WILDLIFE

CONSERVATION

SOCIETY

POLICY

REPORT

NU M B ER 3

SAVING

THE

TIGER

A

CONSERVATION

STRATEGY

THE WI LDLI FE CONSERVATI ON SOCI ETY' S( WCS) dedi cat i on to t i ger r esear chand conser vat i on began i n the 1 9 6 0 swi t h t he f i r st sci ent i f i c study of t i ger s i n the wi l d, conducted by Dr . Geor ge Schal l er i nKanha Nat i onal Par k, Indi a. Today, i na compr ehensi ve and mul t i f acet edef for t , WCS’ s Ti ger Campai gn hasmobi l i zed f i el d r esear ch and conser -vat i on i ni t i at i ves i n most of t hecount r i es wher e t i ger s r emai n. I tal so pr omot es publ i c awar enessamong consumer s of t i ger pr oducts i nthe maj or i mpor t i ng count r i es.

The Soci ety's Ti ger Campai gn i nvol ves r i gor ous sci ent i f i c r esear ch to deter -mi ne the status of t i ger s and thei rpr ey, i dent i fy key t i ger popul at i ons,assess the effects of var i ous humanact i vi t i es such as hunt i ng and habi tatdegr adat i on, and i mpl ement ef fect i veconser vat i on str ategi es i n cooper at i onwi th nat i onal and l ocal gover nments. Toensur e a per manent l ocal capaci ty forconser vat i on and management, guar dsand seni or staf f i n pr otected ar eas andl ocal r esear cher s ar e tr ai ned i n sci en-t i f i c methods to moni tor t i ger and pr eypopul at i ons.

Dr . Ul l as Kar anth has conducted stud-i es on t i ger - pr ey ecol ogy si nce 1 9 8 6i n sout her n I ndi a' s Nagar ahol eNat i onal Par k. He i s cur r ent l y con-duct i ng a count r y- wi de sur vey oft i ger s and thei r pr ey i n key t i gerhabi tat and devel opi ng a l ong- ter mconser vat i on st r at egy f or I ndi a' st i ger s . W CS al so suppor ts a l ocal conser vat i on educa-t i on pr ogr am for communi t i es sur -r oundi ng Nagar ahol e Nat i onal Par k.Kar anth’ s studi es have been pr i mar -i l y funded by the Uni ted State’ s gov-er nment ’ s Fi sh and Wi l dl i fe Ser vi ceand i nvol ve col l abor at i on wi th thestate and l ocal gover nments of Indi aas wel l as a number of non- gover n-mental or gani zat i ons.

In the Russi an Far East , WCS hasf or med a par t ner shi p wi t h t heHor nock er Wi l dl i f e Res ear c hI n s t i t u t e . S i n c e 1 9 9 1 , t h eInst i tute's bi ol ogi sts — both Russi an

and Amer i can — have conducted i n-depth f i el d r esear ch on the Si ber i ant i ger , t r ai ned l ocal r esear cher s i ncensus methodol ogy , and i mpr ovedt he ex i st i ng pr ot ect ed ar ea system for ef fect i ve t i ger pr otect i on. I n Myanmar , Lao Peopl e’ sDemocr at i c Republ i c, and Vi etnam,WCS i s di r ect i ng sur veys to assessthe status and di st r i but i on of theIndochi nese t i ger and i s conduct i ngwor kshops and f i el d t r ai ni ng for l ocalr esear cher s. Dr . Al an Rabi nowi tz hascar r i ed out f i el d r esear ch i n Thai l andsi nce 1 9 8 7 . In col l abor at i on wi th anat i onal nongover nmental or gani za-t i on, Wi l dl i fe Fund Thai l and, he hasconducted a count r y- wi de assessmentof t i ger and pr ey abundance as wel l asl ocal f i el d t r ai ni ng and wor kshops.

Recent l y, the Soci ety co- sponsor edt wo Tr ansboundar y Bi odi ver si t yConfer ences. The f i r st conf er ence,hel d i n Chi na, br ought together of f i -ci al s f r om Chi na, Indi a, Lao P.D.R.,Myanmar , Nepal , Thai l and, andVi et nam t o di scuss t r ansnat i onal envi r onmental cooper at i on, such asj oi nt sur veys on wi l dl i fe, i ncl udi ngt i ger s, and moni t or i ng of bor dert r ade. The bor der ar eas of these Asi ancount r i es contai n a si gni f i cant por -t i on of the r egi on's r emai ni ng bi odi -ver si t y. Cambodi a, Chi na, Lao P.D.R.,Mal aysi a, and Thai l and at tended thesecond confer ence i n Thai l and.

Consumer s of t i ger pr oducts ar e of tennot awar e that they ar e endanger i ngt i ger s i n the wi l d. Thr ough an exten-si ve pr o bono adver t i si ng campai gndevel oped and i m p l em en t ed b yOgi l v y and M at her Adver t i si ng i nAsi a, WCS has under taken the chal -l enge to educate consumer s i n Asi aabout the i mpor tant r ol e they pl ay i nthe t i ger 's decl i ne. The campai gn wi l lbe expanded to r each consumer s i nAsi an communi t i es i n t he Uni t edStates. Al so i n the Uni ted States, WCShel ped dr af t t he Rhi no and Ti gerConser v at i on Act of 1 9 9 4 whi chestabl i shed a $ 1 0 mi l l i on dol l ar fundfor conser vat i on ef for ts. WCS al soadvi ses the U.S. and Indochi nese gov-er nments r egar di ng t r ade act i v i t i es

THE

WILDLIFE

CONSERVATION

SOCIETY'S

EFFORTS

TO

SAVE

THE

TIGER

SAVING

THE

TIGER

1

T A B L E ◆ O F ◆ C O N T E N T S

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2

WE ARE LOSING THE TIGER 3

HISTORICAL STATUS AND CONSERVATION EFFORTS TO SAVE THE TIGER 4

EVOLUTION, RADIATION, AND REDUCTION OF TIGERS:THE PLEISTOCENE TO THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 4

THE FIRST TIGER CRISIS: 1960S - 1980S 4

THE SECOND TIGER CRISIS: 1990S 7

CRITIQUE OF PAST CONSERVATION EFFORTS 8

LACK OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 8

LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING LEGAL STRUCTURES IN COUNTRIES WITH TIGERS 9

FAILING TO CONTROL HUMAN IMPACTS ON-THE-GROUND 10

LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING LEGAL STRUCTURES IN CONSUMER COUNTRIES 15

FAILING TO CONTROL THE TRADE 15

RECOMMENDED ACTIONS TO SAVE TIGERS IN THE WILD 17

SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES 17

SPECIFIC ACTIONS 17

◆ CONDUCT STATUS SURVEYS, MONITOR POPULATIONS,AND CARRY OUT IN-DEPTH ECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON TIGERS 17

◆ CREATE NEW LEGAL AND POLICY INITIATIVES FOR PROTECTINGTIGERS ON-THE-GROUND 18

◆ IMPLEMENT ANTI-HUNTING AND PROTECTED AREA LAWS 18

◆ REDUCE HUMAN IMPACTS ON CRITICAL TIGER HABITATS 21

◆ CREATE NEW LEGAL AND POLICY INITIATIVES FOR REDUCINGAND CONTROLLING THE TRADE IN TIGER PARTS AND PRODUCTS 21

◆ IMPLEMENT TRADE CONTROL LAWS 22

◆ TRAIN PEOPLE & BUILD CAPACITY FOR LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT 22

◆ DEALING WITH PROBLEM TIGERS 23

◆ PROMOTE EDUCATION AND PUBLIC AWARENESS 23

◆ THE ROLE OF ZOOS 23

SELECTED REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS 24

SAVING THE TIGER

A

CONSERVATION

STRATEGY

Cover phot ograph: Wildlif e Conservat ion Societ y/ Bill Meng

WCS

POLICY

REPORT

No. 3

2

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

THE ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF TIGERS THROUGHOUT ASIA HAVE

DECREASED dr amat i cal l y si nce the l ast centur y. The t i ger i s nowone of the most thr eatened of the l ar ge cats. Al though i nter -nat i onal at tent i on i n the 1 9 7 0 s mobi l i zed conser vat i onef for ts for the t i ger , i t s di r e status r emai ns the same, i f notwor se. Ef for ts have most l y focused on onl y a few popul at i ons,

negl ect i ng the cont i nui ng decl i ne of the speci es as a whol e. Occasi onal suc-cesses and i nf l ated est i mates of t i ger number s gener ated the popul arassumpt i on that the t i ger was secur e, even though two subspeci es becameext i nct wi thi n the l ast two decades. Li t t l e i s known about the over al l sta-t u s ,di st r i but i on, and ecol ogi cal needs of the r emai ni ng subspeci es due to a l acko fsci ent i f i c r esear ch on most popul at i ons. Management , l egi sl at i ve, andenfor cement i ni t i at i ves i n count r i es that har bor t i ger s and i n count r i esthat i mpor t t i ger par ts al so r emai n i nadequate.

The futur e sur vi val of t i ger s i n the wi l d r equi r es a compr ehensi ve, mul -t i faceted conser vat i on st r ategy that not onl y addr esses the maj or , commonthr eats of habi tat encr oachment and pr ey base decl i ne, but al so thei ncr easi ngl y i mpor tant thr eat of poachi ng for the i nter nat i onal t r ade i nt i ger par ts. Hi gh pr i or i t y popul at i ons need to be i dent i f i ed and thei rdecl i ne r ever sed. These key popul at i ons of t i ger s and thei r pr ey r equi r ei mmedi ate pr otect i on f r om poacher s and f r om fur ther habi tat l oss anddegr adat i on. Laws pr otect i ng t i ger s on- the- gr ound and i nter nat i onal anddomest i c t r ade l aws need to be i mpr oved and enfor ced. At the same t i me,ef for ts must i ncl ude bui l di ng suppor t for t i ger s among peopl e l i v i ng nearthem and convi nci ng consumer s not to use t i ger pr oducts. The ef f i cacy ofthese conser vat i on ef for ts needs to be r egul ar l y eval uated by sci ent i f i cal -l y moni tor i ng the status of key t i ger popul at i ons.

