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TRANSCRIPT
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
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Benjamin Bloom(1913 – 1999)
He looked on learning as a process – we build upon our former learning to develop more complex levels of understanding Carried out research in the development of classification of
levels of thinking behaviours in the process of learning. PhD University of Chicago in 1942.
Worked on drawing up levels of these thinking behaviours from the simple recall of facts at the lowest level up to evaluation at the highest level.
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Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) is a very useful aid to
writing learning outcomes. The taxonomy consists of a hierarchy of increasingly
complex processes which we want our students to acquire.
Provides the structure for writing learning outcomes Bloom’s Taxonomy is frequently used by teachers in
writing learning outcomes as it provides a ready made structure and list of verbs.
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Bloom (1956) proposed that knowing is composed of six successive levels arranged in a hierarchy.
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4.Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
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This area is commonly called the cognitive (“knowing” or “thinking”) domain (involving thought processes).
Bloom suggested certain verbs that characterise the ability to demonstrate these processes.
These verbs are the key to writing learning outcomes. The list of verbs has been extended since his original publication. The “toolkit” for writing learning outcomes!
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1. Knowledge - ability to recall or remember facts without necessarily understanding them
Use action verbs like: Arrange, collect, define,
describe, duplicate, enumerate, examine, find, identify, label, list, memorise, name, order, outline, present, quote, recall, recognise, recollect, record, recount, relate, repeat, reproduce, show, state, tabulate, tell.
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4.Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
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2. Comprehension - ability to understand and interpret learned information
Use action verbs like:
Associate, change, clarify, classify, construct, contrast, convert, decode, defend, describe, differentiate, discriminate, discuss, distinguish, estimate, explain, express, extend, generalise, identify, illustrate, indicate, infer, interpret, locate, predict, recognise, report, restate, review, select, solve, translate.1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4.Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
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3. Application: ability to use learned material in new situations, e.g. put ideas and concepts to work in solving problems
Use action verbs like: Apply, assess, calculate, change,
choose, complete, compute, construct, demonstrate, develop, discover, dramatise, employ, examine, experiment, find, illustrate, interpret, manipulate, modify, operate, organise, practice, predict, prepare, produce, relate, schedule, select, show, sketch, solve, transfer, use.
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4.Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
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4. Analysis: ability to break down information into its components, e.g. look for inter-relationships and ideas (understanding of organisational structure)
Use action verbs like:Analyse, appraise, arrange, break
down, calculate, categorise, classify, compare, connect, contrast, criticise, debate, deduce, determine, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, divide, examine, experiment, identify, illustrate, infer, inspect, investigate, order, outline, point out, question, relate, separate, sub-divide, test.
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4.Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
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5. Synthesis - ability to put parts together
Use action verbs like: Argue, arrange, assemble,
categorise, collect, combine, compile, compose, construct, create, design, develop, devise, establish, explain, formulate, generalise, generate, integrate, invent, make, manage, modify, organise, originate, plan, prepare, propose, rearrange, reconstruct, relate, reorganise, revise, rewrite, set up, summarise.
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4.Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
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6. Evaluation: Ability to judge value of material for a given purpose
Use action verbs like: Appraise, ascertain, argue,
assess, attach, choose, compare, conclude, contrast, convince, criticise, decide, defend, discriminate, explain, evaluate, interpret, judge, justify, measure, predict, rate, recommend, relate, resolve, revise, score, summarise, support, validate, value.
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4.Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
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Examples: Evaluation Assess the importance of key participants in bringing
about change in Irish history Evaluate marketing strategies for different electronic
business models. Appraise the role of sport and physical education in
health promotion for young people. Predict the effect of change in temperature on the
position of equilibrium… Summarise the main contributions of Michael Faraday
to the field of electromagnetic induction.
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Bloom Revisited: Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)
Bloom (1956) Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)
To remember To understand To apply To analyse To evaluate To create
Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation – Higher Order Thinking Skills
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AFFECTIVE DOMAIN (“Feeling”) concerned with value issues : involves attitudes.
Two other domains in Bloom’s TaxonomyTwo other domains in Bloom’s Taxonomy
1. Receiving
2. Responding
3. Valuing
4. Organisation
5. Characterisation
Willingness to receive information
Active participation in own learning
Commitment to a value
Comparing, relating, synthesising values
Integration of beliefs, ideas and attitudes
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Active verbs for affective domain Appreciate, accept, assist,
attempt, challenge, combine, complete, defend, demonstrate (a belief in), discuss, dispute, embrace, follow, hold, integrate, order, organise, join, share, judge, praise, question, relate, share, support, synthesise, value.
