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Communicative language teaching in EFL contexts:Learner attitudes and perceptions

SANDRA J. SAVIGNONANDCHAOCHANG WANG

IRAL 41 (2003), 223249 0019042X/2003/041-0223

cWalter de Gruyter

Abstract

Reflecting a trend in Asian contexts generally, the Taiwan Ministry of Educa-

tion has recently initiated curricular changes intended to reflect a more com-

municative approach to English language learning. The impact of this policy

initiative awaits documentation. Research has highlighted the challenges asso-

ciated with the adoption of communicative language teaching in EFL contexts.

However, while many studies report on teachers perceptions in implement-

ing communicative language teaching, few have looked at learner attitudes

and perceptions with respect to classroom practice. This study investigates

Taiwanese EFL learners attitudes and perceptions with regard to classroom

practices identified as primarily meaning-based and form-focused. Findingssuggest a mismatch between learner needs and preferences and their reported

experience of classroom instruction. Interest in communicative language teach-

ing, particularly among those learners who began learning English at an early

age, offers support for the curricular changes currently being implemented. In

this and other EFL contexts planning or implementing reform, careful explo-

ration of the concordance of classroom practice with the attitudes and per-

ceptions of learners is seen to be crucial in determining the success of these

changes.

1. Introduction

With a major focus on developing learner ability to use language appropriately

in context, communicative language teaching (CLT) contrasts sharply with es-tablished traditions that emphasize learner knowledge of formal features. Not

surprisingly, innovations in various EFL contexts developed in consonance

with the underpinnings of communicative language teaching have faced major

challenges (see, for example, Anderson 1993; Bhatia 2003; Cheng 2002; Dam

and Gabrielsen 1988; Li 1998; LoCastro 1996; Nunan 1993; Sato and Klein-

sasser 1999; Savignon 2002, 2003; Yano 2003). The origins of these challenges


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224 Sandra J. Savignon and Chaochang Wang

are multiple and include the teacher, the students, the educational system, and

communicative language teaching itself (Li 1998). Dam and Gabrielsen (1988)

found that the need for teachers to redefine their roles contributed more to

difficulty in the implementation of task-based approaches than did resistance

from learners. A study by Sato and Kleinsasser (1999) points to the incon-

sistency between teachers perceptions of communicative language teaching

and their actual in-class behavior. And Anderson (1993) reports that in addi-

tion to both teacher and learner resistance, the difficulties of implementing a

meaning-based program include teachers lack of communicative competence

in English, the lack of adequate teacher preparation generally, and the multiple

and excessive demands placed upon teachers. Finally, Nunan (1993) suggeststhat a mismatch between the teaching preferences of the teacher and the learn-

ing preferences of learners may be a source of difficulty.

Once they have been recognized, the difficulties experienced in the imple-

mentation of a communicative approach often lead to further modification. A

less enlightened, perhaps, but understandable response is sometimes a return to

form-focused teaching. Falling back on established practice is not an outcome

welcomed by those who promote communicative goals for language programs.

There are also reports of communicative approaches being welcomed and

resulting in positive learning experiences in EFL contexts. For example, R.

Wang (1990) reports the success of communication-based teaching with par-

ticular attention to oral competence in a foreign language school in China.

Although the goals of communicative language teaching are not limited to

spoken language, Wang reports that in this particular setting an emphasis on

oral communication was seen to contribute to learners development of skills

in not only listening and speaking but also in reading and writing. Anderson

(1993) indicates that despite the difficulties that may hinder innovation, there

is a growing recognition among teachers and learners of the advantages of

using a communicative approach. And many teachers have reported progress

in teaching communicatively. In his summary of research findings related to

learner-centered approaches, Nunan (1993) identifies the involvement of learn-

ers in making meaning with both their teacher and their peers as a key factor

in determining success. Finally, Kleinsasser (1993) has examined the interac-

tion between school context, teacher perceptions, and teacher performance and

found a reciprocal relationship between teacher performance and the particular

instructional or technical culture in which teachers find themselves. Teacherperformance is affected by and situated in the technical culture which, in turn,

is shaped by the way teachers go about their daily tasks (see also Sato 2002).