The pur pose of thi s r epor t i s to pr ovi de an hi stor i cal over vi ew of thet i ger 's status and past ef for ts to conser ve the speci es; hi ghl i ght the fac-

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY — NOVEMBER 1995

SAVING

THE

TIGER

3

WE

ARE

LOSING

THE

TIGER

THE TIGER ( Panther a t i gr i s) IS ONE OF THE MOST ENDANGERED LARGE PREDATORS IN

THE wor l d. I t s di st r i but i on and number s have shr unk dr amat i cal l ysi nce t he l ast centur y. Most popul at i ons now exi st i n pockets of r emnant for ests. Thepr esumed r ange of t i ger s at the tur n of the 2 0 th centur y and thei r pr e-sent - day di st r i but i on i s i l l ust r ated i n Fi gur e 1 .

The r emai ni ng f i ve subspeci es of t i ger face the same thr eats that haveal r eady dr i ven thr ee subspeci es to ext i nct i on wi thi n the l ast 5 0 year s:hunt i ng and habi tat encr oachment . The t i ger 's pr ey i s hunted thr oughout i t sr ange, l eavi ng some for ests devoi d of adequate amounts of food for t i ger s. Onanother fr ont , t i ger s themsel ves ar e bei ng ki l l ed to pr otect l i vestock and tomeet a l ucr at i ve demand for thei r ski n, bones, and other body par ts.Agr i cul tur al expansi on, commer ci al l oggi ng, r oad- bui l di ng, dams, and otherdevel opmental pr oj ects ar e r educi ng and f r agment i ng the t i ger ’ s habi tat .That whi ch r emai ns i s bei ng degr aded f r om such act i vi t i es as l i vestock gr az-i ng, manmade for est f i r es, and the col l ect i on of t i mber , fuel wood, and non-t i mber for est pr oducts.

Twenty- f i ve year s af ter some of the f i r st i nter nat i onal ef for ts to save i t ,the t i ger i s st i l l endanger ed. Funds have been r ai sed, guar ds i n some pr o-t ect ed ar eas have made her oi c ef for ts, and many peopl e have dedi cated thei r l i ves to savi ng thet i ger . But these ef for ts have onl y been par t i al l y successful i n a few ar eas.

Ef fect i ve ef for ts to r ever se the t i ger 's decl i ne ar e cr uci al , not onl y for thet i ger but al so for our own ecol ogi cal and cul tur al benef i t . Ti ger s pl ay a keyr ol e i n the ecosystems they i nhabi t . When t i ger popul at i ons ar e heal thy,other bi ol ogi cal components of thei r habi tat ar e ecol ogi cal l y r obust .Because t i ger s ar e l ar ge pr edator s at the top of the food chai n, theyr equi r e adequate number s of l ar ge pr ey and extensi ve sui tabl e habi tat .Thus, ef for ts to pr otect key popul at i ons of t i ger s wi l l pr eser ve l ar gear eas of for ests, gr assl ands, and swamps whi ch ar e al so i mpor tant forstabi l i zi ng soi l and water r egi mes. Ti ger s al so hel p r egul ate the her bi vor epopul at i on thr ough pr edat i on. Fur ther mor e, management pl ans to pr otectt i ger s over l ar ge ar eas of l and wi l l conser ve other ani mal and pl ant speci es and val uabl e for est r esour ces forpeopl e.

Besi des i t s ecol ogi cal si gni f i cance, the t i ger i s al so a cul tur al i con ofpower , gr ace, and beauty. I t i s both fear ed and r ever ed thr oughout thewor l d and i s i ntegr al to Asi an fol k l or e; a testament to the power the t i gerhas on the human psyche. Because i t i s a si gni f i cant symbol i n most Asi ancul tur es, the t i ger can pl ay an i mpor tant r ol e as an ambassador forwi l dl i fe conser vat i on ef for ts.

WCS

POLICY

REPORT

No. 3

4

EVO L U T I O N, RA D I AT I O N, A N D RE D U C T I O N O F TI G E R S:T H E PL E I S TO C E N E TO T H E TW E N T I E T H CE N T U RY

THE TIGER ONCE INHABITED AN IMMENSE REGION AS FAR WEST AS TURKEY, AS FAR EAST AS THE

COASTS OF Russi a and Chi na, as far nor th as Si ber i a, and as far south as theIndonesi an i sl and of Bal i . Fr om i t s or i gi ns i n souther n Chi na about one mi l l i onyear s ago, t he t i ger r adi at ed i nt o ei ght di f fer ent subspeci es that wer e adapted to the var yi ng pr ey bases and di f fer ent cl i -mates and habi tat types acr oss Asi a.

Dur i ng the 18 th and 1 9th centur i es, numer ous for ces emer ged that woul d dr ast i -cal l y r educe the di str i but i on of t i ger s and thei r pr ey. Hunt i ng became extr emel yeff i ci ent wi th the advent of moder n f i r ear ms, pol i t i cal stabi l i ty al l owed agr i cul -tur al expansi on i nto the t i ger 's habi tat , human mor tal i t y r ates decr eased wi th aconcomi tant i ncr ease i n popul at i on, and natur al r esour ces wer e i ncr easi ngl yext r acted for gr owi ng commer ci al mar kets. Whol e for ests wer e cl ear ed for cashcr ops, such as tea and cof fee i n Indi a and wet r i ce i n Java and Bal i . Col oni al i smbr ought gr eater hunt i ng pr essur es and defor estat i on that had a devastat i ng ef fecton wi l dl i fe i n some r egi ons. However , st r i ct l y pr otected for est r eser ves estab-l i shed under col oni al r ul e actual l y pr otected much of the r emai ni ng t i ger habi tati n Indi a, Nepal , Myanmar , and Mal aysi a f r om agr i cul tur al encr oachment.

By the tur n of the centur y, r ecr eat i onal hunt i ng, systemati c er adi cat i on, and habi -tat encr oachment had br ought t i ger s and thei r pr ey to scar ce l evel s i n many ar eas.Thi s cont i nued for much of the 2 0 th centur y. Fol l owi ng the i ndependence of manyAsi an countr i es, the t i ger fur ther decl i ned. Wi th col oni al cont r ol s gone, i nexpen-si ve f i r ear ms became wi del y avai l abl e and many count r i es establ i shed expansi on-i st pol i ci es to cl ear l and for agr i cul tur e and t i mber pr oduct i on. By the mi ddl e ofthe 2 0 th centur y, extensi ve t r acts of l and wer e defor ested. In addi t i on, the er adi -cat i on of mal ar i a i n pr evi ousl y i naccessi bl e ar eas, such as Nepal 's l owl ands andIndi a's Wester n Ghats, r esul ted i n extensi ve human encr oachment i nto r emai ni ngt i ger habi tat .

By the 1 9 3 0s, the Si ber i an t i ger was ext r emel y r ar e, due most l y to hunt i ng forthe i nter nat i onal t r ade i n i t s ski ns and the use of i t s body par ts i n t r adi t i onalChi nese medi ci ne. Hundr eds of Bengal t i ger s wer e ki l l ed ever y year for spor t andfor gover nment - sponsor ed bount i es. The Bal i nese t i ger subspeci es became ext i ncti n the l ate 1 9 3 0s. In 1 95 2 , wi th few t i ger s l ef t , Russi a became the f i r st countr yto ban the hunt i ng of i t s t i ger s. In 19 5 9 , the Chi nese gover nment decl ar ed theSouth Chi na t i ger a pest and encour aged i t s er adi cat i on whi l e that same year , thegover nment al so decl ar ed the Si ber i an t i ger of nor ther n Chi na a pr otected ani mal .

TH E FI R S T TI G E R CR I S I S: 1 9 6 0S - 1980S

INTERNATIONAL AWARENESS OF THE TIGER'S CRITICAL STATUS WAS GENERATED IN THE 1 96 0 S BY

GROUND- br eaki ng r esear ch and the publ i cat i on of gener al books on t i ger s and otherAsi an wi l dl i fe. In the mi d- 1 96 0 s, Geor ge Schal l er conducted the f i r st ecol ogi calstudy of t i ger s i n the wi l d. Pr i or to thi s, most i nfor mat i on about t i ger s was pr i -mar i l y anecdotal , based on the obser vat i ons of hunter s and amateur natur al i sts. Afew year s l ater , i n 19 6 9, the Gener al Assembl y of the Inter nat i onal Uni on for theConser vat i on of Natur e and Natur al Resour ces ( IUCN) set for th the f i r st r esol u-t i on cal l i ng for i nter nat i onal ef for ts to save the t i ger . The Wor l d Wi l dl i fe Fund( WWF) soon r esponded i n 19 7 2 wi th Oper at i on Ti ger , a pr ogr am to fund conser -vat i on ef for ts for the t i ger i n the Indi an subcont i nent , Indochi na, and Indonesi a.

Dur i ng the ear l y 1 9 7 0s, many count r i es, i ncl udi ng Indonesi a, Bhutan, Indi a,Nepal , Bangl adesh, Mal aysi a, and Thai l and, establ i shed st r onger wi l dl i fe pr otec-t i on l aws, i ncl udi ng l aws banni ng the hunt i ng of t i ger s, and cr eated new pr otectedar eas. For exampl e, i n addi t i on to Pr oj ect Ti ger whi ch cr eated r eser ves speci f i -cal l y for t i ger s thr oughout the count r y, the Indi an gover nment passed the Wi l dl i fePr otect i on Act of 19 7 2 whi ch banned t i ger hunt i ng and cr eated pr otected ar eas that

HISTORICAL

STATUS

AND

CONSERVATION

EFFORTS

TO

SAVE

THE

TIGER

Figure 1: Both the historical range and present-day distribution of tigers are generally based onassumption, since there is an overall lack of scientifically-based information. For the same reason,it is currently impossible to reliably determine the approximate number of tigers remaining in thewild; a popular ‘guesstimate’ tallies the world's tigers at less than 5,000. The Bengal subspeciescould comprise more than half the worldwide population of tigers. The next most numerous of thesubspecies is the Indochinese tiger. Estimates based on four years of in-depth research place theSiberian tiger within the range of 200-300. The status and distribution of the Siberian tiger population in North Korea is unknown. Currently, no reliable estimates exist for the Sumatran tiger.The South China tiger has the lowest numbers and is the most vulnerable to extinction. TheBalinese, Caspian and Javan tigers became extinct in the 1930s, 1970s, and 1980s, respectively.

