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Teaching in Nursing: Th e Faculty Role Linda M. Finke, PhD, RN 1

As the demands of society have changed, the faculty role in higher education has grown from the singular colonial unitarian mission of teaching to a multifac-eted challenge of teaching, scholarship, and service. Over time, as nursing education has moved from the service sector to college and university campuses, the role of nursing faculty has evolved, becoming increasingly complex. As higher education and the science of nursing have developed, the impact on nursing education has been tremendous.

Today higher education and nursing education are poised on the brink of sweeping changes. Th e forces driving these changes are numerous and dif-fi cult to isolate: the increasing multiculturalism of society; decreasing fi nancial resources in education and health care; changes in the delivery of health care through health care reform; the integration of evidence-based practice and the need for more nurses with higher degrees; expanding technology and the accompanying knowledge explosion; the need for lifelong learning; a shift ing emphasis to learning, instead of teaching; and the increasing public demand for accountability of educational outcomes. Th ese are just a few of the issues that educators must consider as they fulfi ll the responsi-bilities of their role. Th ere has been a call by the federal government and others to build more points of student assessment into postsecondary educa-tion to provide the evidence that outcomes are being met in an eff ort to hold colleges and universi-ties accountable for the learning experiences they provide ( Dwyer , Millett, & Payne, 2006).

Th e need of nurse educators to maintain strong clinical skills while there continues to be a critical shortage of nurses that is projected to last for de-cades has created an additional hurdle for nurse educators. To meet projected demand for regis-tered nurses, nursing programs must increase their

graduation rates, specifi cally for nurses with higher degrees ( U.S. Department of Health and Human Services , 2010). Th e recent Future of Nursing report released by the Institute of Medicine (2010) issued a call for a nursing workforce in which 80% of the nurses have a bachelor’s degree in nursing by 2020 as well as double the number of nurses prepared with a doctorate. At the same time, the Tri-Council for Nursing (2010)—made up of the American As-sociation of Colleges of Nursing, American Nurses Association, American Organization of Nurse Ex-ecutives, and National League for Nursing—reports a scarcity of prepared nursing faculty. Th e demand for more nurses with advanced degrees for health care delivery and a scarcity of prepared nursing fac-ulty have placed a tremendous burden on nursing education and the faculty trying to meet the grow-ing needs. Nursing education is entering a crisis with no end in sight, overloaded by the demand to teach more students with fewer faculty members.

As faculty in higher education face these chal-lenges, they need to fi nd new ways to teach and implement their role. Benner , Sutphen, Leonard, and Day (2010) call for “radical transformation” of nursing education. Th ey made 26 recommendations to transform nursing education, calling for a major paradigm shift in nursing education. Nursing fac-ulty of the future need to embrace innovation and be advocates for change and forward movement. Th is chapter provides a brief historical perspective of the faculty role, identifi es faculty rights and re-sponsibilities, and describes the process of faculty appointment, promotion, and tenure within the current context. In addition, faculty development of the competencies related to teaching as a scholarly endeavor is discussed, and implications for change in the faculty role needed to meet current and future expectations and demands are addressed.

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Gradually, as expectations for faculty to conduct research spread throughout institutions across the nation, teaching and service began to be viewed with less importance as a measurement tool for aca-demic prestige and productivity within institutions. Faculty found it increasingly diffi cult to achieve tenure without a record of research and publication, despite accomplishments in teaching and service. As nursing education entered the university setting, nursing faculty began to be held to the same stan-dards of research productivity as faculty in other more traditionally academia-based disciplines. Be-cause of the prominence of practice in nursing, the integration of scholarship into the role of nursing faculty grew slowly initially. Th e emphasis on re-search in higher education as evidence of faculty productivity has continued to this day.

Currently a rapidly changing political environ-ment and health care reform are having a dramatic eff ect on the role of nursing faculty. Universities are facing a “new and sometimes hostile world” ( Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges , 1996, p. 2). Diminishing resources and increasing public scrutiny and expectations place a heavy burden on faculty in higher educa-tion. Changes in health care will demand that nursing faculty critically evaluate the design of curricula and the competencies of graduates. Th ere is increasing emphasis on the teaching role of fac-ulty with an accompanying expectation that out-comes of the educational process will be regularly assessed at the institutional and program levels. Th e balance among teaching, research, and service is being reexamined in many institutions for its congruence with the institution’s mission.

Further changes in higher education include a revolution in teaching strategies. Sole reliance on the use of lecture is no longer an accepted teaching method. Instead faculty are integrating the use of tech-nology into their teaching and promoting the active involvement of students in the learning process. Computer-mediated courses and the use of simula-tion are the future of higher education and the norm in nursing as movement is made away from the struc-tured classroom to the much larger learning environ-ments of the home, community, and clinical setting. Distance education strategies play an increasingly important role in the education of learners.

Furthermore, nursing care delivery is changing to a community-based, consumer-driven system. Th e shift from acute care to the important role of

Historical Perspective of Faculty Role in Higher Education Th e role of the faculty member in academia has de-veloped through time as the role of higher education in America has changed. If one reviews the history of American higher education, three phases of overlap-ping development can be identifi ed ( Boyer , 1990).

Th e fi rst phase of development occurred during colonial times. Heavily infl uenced by British tradi-tion, the role of faculty in the colonial college was a singular one: that of teaching. Th e educational system “was expected to educate and morally uplift the coming generation” ( Boyer , 1990, p. 4). Teaching was considered an honored vocation with the in-tended purpose of developing student character and preparing students for leadership in civic and religious roles. Th is focus on teaching as the central mission of the university continued well into the nineteenth century.

