SAUDI ARABIA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTDRY

By courtesy 0/ the late Sir Fu'ad Hamzah

TREE OF THE FAMILIES OF SAUD AND OF MUHAMMAD IBN 'ABD AL-WAHHAB

This tree was prepared by Muhammad A. Tamimi and was printed by the Egyptian Government Survey Department on the occasion of King 'Abd al-'Aziz's visit to

Cairo in 1946.

SAUDI ARABIA IN THE

NINETEENTH CENTURY

BY

R. BAYLY WINDER

Palgrave Macmillan

1965

ISBN 978-1-349-81725-2 ISBN 978-1-349-81723-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-81723-8

Copyright © R. Bayly Winder I965 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1St edition 1965 978-0-333-05541-0

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With love and gratitude to

the memory of my Mother and Father

J:lI ~I ~ J e L. ')fl ~I tJ

? Cl. .uJ I ~ Cl. 0 ~

Time for you and time for me And time yet for a hundred indecisions And for a hundred visions and revisions

T. S. ELIOT

PREFACE

As recently as 1937 Professor Philip K. Hitti could write in the opening sentence of his History 01 the Arabs that 'of all lands comparable to Arabia in size, ... no country ... has received so little consideration and study in modern times as ... Arabia'. A few pages later, speaking of what is now Saudi Arabia, he went on to state that 'down to the present day no more than a dozen Europeans of those who left records have succeeded in penetrating into this ... region'. In aland where aerial survey and radio communieation have supplanted the explorer and the camel, the latter statement has, in 1964, a curiously archaic ring. Even the force of the first statement has been somewhat eroded. And yet, aside from the indefatigable, though lone-wolf, labours of the late H. St. J. B. Philby, little serious research has been published on the history and culture of Arabia since 1937. To this extent Professor Hitti's initial comment is still accurate. The present work hopes to redress the balance a little by focusing attention on the Saudi dynasty and the Wahhabi way, whieh, together, have been the main cement in north Arabia for weIl over two centuries now. The work is the outgrowth of an early and sustained interest in Saudi Arabia - an interest first expressed through my doctoral dissertation.

The perennial problem of transliteration has been handled somewhat cavalierly. Macrons and sub-linear dots are omitted in the text, but their use is 'as unrelenting as feasible' in the index and bibliography. Turkish works and their authors are cited according to modern Turkish orthography regardless of whether they were composed in that or in Arabic orthography. Systematic transliteration is not used for the name Saud or for the anglicised geographie names listed in the 'Gazetteer' of Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (1961). The word ibn (bint, etc.) is not capitalised when it indicates a biologieal son, but is spelled with a capital when it is used figuratively, skips generations, or refers to an eponym. The word Al (with capital a and no hyphen) often occurs in its proper sense of 'family of' and should be distinguished from the definite article al-. The latter is not used in the text with geographieal and tribai names even when it is necessary in Arabic.

There are further small procedural notes: (i) quotations of purported conversations are left in the Ianguage of the author of the source aI­though the speakers in all such cases presumably spoke only Arabic; (ii) footnote references tend to be bunched at the end of a given para­graph or episode in order to save space; (iii) although exact equivalents between Gregorian and hijrah dates are by no means certain, they have

vii

Vlll PREFACE

for convenience been mechanically calculated (on the basis of Sir Wolseley Haig's Comparative Tables of Muhammadan and Christian Dates [London, 1932]); (iv) abbreviations are used sparingly, the chief exception being EI (Encyclopaedia of Isläm) and EI2 (Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition). Articles cited from EI and EI2 are, with one exception, not listed in the bibliography.

No author can survey his indebtedness to others without humility. His work is in fact a mere nexus in a complicated web of relationships of which he can only isolate a small proportion. No matter how many institutions or people the author may single out, there is something innately invidious about his choice. And yet, he. cannot escape the choice. It is a pleasure for me to thank the following institutions : Princeton University for both financial and other support, the Arabian American Oil Company and my many friends connected with it for extraordinary kindnesses, various libraries, particularly the Princeton U niversity Library and the India Office Library in London, Mac­millan & Company, Limited, for their usual but nevertheless remarkable care in the making of a book, and the Saudi Arabian government and several members of the royal family for gratefully acknowledged favours.

This leads me to the individuals. Two are of transcendent importance. The first is Dr. George Rentz of the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, who has always given freely of his kindness and of his own vast knowledge of Arabia and who, in particular, referred me to many choice bibliographical items used in this work and who, by an advance reading of the text, saved me from many howlers, without thereby incurring the slightest responsibility for anything. The other is the late Hajj 'Abd Allah Philby. He was a great man whose work speaks more for him than anyone else could. I can only record that his willingness to share himself with a neophyte was a generosity that I shall always cherish. No two men better exemplify the true community of scholars and scholarship than these.