RANGE OF THE TIGER Panthera tigris

HISTORICAL RANGE: ABOUT 100 YEARS AGO

CASPIAN TIGER P.t. virgata — Extinct

BENGAL TIGER P.t. tigris

INDOCHINESE TIGER P.t. corbetti

SIBERIAN TIGER P.t. altaica

SOUTH CHINA TIGER P.t. amoyensis

JAVAN TIGER P.t. sondaica — Extinct

SUMATRAN TIGER P.t. sumatrae

BALINESE TIGER P.t. balica — Extinct

SAVING

THE

TIGER

5

BUZZ BINZEN

THE PRESS ASSOCIATION

Hunting, in addition to habitat encroachment, has played a critical role in the dramatic reductionof tigers. Hundreds, if not thousands, of tigers were annually shot for sport and as part of eradication campaigns from the 18th to the early 20th century.

WCS

POLICY

REPORT

No. 3

6

SAVING

THE

TIGER

7

exceeded the total ar ea of i t s t i ger r eser ves. In Nepal , thr ee t i ger r eser ves wer eestabl i shed and sci ent i sts f r om the Smi thsoni an Inst i tut i on began ecol ogi calr esear ch whi ch has si nce col l ected vi tal i nfor mati on about t i ger s. In addi t i on tothese nat i onal i ni t i at i ves, i n 1 9 75 the t i ger ( except the Si ber i an subspeci es whi chwas l i sted i n 1 9 8 7) was l i sted on Appendi x I of the Convent i on on Inter nat i onalTr ade i n Endanger ed Speci es of Wi l d Fauna and Fl or a ( CITES) . Speci es l i sted onAppendi x I cannot be commer ci al l y i mpor ted or expor ted. By the l ate 1 9 80 s, ei ghtof the four teen count r i es wi th t i ger s wer e par ty to the Convent i on.

In some pr otected ar eas, t i ger s, thei r pr ey, and habi tat r ecover ed under ef fect i vemanagement ef for ts. These i ncl uded hi r i ng par k guar ds, suppl yi ng funds and f i el dequi pment, conduct i ng r esear ch, r el ocat i ng peopl e out of t i ger r eser ves, suspend-i ng for estr y oper at i ons, and pr ohi bi t i ng the gr azi ng of l i vestock i n cor e ar eas.These smal l pockets of success demonstr ated that knowl edge, publ i c suppor t , on-the gr ound pr otect i on, and hi gh l evel pol i t i cal commi tment can r ever se the t i ger 'sdecl i ne. But i mpr ovements occur r ed i n a t i ny fr act i on of the t i ger 's ent i r e r ange,pr i mar i l y i n Indi a, Nepal , and the Russi an Far East.

The r ecover y of t i ger s i n these few smal l pockets l ed to the fal se per cept i on thatthe speci es had r ecover ed as a whol e. However , habi tat l oss and dest r uct i on cont i n-ued unabated, and two subspeci es, the Caspi an and Javan t i ger s, wer e dr i ven toext i nct i on i n the 1 9 7 0s and 1 9 80 s, r espect i vel y. Based on unsubstant i ated cl ai msthat t i ger number s had r i sen dr amat i cal l y thr oughout thei r r ange, i n the mi d-1 98 0 s many pr otected ar ea manager s, nat i onal gover nments, and i nter nat i onalconser vat i on or gani zat i ons pr ocl ai med that ef for ts to save the t i ger had succeeded.Yet , sci ent i f i c eval uat i ons to assess the t r ue ef fect i veness of conser vat i on ef for tswer e vi r tual l y absent. Sci ent i sts, i ncl udi ng those of WCS, quest i oned the accur acyo fest i mated t i ger number s. Thei r war ni ngs wer e l ar gel y i gnor ed.

TH E SE C O N D TI G E R CR I S I S: T H E 1 9 9 0S

COMPLACENCY ABOUT THE TIGER’ S STATUS WAS SHATTERED IN THE EARLY 1 9 90 S WITH THE DIS-COVERY OF

l ar ge- scal e poachi ng and tr af f i cki ng for the i l l egal i nter nat i onal t r ade i n t i gerpar ts. A few si gni f i cant events dr ew i nter nat i onal at tent i on to the r ol e that Asi anconsumer count r i es pl ayed i n the decl i ne of t i ger s. Fol l owi ng the col l apse of theSovi et Uni on i n 19 9 1 and subsequent br eakdown i n enfor cement , l ar ge number s ofSi ber i an t i ger s wer e poached, i ncl udi ng a sci ent i f i cal l y moni tor ed femal e whosedeath r esul ted i n four or phaned cubs. Pr i or to thi s, poachi ng had been r ar e i nRussi a. In the summer of 1 99 2 , Indi a's Ranthambor e Ti ger Reser ve l ost many ofi ts t i ger s to poacher s. In August of 1 9 93 , 4 0 0 kgs ( 8 80 l bs.) of t i ger bone, account i ng for as many as 40 ani mal s, wer e sei zed f r om smuggl er s i n Del hi , Indi a.

Pr act i cal l y ever y par t of the t i ger , f r om i ts whi sker s ( for toothaches) to i ts peni s( as an aphr odi si ac) to i ts tai l ( for ski n di seases) i s used i n t r adi t i onal Chi nese med-i ci ne, but the bones, pr i mar i l y for such ai l ments as r heumati sm, ar e the mostwi del y used. Lar ge manufactur i ng factor i es, mai nl y i n Chi na, tur n the bones i ntopi l l s, ski n patches and wi ne for a mass consumer mar ket pr i mar i l y i n Chi na, HongKong, South Kor ea, Tai wan, Si ngapor e, Japan, and the Uni ted States.

Ti ger par ts have been used i n t r adi t i onal Chi nese medi ci ne for over a thousandyear s, but r ecent l y the demand i s havi ng a devastat i ng ef fect on t i ger popul at i onsdue to a number of pol i t i cal and economi c factor s. Inter nat i onal smuggl i ng oft i ger s, bear s, r hi nos, and other endanger ed wi l dl i fe has become easi er due to openbor der s between consumer and r ange countr i es ( count r i es wi th t i ger s) . As theeconomi es of the maj or consumer nat i ons have i mpr oved, consumer demand hasi ncr eased. For many peopl e l i v i ng i n r ange countr i es wi th l ow per capi ta i ncome,a t i ger sol d on the bl ack mar ket can exceed sever al year s' i ncome. Poachi ng act i v-i t i es i n some ar eas ar e becomi ng mor e sophi st i cated. In Russi a, for i nstance, or ga-ni zed cr i me i s i nvol ved i n the t r ade. Poor l y ar med and of ten under pai d par k guar dsar e now at extr eme r i sk f r om wel l ar med, or gani zed poacher s, and some guar dshave been ki l l ed.

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MORE THAN TWO DECADES HAVE PASSED SINCE THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS WERE

MADE TO save the t i ger , and yet most popul at i ons have not r ecover ed orhave cont i nued to decl i ne. A r ev i ew of t he successes and f ai l u r es oft hese ef f or t s i s necessar y to i dent i f y wher e ther e i s a need for i mpr ove-ment . Over al l , ther e ar e f i ve mai n factor s that have cont r i buted to the fai l ur eof past conser vat i on ef for ts:

◆ The l ack of sci ent i f i c r esear ch on the status, needs, and managementof

exi st i ng t i ger popul at i ons

◆ Inadequate l egal st r uctur es to manage on- the- gr ound pr otect i on oft i ger s

◆ Poor i mpl ementat i on of ant i - hunt i ng and pr otected ar ea l aws

◆ Inadequate l egal st r uctur es to cont r ol the i l l egal t r ade i n t i ger par ts

◆ Insuff i ci ent enfor cement ef for ts to cont r ol the i l l egal t r ade

LAC K O F SC I E N T I F I C RE S E A R C H

RIGOROUS SURVEYS HAVE BEEN CONDUCTED ON ONLY A FEW TIGER POPULATIONS, IN I NDIA,NEPAL, AND Russi a. Adequate t i ger sur veys ar e l acki ng i n Bhutan, Myanmar ,

Cambodi a, Lao Peopl e’ s Democr at i c Republ i c, Vi etnam, and Nor th Kor ea; basi cp r e s e n c e / a b s e n c esur veys have been conducted i n Bangl adesh, Thai l and, and Chi na; and est i matesof t i ger s i n Peni nsul ar Mal aysi a and Sumat r a ar e l i t t l e mor e than guesswor k.Thus, l i t t l e i s known about the abundance, di str i but i on, and over al l status ofmost t i ger popul at i ons and the i ntegr i t y of thei r exi st i ng habi tat and pr ey base.Thi s i nfor mati on i s necessar y to both establ i sh appr opr i ate pr otected ar eas forkey t i ger popul at i ons and to assess the i ntegr i t y of exi st i ng pr otected ar eas thathar bor t i ger s.