Gradually, however, the focus of education began to shift from the development of the individual to the development of a nation, signaling the begin-ning of the second phase of development within higher education. Legislation such as the Morrill Act of 1862 and the Hatch Act of 1887 helped create public expectations that added the responsibility of service to the traditional faculty role of teaching. Th is legislation provided each state with land and funding to support the education of leaders for agri-culture and industry. Universities and colleges took on the mission to educate for the common good ( Boyer , 1990). Educational systems were expected to provide service to the states, businesses, and indus-tries. It was in the 1870s that the fi rst formal schools of nursing began to appear in the United States. Nursing programs were established in hospitals to help meet the service needs of the hospitals. Nursing faculty were expected to provide service to the insti-tution and to teach new nurses along the way. Nurs-ing students were expected to learn while they helped staff the hospitals.

In the mid-nineteenth century, a commitment to the development of science began in many universi-ties on the East Coast ( Boyer , 1990), thus beginning the third phase of development in higher education. Scholarship through research was added as an ex-pectation to the role of faculty. Th is emphasis on research was greatly enhanced in later years by federal support for academic research that began during World War II and continued aft er the war.

Chapter 1 Teaching in Nursing: Th e Faculty Role ■ 3

primary care has had an impact on the curricula of undergraduate and graduate nursing education. Th ere also is a continuing gap in the representation of minorities in nursing education programs, with the percentage holding at 10% for decades. Th ere is a need to expand the number of graduates from baccalaureate nursing programs and to increase the numbers of graduates from underrepresented pop-ulations. As the minority population continues to grow, all nurses must increase their skills to meet the needs of this underserved population. Applica-tion of cultural competency content requires major revision of some nursing curricula ( Amen & Pacquiao , 2004; Campinha-Bacote , 2005).

Th e American Association of Colleges of Nurs-ing (2010) reports that there is a growing need for increased numbers of nurses prepared at the doc-toral level, not only to teach but also to collect and analyze data necessary to evaluate the eff ectiveness of health care and to identify trends of future devel-opment. Th e clinical movement toward advance practice nurses holding the Doctor of Nursing Practice degree creates an overwhelming need for nurses prepared with a doctorate. Th e majority of nursing programs (61.4%) reported not being able to accept more students because of the need for qualifi ed faculty, with the programs predicting a growing need. All of these issues place nursing faculty at the heart of the nursing shortage.

Faculty Rights and Responsibilities in Academia In the academic environment, faculty have tradi-tionally enjoyed a number of rights, including the right to self-governance within the university setting. Governance may include participation on department and university committees and “using . . . professional expertise to solve commu-nity problems” ( Gaff & Lambert , 1996, p. 40). Self-governance includes developing policies for faculty behavior, student aff airs, and curriculum; perform-ing administrative activities; and providing advice to administrators or student groups. Serving on committees or task forces at the department, school, or university level is also an expectation of faculty ( Tucker , 1992). Faculty, in cooperation with admin-istrators, share in addressing the issues that face the university and the community it serves.

As constituents place more and more expecta-tions on faculty for productivity, faculty governance

is not as highly valued by those outside of academia ( Plater , 1995). However, the new environment for higher education demands new forms of governance, including representative forms. Methods must be instituted to maintain the participation of faculty in governance while allowing for less of a time com-mitment. Th e change that must permeate all other aspects of the role of twenty-fi rst-century faculty must also permeate governance.

Th e core responsibility of faculty is the teach-ing and learning that takes place in the institu-tion. Boards and administrators delegate deci-sions about most aspects of the teaching–learning process to faculty. Th is responsibility includes not only the delivery of content but also curriculum development and evaluation, development of stu-dent evaluation methods, and graduation re-quirements ( Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges , 1996). Faculty also have the responsibility to create the standards for promotion and tenure of faculty. Tenured faculty have the right and responsibility to mentor more junior colleagues and to approve standards or criteria for appointment and promotion of faculty in non-tenure tracks.

Intellectual property, copyright, and fair use laws govern faculty and student use of works devel-oped by faculty, students, and others. Th e easy on-line access of course content has added to this complicated issue. Most academic settings have policies that guide the development of “works for hire,” which may include course content, written works, and products. Many institutions of higher learning now lay claim to works developed by faculty because the faculty member was hired to develop the content. A wise faculty member is well informed about these institutional policies so that there is no misunderstanding about ownership of course materials and other works developed by the faculty member.

Evaluation is a major responsibility of faculty. Faculty engage in the evaluation of students and of colleagues. Peer evaluation is a vital aspect of fac-ulty development and is part of the documentation data considered in the decision-making process for promotion and tenure. Faculty are involved in the development of fair and equitable evaluation crite-ria on which to base these judgments. Eff ective teaching is the gold standard that all faculty must meet. Excellence in research and service is the added value.

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Another responsibility of faculty is mentoring. Nursing faculty mentor not only nursing students but also other faculty members in their develop-ment as teachers and scholars. Th e mentoring of students may include not only formal academic advisement but also the coaching, supporting, and guiding of protégés through the academic system and into their professional careers. Th e mentoring of faculty members also involves coaching, sup-porting, and guiding as they develop in their role as faculty. When starting at a new institution, even an experienced faculty member has some culture shock and requires mentoring ( Lieb , 1995). Lieb (1995) defi nes mentoring as helping another to reach his or her potential.

Th e mentoring of new faculty members is an especially important responsibility because nurses are not usually prepared in graduate nursing programs for a role in academia. Faculty are dropped into an environment with unspoken rules and expecta-tions that can be markedly diff erent from those of their previous practice environment. Faculty know the role of the student from experience but see the faculty role from a distance. Mentoring is needed to assist new faculty members as they learn to balance all aspects of their complex role.

Th e responsibilities of nursing faculty include teaching and scholarship, as well as service to the school, university, community, and the profession of nursing. Nursing faculty have the responsibility to expand their service beyond the university and local community to active participation in professional nursing organizations at local, regional, and national levels. Nursing faculty oft en provide the leadership for these organizations and set national public policy agendas. As a faculty member climbs the promo-tion and tenure ladder, service responsibilities in-crease and leadership at the national level is required.