There are of course many others. Among them I would like to men­tion J on Mandaville, Christopher Ross, and J ohn Woods, all of whom rendered essential research assistance (especially the first named who led me through the Turkish historians ); Dr. George Miles of the American Numismatic Society, who assisted with photographs and pointed out H. Wood's article on larins; Professor T. Cuyler Young, my chairman and friend, who has invariably encouraged and supported this work; the Hakim, Professor Philip K. Hitti, whose counsel has been for me, as for many, more important than he is ever likely to realise; and, finally, Viola, for all those things to which good wives so remarkably rise and then for the good things beyond.

March I964 R. B. W.

CONTENTS

PREFACE

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

LIST OF MAPS

I. INTRODUCTION

The Arabian Heartland - Periodisation of Saudi History - Wah­habi Doctrine, Practice and Influence

II. EGYPTIAN OCCUPATION (1818-1822)

A Precarious Situation - Ibrahim's Harsh Occupation - Reaction to Occupation - Evacuation - Hejaz and Asir - The Eastern Province - The Southeast: Qatar - The Trucial Coast and Oman - British Interests and Policies - Rahmah ibn Jabir - Captain Sadleir's Mission - The British Expedition of 1819

IH. INTERREGNUM

Ibn Mu'ammar's Brief Rule - Mushari Installed - Again Ibn Mu'ammar - Renewed Occupation and Turki's Abortive Bid­Turki in Control - A Tyrannical Renewal of the Occupation­Anarchy and Disease - A New Turkish Commander - Rising Opposition - Death of a Cleric - Four Years of Occupation Sununarised

IV. SAUDI RESTORATION

The Initial Attempt - Turki Gathers Strength - Nejd Cleared of Turks - Riyadh, the New Capital- Submission of Kharj - A New Imam - Stability in Central Nejd - The Bedouin Put in Place - The Return of Faisal- Qasim and Jabal Shammar Come In - 'Abd Allah Ibn Rashid: Founder of a Dynasty - New Muscle Beyond Nejd: I. Hejaz-z. Asir-The Türkve Bilmez Affair-3. The Eastern Province - Effects in Bahrain - 4. Oman and the Trucial Coast - Turki's Relations with the British - Turki at the Height of his Power: Minor Problems - Turki's Ideas on Govern­ment - Wahhabi Doctrine - Epistles and Theology - Literature - Economic Life - Cholera - Nejd Distracted by Bahrain - The Struggle with Bahrain - A Tragic Denouement - The Assassina­tion - Turki and his Achievement

V. FAISAL'S FIRST REIGN

A Forty-Day Rule - Faisal Acts - Faisal, the New Imam­Egyptian Moves: Asir - Sha'ra' - Jabal Shammar Affairs - The Ibn Rashids Take over Ha'i1 - Faisal Confirms the New Amir of Jabal Shammar - Moves in the East - Oman - Egyptian Pressure - Khalid the Quisling - The Invasion Begins - Riyadh Evacuated - Egyptian Progress in Qasim and J abal Shammar - Khalid

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xiii

XlV

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50

60

96

x CONTENTS

Installed - Reasons for the Wahhabi Failure; their Arabness­Khalid and His Rule - An Egyptian Disaster - Faisal Reacts and Besieges Riyadh - Negotiations and a Desultory Siege - Faisal Reaches Agreement with Khurshid - Nejd Partitioned - Khurshid to Nejd - Khurshid to 'Unaizah - Khurshid Captures Faisal

VI. OCCUPATION RENEWED AND WITHDRAWN

Character of Khurshid - Khalid's Position - Nejd under the Egyptians - Khurshid's Forward Policy in the Persian Gulf­The Eastern Province under the Egyptians - Egyptian Moves and British Countermoves elsewhere in the Gulf - Bahrain - Kuwait and Iraq - Buraimi and Oman - Asir, Yemen and Aden - Final Egyptian Withdrawal- Khalid's Status - Khalid's Reign - Qasim­Shammar War- Khalid's Activities Eastward- 'AbdA1lah ibn Thu­naiyan Raises the Standard of Revolt - Ibn Thunaiyan takes over N ejd - A New Imam - The Last of the Egyptians - Ibn Thunaiyan Consolidates - The East and the End of Khalid - The West and Nejd - Ibn Thunaiyan as Ruler - Faisal's Escape and Return to Arabia - Jabal Shammar Welcomes Faisal- Qasim is Decisive­Ibn Thunaiyan Turns Tail - The Death of Ibn Thunaiyan