To date, of the few sur veys to assess and moni tor t i ger popul at i ons, most l acksci ent i f i c r i gor and r el y on poor and unr el i abl e r esear ch methods. A case i npoi nt i s Indi a’ s count r y- wi de t i ger est i mates, whi ch wer e based on the unr e-l i abl e met hod of count i ng t i ger footpr i nts, or pugmar ks. Seemi ngl y pr eci se t i ger counts gener ated f r om thi smethod i n the 19 8 0 s wer e i nappr opr i atel y assumed to be accur ate, and thet i ger was pr esumed saved when i n fact i t cont i nued to decl i ne. WCS fundedr esear ch that demonstr ated the weaknesses of the pugmar k method and pr o-duced bet ter al ter nat i ves.

Mor e accur ate methods based on standar di zed sampl i ng techni ques to est i matet i g e rdensi t i es have been used on key t i ger popul at i ons i n Indi a, Nepal , and Russi a.These i ncl ude est i mates of t i ger abundance based on r el at i ve abundance of pr eyand on habi tat qual i t y assessments, as wel l as di r ect moni tor i ng of t i ger st hr ough r adi ot el emet r y and camer a- t r aps. Assessments of gener al t r ends i n t i ger abundance can be deter -mi ned by sampl i ng t i ger si gn, such as dr oppi ngs and gr ound scr api ngs. A mor e accur atemethod for est i mat i ng t i ger abundance i s a census techni que based on pho-togr aphs of i ndi vi dual t i ger s usi ng camer a- t r aps, whi ch ar e equi pped wi th at r i gger i ng mechani sm and pl aced al ong wel l used t i ger paths. Si nce no twot i ger s have the same patter n of st r i pes, photo i dent i f i cat i on of i ndi vi dual t i ger si s a hi ghl y accur ate method to est i mate t i ger abundance. Radi otel emet r y,

CRITIQUE

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PAST

CONSERVATION

EFFORTS

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wher eby the ani mal 's movements ar e moni tor ed thr ough a r adi o t r acki ngdevi ce, pr ovi des i n- depth i nfor mati on on behavi or al and demogr aphi c par ame-ter s, such as ter r i tor y si ze, hunt i ng pat ter ns, l ong- ter m sur vi val r ates, andhabi tat usage.

Long- ter m, i n- depth, ecol ogi cal studi es necessar y to under stand the conser va-t i on needs of t i ger s ar e r ar e. Consequent l y, most management pr ogr ams forwi l d t i ger popul at i ons have not been based on sci ent i f i c r esear ch data. Exi st i ngknowl edge of the t i ger 's ecol ogy has been der i ved pr i mar i l y f r om onl y fourl ong- ter m studi es: Geor ge Schal l er 's r esear ch i n Kanha Nat i onal Par k, Indi a,f r om 1 9 64 to 19 6 5; the ongoi ng Smi thsoni an- Nepal Ti ger Ecol ogy Pr oj ect ,l aunched i n 19 7 3 , i n Chi twan Nat i onal Par k, Nepal ; Ul l as Kar anth's decade- ol dr esear ch i n Nagar ahol e Nat i onal Par k, Indi a; and the Hor nocker Inst i tute'sfour - year - ol d Si ber i an Ti ger Pr oj ect .

LI M I TAT I O N S O F EX I S T I N G LE G A L ST RU C T U R E S I N CO U N T R I E S W I T H TI G E R S

DOMESTIC LEGAL PROVISIONS TO PROTECT TIGERS AND TO IMPLEMENT INTERNATIONAL TRADE

pr ohi bi t i ons ar e gener al l y i nadequate i n al l r ange count r i es. In addi t i on,l egal hunt i ng of pr ey i n key t i ger habi tat and the l egal status of di f fer ent pr o-tected ar eas har bor i ng t i ger s have not been addr essed.

Al though most r ange countr i es have passed l egi sl at i on banni ng t i ger hunt i ng,exi st i ng l egal systems fr equent l y make on- the- gr ound enfor cement ext r eme-l y di f f i cul t . Pr otected ar ea staff ar e of ten not l egal l y empower ed to admi ni sterant i - hunt i ng l aws. They may not be abl e to sear ch and conf i scate, ar r est , pr os-ecute, car r y ar ms, and/ or shoot even when they ar e al l owed to car r y a gun. Forexampl e, par k guar ds i n Myanmar cannot ar r est poacher s, nor can they car r y guns. In Indi a, most f i el d manager s cannot obtai nl e g a lsuppor t for pr osecut i ng poacher s, and they l ack j ur i sdi ct i on over i l l egala c t i v i t i e soccur r i ng wi thi n the buf fer ar eas sur r oundi ng thei r t i ger r eser ves. Anotherhi ndr ance to the ef f i cacy of ant i - hunt i ng l aws i s the compl ete l ack of l egal con-t r ol s on the possessi on and use of f i r ear ms i n some r ange count r i es, such asVi etnam and Lao P.D.R.

Pr ohi bi t i ons on t i ger hunt i ng ar e essent i al but they do not addr ess a cr i t i cal ,a l b e i tover l ooked, thr eat : the l egal hunt i ng of pr ey i n key t i ger habi tat . Ti ger sr equi r e adequate number s of l ar ge pr ey. Yet hunt i ng of pr ey speci es occur sunabated thr oughout much of the t i ger 's r ange. Legal hunt i ng, t r appi ng, andsnar i ng of al l wi l dl i fe i n countr i es such as Cambodi a, Lao P.D.R., Myanmar , andVi etnam have r esul ted i n extr emel y l ow pr ey densi t i es i n other wi se r el at i ve-l y undi stur bed for ests.

Many exi st i ng pr otected ar eas that may har bor key popul at i ons of t i ger s ar enot l egal l y desi gnated wi th the pr i mar y pur pose of pr otect i ng t i ger s and may per mi t suchact i v i t i es as l oggi ng, ext r act i on of other for est pr oducts, human sett l ements,gr azi ng, and agr i cul tur al devel opment . For exampl e, most of Peni nsul arMal aysi a's r emai ni ng for est cover l i es wi thi n ‘ r eser ve for ests’ whi ch ar e pr i -mar i l y desi gnated for pr oduct i on pur poses and, to a l esser degr ee, for wi l dl i fepr otect i on pur poses. In Indi a's pr otected ar eas that ar e l egal l y desi gnated aswi l dl i fe sanctuar i es, act i v i t i es such as l i vest ock gr azi ng and fuel wood col l ect i on ar e al l owed, whi l e i n pr otected ar eas that ar e l egal l y desi gnated asnat i onal par ks i ncl udi ng t i ger r eser ves, al l ext r act i ve act i v i t i es ar e pr ohi b-

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i ted. Yet , t i ger s al so exi st i n ar eas other than the nat i onal par ks. Count r i essuch as Russi a, Thai l and, and Myanmar , for est r eser ves, whi ch ar e l egal l y r eser ved for l oggi ng pur poses, of ten contai nt i ger s.

Many t i ger popul at i ons exi st outsi de pr otected ar eas, and thus thei r habi tat i si n gr eater danger f r om human encr oachment . Bhutan's system of pr otectedar eas under - r epr esents sui tabl e t i ger habi tat ; Bangl adesh's t i ger s exi st i n thel ar ge mangr ove for ests of the Sundar bans wher e ther e ar e onl y thr ee smal l andscat ter ed wi l dl i fe sanctuar i es; t i ger s occur both i nsi de and outsi de the twomai n pr otected ar eas of the Russi an Far East ; and Myanmar 's pr otected ar eascover l i t t l e mor e t han 1 % of t he count r y , al t hough appr oxi matel y 4 5 % i s st i l l for ested.

FA I L I N G TO CO N T RO L HU M A N IM PAC T S ON-T H E- GRO U N D

ALL THE RANGE COUNTRIES GENERALLY FAIL TO IMPLEMENT EXISTING ANTI- HUNTING AND PRO-T E C T E D

ar ea l aws. Reasons for thi s i ncl ude a l ack of pol i t i cal commi tment , i nsuf f i ci ent f i nanci al and techni cal r esour ces, poor t r ai ni ng, and poor managementschemes.

Except for some pl aces i n Indi a and Nepal wi th st r i ngent ant i - poachi ng oper a-t i ons, t i ger s and thei r pr ey ar e st i l l i ntensi vel y and i l l egal l y hunted thr ough-out thei r r ange. Enfor cement of ant i - hunt i ng l aws by guar ds and other pr o-t ected ar ea st af f suf f er s due t o a l ack of manpower , or gani zat i on, compensat i on, r ecogni t i on, t r ai ni ng, mot i vat i on,camps i nsi de pr otected ar eas, ni ght pat r ol s, and/ or r esour ces such asf i r ear ms, ammuni t i on, vehi cl es, and communi cat i on equi pment . In Myanmar ,Cambodi a, Lao P.D.R., and Vi etnam, f i el d per sonnel ar e few and l ack adequatet r ai ni ng, fundi ng i s scar ce, and management pl ans ar e of ten nonexi stent . Thi si s compounded by both economi c and pol i t i cal i nstabi l i t i es i n the r egi on. Forexampl e, Lao P.D.R. does not have enough fundi ng for staf f , whi l e i nsur genci esi n Myanmar have pr evented staf f f r om enter i ng exi st i ng pr otected ar eas. I l lequi pped guar ds of ten face ver y sophi st i cated, wel l ar med poachi ng teams, andsome have l ost thei r l i ves to poacher s. Fur ther mor e, guar ds and other pr otect -ed ar ea staf f , par t i cul ar l y i n l ow r anki ng posi t i ons, of ten do not r ecei ve paycommensur ate wi th the hi gh- r i sk natur e of thei r posi t i on and thei r commend-abl e achi evements.