True success as a faculty member is measured by the person’s ability to juggle all aspects of the faculty role. Although some educational settings emphasize teaching, many require that faculty meet established criteria in all aspects of the role—teaching, research, and service. With careful planning and selection of activities, nursing faculty can integrate clinical inter-ests into scholarship, service, and teaching, thus meeting the expectations of the role. On initial ap-pointment to a faculty position, the faculty member will be well served by the development of a 5- to 6-year career plan designed to ensure that he or she will meet the criteria for all aspects of the role.

Some faculty do work in a unionized environ-ment. Th e American Association of University Pro-fessors (AAUP) is probably the best known faculty union. Faculty can also be members of AAUP with-out belonging to a union. In a setting that has a union, faculty rights and responsibilities can be aff ected by the negotiated contract.

Faculty Appointment, Promotion, and Tenure Faculty are appointed by the governing body of the college or university and are responsible, in coop-eration with the administration of the institution, for teaching, scholarship, and service ( Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges , 1996). Faculty are appointed to fulfi ll various re-sponsibilities to meet the mission and goals of the college or university and the school of nursing and, according to their degrees and experience, are pro-moted and tenured on the basis of achievement of specifi ed criteria. Faculty may hold appointments in more than one unit of the institution, including other academic units or service units. Criteria for promotion and tenure are based on the institution’s overall mission and thus vary among institutions.

Appointment

Faculty may be appointed to a variety of full-time and part-time positions. Faculty positions are described as tenured or tenure-probationary appointments or as non-tenured, nonprobationary instructional appoint-ments such as adjunct, distinguished, emeritus, and other part-time, temporary, or otherwise designated positions. Appointment in the tenure tracks may lead to tenure and a permanent position at the school of nursing; other positions require reappointment at specifi c intervals (e.g., yearly or every 3 to 5 years). Reappointment and continued service in tenured po-sitions are based on evaluation of teaching and other faculty activities, such as scholarship and service.

Ranks Appointment ranks, or tracks, have been developed to specify the responsibilities of the faculty member in relation to teaching, scholarship, and service. Th e ranks may include tenure, clinical, or research scientist. Each rank has its own criteria for teaching, scholarship, and service and for promotion within the rank.

Chapter 1 Teaching in Nursing: Th e Faculty Role ■ 5

Th e tenure track is established for faculty whose primary responsibilities are teaching and research. Th ere is expectation of a promise of excellence and the ability to be promoted to senior ranks. A doc-toral degree is generally required for appointment to the tenure track at most schools of nursing. Fac-ulty appointed to this rank are considered tenure probationary until they have obtained tenure.

Th e clinical track has been developed at some institutions for those faculty members whose pri-mary responsibility is clinical supervision of stu-dents and/or clinical practice. Th e increased use of clinical faculty is a growing trend as the shortage of nurses prepared with a doctorate deepens. Th e focus of the clinical track is on health care delivery, and it is used to integrate faculty practice into the traditional university faculty structure ( Paskiewicz , 2003; Riley , Beal, Levi, & McCausland, 2002). Th is track may also be developed as an educator track, clinical educator track, or educator/practitioner track, depending on the primary focus of the responsibilities of the faculty appointed into this track. Appointment to this track is based on teach-ing and clinical skills. A doctoral degree may not be required for appointment to a clinical track. Th e clinical track usually does not include the protec-tion of tenure, but does facilitate promotion through the ranks of assistant, associate, and professor based on leveled criteria.

Th e research scientist track is for faculty whose primary responsibilities are generating new knowl-edge and disseminating the fi ndings. Although research scientists may have responsibilities for working with students, serving on dissertation committees, teaching in the area of their expertise, or providing service to the school, campus, or pro-fession, their time is protected for research. Appoint-ment is based on evidence of or promise of a program of research. A doctoral degree and at least beginning research experience are prerequisites for appointment to this track.

Within these ranks, faculty are appointed at the levels of instructor (rarely used), assistant profes-sor, associate professor, and professor. Each school of nursing defi nes the criteria for appointment and promotion to these levels. Th ese criteria specify the responsibilities associated with teaching, schol-arship and service, or other frameworks used to defi ne the faculty role.

Schools of nursing may also develop tempo-rary and other positions to which faculty can be

appointed. Visiting positions may be held at any rank and designate someone who has a limited appointment (1 or 2 years), who is on leave from another institution, who is employed on a tempo-rary basis, or who may be under consideration for a permanent position within the school. Th e lecturer position is used for faculty who lack nec-essary credentials (usually degrees) for appoint-ment to a tenure track position. Adjunct faculty are courtesy appointments for individuals whose pri-mary employment is outside the school of nursing but who have responsibility for teaching students or working with students on research projects.

Emeritus is a title that may be conferred on faculty who are retired. Faculty with emeritus status may be granted specifi c privileges, such as use of the library, use of computing services, and an offi ce and secre-tarial support.

Students may also be employed in teaching posi-tions. Th ese appointments, such as teaching assis-tant and associate instructor , are temporary and usually part-time. Th ese students are responsible only for teaching or assisting faculty with teaching. Th ey do not have the same level of responsibility as full-time faculty. Teaching assistants must be as-signed to work with a faculty member who will assume responsibility for the quality of their work.

Th e Appointment Process Th e appointment process in universities and schools of nursing is somewhat diff erent from that for positions in nursing service, and nurses who are applying for teaching positions in schools of nursing should be cognizant of this. Th e interview is conducted by a search and screen committee appointed by the dean or other university admin-istrator. Interested applicants submit an applica-tion and curriculum vitae that are screened by this committee. Potential candidates are invited for an interview with the search committee, faculty and administrators at the school of nursing, and others at the college or university as appropriate. Depending on the requirements of the position for which they are applying, applicants may be asked to make a presentation of their research or to demonstrate teaching skills. At the time of appointment to rank, the applicant’s records are reviewed by the appointment, promotion, and tenure committee, or other appropriate com-mittee, for recommendation to the dean about appointment.

