the northeastern United States is representative of students with

disabilities worldwide, or even across America (Ary et al.). Additionally, history may have

impacted the internal validity of this study as students may have physical education or a long

walk to school on some days of observation which may have impacted their behavior in similar

ways to active recess (Ary et al.). The explicit and operational definitions of each behavior

helped to increase interobserver reliability (Ary et al.). Additionally, two observers

independently observed the classroom at one point and correlated their results to determine that

both were coding data in a similar way. Overall, as a pilot study, this research has numerous

threats to validity and reliability and further research is necessary to corroborate the findings.

Procedures

The researchers chose to focus on elementary students with disabilities because they were

both studying Inclusive Childhood Education in their master’s programs at Nazareth College.

Furthermore, the site of this study, an urban elementary school in the northeastern United States,

was chosen, in part, because it was accessible to the researchers. Additionally, the school

seemed to be typical of urban schools in this area. According to the New York State Education

Department (NYSED, 2005), this public school houses grades one through six and has

approximately 500 students enrolled yearly. On average, there are 40 teachers and 5


paraprofessionals employed at this elementary school (NYSED). The sample of nine students

was chosen based on researcher’s opportunity to observe as well as each having been classified

as students with disabilities.

One researcher was the special education teacher in the classroom observed, allowing

access to the classroom. The second researcher, Tessah Webb, was introduced to the class as “a

student from Nazareth College,” developing rapport with the students. Because the data was

obtained through naturalistic observation further relationships with the students were

unnecessary.

The observations themselves took place over a period of two weeks at the same time each

day. The nine students were observed for the ten-minute interval between 10:30 and 10:40am

each day, during math class. The researchers recorded data in the tables discussed in the next

section. The researchers chose a naturalistic observational technique in order to reduce

potentially impacting student behavior, especially through the observer effect (Ary et al., 2010).

After an initial introduction as “a student from Nazareth College,” the observer sat in the back of

the classroom quietly writing. By remaining an unobtrusive aspect of the room for a number of

days she was hardly noticed by the students. In addition to naturalistic observation, the

researchers triangulated their data with anecdotal notes from the classroom teacher, to provide a

more reliable, and well-rounded, study (Ary et al.). The researchers also chose to utilize a time

coding method which allowed them to record behaviors as they rapidly occurred with more

objectivity than rating scales (Ary et al.).

The data was coded (Ary et al., 2010) into the attached behavioral chart which was

divided into 12 on-topic and off-topic behaviors (Table B1). This behavioral chart was devised

by the researchers, based off of the methods of Mahoney and Fagerstrom (2009). Each behavior


is also defined below with definitions modified by the researchers from the work of Ridgway et

al. (2003) and provided in Appendix B. Coding was straightforward, utilizing one tally mark for

each time a behavior was observed. Copies of the daily observation tables are not included as all

data was recorded on an identical chart (Table B1) and cumulative data is displayed here. All

observations were totaled and are displayed in a similar fashion in Table 2.

Concurrent triangulation occurred in this study as the researchers took into consideration

the anecdotal notes of the special education teacher in the classroom during the periods of data

collection. These notes provide a different perspective and details that were not easily integrated

into the tables. However, they were useful in helping to answer the overarching research

question regarding the relationship between half-hour indoor or outdoor recess (including

physical activity) versus lack of recess (and physical activity) and the in-school behavioral

outcomes of fifth grade students with disabilities. The teacher took note when she felt that

major, repetitive, or highly disruptive off-topic behaviors occurred. For instance, she noted that

one student repeatedly asked to go to the nurse on days when she did not participate in recess.

Her notes were not formalized into a specific format. Instead, they were written in anecdotal

note-form as observed. Overall, the coded naturalistic observation and anecdotal notes seemed

to provide sufficient data for the researchers to analyze.

Results

Table 2Cumulative On and Off-Topic Behaviors ObservedOn Topic Behavior: Total Incidence Count Off Topic Behavior: Total Incidence Count

With Recess

Without Recess

With Recess

Without Recess

Hand Raising 10 5 Playing with objects 4 10

Eyes on Board 6 0 Out of seat 3 8

Eyes on paper 10 4 Playing with own hair or nails

1 3


Taking notes 6 6 Inappropriate vocalizations

8 15

Editing Notes 2 0 Looking at objects other than for assigned task

3 6

Asking the teacher questions 10 10 Drawing on paper 1 7

On-Topic Totals 44 25 Off-Topic Totals 20 49

After observing 9 fifth-grade students with disabilities in the inclusive classroom setting

the researchers considered the results and see how they related to the original research question.

The students were observed acting out a range of both on and off-topic behaviors on both

days with and without recess. However, the data does appear to show a trend towards increased

on-topic behavior on days with recess and increased off-topic behavior on days without recess.

Figure 2 - Off-Topic Behaviors

Figure 1 – On-Topic Behaviors


More specifically, the on-topic behaviors of hand raising, eyes on board, eyes on paper,

and editing notes were all observed in higher incidences when recess was provided. Asking the

teacher questions and taking notes were observed an equal number of times with recess and

without. On the other hand, every

single off-topic behavior considered

had higher incident counts when the

students were not given recess. For

a summary of observed behaviors

please see Table 2 and for a visual

display of the data please see Figure

1 and 2.