The maj or i t y of Indi a's t i ger r eser ves do not have mandator y ar med ant i -poachi ng teams and basi c equi pment i s i nequi tabl y di st r i buted among ther eser ves. Russi a's hi stor i cal l y st r i ct enfor cement of pr otected ar eas di si nte-gr ated wi th the countr y 's economi c and pol i t i cal i nstabi l i t y fol l owi ng the col -l apse of the Sovi et Uni on. Insuf f i ci ent funds, poor l y pai d staf f , and l ack of ar el i abl e communi cat i on system have hamper ed pr otect i on. However , wi th out -si de fundi ng fr om i nter nat i onal conser vat i on or gani zat i ons and r evenues f r ompoachi ng f i nes, the gover nment establ i shed Oper at i on Amba, an ant i - poachi ngtask for ce i n two nat i onal par ks wher e t i ger s exi st . As a r esul t , poachi ngappear s to be decl i ni ng. Nepal i s a good exampl e of the power of pol i t i cal com-mi tment . Al though Nepal i s one of the poor est count r i es i n the wor l d, i t pr o-v i des appr ox i mat el y US $ 5 , 8 0 0 per squar e k i l ometer to pr otect and manage Royal Chi twan Nat i onal Par k.

Both r ange and consumer count r i es of ten fai l to adequatel y pr osecute poacher sand other peopl e i nvol ved i n i l l egal t r ade act i v i t i es. In many count r i es thecour ts ar e i nef fect i ve due i n par t to an i nsuf f i ci ent under standi ng of exi st i ng

cont inued on page 15

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ART WOLFE

ULLAS KARANTH

ALAN RABINOWITZ

Above: With its powerful forelimbs, a tiger cantake down prey weighing more than a ton, suchas the gaur, Bos gaurus. Tigers need densevegetative cover as camouflage, since theymust stalk and ambush prey that is often manytimes their size. It may take a tiger an averageof 20 attempts for every successful kill.

Top: Tigers need high densities of large pre ysuch as wild cattle, pigs, and deer, like thespotted deer, Axis axis. Hunting, trapping, andsnaring of the tiger's prey is a serious threat tothe tiger throughout its range. The abundance of tigers is directly linked to theabundance of pre y. As prey densities decre a s e ,tigers must increase their range in search offood, sometimes bringing them into direct con-flict with people.

Right: Aside from habitat fragmentation, theconcomitant road building that results fro mlogging activities is an important threat totigers. Roads open otherwise remote areas tohuman settlements and to poachers, includingthe workers themselves, who can earn additional income from selling wildlife.

“ FU T U R E G E N E R AT I O N S

WO U L D B E T RU LY S A D D E N E D

T H AT T H I S C E N T U RY H A D S O

L I T T L E F O R E S I G H T, S O L I T T L E

C O M PA S S I O N, S U C H L AC K O F

G E N E RO S I T Y O F S P I R I T F O R T H E

F U T U R E T H AT I T WO U L D

E L I M I NAT E O N E O F T H E M O S T

D R A M AT I C A N D B E AU T I F U L

A N I M A L S T H I S WO R L D H A S

E V E R S E E N”

GEORGE SCHALLERWCS DIRECTOR FOR SCIENCE

PHOTOGRAPH: ULLAS KARANTH

ROB TIMMINS

ALAN RABINOWITZ BILL BLEISCH

Tigers are poached for their skins, valued as astatus symbol, and for their bones and otherparts which are used in traditional Chinesemedicine and other folk remedies. Thei n c reasing demand for tiger products inChina, Taiwan, and elsewhere, along with theeasing of controls along national bordersthroughout Asia, has resulted in the rapidincrease in poaching of tigers. A rural villagercan make several years’ income from onetiger's skeleton.

From its whiskers to its tail, practically everypart of the tiger has some curative, preven-tive, or aphrodisiac value. Here, a vendor isselling tiger penises, which are fake, as an aphrodisiac. A bowl of tiger penis soup cancost US $300 in specialty restaurants.

Vast amounts of factory manufactured medicinal products are made in China, suchas these advertised pills supposedly made oftiger bone. From 1990-1992, China reported-ly exported over 27 million tiger products to26 countries and territories. These inexpen-sive products have little, or in many cases no,tiger ingredients.

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wi l dl i fe l aws among l egal advi sor s and a gener al per cept i on among j udges thatwi l dl i fe vi ol at i ons ar e not ser i ous cr i mes. Fur ther mor e, penal t i es ar e often tool ow to act as a deter r ent .

In addi t i on to the pr obl ems i n cont r ol l i ng the hunt i ng of t i ger s and pr ey, pr o-tected ar eas ar e of ten poor l y managed, i f at al l . Many, l i ke some i n Indochi na,Peni nsul ar Mal aysi a, and Indi a, have been subj ect to agr i cul tur al devel opment ,gr azi ng, l oggi ng, mi ni ng, wi l dl i fe poachi ng, and/ or human set t l ements. InThai l and, poor or non- exi stent mappi ng of pr otected ar ea boundar i es makespat r ol l i ng and l aw enfor cement di f f i cul t . Both Thai l and and Sumat r a have l ar gehuman set t l ements i nsi de some pr otected ar eas that har bor t i ger s. These ar eascont i nue to be cl ear ed for agr i cul tur e. Fur ther mor e, conf r ontat i ons betweenl ocal peopl e and pr otected ar ea staff , i n pl aces such as Indi a and Thai l and, havehamper ed enfor cement and f r equent l y r esul t i n fatal assaul ts on pr otected ar eaguar ds. Conf l i cts have ar i sen par t l y because peopl e wer e not i ncl uded i n man-agement schemes and guar ds wer e per cei ved as adver sar i es.

In a few pr otected ar eas, pr i mar i l y i n Indi a and Nepal , gover nments have con-t r ol l ed habi tat degr adat i on by l ocal peopl e. Regul ar pat r ol l i ng, i ncl udi ng ni ghtpat r ol s, and bar r i er s such t r enches and wal l s ar e effect i ve. Pr oper l y admi n-i ster ed physi cal r el ocat i ons of human set t l ements out of pr otected ar eas haspr oven to be ver y ef fect i ve i n counter i ng i l l egal hunt i ng and habi tat dest r uc-t i on, and i n r educi ng conf l i cts. Successful r el ocat i ons occur r ed i n many ofIndi a's Pr oj ect Ti ger r eser ves when peopl e wer e i ncl uded i n the r el ocat i onpr ocess and wer e adequatel y i nfor med of the benef i t s to l i v i ng outsi de ther eser ve. Al ter nat i ve agr i cul tur al l ands, housi ng, water sour ces, and otherameni t i es wer e pr ovi ded at the new sett l ement si te. When i mpl emented pr op-er l y, r el ocat i ons of ten r esul t i n a r api d r ecover y of the t i ger 's habi tat and i t spr ey. But , when poor l y executed, r el ocat i ons have r esul ted i n backl ashes on thepr otected ar eas themsel ves.

Al though vi tal t i ger habi tat may r ecei ve l egal pr otect i on, on the l andscape l eveli t smanagement i s somet i mes di sj oi nted. For exampl e, some l ar ge for est ar eas i nThai l and compr i se a mat r i x of cont i guous pr otected ar eas that have di f fer entl egal def i ni t i ons, and ar e ther efor e managed by separ ate depar tments and di vi -si ons. Si mi l ar l y, t i ger s of ten move acr oss i nter nat i onal bor der s whi ch ar emanaged under separ ate gover nments. Cooper at i ve conser vat i on i ni t i at i veshave been di scussed among nei ghbor i ng r ange countr i es thr ough such for ums asthe Tr ansboundar y Bi odi ver si ty Confer ences and the Gl obal Ti ger For um.

LI M I TAT I O N S O F EX I S T I N G LE G A L ST RU C T U R E S I N CO N S U M E R CO U N T R I E S

JUST AS LEGISLATION IN RANGE COUNTRIES OFTEN FAILS TO PROTECT TIGERS, SO DO EXISTING TRADE

contr ol l aws i n consumer count r i es, maki ng i nter nat i onal smuggl i ng anddomest i c sal e of t i ger pr oducts al most i mpossi bl e to contr ol . Unt i l r ecent l y, thei nter nat i onal communi ty l ar gel y i gnor ed the fai l ur e of some gover nments tol egal l y uphol d i nter nat i onal t r ade pr ohi bi t i ons of t i ger s. A r ecent CITES r evi ewof some consumer countr i es has found that whi l e non- Asi an count r i es that ar ekey i mpor t er s of t i ger pr oduct s have adequat e l egi sl at i on to i mpl ement i nter nat i onal wi l dl i fe t r ade pr ohi bi t i ons, the keyAsi an consumer count r i es r evi ewed ( Chi na, Japan, Si ngapor e, and Hong Kong) need bet terdomest i c l aws to uphol d CITES pr ohi bi t i ons. Asi de f r om thei r abi l i t y to cont r oli mpor t s and expor t s, nat i onal l aws al so need to be eval uated for thei r ef fect i veness i n cont r ol l i ngi nter nal t r ade.

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Due to r ecogni t i on of the cr i si s, many key consumer count r i es have j ustr ecent l y passed domest i c l aws such as pr ohi bi t i ons on the sal e, possessi on, use,and/ or manufactur e of t i ger par ts and pr oducts. Chi na, Hong Kong, Si ngapor e,South Kor ea, and Tai wan passed domest i c t r ade cont r ol l aws onl y wi thi n thepast two to thr ee year s. Si nce these l aws ar e r ecent , thei r ef fect i veness i s st i l luncer tai n.

Some nat i onal t r ade cont r ol l aws ar e mor e compr ehensi ve than other s. Forexampl e, Japan cont i nues to al l ow the domest i c sal e and possessi on of t i gerpr oducts, whi l e Hong Kong's l aws even pr ohi bi t the sal e and possessi on of faket i ger pr oducts, commonl y sol d al ong wi th authent i c pr oducts. Other wi se com-pr ehensi ve wi l dl i fe l aws i n the Uni ted States fai l to addr ess the sal e of faket i ger der i vat i ves. Ther efor e, to pr osecute under exi st i ng wi l dl i fe l aw, U.S. l awenfor cement of f i cer s must f i r st pr ove the pr oduct 's authent i ci t y.