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Learner attitudes and perceptions 225

2. Literature review

2.1. Foreign language learner attitudes and perceptions

Whether communicative language teaching is seen to be difficult, effective,

or is rejected as inappropriate, reports on its implementation have been based

mainly on teachers perceptions of communicative language teaching (Li 1998).

Only a few studies have investigated learners views (for example, Schulz

1996), and fewer still, learner views of communicative practices in the class-

room. And yet, as Savignon (1997: 107) asserts, if all the variables in L2

acquisition could be identified and the many intricate patterns of interaction

between learner and learning context described, ultimate success in learning touse a second language most likely would be seen to depend on the attitude of

the learner. Learner views of learning cannot be ignored, in particular, when

there is a mismatch between teacher beliefs and learner beliefs (Schulz 1996).

To investigate learner beliefs, Horwitz (1988) developed an instrument called

the Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory (BALLI). This instrument has

served to survey students views on a variety of issues regarding language

learning and teaching (Kern 1995; Yang 1993). Findings vary with different

studies. For example, many students in Horwitzs study (1988: 290) found it

difficult later to correct the errors they are allowed to make in the beginning

stages, while only one third of the students in Kerns study agreed with the

statement. Nonetheless, there were consistent findings, such as beliefs about

error correction. Most language learners in both studies expressed a desire for

error correction, that is, they wanted teachers to note and correct their errors.

An interesting finding in Horwitz (1988) has to do with the potential of class-

room practices for changing learner beliefs. Sixty percent of the Spanish and

German students in her study considered that learning a foreign language is

mostly a matter of translating from English (Horwitz 1990: 25), possibly as

a result of the classroom realities they had experienced. Kern (1995) offers

further evidence in support of the impact of instructional practices on learner

beliefs. For section 1 of a modified BALLI, 60 % of the student-teacher corre-

lations were actually lowerat the end than at the beginning of the semester.

There are numerous other studies that use different instruments or interviews

to investigate learner attitudes and beliefs about language learning. For ex-

ample, Bacon and Finnemann (1990) employed a 109-item questionnaire to

survey the attitudes, motives, and strategies of university foreign language stu-dents. Wen and Johnson (1997) used their Language Learner Factor Question-

naire, and Gaies, Galambos, and Cornish (1999) used a modified version of

Sakui and Gaiess (1999) 45-item questionnaire. However, most studies look

at learner attitudes and beliefs about language learning in general; few focus on

learner attitudes and beliefs about instructional practices in particular. And yet,

as Horwitz (1988) suggests, classroom realities that contradict learner expec-


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tations about learning may disappoint them and thus interfere with the attain-

ment of desired learning outcomes. To be sure, a discrepancy between learner

beliefs and teacher beliefs does not necessarily imply a need to modify instruc-

tional practices. Nonetheless, as Nunan (1993: 4) argues, teachers should find

out what their students think and feel about what they want to learn and how

they want to learn. The extent to which communicative components in in-

structional practices are seen by learners as essential for classroom language

learning should be taken into account in making pedagogical decisions.

2.2. ELT reform in Taiwan

Competent English users are in great demand in Taiwan, where English servesas a link language between people from different cultures and countries, as well

as a tool for the exchange of knowledge and information in the areas of cul-

ture, technology and business. To raise Taiwanese communicative competence

in English, the Taiwan Ministry of Education has made changes in English ed-

ucation policy. The decision to introduce English learning at elementary school

level in 2001, and the elimination of form-focused senior high school and col-

lege entrance examinations effective in 2001 and 2002, respectively, are among

the more important moves in this direction. In addition, in order to reflect fea-

tures of communication-based teaching and to guide material development and

classroom practice, the Taiwan Ministry of Education has published new cur-

ricula for English teaching in both junior and senior high schools (C. Wang

2000).