There were considerably

more on-topic behaviors when

recess was provided, 44 versus 16

incidences. Additionally, there

were considerably more off-topic

behaviors when recess was not

provided, 49 versus 20. In

summary, 63% of the on-topic

behaviors observed occurred when

recess was given whereas 71% of

off-topic behavior took place when

students did not receive recess.

Hand Rais-ing

Eyes on Board

Eyes on Paper

Taking Notes

Editing Notes

Asking the teacher

questions

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

With Recess Without Recess

Playing w

ith O

bjects

Out of s

eat

Playing w

ith own hair

or nails

Inappro

priate

vocal

izations

Looking a

t objec

ts other

than as

signed

for ta

sk

Drawing o

n paper

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

With Recess Without Recess


The anecdotal notes by the special education teacher, which served to triangulate the

observational data, also supported this trend. These notes focused on the behavior of students on

days when they did and did not participate in recess. Aside from when specific students behaved

in certain ways, the teacher also noted how different emotions came into play when students

were not given recess. Interestingly, these emotions included meanness and anger towards

teachers and classmates. Overall, the anecdotal notes had the same essence as the coded data.

Based on the data obtained in this research, both from naturalistic observation and teacher

anecdotal notes, the researchers would argue that lack of recess is at least correlated, if not

causally-linked, to increased off-topic behaviors. Furthermore, our data supported a strong

relationship between recess and increased on-topic behavior. As previously mentioned, these

trends can be seen clearly in Figures 1 and 2.

Discussion

After conducting this small quantitative study, we have found a correlation between

providing recess and the behavioral outcomes of fifth-grade students with disabilities. We are

led to believe, based off both this pilot study and available literature on the topic, that allowing

for recess may cause positive behavioral outcomes. Furthermore, our study and the research of

others, suggest a strong, perhaps even causal, relationship between lack of recess and acting out

in off-topic ways. More specifically, the work of Barros et al. (2009), Fagerstrom and Mahoney

(2009), and Ridgway et al. (2003) support this potential relationship.

The implications of such studies are huge for those in the teaching profession. In fact,

they might affect the daily structure of our classrooms! And if something as seemingly simple as

recess might improve the behavior, and in turn perhaps the learning-capabilities, of our students,

we would be ignorant to turn away from current research on the topic. Although this is a


decision that each teacher will have to make individually, except in the cases where recess is

regulated by the school, it is one that affects every student in the elementary setting. If the

behavioral outcomes of hundreds of thousands of children are on the line, this certainly seems an

area worth of further study so that teachers can make informed decisions regarding recess.

As a direct result of this research I intend to incorporate recess into my elementary

classroom on a daily basis. I will refrain from using recess revocation as a means of punishment

and encourage my fellow teachers to do the same. I recognize that challenges of such sweeping

statements but having read extensive literature of the topic, as well seeing the effects of recess

firsthand, I feel that the benefits of recess greatly outweigh the cost of precious classroom time.

Furthermore, I would encourage other teachers to perform similar observations in their

classroom and study current literature before cutting recess from their daily schedule. Because

only further research can provide conclusive answers about the relationship between recess and

behavior, the education field would be wise to pursue it further.

While we recognize the shortcomings of such a small and non-probability based study we

have found support for our findings in others’ research. To be fair, the sample observed in this

pilot study was far too small and non-random to generalize (Ary et al., 2010). Therefore, we

would encourage further research on the relationship between recess and behavior with all kinds

of students. This research can be of the more structured and formalized style, or the more

dynamic teacher’s action research. Personally, I will continue to look for possible correlations

between giving recess and on-topic behavior in my own classroom through teacher action

research. Additionally, further studies might consider the impact of recess timing. That is, when

during the school day, and for how long, recess is most effective. If a correlation to on-topic

behavior and recess is supported with further studies, perhaps the impact and timing of physical


education might also be researched and reconsidered. Overall, this pilot study and the present

research provide a strong starting point for further research regarding the behavioral impact of

active recess.

References

Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Sorensen, C. K. (2010). Introduction to research in education (8th ed.).

Belmot, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.


Barros, R. M., Silver, E. J., & Stein, R. E. K. (2009). School recess and group classroom

behavior. Pediatrics; Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics, 123, 431-

436. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-2845

Chomitz, V. R., Slining, M. M., McGowan, R. J., Mitchell, S. E., Dawson, G. F., & Hacker, K.

A. (2008). Is there a relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement?

Positive results from public school children in the northeastern United States. Journal of

School Health, 79 (1), 30-37.

Ginsburg, K. (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and

maintaining strong parent-child bonds. American Academy of Pediatrics, 119,182-191.

DOI: 10.1542/peds.2006-2007.

Mahoney, K. & Fagerstrom, T. (2009). Give me a break! Can strategic recess scheduling

increase on-task behavior for first graders? The Ontario Action Researcher. Retrieved

from http://www.nipissingu.ca/oar/archive-V921E.htm

New York State Department of Education. (2005). Office of elementary, middle, secondary, and

continuing education’s school report cards. Available at:

http://www.emsc.nysed.gov/repcrd2005/cir/261600010050.pdf

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001: Executive summary. Available at:

www.ed.gov/nclb/overview/intro/execsumm.pdf

Ridgway, A., Northup, J., Pellegrin, A., LaRue, R., & Hightshoe, A. (2003). Effects of recess on

the classroom behavior of children with and without Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity

Disorder. School Psychology Quarterly, 18(3), 253-68. Retrieved from ERIC database.


Appendix B


Table 1

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