Tai wan i s an exampl e of the swi f t ef fect i veness that i nter nat i onal pr essur e canhave on vi ol ator s of i nter nat i onal t r ade pr ohi bi t i ons. Si nce the Uni ted States i mposedt r a d epr ohi bi t i ons on i t for decr easi ng the ef fect i veness of CITES, Tai wan has pr o-hi bi ted the possessi on of t i ger pr oducts, amended i ts Wi l dl i fe Conser vat i on Lawto str engthen enfor cement act i v i t i es, and r ai sed penal t i es for i l l egal t r adi ng i nt i ger der i vat i ves. Subsequent l y, the Uni ted States l i f ted t r ade pr ohi bi t i ons i nJune of 1 99 5 but wi l l cont i nue to moni tor Tai wan's pr ogr ess, as both i t andChi na r emai n "cer t i f i ed" under the Pel l y Amendment .

FA I L I N G TO CO N T RO L T H E TR A D E

AS WITH ON- THE- GROUND IMPLEMENTATION, THE ENFORCEMENT OF TRADE CONTROL LAWS

I N

consumer count r i es i s of ten i nadequate or non- exi stent . Thi s i s basi cal l y dueto a l ack of pol i t i cal commi tment f r om gover nments to establ i sh and suppor te n f o r c e m e n t

WCS

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16

SC O P E A N D OB J E C T I V E S

THE OBJECTIVE OF THE FOLLOWING ACTION PLAN IS TO REVERSE THE CURRENT DECLINE OF

T I G E R S ,

stabi l i ze t i ger popul at i ons, and ensur e thei r l ong- ter m exi stence. Thi s

r e q u i r e s

expandi ng and pr i or i t i zi ng conser vat i on i ni t i at i ves to addr ess the i mmedi ate

thr eats to t i ger s. The appr oach must be mul t i faceted, i nvol v i ng sci ent i f i cal l y

based r esear ch and

moni tor i ng, i mpr ovi ng on- the- gr ound pr otect i on and management of t i ger s and

thei r pr ey, hal t i ng the i nter nat i onal t r ade i n t i ger s, and mobi l i zi ng publ i c

suppor t among both peopl e l i v i ng near t i ger s and consumer s of t i ger par ts.

At the hear t of a str ategy to save t i ger s i s the i dent i f i cat i on of hi gh pr i or i t y

t i ger popul at i ons on whi ch i mmedi ate conser vat i on effor ts shoul d be focused.

Rel at i vel y r api d sci ent i f i c sur veys can l ocate such popul at i ons, based pr i mar -

i l y on whether the exi st i ng pr ey base and habi tat meets the l ong- ter m ecol og-

i cal r equi r ements of t i ger s. Ecol ogi cal studi es have shown that t i ger s need

l ar ge bl ocks of sui tabl e habi tat wi th hi gh densi t i es of l ar ge her bi vor e pr ey,

such as deer , pi gs, and wi l d cat t l e. Sui tabl e habi tat i mpl i es adequate water

sour ces and suff i ci ent vegetat i ve cover for hunt i ng. Gener al l y, opt i mal t i ger

habi tat must i ncl ude a cor e ar ea of at l east 1 ,0 0 0 squar e k i l ometer s that i s

desi gnated as i nvi ol ate, f r ee f r om most human act i vi t i es. Smal l er ar eas may

contai n t i ger s but they woul d l i kel y have a mor e l i mi ted pr ey base. Thus, the

futur e stabi l i t y of such popul at i ons i s quest i onabl e.

Once key t i ger popul at i ons ar e i dent i f i ed, thei r habi tats need to be managed for

t h e

pur pose of pr otect i ng the t i ger s. Thi s r equi r es i sol at i ng t i ger popul at i ons fr om

adver se human act i v i t i es by cont r ol l i ng poachi ng and r educi ng human demand

on these ar eas. To do thi s, cr i t i cal t i ger habi tat must be i nvi ol ate, and the l and-

scape sur r oundi ng these cor e ar eas must be managed i n ways that meet the

needs of l ocal peopl e. In addi t i on, ther e must be str ong effor ts to stop hunt i ng

and enfor ce pr otected ar ea l aws, moni tor t i ger popul at i ons, and educate peopl e

l i vi ng near t i ger s about conser vat i on.

Essent i al to on- the- gr ound pr otect i on of t i ger s i s hal t i ng the t r ade i n thei r

par ts. Thi s entai l s pr ohi bi t i ng the t r ade, enfor ci ng t r ade cont r ol l aws, t r ai n-

i ng enf or cement of f i cer s i n

t r ade- r el ated i ssues, and r educi ng consumer demand. Si nce the demand i s the

dr i v i ng for ce behi nd the t r ade, ef for ts to pr omote publ i c awar eness and changes

i n tr adi t i onal Chi nese medi ci ne pr act i ces ar e key.

Zoos can pl ay an i mpor tant r ol e i n t i ger conser vat i on effor ts. Capt i ve- br ed

t i ger s ar e a

val uabl e means to educate peopl e about the status of t i ger s i n the wi l d and to

r al l y publ i c

suppor t for conser vat i on effor ts. Al though i t does not addr ess the i mmedi ate

RECOMMENDED

ACTIONS

TO

SAVE

TIGERS

IN

THE

WILD

SAVING

THE

TIGER

17

thr eats of hunt i ng and habi tat encr oachment , capt i ve br eedi ng i s i mpor tant for

mai nt ai ni ng a

r eser voi r of genet i c mater i al as i nsur ance agai nst such l ong- ter m thr eats as

g e n e t i c

deter i or at i on that smal l t i ger popul at i ons may face i n the futur e.

Al l the components of the fol l owi ng act i on pl an ar e i mpor tant to ensur e the

t i g e r ' s

sur vi val . Ul t i matel y, the success of these ef for ts depends on pol i t i cal commi t -

ment , l ocal suppor t , and a r educt i on i n the demand for t i ger par ts.

SP E C I F I C AC T I O N S

◆ CO N D U C T STAT U S SU RV E Y S, MO N I TO R PO P U L AT I O N S, A N D CA R RY OU T IN- DE P T H ECOLOGICAL

STUDIES ON TIGERS

ASSESS THE STATUS OF TIGERS AND THEIR CONSERVATION NEEDS IN ORDER TO

P R I O R I T I Z E

IMMEDIATE CONSERVATION EFFORTS. Hi gh pr i or i t y t i ger popul at i ons need to be

i dent i f i ed thr ough shor t- ter m f i el d sur veys that can assess the status of exi st -

i ng popul at i ons of t i ger s and thei r pr ey base. Sur veys must empl oy standar d-

i zed, obj ect i ve met hodol ogi es f or

deter mi ni ng the pr esence and r el at i ve abundance of t i ger s and thei r pr ey. These

sampl i ng methods, such as measur i ng encounter r ates wi th t i ger and pr ey si gn

and est i mates der i ved f r om pr ey counts, can be si mpl e, ef f i ci ent , and r el at i ve-

l y i nexpensi ve.

EVA LUATE EXISTING CONSERVATION EFFORTS FOR KEY TIGER POPULATIONS BY

RIGOROUSLY AND ROUTINELY MONITORING THEIR STATUS. Moni tor i ng key t i ger

popul at i ons usi ng r i gor ous

sci ent i f i c methodol ogy i s a l ong- ter m commi tment that i s necessar y for eval -

uat i ng management ef for ts, such as cont r ol l i ng hunt i ng and habi tat dest r uct i on,

over t i me. Pr ey densi ty est i mat i on techni ques such as those der i ved fr om l i ne

t r ansect sur veys of pr ey and

est i mates of t i ger abundance based on camer a tr ap data can be used. At the ver y

l east , manager s shoul d use si mpl e sampl i ng techni ques based on encounter

r ates wi th t i ger and pr ey si gn whi ch wi l l i ndi cate whether t i ger s ar e i ncr eas-

i ng or decr easi ng, though these techni ques wi l l not pr ovi de actual number s or

densi ty est i mates.

CARRY OUT LONG- TERM, COMPREHENSIVE ECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON TIGERS IN

THE WILD. In sel ect , r epr esentat i ve si tes, gather v i tal i nfor mati on on pr eda-

t i on pat ter ns, densi t i es, soci al or gani zat i on, popul at i on dynami cs, use of habi -

tat , and other ecol ogi cal par ameter s. Thi s i s accompl i shed usi ng advanced tech-

ni ques i ncl udi ng r adi otel emetr y and camer a t r aps.

WCS

POLICY

REPORT

No. 3

18

SAVING

THE

TIGER

19

ULLAS KARANTH

ULLAS KARANTH

Top: Relatively inexpensive and reliable standardized sampling techniquescan indicate whether tigers are increasing, decreasing, or remaining stable. Here, the densities of various signs of tiger's prey is used to estimate the prey species’ relative abundance. An estimate of the densityof tigers is then derived from that of its prey. Researchers and protectedarea personnel trained in such sampling methods are important for reliablymonitoring key tiger populations.

Left: Tigers and their prey require immediate protection from poachers.Adequate numbers of foot patrols are needed day and night in protectedareas with key populations of tigers. Currently, enforcement of anti-hunt-ing laws by guards and other protected area staff generally suffers from alack of manpower, organization, training, motivation, camps inside protected areas, night patrols, and/or basic law enforcement equipmentfrom vehicles to firearms.

ALAN RABINOWITZ

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

Top: Adequately trained protected area staff, including guards and managers, is crucialto effective management efforts. Park guards participating in this WCS training workshopin Malaysia are learning reliable observational skills and basic monitoring techniques.With these skills, protected area staff can monitor the general trends in tiger and preyabundance.

Right: It is essential to reduce the demand for tiger products that is driving the poaching of tigers. Thus, in early 1995, WCS began a pro bono print and television advertising campaign, "Help us destroy the myth, not the tiger," designed by Ogilvy &Mather Advertising in Asia. The intent is to inform consumers in Asia that purchasing tigerproducts is endangering tigers in the wild. The accompanying text to this particular adrefers to studies that indicate that other traditional Chinese medicines may have someeffect on impotence, but not tiger penis. This ad, out of almost 9,000 entries around theworld, won the 1995 Gold Medal Award for Best Public Service Print Advertising on environmental issues at the New York Art Directors Festival.