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PSYCHOMOTOR (“Doing”) DOMAIN: Work never completed by Bloom. Involves co-ordination of brain and muscular activity.
Active verbs for this domain: bend, grasp, handle, operate, perform, reach, relax, shorten, stretch, differentiate (by touch), perform (skilfully).
TEACHING STRATEGIES AND METHODOLOGIES FOR TEACHING &
LEARNING
TYPES OF LECTURES
1. TRADITIONAL ORAL ESSAY The teacher is the orator and ONLY speaker Expositions done on topic – inspirational or
information
2. PARTICIPATORY LECTURE> Begins w/ brainstorming from what students read
3. LECTURE W/ UNCOMPLETED HANDOUTS Resembles traditional oral essay but w/ handouts (blank
spaces)
4. FEEDBACK LECTURE> Consists of mini-lectures interspaced w/ 10 minute small
group discussions
5. MEDIATED LECTURE – uses media such as films, slides or Web based images + traditional lecture
PURPOSES OF LECTURES
1. Efficient means of introducing learners to new topic and sets the stage of learning
2. Stimulates learner’s interest3. Helps to integrate and synthesize a large
body of knowledge4. For clarification of difficult parts
(arrythmia, acid-base balances)5. To advance knowledge when textbooks
are not available
ADVANTAGES OF LECTURING
1. It is economical. Great deal of information – shared.
2. Supplies and textbooks become true to life ‘theater’
3. Teacher serves as model students see a ‘creative mind at work’
4. Helps students develop their listening abilities
DISADVANTAGES OF LECTURING
1. Puts learners in the PASSIVE ROLE of a sponge
2. Focuses on the TEACHING OF FACTS with little focus on PS, DM, analytical thinking or transfer of learning results in SURFACE learning
3. Does not meet student’s individual learning needs
4. Student’s have little attention time span (15 minutes)
TYPES OF DISCUSSIONS
1. FORMAL DISCUSSIONS Announced topic Reading, watching movie – done in advance
2. INFORMAL DISCUSSIONS Spontaneous
PURPOSES & ADVANTAGES
1. Learns problem solving method (groups)
2. Opportunity to apply principles, concepts & theories
3. Clarifies information & concepts4. Assists to evaluate beliefs/positions
(professional, societal or ethical issues) > change in attitudes & values
DISADVANTAGES
1. Takes a lot of time2. One person/few participants
(monopolies)3. Gathering of uninformed opinions
DISCUSSION TECHNIQUES
1. Make expectations clear. ‘Students know exactly what they have
to do for discussion’ Ex. Chapter to read, watch a video
2. Set ground rules. > Limitations (e.g. time, no. of speakers,
interruptions during speech)
3. Arrange physical space.Circle sitting arrangement
4. Plan a discussion starter.Ask participants to come up with opening
questionsStudy questions – handed out prior to meeting
5. Facilitate, do not discuss. Refrain from talking. Watch group progress.
Keep everyone engage in discussions.
6. Encourage quiet members to participate.
Make eye contact and smile.Give direct, simple questions: “Mary, what do
you think?”
7. Don’t allow monopolies. Eye contact.Be blunt when needed.. “We’ve been hearing a
lot fro Sarah. Now, let us hear of the rest of you think.”
8. Direct the discussion among group members.
> Leaders facilitate.
9. Keep the discussion on track. “We seem to have strayed a little fro our
topic. Let’s pick up on the last topic that Lot was talking about.”
10. Clarify when confusion reigns.> Recording may help the group. Let them
learn the act of clear self-expression.
11. Tolerate some silence. Silence gives everyone a chance to think.
12. Summarize when appropriate.
QUESTIONING: FUNCTIONS OF QUESTIONS
1. Places the learners in an active role Simple recall Helps students analyze concepts Evaluate worth of ideas Speculate “if”2. Assesses baseline knowledge
retention
3. Helps review content – enlightens gray areas
4. Motivates students Stimulates thinking & curiosity
5. Guides learner’s thought process
4. USING VISUAL AIDS
Can enhance teachingCan add interest to the classroom
ISSUES
Correct choice?Available?Effective?