3. EFL learner attitudes and perceptions in Taiwan: A quantitative study

3.1. Design of the study

To better understand the challenges facing curricular reform in the EFL context

of Taiwan, a questionnaire was developed to investigate first-year university

EFL learners perceptions of the classroom practices they had experienced in

secondary school as well as their beliefs about language learning in general.

Three research questions were addressed:

1. In terms of instructional focus, what are learners perceptions of the

classroom practices they have experienced?

2. What are learners attitudes toward these classroom practices?3. What are learners beliefs about English language learning generally?

In developing the questionnaire, instructional practices with features that en-

gage learners in meaning making were defined as communicative. These fea-

tures may include use of the L2 as a medium of instruction, group work on

tasks, tolerance of learner errors, and a general classroom atmosphere con-

ducive to learner participation with a focus on selected grammatical features


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as appropriate (Savignon 1997). In contrast, form-focused instruction focuses

learners attention on the forms of language and features explanation and prac-

tice of grammatical rules. The L1 is typically used for explanations of formal

linguistic features whereas L2 use is limited to sentence repetition, L1 to L2

translation, and an assortment of structure and vocabulary drills. Statements

highlighting features of these two contrasting instructional approaches were

included in each section of the questionnaire subsequently developed for use

in the study (see Appendix).

3.2. Method

To maximize the range of perspectives on current secondary school teaching

practices in Taiwan, a sample of first-year university students from different el-

ementary and secondary school backgrounds was used. One hundred seventy-

four freshman students from two Taipei universities, 105 female students and

69 male students responded to a questionnaire designed to reflect their attitudes

and beliefs about English language learning, in general, and their recollections

of experiences with EFL instructional practices in secondary school, in partic-

ular. The questionnaire was written and administered in Chinese. (The version

included in the Appendix is an English translation of the original.) Most re-

spondents had studied English in Taiwan for at least six years.

A pilot version of the questionnaire was developed and tested in spring 1998

with another sample of Taiwanese university students. This preliminary ver-

sion was then modified and expanded to its present form. The questionnaire

includes five parts. Parts 1, 2, 4 and 5 each consists of eleven statements relat-

ing to perceptions of classroom learning experiences. Five statements relate to

form-focused classroom practices; another five statements relate to meaning-

based classroom practices. An eleventh statement in each of parts 1, 2, 4, and

5 addresses attitudes toward error correction.

Part 3 of the questionnaire consists of 29 statements which concern beliefs

about English language learning in general. Items 1 to 11 are similar in na-

ture to the eleven statements in parts 1, 2, 4 and 5 of the questionnaire de-

scribed above. In addition, statements 12 to 16 specifically address beliefs

about grammar-focused instruction; statements 17 to 19 concern beliefs about

meaning-based instruction; statements 20 and 21 relate to beliefs about error

correction; 22 and 23 relate to pronunciation; 24, 25 and 28 address the impor-tance of English; and 26 and 27 are concerned with learner perceptions of the

interrelationship of language learning ability and intelligence.

There was a total of 72 statements or items in the five-part questionnaire.

Responses were scored from 1 to 7 on a scale in the Likert format and the scores

then converted to a scale from 3 to +3 for ease in interpretation. Reliabilityestimates were calculated and are shown in Table 1.