WCS

POLICY

REPORT

No. 3

20

◆ CR E AT E NE W LE G A L A N D PO L I C Y IN I T I AT I V E S F O R PROT E C T I N G TI G E R S ON-T H E GRO U N D

LEGALLY EMPOWER WILDLIFE LAW ENFORCERS. Al l ow pr otected ar ea staf f to

sear ch and sei ze pr oper ty, ar r est , and use f i r ear ms.

INCREASE THE PENALTIES AGA INST POACHERS SO THAT THEY A CT AS AN

EFFECTIVE DETERRENT. Consi der , for i nstance, i nst i tut i ng mandator y pr i son

sentences and f i nes that ar e equi val ent to or exceed the r etai l val ue of the

poached ani mal .

LEGALLY CONTROL THE SALE AND POSSESSION OF FIREARMS AND AMMUNITION

TO LOCAL PEOPLE IN AND AROUND TIGER POPULATIONS. For exampl e, f i r ear ms

coul d be r egi ster ed and hunt i ng al l owed on a per mi t or l i censi ng basi s.

PROHIBIT THE HUNTING OF PREY SPECIES IN CRITICAL TIGER HABITAT.

EVA LUATE THE CURRENT LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE

PROTECTED A REA

SYSTEM. The l egal status of those ar eas, i ncl udi ng new r eser ves, cor r i dor s,

and extensi ons, that ar e cr i t i cal to t i ger popul at i ons shoul d be adj usted or

upgr aded. Cont i guous t i ger habi tat that i s admi ni ster ed by di f fer ent gover n-

ment di v i si ons shoul d be managed as a whol e.

RANGE COUNTRIES THAT SHARE COMMON BORDERS AND/ OR COMMON POPULA-

TIONS OF TIGERS NEED TO COOPERATE AND COORDINATE THEIR EFFORTS TO

PROTECT TIGERS. As a star t , they can par t i ci pate i n i nter nat i onal for ums such

as the Gl obal Ti ger For um and the Tr ansboundar y Bi odi ver si t y Confer ences.

◆ IM P L E M E N T AN T I-H U N T I N G A N D PROT E C T E D AR E A LAW S

DEPLOY MORE MANPOWER IN THE FIELD TO ENFORCE LAWS. Fi nanci al r esour ces

and pol i t i cal commi tment shoul d be di r ected towar ds i ncr easi ng ant i - poachi ng

t eams i n key t i ger

habi tat and i ncr easi ng pr otected ar ea staf f . Pr i or i t y shoul d be gi ven to l ocal and

i ndi genous peopl e when hi r i ng f i el d staf f .

IMPROVE THE ORGANIZATION OF A NTI- POACHING PATROLS, PARTICULA RLY

FOOT PATROLS. For exampl e, ni ght pat r ol s and camps i nsi de pr otected ar eas

can be essent i al to ef f ect i ve

ant i - poachi ng ef for ts.

TRA IN PROTECTED AREA STAFF IN ENFORCEMENT SKILLS such as pat r ol l i ng

techni ques, the use of f i r ear ms and other equi pment, and l aw enfor cement pr o-

cedur es.

PROVIDE BETTER SALARIES, REWARDS, AND OTHER INCENTIVES to i mpr ove the

mor al e and

pr oduct i vi t y of pr otected ar ea staf f .

INCREASE INFRA STRUCTURAL SUPPORT FOR ANTI- POACHING ACTIVITIES. Such

suppor t i ncl udes vehi cl es, ar ms, ammuni t i on, wi r el ess communi cat i ons,

bi nocul ar s, ni ght v i si on devi ces, and other necessar y equi pment .

ESTABLISH INTELLIGENCE- GATHERING NETWORKS AND UNDERCOVER INVESTI-

SAVING

THE

TIGER

21

GATIONS to detect and pr event i l l egal hunt i ng act i v i t i es.

EDUCATE LEGA L A DVISORS IN WILDLIFE LAWS FOR EFFECTIVE PROSECUTION OF

P O A C H I N G

ACTIVITIES. Lawyer s and j udges shoul d be awar e of the ser i ousness of wi l dl i fe

cr i mes. Judges shoul d i ssue appr opr i ate penal t i es commensur ate wi th the

sever i t y of the cr i me.

◆ RE D U C E HU M A N IM PAC T S O N CR I T I CA L TI G E R HA B I TAT S

REDUCE HUMA N A ND LIVESTOCK PRESSURES IN CRITICAL TIGER HABITAT

THROUGH WELL PLANNED RELOCA TIONS OF PEOPLE LIVING INSIDE SUCH AREAS.

Rel ocat i on pr ogr ams need to be conducted i n consul tat i on wi th the affected peo-

pl e. Gover nments and pr i vate sour ces shoul d pr ovi de compensat i on for l oss of

l and. Pr i vate and gover nmental fundi ng i nst i tut i ons that ar e concer ned wi th

mai ntai ni ng bi odi ver si t y i n Asi a shoul d di r ect fundi ng to wel l pl anned r el oca-

t i on schemes.

INCREASE LAND PRODUCTIVITY OUTSIDE KEY TIGER HABITAT. In or der to meet

t he needs of

peopl e l i v i ng near cr i t i cal t i ger habi tat , r egi onal pol i ci es and i ntegr ated com-

m u n i t y

devel opment pr ogr ams shoul d r e- or i ent the ext r act i on of natur al r esour ces

f r om i nsi de t i ger habi tat to ar eas l y i ng outsi de.

PHYSICALLY SEPARATE PEOPLE AND LIVESTOCK FROM CRITICAL TIGER HA BI-

TAT. Thi s can be accompl i shed wi th bar r i er s such as fences, wal l s, and

t r enches to contr ol i l l egal l and encr oachment , l i vestock gr azi ng, and ent r y of

motor i zed and non- motor i zed vehi cl es.

FORESTRY EXPLOITA TION, FROM COMMERCIA L OPERA TIONS TO LOCA L

EXTRACTION OF TIMBER, FUELWOOD, FODDER, AND NON- TIMBER FOREST PROD-

UCTS, MUST BE PROHIBITED IN CRITICAL TIGER HABITATS

STOP LARGE DEVELOPMENTAL PROJ ECTS SUCH AS DAMS, MINING, AND ROAD-

BUILDING IN CRITICAL TIGER HA BITAT.

INVESTIGATE THE VIA BILITY OF LOW- IMPACT ECOTOURISM IN TIGER HABITAT.

R e v e n u e

gener ated f r om t i ger - based tour i sm shoul d be channel ed i nto conser vat i on and

communi ty devel opment .

MULTIPLE- USE A REAS SURROUNDING TIGER HABITA T SHOULD BE MA NAGED FOR

LAND USE A ND CROP PRODUCTION PRACTICES THAT ENHANCE THE CONNECTIVE

CORRIDORS BETWEEN T IGER

POPULATIONS.

CONTIGUOUS FORESTED AREAS WITH KEY TIGER POPULATIONS SHOULD BE

MANAGED AS ONE LEGAL UNIT, under the j ur i sdi ct i on of one i mpl ement i ng

agency or under negot i ated agr eements between var i ous author i zed agenci es.

WCS

POLICY

REPORT

No. 3

22

◆ CR E AT E NE W LE G A L A N D PO L I C Y IN I T I AT I V E S F O R RE D U C I N G A N D CO N T RO L L I N G T H E TR A D E

I N TI G E R PA RT S A N D PRO D U C T S

BAN THE SALE, POSSESSION, AND USE OF TIGER PARTS AND PRODUCTS,

INCLUDING PRODUCTS FA LSELY CLA IMING TO CONTA IN TIGER INGREDIENTS.

Domest i c t r ade cont r ol l aws ar e an

i mpor tant compl ement to on- the- gr ound pr otect i on of t i ger s, par t i cul ar l y

s i n c e

enfor cement i n the mar ketpl ace i n some ar eas may be r el at i vel y easi er than i n

the f i el d. Si nce many t i ger pr oducts do not actual l y contai n t i ger i ngr edi ents,

pr ohi bi t i ons must appl y whether or not pr oducts actual l y contai n t i ger i ngr e-

di ents so that l aw enfor cement i s not hi nder ed by the pr ocess of havi ng to pr ove

a pr oduct 's authent i ci t y.

ALL TIGER RA NGE STATES AND CONSUMER COUNTRIES NEED TO EVALUATE

THEIR EXISTING

DOMESTIC LAWS TO BETTER IMPLEMENT CITES. Domesti c l aws need to be

i mpr oved so that they can be enfor ced, par t i cul ar l y i n a way that faci l i tates

under cover i nvest i gat i ons.

NON- PARTY COUNTRIES THAT HA VE TIGERS SHOULD A CCEDE TO CITES. The

r ange count r i es that ar e not par ty to the Convent i on ar e Bhutan, Cambodi a, Lao

P.D.R., Myanmar , and Nor th Kor ea. Par t i es to the Convent i on benef i t f r om

CI TES member shi p because t hey can

par t i ci pate i n gl obal di scussi ons ( thr ough CITES confer ences) on i nter nat i on-

al t r ade

cont r ol s and r ecei ve tr ai ni ng and assi stance i n l aw enfor cement .

INCREASE PENALTIES AGAINST TRADE VIOLATIONS SO THAT THEY ACT AS AN

EFFECTIVE DETERRENT. Consi der , for i nstance, i nst i tut i ng mandator y pr i son

sentences and f i nes that ar e equi val ent to or exceed the r etai l val ue of the

poached ani mal or sei zed pr oducts.