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Tenure and Promotion

Tenure Tenure to the university is a reciprocal responsi-bility on the part of the university and faculty. Th e expectation is that the faculty member will remain competent and productive and maintain high standards of teaching, research, service, and professional conduct. Tenure also assumes that the faculty member is promotable, and typically promotion to the next level and tenure occur at the same time. Tenure, then, provides the fac-ulty member protection of academic freedom. Academic freedom is the “freedom . . . to explore new ideas and theories unimpeded” ( Whicker Kronenfi eld , & Strickland, 1993, p. 14). Academic freedom guarantees the protection of faculty against eff orts by government, university admin-istration, students, and even public opinion to infl uence their expression of opinions in class. On the other hand, academic freedom does not give faculty unbounded rights; for example, a faculty member does not have the right to alter the curriculum, sequence, or content of established courses or to subject students to discussions that are irrelevant to the course. Tenure can be with-drawn for reasons of fi nancial exigency on the part of the school or university and for behavior that is unprofessional. Finally tenure does not mean not having to participate in performance review, and most institutions and their schools of nursing have instituted a posttenure review process ( Suess , 1995).

Tenure is granted aft er a review by peers and administrators using published criteria of the evi-dence submitted by the faculty member (a cur-riculum vitae and dossier). Th is review is typically held in the faculty member’s sixth year, with ten-ure granted in the seventh year. At appointment, faculty with a record of exceptional achievement may be granted a specifi c number of years toward tenure, thus shortening the time for the tenure review.

Th e tenure process is specifi c to each school of nursing, and faculty who are appointed to a tenure track should familiarize themselves with the criteria and process before appointment. Although the ten-ure and promotion process may seem mysterious, there are in fact clear and specifi ed criteria. Th e cur-rent attitude is to employ faculty who show high promise for attaining tenure and being promoted

and to provide support and mentoring that will facilitate their developing into successful and fully capable members of the academic community. Although at one time tenure was an unquestioned right of faculty, currently both prospective faculty and the academic community are questioning its true benefi t, and some institutions of higher educa-tion have abandoned the notion altogether.

Promotion Promotion refers to advancement in rank. As with the tenure review process, faculty must submit evi-dence of excellence in teaching, scholarship and service, or other criteria established by the school and be judged by a committee of peers, school and university administrators, and governing bodies. Criteria and processes for promotion, like those for tenure, are established by faculty committees and are made public. In most schools of nursing, tenure-probationary faculty who are appointed as assistant professors are expected to be able to be promoted to the rank of associate professor at the time tenure is granted.

Faculty should familiarize themselves with pro-motion criteria and processes at the time of appointment and establish a relationship with the primary appointment, promotion, and tenure (APT) committee and the department chair, whose role it is to inform faculty about APT policies and procedures. As noted earlier, an expectation of senior faculty is to guide and mentor junior faculty through the tenure and promotion process. Some schools of nursing assign mentors at the time of appointment; if a mentor is not assigned, the newly appointed faculty member should seek one.

Teaching as a Scholarly Endeavor

Redefi ning the Faculty Role

Th e faculty role has been redefi ned in the twenty-fi rst century, in response to emerging societal trends such as technology and an emphasis on outcomes; new defi nitions of the faculty role have been proposed to facilitate this role transfor-mation. For example, Norris and Dolence (1996) described numerous ways that the faculty role needed to change to meet the needs of the learners in the information age. Th ey described the faculty role as one encompassing the synthesis of know-ledge and a broader range of scholarship, with

Chapter 1 Teaching in Nursing: Th e Faculty Role ■ 7

faculty assuming the role of “learning mentors” who guide learners through individualized pro-grams of study and evaluate the mastery of learners. In such a role, faculty need to develop expertise in fl exible, fl uid curricula design and outcome assessment. In the same vein, Barr and Tagg (1995) described a shift from a “teaching paradigm” to a “learning paradigm” to “create en-vironments and experiences that allow students to discover and construct knowledge for themselves” ( p. 15 ). Th ese changes in the faculty role, fi rst addressed in the ‘90s, have indeed transpired. Teaching, although always an important aspect of the faculty role, has continued to assume an even greater signifi cance in recent years.

Boyer (1990) fi rst proposed a new paradigm for scholarship that encompassed all aspects of the faculty role but placed a renewed emphasis on teaching as a scholarly endeavor. In Scholarship, Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professorate , Boyer called for the development of a balance between research and teaching when measuring the faculty member’s success in academia. He described four types of scholarship in which faculty engage: the scholarship of discovery , the scholarship of integra-tion , the scholarship of application , and the scholar-ship of teaching . In these four types of scholarship, the previously narrow view of scholarly producti-vity that rested only on the careful discovery of new knowledge through research has been greatly ex-panded. Boyer’s model supports the practice model of nursing, which calls for more than the discovery of knowledge; it also calls for the application and integration of knowledge into clinical practice. As Boyer stated:

We believe the time has come to move beyond the tired old “teaching versus research” debate and give the familiar and honorable term “schol-arship” a broader, more capacious meaning, one that brings legitimacy to the full scope of aca-demic work. Surely, scholarship means engaging in original research. But the work of the scholar also means stepping back from one’s investiga-tion, looking for connections, building bridges between theory and practice, and communi-cating one’s knowledge eff ectively to students. Specifi cally, we conclude that the work of the professorate might be thought of as having four separate, yet overlapping, functions. Th ese are: the scholarship of discovery; the scholarship of integration; the scholarship of application; and the scholarship of teaching. ( p. 16 )

Th e Scholarship of Discovery Th e scholarship of discovery is the traditional defi -nition of original research or discovery of new knowledge ( Boyer , 1990). Th e scholarship of dis-covery may be considered the foundation of the other three aspects of scholarship because new knowledge is generated for application and integra-tion into the discipline, as well as for teaching ( Brown et al., 1995).