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Table 1. Summary statistics and reliability estimation for the questionnaire (n = 174)

Variable Subjects Items Mean SD KR 20

reliability

Classroom practices

Senior high form-based 174 5 4.77 4.74 0.50

Senior high communication-based 174 5 0.71 6.58 0.73

Junior high form-based 174 5 8.51 5.02 0.77

Junior high communication-based 173 5 2.43 6.22 0.80

Attitude

Senior high form-based 171 5

2.07 5.05 0.65Senior high communication-based 170 5 8.91 5.35 0.71

Junior high form-based 174 5 0.49 5.75 0.72

Junior high communication-based 173 5 6.70 6.35 0.93

Belief

Form-based 173 10 3.26 8.23 0.80

Communication-based 172 8 15.51 6.87 0.88

Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR 20) values ranged from a low of .50

to a high of .93. All but one were above .70, exceeding the minimum for scale

reliability of .60 (Gay 1976; Sax 1989). (The scale with an estimated reliability

of .50 was among those scales that included only five items. An increase in the

number of items would most likely have increased the estimated reliability for

this scale). Two English instructors teaching at two different Taipei universities

in Taiwan were asked to distribute the questionnaire to freshman students in

two intact classes at their respective universities. Two hundred questionnaire

forms were distributed and 174 were returned: a remarkably high response rate

of 88 %.

Data were entered into Minitab 12.23 to obtain descriptive statistics and both

hypothetical and matched-groups t values as well as correlation coefficients.

Data were also imported into SAS version 7.0 (on MS Windows) for analyses

that required the use of two-way ANOVA and MANOVA statistics (between-groups design). Data analysis included two stages. In the first stage, ttests were

used to test the trend or tendency of the respondents perceptions of classroom

practices, as well as their attitudes with respect to these practices. In the second

stage, the effects of learner variables including gender, university, and age of

initial English learning experience were analyzed using statistical procedures

that included correlation, two-way ANOVA, and MANOVA.


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3.3. Results

3.3.1. Learner perceptions. Table 2 shows the respondents perceptions of

the English language classroom instruction they had experienced in senior high

school. Most agreed that these experiences had been grammar-focused (Total

M = 4.77 on a scale of15 to +15 (3 to +3 multiplied by 5, or the totalnumber of items), SD = 4.74, t = 13.22, p < 0.01). Sentence drilling and rep-etition, grammatical rule explanation and practice, and frequent use of Chinese

as the language of instruction were reported to be common. Communication, or

meaning-based practice, was reportedly rare, with few, if any, interactive activ-

ities designed by teachers. Although respondents reported that trial-and-errorattempts to communicate were permitted, little such communication seemingly

took place. These findings are consistent with the findings of descriptive studies

of English language teaching in Taiwan (Du-Babcock and Du-Babcock 1987;

Huang 1998) as well as with the experience of the second author of this report

as a student and now a university-level teacher of English in Taiwan.

Table 3 shows the respondents perceptions of the English language class-

room instruction they had experienced in junior high school. As was true for

senior high school, English language teaching in junior high school was per-

ceived to be grammar-focused (Total M = 8.511 on a scale of15 to +15,SD = 5.02, t = 22.38, p < 0.01). Few reported having experienced a commu-nicative approach (Total M = 2.43 on a scale of15 to +15, SD = 6.22,t

=5.15, p < 0.01). Clearly, the majority of participants in this study felt

that the classroom practices followed in their English language classroom in-

struction in both junior and senior high school were primarily form-focused, as

opposed to meaning-based.

3.3.2. Learner attitudes. Table 4 summarizes data concerning the respon-

dents attitudes toward the classroom practices they reportedly had experienced

in senior high school. Most expressed a dislike for form-focused instruction

(Total M = 2.07 on a scale of15 to +15, SD = 5.05, t = 5.36, p < 0.01)and high regard for practices that engaged them in making meaning (Total M

= 9 on a scale of15 to +15, t= 21.69, p < 0.01). Many also favored the useof Chinese as a language of instruction, item II.3 (M = 0.51 on a scale of3to +3, t = 4.56, p < 0.01).