FACTORS TO CONSIDER: SELECTING MEDIA
1. Learning objectives Opt for variety
2. Availability of materials / technical assistance
3. Level, ability & number of students
TYPES OF TRADITIONAL AUDIOVISUALS
1. HANDOUTS Printed materials – communicate facts, figures,
concepts Saves a lot of time for information
2. CHALKBOARDS/ WHITEBOARDS Useful for mathematical problems
3. OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES (OHP)
Saves time, helps organize and illustrates content
Costly
4. SLIDES> Used to show pictures, project diagrams,
charts and word concepts
ADVANTAGES OF SLIDES: Affordable Easy to store Easy to update/ recognize
DISADVANTAGES OF SLIDES: Costly projector bulbs – don’t last long
5. VIDEO TAPESIn-house filming, video-clipsUsed during: 1) role playing; 2)
communication; 3) counseling skills
ADVANTAGES OF VIDEOTAPES:Provides personal touchStandardized exposure – in spite of distanceUsed at learner’s own pacing
DISADVANTAGES OF VIDEOTAPESCostlyCommunication is one way – learner’s
become passive
II. ACTIVITY BASED TEACHING STRATEGIES
1. Cooperative learning
2. Simulations
3. Self-learning modules
STRENGTH:
Students are involved in creating and storing up knowledge for themselves
1. COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Small groups of learners work together toward achieving shared learning goal
Learners are aware that they are responsible not only for their own learning but also for that of the others in the group.
TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS
A. FORMAL COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP Done in traditional class / distance learning groups Individual or group accountability Most useful in group setting
B. INFORMAL COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP
Can be used in any settingHelps the members to understand and clarify
misconceptions as well as to share experiences
C. BASE COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP surveys/focus groups Applied easily to new staff orientation or preceptor
programs
ADVANTAGES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Promotes critical thinking – varied positions discussions --?
Enhances social skill.Helps address learning needs & learning stylesMembers learn to function as a team.
DISADVANTAGE OF COOEPRATIVE LEARNING:DISADVANTAGE OF COOEPRATIVE LEARNING:
Does not cover all content/ topics in syllabusDoes not cover all content/ topics in syllabus
2. SIMULATIONS
Controlled representations of realityExercises that learners engage in to learn in the real world
PURPOSES & USES OF SIMULATIONS
1. Enhances DM & PS skills2. Enhances interaction abilities3. Helps student learn psychomotor skills
in a safe and controlled setting4. Chance to apply theories & principles
in practice5. Achieves learning objectives –
communication skills
6. Ensures attitudinal changeHelps discover factors affecting people &
situations (exercise, game, role-playing)7. Helps in mastery of skills8. Helps evaluate learning (simulation
tests)
ROLE OF EDUCATOR IN SIMULATION LEARNING
1. Planner – read carefully, assign reading2. Facilitator – introduce activity,
moderator3. Debriefer – summarize what
happened, let learners explain what they did and why, point out principles and theories applied
TYPES OF SIMULATIONS
1. SIMULATION EXERCISE Focuses on process learningEx. Earthquake drills, fire drills
2. SIMULATION GAMES> Focuses on CONTENT / PROCESS learning
TYPES -- SIMULATION GAMES
A. CONTENT LEARNING Focuses on teaching / reinforcing factual
information (ex. Crosswords, word games, bingo gaes)
B. PROCESS LEARNING> Emphasizes problem solving & application of
information (ex. Sim City)
ADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES
Teaches facts & application of information
Stimulates learning – makes learning funHelps to evaluate learningIncreases interaction among learners
DISADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES
1. Waste of time2. Unprofessional3. Teachers dislike competition which
games promote
3. ROLE PLAYINGForm of drama – spontaneous acting out of
roles (interaction)Lasts for 3 to 5 minutes (illustrates one aspect
of human relationship)Expression of non-verbal and verbal behavior,
response patterns and implementation of principles
4. CASE STUDIES> An analysis of an incident or situation on
which characteristics and relationships are described, factual or hypothetical events transpire, and problems need to resolved or solved
Steps to follow in case studies:1.Develop objectives – What do you want learners to
learn?
2.Select a situation – Choose a topic & a scenario that fits the objectives & concept you want to apply.
3. Develop the characters.
4.Develop the discussion questions.5.Lead the group discussion.