It is through the scholarship of discovery that scientifi c methods are used to develop a strong knowledge base for the discipline. Evidence-based practice in nursing builds on the knowledge gener-ated by the scholarship of discovery. Most federal funding traditionally has been appropriated for the scholarship of discovery, and until recently tenure decisions in many universities have been based primarily on the faculty member’s engagement in the generation of new knowledge. Th e scholarship of discovery remains an important aspect of the role of many faculties, including nursing faculties. At the federal level, research eff orts in nursing are supported by the National Institute of Nursing Research and content-specifi c institutes such as the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Mental Health.

Th e Scholarship of Integration Th e scholarship of integration involves the inter-pretation and synthesis of knowledge within and across discipline boundaries in a manner that provides a larger context for the knowledge and the development of new insights ( Boyer , 1990). Th e scholarship of integration requires communi-cation among colleagues from various disciplines who work together to develop a more holistic view of a common concern. Th e combined exper-tise of all who are involved leads to a more com-prehensive understanding of the issue and results in more thorough recommendations for solutions to the phenomena of concern.

Nursing faculty have long integrated knowledge from various disciplines into their practice ( Brown et al., 1995) and have many competencies that enable them to be productive members of interdisciplinary teams studying a variety of health problems and issues. With the emphasis in today’s world on the development of collaborative, team-building, and knowledge-sharing eff orts across disciplines, the scholarship of integration assumes an ever-increasing

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importance for faculty who must remain at the fore-front of the information age. Th is is especially true for health care professionals and faculty in this era of rapidly changing health care delivery systems and accompanying complex health care issues that re-quire innovative solutions. Nursing content oft en builds on the knowledge students have learned from other disciplines such as the biological and social sciences. Th e scholarship of integration involves the designing of learning models that guide the students to apply their previously learned knowledge to clini-cal situations such as the use of patient care plans or care maps ( Kirkpatrick et al., 2001).

Th e Scholarship of Application Th e scholarship of application, which connects the-ory and practice, is an area of scholarship in which nursing faculty should also excel. In the scholarship of application, faculty must ask themselves, “How can knowledge be responsibly applied to consequential problems?” ( Boyer , 1990, p. 21). Service activities that are directly connected to a faculty member’s areas of expertise warrant consideration as application schol-arship. It is in the performance of service activities that practice and theory interact, thus leading to the potential development of new knowledge.

For example, in nursing, clinical practice and expertise that result in the development of examples of nursing interventions and positive patient care outcomes meet the defi nition of scholarship of ap-plication ( Paskiewicz , 2003; Riley et al., 2002). Activi-ties that encourage students to use critical decision making and self-refl ection and self-evaluation are examples of the scholarship of application in teach-ing. Faculty practice in nursing centers is another example. Faculty should disseminate the knowledge gathered through practice and service activities by publishing in professional journals.

Th e scholarship of application, which includes service to the profession of nursing at the local, regional, national, and international levels, also involves developing policies and practices for nursing and health care. Nursing faculty oft en provide leadership in professional organizations and on community or national panels and boards.

Th e Scholarship of Teaching Th e heart of the faculty role can be found in the schol-arship of teaching. An important attribute of any scholar is having the ability to eff ectively communi-cate the knowledge he or she possesses to students. Boyer’s (1990) defi nition of scholarship provides a

model through which the special competencies and skills that are an integral part of the scholarly endeavor of teaching are acknowledged. Developing innovative curricula, using a variety of teaching methods that actively involve students in the learning process, col-laborating with students on learning projects, and exploring the most eff ective means of meeting the learning needs of diverse populations of students are all examples of the scholarship of teaching.

Th e scholarship of teaching requires evidence of eff ective teaching and dissemination of the knowl-edge that is acquired as a result of teaching. Faculty should share their teaching expertise with their col-leagues through publication and presentation of their innovative teaching methods and the out-comes of their working with students.

Th e scholarship of teaching brings many exciting opportunities for nursing faculty in classroom and clinical settings. It is based on the scholarship of dis-covery, integration, and practice ( Shoff ner , Davis, & Bowen, 1994). At a time when health care practice arenas are rapidly changing—curriculum models are being designed to meet the needs of a global society, use of technology in education is increasing, and perspectives on teaching and learning are changing—the scholarship of teaching provides nursing faculty with the opportunity to demonstrate their innovation and creativity. It also provides a means for recogniz-ing the eff ort spent preparing students to be compe-tent health care providers for the future.

Summary Although the role of the faculty member remains complex, Boyer’s (1990) broad description of scholar-ship provides a model that legitimizes all aspects of the faculty role. Boyer has given credibility to aspects of the faculty role that extend beyond the creation of new knowledge through research to include teaching and service to the university, community, and profes-sion. As a scholarly endeavor, teaching is the synthe-sis of all types of scholarship described by Boyer. Faculty can combine the role of researcher with the integration, application, and dissemination of knowl-edge. Th e ability to teach is an important criterion for the evaluation of faculty at most universities ( Gaff & Lambert , 1996; Kirkpatrick et al., 2001; Stull & Lantz, 2005). Boyer has provided a model for nursing fac-ulty to use to develop their expertise in teaching as a scholarly endeavor ( Shoff ner et al., 1994). Nursing education has moved from the notion that there is only one way to do something to a broader perspec-tive that recognizes the creativity and uniqueness of

Chapter 1 Teaching in Nursing: Th e Faculty Role ■ 9

each student. Th e teacher is no longer the only expert but instead is someone who joins with the student in the learning process.