VII. F AISAL'S SECOND REIGN

Domestic Concerns: The Eastern Province - The 'Ujman Broken - The Far South - Renewal of the Qasim-Shammar War­Relations with Ha'il and the Death of 'Abd Allah Ibn Rashid­Saud ibn Faisal and the District of Kharj - A Shaky District: Qasim - Treachery and Revolt in 'Unaizah - Buraidah Joins the Rebels - War by Accident - The Battle of Yatimah - Collapse of the Revolt - 'Abd al-'Aziz of Buraidah Comes to Terms - Cen­tralisation of Rule in Qasim - 'Abd al-'Aziz Again Shows his Colours - Again Qasim - Plenty and Plague - Routine Chastise­ment of the Tribes - Trouble in Buraidah - A New Uprising of the ' Ujman - The ' Ujman Revolt, Second Phase - The Demise of a Chronic Rebel- AI-Harb al-Thani: the Second War­'Unaizah Sues for Peace - A Miscellany - Foreign Affairs: In­vasion from Hejaz - Khalid ibn Saud - Negotiations between Imam and Sharif - Agreement Reached - Asir - Revolt in Hejaz: Results in Asir and Nejd - The East: Kuwait - Bahrain - New Hostilities with the Khalifah in Qatar - The Deus ex Machina­Sa'id ibn Tahnun of Abu Zabi Mediates - The Bahrain Crisis of 1859-1861 - Remnant Relations with Bahrain - Reoccupation of Buraimi - British Reactions to Faisal's Accession - Sa'd ibn Mutlaq Puts Press ure on Oman - Masqat Agrees to Pay Tribute -Temporary Occupation of Buraimi by Ruler of Abu Zabi - The Wahhabis Recover Buraimi - Career, Recall and Death of Sa'd ibn Mutlaq - Further Attempts on Buraimi - 'Abd Allah ibn Faisal Deputed to Buraimi - British Intervention - A New Treaty with Masqat - Saudi Jurisdiction in Oman - Peace in Saudi Oman­Central Administration - Local Administration - Relations with Ottoman Empire - Justice - Military Organisation - Revenue­Expenditures - Currency - Trade Patterns - Foreign Affairs and Foreign Visitors - Literature, Historiography, Religion - Faisal the Man - The Death of Faisal

page

121

149

CONTENTS

VIII. 'ABD ALLAH AND SAUD

The Sur Affair - An Anglo-Saudi 'Treaty' - Saudi Mission to Baghdad - Saud's Revolt - Talal Ibn Rashid - 'Ubaid Ibn Rashid - The Nature of Talal's Regime - The Relationship be­tween Ha'il and Riyadh - The Death of Talal- Ha'il in Turmoil­Necrology Continued - Persian Gulf Involvements - Imam 'Abd Allah Reacts - Saud Makes his Bid - The Battle of Judah - 'Abd Allah Indecisive - Saud the New Imam - The Ottoman Invasion of the East - The Fall of Qatif - Hufuf und er the Ottomans­The Eastern Province under the Turks - The Quarrelling Brothers - Saud in Action Again - Saud and the British - 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Faisal- 'Abd al-Rahman's Uprising - Nejd under Saud

IX. DISINTEGRATION AND COLLAPSE

'Abd al-Rahman in Power - Rivalry in Qasim: J abal Shammar - A Futile New Claimant to the Throne - Birth of 'Abd al-'Aziz Ibn Saud - Losses in the Central Districts - The Noose Tightens­The Fall of' Abd Allah: Ibn Rashid in Riyadh - The Governorship of Salim ibn Subhan - Fahhad ibn Rukhaiyis, the New Governor­'Abd al-Rahman Revolts - The Battle of Mulaidah - Exile

ApPENDIX.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Tree of the families of Saud and of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab frontispiece

'Abd Allah ibn Saud (r. 1814.-1818) in Cairo in 1818 facing page 19

H. R. P. Dickson, the British author, amid the ruins of Dir'iyah 19

The column at Sadus, since destroyed, as it looked in 1865 53

Qatif: the unending struggle between the desert and the sown 151

Subai' tribesmen watering came1s at Subaihiyah 151

Document bearing the seal of Sa'd ibn Mutlaq 198

A Wahhabi war party during the First World War 198

Common coins in nineteenth-century Arabia: the Maria Theresa thaler and the Hasa-minted tawilah 214-

Four Arabian figures: Doughty and Palgrave, Midhat and Hasan walad Muhanna' 221

Ruins of the famous fort at Dammam 234-

The Shammar capital of Ha'il 234-

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Arabian peninsula

Central Nejd

LIST OF MAPS

Tribai map of the Arabian peninsula

Northeastern Arabia

Oman including the Trucial Coast

The Hasa-Qatif area

The villages, oases, and forts of Buraimi

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