4. SELF-LEARNING MODULES
Also known asA.SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING MODULES
B.SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULESC.SELF-LEARNING PACKETS
D.INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKAGES
DEFINITION OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES
A self-contained unit or package of study materials for use by an individual
Audience where this WORKS BEST: Adult learners
Principles in handling adult learners:
1. Adults are self-motivated to learn (relevant)
2. Adult’s prior experience is a resource for further learning.
3. Adults are problem focused and readily learn material they can use to solve problems.
COMPONENTS OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES
1. Introduction and instructions2. Behavioral objectives3. Pretest4. Learning activity5. Self-evaluation6. Pretest
TIPS
1. INTRODUCTION & INSTRUCTIONS Topic for module – single topic Ex. Problem of elimination – divide this into urinary
elimination and intestinal elimination
2. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES Expected of the learner Objectives – over-all objectives / specific
3. PRETESTOptionalPretest – diagnostic test / assesses
prerequisite knowledgehelps evaluate which sections of the module to
skip and which ones need to be studied in depth
4. LEARNING ACTIVITIESMost creative portionDesigned to help meet objectivesMust appeal to people – diff. learning styles Ex. Attending short lectures, speeches, demo Watching a video or slide Using a computer program
4. SELF-EVALUATION TOOLS Assesses how the students are achieving the
objectives
5. POSTTEST A self quiz (MCQ or short answer questions) Retake is okay Determines mastery
DEVELOPING A MODULE
Takes time (weeks/months) Begin with the body (behavioral objectives,
pretest, learning activity, self-evaluation, posttest)
Last to write – introduction & instructions PILOT TESTING – have one or two people
work at the module for feedback (e.g. unclear objectives etc)
ADVANTAGES OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES
Very flexible – do it at your own pacing, done independently
Individualized approach – helps studentsSparks interest in teaching – creativityStandardized Reduces travel time
Reduces costs
DISADVANTAGES OF SELF-LEARNING MODULES
Miss interactions with peopleMay lead to further procastination – lack
of structures and deadlinesPromotes dishonestyTakes many hours to design and test
1. COMPUTER-AIDED INSTRUCTION
LEVELS OF Computer Aided Instruction
1. Drill and Practice Recognition and application of information Ex. Drugs names and actions
2. Tutorials Useful teaching material at the rule/concept level Forces teachers from learning some basic material
3. GamesGame mode can teach
4. SimulationProvides off real world experiencesProvides chances to learn how to solve clinical
problems
5. Multimedia presentations Also called hypermedia Older form: Interactive videodisc (IVD) program
EVALUATING SOFTWARE: CRITERIA
1. Accuracy – Up to date?2. Easy to use – computer friendly?3. Design –Interactive?4. Appearance – Graphics? Animation & sound?5. Feedback – rationale?6. Cost-effectiveness – price? Discounts?
2. COMPUTER-MANAGED INSTRUCTION
Any system of record keepingUse of authoring systems – pre-developed software packages that
guide the educator t process of development of CAI
3. THE INTERNET
> A mammoth complex of computer connections across continents, connecting many millions of computers
1. EMAIL (electronic) Greater collaboration between teachers vs.
students and between students vs. students Source of peer support Means to seek referrals, for consultation and for
post-discharge follow-up
EX. LIST SERVS – a group of people who have similar interests and want to share information and experience regarding their interest in a type of discussion groups
2. NEWS GROUPS Discussions groups of people with same interest Messages appear in general mailbox
Ex. Sci.med.nursing – group discussing all kinds of nursing issues (needs a news render softward)
Also used for online support groups Ex. Groups for caregivers of Alzheimer’s disease
3. World Wide Web A collection of “documents” found on Web pages A place to find specialized knowledge and multimedia
presentations Ex. MEDLINE – for National Library of Medicine
Criteria to choose WWW site1. Purpose – audience?2. Currency3. Credibility4. Content accuracy5. Design
ADVANTAGES IN HOSPITAL USEProvides home-based care support for the
chronically illTool for patient care management – part of
hospital information systemProvides patient teachingSupports mastery learning
> Maximizes time on task and helps develop overlearning (beyond mastery, responses becomes automatic)
> Provides instant feedback> Develops cognitive residues (skills in
researching skills in managing information)> Promotes interactivity, institutional
consistency, individualized instruction, time efficiency and cost-effectiveness (savings)
DISADVANTAGES1.High-cost initial outlay for hardware and
software2.Negative effect personal and professional
communication