Faculty Development for the Teaching Role Teaching in nursing is a complex activity that inte-grates the art and science of nursing and clinical practice into the teaching–learning process. Specifi -cally, teaching involves a set of skills, or competen-cies, that are essential to facilitating student learning outcomes. Th ese competencies can be developed through educational preparation, faculty orientation programs, and faculty development opportunities. Most graduate programs in nursing, unless they are specifi cally preparation for the educator role, do not prepare the graduate to teach. Th erefore mentoring of new faculty and strong professional development programs are essential for the preparation of nursing faculty.

Teaching Competencies

Teaching competencies are the knowledge, skills, and values that are critical to the fulfi llment of the teaching component of the faculty role. Several authors have identifi ed general competencies for teaching in nursing ( Billings , 1995; Choudhry , 1992; Davis , Dearman, Schwab, & Kitchens, 1992) and Kirschling et al. (1995) have identifi ed domains of teaching eff ectiveness that can be used as stan-dards for evaluating teaching competence. Promo-tion and tenure criteria articulate specifi c expecta-tions of teaching competence and excellence at each school of nursing. Teaching and related role competencies include the following competencies.

Competencies Related to Curriculum Development; Teaching; Using Teaching, Learning, and Information Resources; and Evaluating Student Outcomes Th ese competencies include being knowledgeable about the content area; setting learning objectives; designing learning activities; being well organized in the selection and presentation of learning experi-ences; selecting and using appropriate learning strategies; understanding and using theories of teaching and learning; teaching in the clinical set-ting; communicating expectations clearly; provid-ing helpful and timely feedback; assisting students to develop critical thinking skills; using infor mation

technologies such as databases, spreadsheets, statis-tical soft ware, electronic communications (e-mail), presentation systems, test-authoring programs, and videoconferencing applications; developing appro-priate evaluation measures; and evaluating fairly ( Billings , 1995; Choudhry , 1992; Davis et al., 1992; Kirschling et al., 1995).

Competencies Related to Professional Practice Competencies related to professional practice in-clude being knowledgeable about the content area and clinical practice, having the ability to infl uence change in nursing and health care by selecting ap-propriate strategies, and facilitating relationships with clinical agencies to benefi t students ( Choudhry , 1992; Kirschling et al., 1995).

Competencies Related to Relationships with Students and Colleagues Competencies in this area include being an advo-cate for students; advising and counseling students; accepting student diversity; showing consideration for students; having a sense of humor; conveying a sense of caring to students; serving as a mentor and role model; facilitating student development; and developing collaborative, collegial relation-ships with students characterized by mutual respect ( Choudhry , 1992; Halstead , 1996; Kirschling et al., 1995). Competence as a colleague means serving as a mentor to junior faculty, assisting colleagues with professional duties, conducting one’s profes-sional life without prejudice toward others, and respecting the views of others ( Balsmeyer , Haubrich, & Quinn, 1996).

Competencies Related to Service and Faculty Governance Competencies related to service and faculty gover-nance include understanding institutional struc-ture, policies, and procedures; understanding and assuming the rights and responsibilities of a faculty member; serving on committees and performing work necessary to the operation of the department; and serving on committees or providing leadership to the school, college or university, and profession ( Balsmeyer et al., 1996; Choudhry , 1992; Davis et al., 1992).

Competencies Related to Scholarship Scholarship, a larger component of the faculty role, may or may not be a requirement of the teaching role depending on the position description. Competencies

10 ■ UNIT I Faculty and Students

related to the scholarship of teaching include conduct-ing research about teaching (and the area of content expertise), publishing about teaching and learning is-sues, presenting at national meetings, and consulting about teaching and learning issues ( Choudhry , 1992; Davis et al., 1992).

Th e National League for Nursing (2005) has developed core competencies for nurse educators. Th e competencies focus on eight areas: facilitating learning, facilitating learner development and so-cialization, using assessment and evaluation strate-gies, participating in curriculum design and evalu-ation of program outcomes, functioning as change agents and leaders, pursuing continuous quality improvement in the nurse educator role, engaging in scholarship, and functioning within the educa-tional environment. A statement of the competen-cies can be found in Box 1-1 . Th ese competencies guide the development of graduate nursing pro-grams that focus on the preparation of nurse edu-cators, enhance recruitment and retention of nurse educators, infl uence public policy eff orts aff ecting nurse educators and nursing education, and iden-tify scholarship and research priorities related to the nurse educator role. Further information can be found on the National League for Nurses web-site at www.nln.org . Faculty can also become certi-fi ed as a Nurse Educator through the National League for Nursing.

Preparation to Teach

Developing competent faculty requires an investment on the part of both the individual faculty member and the school of nursing. Preparation for teaching re-quires participation in classroom and clinical experi-ences to acquire the competencies previously identi-fi ed. Th ese experiences may take place in teacher education courses or in focus areas in master’s and doctoral degree programs in nursing schools or schools of education. Participating in orientation pro-grams, teaching institutes, or continuing education off erings and working as a teaching assistant are other ways of preparing to teach. Th e mission of the particu-lar college or university and its school of nursing de-termines the expectation of teaching experiences, competencies, and appointment, as well as how fac-ulty prepare for these. Appointment in tenure track and clinical positions requires proven teaching com-petencies and a commitment to teaching as a scholarly endeavor.

Orientation Programs and Faculty Development

Orientation to the teaching role and the school of nursing for newly appointed faculty, as well as on-going faculty development for all faculty, is assum-ing renewed importance as rapid changes in higher education and health care and the use of informa-tion technologies are creating new environments for teaching and changes in the faculty role. Most schools of nursing have established orientation pro-grams and instituted mechanisms for faculty devel-opment and renewal.