BAN TIGER FARMS. Commer ci al expl oi tat i on of body par ts fr om far m- r ai sed

t i ger s can be detr i mental to t i ger s i n the wi l d. Past exper i ence wi th other

endanger ed speci es shows that l egal l y mar keted ani mal s and thei r der i vat i ves

ser ve as a cover for i l l egal l y acqui r ed ani mal s, par t i cul ar l y when exi st i ng

cont r ol s on i l l egal t r ade ar e poor and when t he

pr oposed l egal t r ade of capt i ve ani mal s cannot be adequatel y r egul ated.

◆ IM P L E M E N T TR A D E CO N T RO L LAW S

DESIGNATE LAW ENFORCEMENT UNITS WITH THE SOLE MANDATE OF ENFORCING

TRA DE CONTROL LAWS. Such uni ts woul d conduct i l l egal wi l dl i fe t r ade i nves-

t i gat i ons. The uni t shoul d

coor di nate both i nfor mat i on and act i v i t i es wi th other uni ts of enfor cement

agenci es, such as customs cont r ol s, wi thi n the count r y and wi th other coun-

t r i es.

CONSOLIDATE J URISDICTION OVER TRA DE CONTROL AMONG THE VARIOUS

IMPLEMENTING AGENCIES. The author i t y of exi st i ng agenci es over i l l egal t r ade

SAVING

THE

TIGER

23

WCS

POLICY

REPORT

No. 3

24

Gaski , A. L. and K. A. J ohnson. 1994.

Pr escr i pt i on f or Ex t i nct i on:

Endanger ed species and pat ent ed or i -

ent al medicines in t r ade. Washingt on,

D.C.: TRAFFIC USA and Cambr idge,

U.K.: TRAFFIC Int er nat ional .

Hi l l , G. 1994 . Obser v at i ons of

w i l dl i f e t r ade in Mer gui Tav oy

Di st r i ct , Kaw t hoolei . TRAFFIC

Bul let in. 14(3) : 107- 110.

IUCN. 1992. Pr ot ect ed Ar eas of t he

Wor ld: A r ev iew of nat ional sy st ems.

Vol . 1 : Indomalay a, Oceania,

Aust r al i a and Ant ar ct i c. Gland,

Sw i t zer land and Cambr i dge, U.K.:

IUCN. 352pp.

IUCN. 1993. New Yor k Zoological

Societ y condemns commer cial t r ade

in t iger par t s. Int er act . 4 : 11.

Kar ant h, K. U. 1995. Est imat ing

t iger Pant her a t igr is populat ions f r om

camer a- t r ap dat a usi ng capt ur e-

r ecapt ur e models. Bi ol ogi cal

Conser v at ion. 71: 333- 38.

Kar ant h, K. U. and M. E. Sunquist .

1995. Pr ey select ion by t iger , leop-

ar d and dhole in t r opical f or est s.

J our nal of Animal Ecology 64(4) :

439- 450.

Koehler , G. M. 1991. Sur v ey of

r emaining w i ld populat ions of Sout h

China t iger s. WWF Pr oj ect 4512.

WWF Int er nat ional .

McDougal , C. 1977. The Face of t he

Tiger . London: Ri v i ngt on Books.

180pp.

Mi l ls, J . A. and P. J ackson. 1994.

Ki l led f or a Cur e: A r ev iew of t he

w or l dw ide t r ade i n t i ger bone.

Cambr i dge, U.K.: TRAFFIC

Int er nat ional . 52 pp.

Mul l iken, T. and M. Hay w ood. 1994

Recent dat a on t r ade in r hino and t iger

pr oduct s, 1988 - 1992 . TRAFFIC

Bul let in. 14(3) : 99- 106.

Panw ar , H. S. and W. A. Rodger s.

1986. The r eint r oduct ion of lar ge

cat s int o w i ldl i f e pr ot ect ion ar eas.

Indian For est er . 112(10) : 939- 944.

Per r y , R. 1965. The Wor ld of t he

Tiger . New Yor k: At heneum. 261pp.

Miquel l e, D., H. B. Quigl ey , M.

Hor nocker , U. Smir nov , I. Nickalaev ,

D. Pikunov , and K. Quigley . 1994.

Pr esent st at us of t he Siber ian t iger ,

and some t hr eat s t o i t s sur v iv al .

Pr oceedings of t he XXI Congr ess of

t he Int er nat i onal Union of Game

Biologist s, Hal i f ax , Nov a Scot ia,

August 1993.

Rabinow i t z, A. 1993. Est imat ing t he

Indochinese t iger Pant her a t igr is cor -

bet t i populat i on of Thai l and.

Biological Conser v at i on. 65: 213-

217.

Rabinow i t z, A. 1993. Wi ldl i f e Field

Resear ch and Conser v at ion Tr aining

Manual . New Yor k: Wi l dl i f e

Conser v at ion Societ y . 281pp.

Read, B. E. 1931 ( r epr int ed in 1982) .

Chinese Mat er i a Medi ca: Animal

dr ugs. Taipei : Sout her n Mat er ials

Cent er , Inc.

Schal ler , G. B. 1967. The Deer and

t he Tiger : A st udy of w i ldl i f e in India.

Chicago: Univ er si t y of Chicago Pr ess.

370pp.

Seidenst icker , J . and C. McDougal .

1993. Tiger pr edat or y behav iour ,

ecol ogy and conser v at i on.

Sy mposium of t he Zoological Societ y

of London. 65: 105- 125.

SELECTED

REFERENCES

AND

FURTHER

READINGS

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY

THE WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY ( WCS) , FOUNDED 1 0 0 YEARS AGO AS THE

NEW YORK Zool ogi cal Soci ety, i s dedi cated to pr eser vi ng the Ear th'swi l dl i f e and ecosystems. Uni que among conser vat i on or gani zat i ons, the Soci ety com-b i n e ssci ent i f i cal l y- based conser vat i on ef for ts i n the f i el d wi th the capt i vepr opagat i on of endanger ed speci es, wi l dl i fe management and heal th ser -v i ces, and envi r onmental educat i on for l ocal , nat i onal , and i nter nat i onalaudi ences.

WCS cur r ent l y over sees mor e than 2 7 0 conser vat i on pr oj ects i n over5 0 count r i es i n Asi a, Af r i ca, and Lat i n Amer i ca. Our f i el d staf f , thel ar gest of any i nt er nat i onal conser vat i on or gani zat i on i n the Uni ted States, i s hel pi ng to save habi -tats as di ver se as the Tanzani an savannahs, the coastal ecosystems ofPatagoni a, and cor al r eefs i n Bel i ze. By t r ai ni ng l ocal wi l dl i fe staf f andstudents i n r esear ch methods, WCS ensur es that ther e i s a per manentl ocal capaci ty for conser vat i on and management . The Soci ety al so pr o-mot es l ocal publ i c awar eness of endanger ed speci es and habi tat l oss.

WCS wor ks i n cooper at i on wi th l ocal and nat i onal gover nments and con-ser vat i on or gani zat i ons by pr ovi di ng i nfor mat i on based on i t s l ong- ter mf i el d st udi es t o deci si on- maker s i nvol ved i n conser vat i on pol i cy and act i on. As a r esul tof t hese i ni t i at i ves, we have hel ped establ i sh mor e than 1 0 0 wi l dl i fe par ks andr eser ves acr oss the wor l d, i ncl udi ng the Ar ct i c Nat i onal Wi l dl i fe Refugei n Al aska, Ambosel i Nat i onal Par k i n Kenya, and one of the wor l d'sl ar gest , the Chang Tang Reser ve, i n Ti bet . Wi thi n the past f i ve year sal one, the Soci ety has hel ped pr otect mor e than 9 0 mi l l i on acr es of l and.

The Soci ety oper ates the nat i on's l ar gest system of ur ban wi l dl i fe par ks,whi ch, i n addi t i on to the wor l d- r enowned Br onx Zoo, i ncl udes theAquar i um for Wi l dl i fe Conser vat i on, and the Cent r al Par k, Queens, andPr ospect Par k Wi l dl i fe Center s. Wi th mor e than 1 3 ,0 0 0 ani mal s, manyof whi ch ar e endanger ed, under i t s car e, WCS conducts pi oneer i ngr esear ch on wi l dl i fe nut r i t i on, behavi or , and genet i cs. At our 1 4 ,0 0 0acr e St . Cather i nes Wi l dl i fe Sur vi val Center , r ar e and endanger ed

POLICY

COMMITTEE

ON

TIGERS

WILLIAM CONWAYPRESIDENT

JOHN G. ROBINSONVICE PRESIDENT FOR

INTERNATIONAL CONSERVATION

GEORGE SCHALLERDIRECTOR FOR SCIENCE

ALAN RABINOWITZDIRECTOR FOR ASIAN PROGRAMS

ULLAS KARANTHASSOCIATE CONSERVATION ZOOLOGIST

DORENE BOLZE, CO- AUTHOR

SENIOR POLICY ANALYST

JAMES DOHERTYGENERAL CURATOR

& CHAIRMAN OF MAMMALOGY

HOWARD QUIGLEYPRESIDENT OF THE HORNOCKER

WILDLIFE RESEARCH INSTITUTE

DAWN NORCHI, AUTHOR

ASSOCIATE POLICY ANALYST

© 1995 WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY

For mor e inf or mat ion or t osend a cont r ibut ion in suppor t of WCS’ s Tiger Campaign please con-t act :

WILDLIFE CONSERVATIONSOCIETY

Of f i ce of Publ i c Af fai r s

Br onx, New Yor k 1 0 4 6 0

Tel : 7 1 8 .2 2 0 .5 0 9 0

Fax: 7 1 8 .3 6 4 .7 9 6 3

Cit at ion: Nor chi , D. and D. Bolze.

1995. Sav ing t he Tiger : A conser -

v at i on st r at egy . WCS Pol i cy

Repor t Number 3 . New Yor k:

Wi l dl i f e Conser v at i on Societ y .

24pp.

DESIGNED BY BINZEN+BINZEN

PRINTED ON RECYCLED PAPER

W O R K I N G

T O

S AV E

W I L D L I F E

ULLAS KARANTH