Orientation Programs Comprehensive orientation programs are necessary to assist new faculty to acquire teaching competen-cies, facilitate socialization to the teaching role of the faculty, and support faculty members as they develop as fully participating members of the fac-ulty ( Genrich & Pappas, 1997; Norton & Spross , 1994; Sheehe & Schoener, 1994). Orientation pro-grams should include information about the rights and responsibilities of the faculty and institution, information about school- and department-specifi c policies and procedures, an overview of the curric-ulum with an orientation to the instructional tech-nologies and computer-mediated instruction used at the school, and orientation to teaching assignments and clinical facilities. Orientation is particularly important for part-time faculty members, who have fewer opp ortunities for contact with the school and faculty colleagues.

Orientation programs are most eff ective when they occur over time and provide for ongoing sup-port ( Genrich & Pappas , 1997). Some schools of nurs-ing have school-, department-, or course-developed programs. Orientation to the teaching aspect of the faculty role also can be facilitated through a mentor relationship. Many schools of nursing have formal mentor programs in which each new faculty member is assigned to a senior faculty member, who guides the new faculty member. Other mentoring relation-ships can occur on an informal basis.

Faculty Development Faculty development refers to a planned course of action to develop all faculty members, not only those newly appointed for current and future teach-ing positions. Faculty development is assuming new importance as faculty prepare for teaching in

Chapter 1 Teaching in Nursing: Th e Faculty Role ■ 11

COMPETENCY 1: FACILITATE LEARNING To facilitate learning eff ectively, the nurse educator: • Implements a variety of teaching strategies appropriate

to learner needs, desired learner outcomes, content, and context

• Grounds teaching strategies in educational theory and evidence-based teaching practices

• Recognizes multicultural, gender, and experiential infl uences on teaching and learning

• Engages in self-refl ection and continued learning to improve teaching practices that facilitate learning

• Uses information technologies skillfully to support the teaching–learning process

• Practices skilled oral, written, and electronic communica-tion that refl ects an awareness of self and others, along with an ability to convey ideas in a variety of contexts

• Models critical and refl ective thinking • Creates opportunities for learners to develop their critical

thinking and critical reasoning skills • Shows enthusiasm for teaching, learning, and nursing

that inspires and motivates students • Demonstrates interest in and respect for learners • Uses personal attributes (e.g., caring, confi dence, pa-

tience, integrity, and fl exibility) that facilitate learning • Develops collegial working relationships with students,

faculty colleagues, and clinical agency personnel to promote positive learning environments

• Maintains the professional practice knowledge base needed to help prepare learners for contemporary nursing practice

• Serves as a role model of professional nursing

COMPETENCY 2: FACILITATE LEARNER DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIALIZATION

To facilitate learner development and socialization eff ectively, the nurse educator: • Identifi es individual learning styles and unique learning

needs of international, adult, multicultural, educationally disadvantaged, physically challenged, at-risk, and second-degree learners

• Provides resources to diverse learners that help meet their individual learning needs

• Engages in eff ective advisement and counseling strategies that help learners meet their professional goals

• Creates learning environments that are focused on socialization to the role of the nurse and facilitate learners’ self-refl ection and personal goal setting

• Fosters the cognitive, psychomotor, and aff ective development of learners

• Recognizes the infl uence of teaching styles and interpersonal interactions on learner outcomes

BOX 11 National League for Nursing Nurse Educator Competencies (2005)

• Assists learners to develop the ability to engage in thoughtful and constructive self and peer evaluation

• Models professional behaviors for learners including, but not limited to, involvement in professional organizations, engagement in lifelong learning activities, dissemination of information through publications and presentations, and advocacy

COMPETENCY 3: USE ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION STRATEGIES

To use assessment and evaluation strategies eff ectively, the nurse educator: • Uses extant literature to develop evidence-based

assessment and evaluation practices • Uses a variety of strategies to assess and evaluate learn-

ing in the cognitive, psychomotor, and aff ective domains • Implements evidence-based assessment and evaluation

strategies that are appropriate to the learner and to learning goals

• Uses assessment and evaluation data to enhance the teaching–learning process

• Provides timely, constructive, and thoughtful feedback to learners

• Demonstrates skill in the design and use of tools for assessing clinical practice

COMPETENCY 4: PARTICIPATE IN CURRICULUM DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF PROGRAM OUTCOMES

To participate eff ectively in curriculum design and evaluation of program outcomes, the nurse educator: • Ensures the curriculum refl ects institutional philosophy

and mission, current nursing and health care trends, and community and societal needs, so as to prepare gradu-ates for practice in a complex, dynamic, multicultural health care environment

• Demonstrates knowledge of curriculum development including identifying program outcomes, developing competency statements, writing learning objectives, and selecting appropriate learning activities and evaluation strategies

• Bases curriculum design and implementation decisions on sound educational principles, theory, and research

• Revises the curriculum based on assessment of program outcomes, learner needs, and societal and health care trends

• Implements curricular revisions using appropriate change theories and strategies

• Creates and maintains community and clinical partner-ships that support educational goals

Continued

12 ■ UNIT I Faculty and Students

BOX 11 National League for Nursing Nurse Educator Competencies (2005)—cont’d

• Collaborates with external constituencies throughout the process of curriculum revision

• Designs and implements program assessment models that promote continuous quality improvement of all aspects of the program

COMPETENCY 5: FUNCTION AS A CHANGE AGENT AND LEADER

To function eff ectively as a change agent and leader, the nurse educator: • Models cultural sensitivity when advocating for

change • Integrates a long-term, innovative, and creative perspective

into the nurse educator role • Participates in interdisciplinary eff orts to address health

care and educational needs regionally, nationally, or internationally

• Evaluates organizational eff ectiveness in nursing education

• Implements strategies for organizational change • Provides leadership in the parent institution as well as

in the nursing program to enhance the visibility of nursing and its contributions to the academic community

• Promotes innovative practices in educational environments

• Develops leadership skills to shape and implement change

COMPETENCY 6: PURSUE CONTINUOUS QUALITY IMPROVEMENT IN THE NURSE EDUCATOR ROLE

To develop the educator role eff ectively, the nurse educator: • Demonstrates commitment to lifelong learning • Recognizes that career enhancement needs and activities

change as experience is gained in the role • Participates in professional development opportunities

that increase one’s eff ectiveness in the role • Balances the teaching, scholarship, and service demands

inherent in the role of educator and member of an academic institution

• Uses feedback gained from self, peer, student, and administrative evaluation to improve role eff ectiveness

• Engages in activities that promote one’s socialization to the role

• Uses knowledge of the legal and ethical issues relevant to higher education and nursing education as a basis for infl uencing, designing, and implementing policies

and procedures related to students, faculty, and the educational environment

• Mentors and supports faculty colleagues

COMPETENCY 7: ENGAGE IN SCHOLARSHIP

To engage eff ectively in scholarship, the nurse educator: • Draws on extant literature to design evidence-based

teaching and evaluation practices • Exhibits a spirit of inquiry about teaching and learning,

student development, evaluation methods, and other aspects of the role

• Designs and implements scholarly activities in an estab-lished area of expertise

• Disseminates nursing and teaching knowledge to a variety of audiences through various means

• Demonstrates skill in proposal writing for initiatives that include, but are not limited to, research, resource acquisition, program development, and policy development

• Demonstrates qualities of a scholar: integrity, courage, perseverance, vitality, and creativity

COMPETENCY 8: FUNCTION WITHIN THE EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

To function as a good “citizen of the academy,” the nurse educator: • Uses knowledge of history and current trends and issues in

higher education as a basis for making recommendations and decisions on educational issues

• Identifi es how social, economic, political, and institu-tional forces infl uence higher education in general and nursing education in particular

• Develops networks, collaborations, and partnerships to enhance nursing’s infl uence within the academic community

• Determines own professional goals within the context of academic nursing and the mission of the parent institution and nursing program

• Integrates the values of respect, collegiality, professionalism, and caring to build an organizational climate that fosters the development of students and teachers

• Incorporates the goals of the nursing program and the mission of the parent institution when proposing a change or managing issues

• Assumes a leadership role in various levels of institu-tional governance

• Advocates for nursing and nursing education in the political arena

From: National League for Nursing. (2005). The scope of practice for academic nurse educators. New York: National League for Nursing. Included with the permission of the

National League for Nursing, New York, NY.

Chapter 1 Teaching in Nursing: Th e Faculty Role ■ 13

new and reformed health care environments and community-based settings, delivering instruction in new ways and using new teaching and learning technologies ( Riner & Billings , 1996).

Faculty development is a shared responsibility of the individual faculty members, the department chair and other academic offi cers, and the school or uni-versity. It may include the school providing formal and informal workshops and sessions, credit courses, and informal “brown bag lunches” and encouraging faculty to attend local and national conferences re-lated to teaching, as well as providing the fi nancial support to do so. Because eff ective teaching also re-quires clinical competence, faculty are encouraged to maintain clinical expertise through faculty practice and by keeping abreast of changes in the fi eld through literature review and attending professional meetings related to the practice area. Sabbatical leaves provide another opportunity for faculty renewal.

Evaluation of Teaching Performance

To ensure competent teaching, the faculty members themselves, as well as administrators, peers, col-leagues, and students, regularly review their teaching performance. Evaluation of teaching is a critical com-ponent of tenure (and posttenure) review. Results of this evaluation may also be used in making decisions about reappointment, merit raises, and awards that recognize and honor excellence in teaching.

Evidence for review of teaching eff ectiveness can be provided by a number of sources, including stu-dent evaluations of teaching, peer and colleague observations of teaching and teaching products (e.g., syllabi, case studies, publications, videotapes, com-puter-mediated lessons, Internet-based courses, study guides), letters from former students, success of graduates in employment, publications of stu-dents, teaching awards, administrative review, and self-evaluation ( Kirschling et al., 1995; Lashley , 1993; Melland & Volden , 1996; Suess , 1995). Methods for

gathering data for evaluation include promotion and tenure review, peer and colleague review, posttenure review, and the use of a teaching portfolio or dossier. Th ese methods are explained in Chapter 24 .

SUMMARY Because of the various aspects of the faculty role, the demands of a career in academia can be chal-lenging and require the ability to develop and change with the needs of the learner. To be success-ful, individuals aspiring to the role of a faculty member must be clear about the expectations of the role. Th is chapter described the various competen-cies expected of faculty members, as well as their rights and responsibilities.

Many nursing faculty have found that the rewards of the role greatly outweigh the demands and ex-pectations. Th e challenges of the role provide many creative and innovative opportunities for faculty, leading to a career fi lled with diversity and productivity. Whether it be through teaching a new generation of nurses the art and science of nursing; providing service and consultation to constituents within a local, regional, national, or even international community; or generating new knowledge that has an impact on the delivery of quality patient care through evidence-based nursing, being a member of the academic community pro-vides faculty with stimulation and the opportunity to debate and collaborate with colleagues from their own discipline and others. Faculty are given a “laboratory” to explore new technology and solutions to the problems found in society and health care, while meeting an important societal need. In what other role could a nurse touch the lives of patients and future generations of nurses while developing a knowledge base that will assist in the further evolution of nursing and health care? Th e career of a faculty member is indeed a rewarding one.

1. Describe the conceptual framework that would guide your implementation of the nursing faculty role.

2. Describe nontraditional teaching strategies you would use to teach nursing content to prepare students for their future role as nurses.

REFLECTING ON THE EVIDENCE

3. Compare the faculty role expectations for tenure in a university that has a primary focus on research and in one that has a primary focus on teaching.

4. Develop a project that would fi t into the Boyer model as the scholarship of teaching.

14 ■ UNIT I Faculty and Students

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