Learners expressed preference for Chinese as the language of instructionwould appear to be inconsistent with their general preference for meaning-

based classroom activities. This seeming inconsistency may be explained by

the reportedly heavy classroom emphasis on learning grammatical rules. Learn-

ers often experience difficulty understanding teacher explanations of rules, es-

pecially when these explanations are given in the L2. Transition to a meaning-

based instruction, with more communicative activities that require interaction


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Table 2. Perceptions of classroom practice in senior high school

Item N Mean SD t

Form-based

I.1. Grammar-focused English teaching 174 1.13 1.55 9.65a

I.2. Sentence drilling and sentence repetition 174 1.18 1.58 9.84b

I.3. Chinese used most of the time 174 0.89 1.63 7.16b

I.4. Most time spent on grammar rules

explanation

174 1.21 1.47 10.8b

I.5. Seldom needed to open my mouth 174 0.36 1.95 2.45a

Total 174 4.77 4.74 13.22b

Communication-based

I.6. Communication-based teaching practices 174 0.40 1.83 2.89b

I.7. Many activities involving communication 174 0.58 1.92 4.00b

I.8. Communication-focused with grammar

explained when necessary

174 0.35 2.20 2.07a

I.9. Trial-and-error attempts allowed 174 0.82 1.70 6.34b

I.10. Atmosphere created for the use of

English

174 0.20 1.79 1.44 (n.s.)

Total 174 0.71 6.58 1.42 (n.s.)

Error correction

I.11. Teachers corrected my errors in class 174 0.040 1.742 0.30

a p < 0.05

b p < 0.01

n.s. = not significant

with L2 texts, oral and/or written, should take into account established learner

preference for Chinese as the language of instruction.

The responses for item 11 indicate a strong learner desire to use English

correctly and even to attain native-like competence. Learners reported feeling

it necessary for teachers to correct their errors, even in oral communication.

The high value placed on standard American English (pronunciation, word use,

and syntax) in Taiwanese culture, a standard which few learners in fact attain,

no doubt influenced these learners perceptions of communicative competence(see C. Wang 2000).

Table 5 contains data pertaining to the participants attitudes toward the

teaching practices in junior high school. The analysis reveals a dislike for both

form-focused teaching and the amount of class time devoted to the explana-

tion and practice of rules of grammar. As was the case for reports of senior

high school classroom practice, learners expressed a preference for the use of


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Table 3. Perceptions of classroom practice in junior high school

Item N Mean SD t

Form-based

IV.1. Grammar-focused English teaching 174 1.71 1.38 16.30a

IV.2. Sentence drilling and sentence

repetition

174 1.74 1.38 16.65a

IV.3. Chinese used most of the time 174 2.05 1.20 22.47a

IV.4. Most time spent on grammar rules

explanation

174 1.90 1.20 20.88a

IV.5. S eldom needed to open my mouth 174 1.13 1.71 8.71a

Totalb 174 8.51 5.02 22.38a

Communication-based

IV.6. Communication-based teaching

practices

174 0.79 1.57 6.61a

IV.7. Many activities involving

communication

173 1.06 1.57 8.93a

IV.8. Communication-focused with grammar


174 0.13 1.82 0.91 (n.s.)

IV.9. Trial-and-error attempts allowed 174 0.44 1.66 3.46a

IV.10. Atmosphere created for the use of

English

174 0.84 1.67 6.63a

Total 173 2.43 6.22 5.15a

Error correctionIV.11. Teachers corrected my errors in class 173 0.10 1.64 0.83

a p < 0.01

b Since numbers were automatically adjusted by Minitab, the total is almost always a very small

fractional difference from 100 %.


Chinese as a language of instruction. However, in contrast with the negative at-

titudes expressed toward sentence drilling and repetition in senior high school,

learners favored these same practices on the junior high school level, item V.2

(M = 0.52 on scale of3 to +3, SD = 1.60, t = 4.26, p < 0.01). A possible

explanation for this difference is that the respondents found the audio-lingualexercises widely used in junior high school ELT to be of value simply because

they are among the few exercises at that level that require active learner par-

ticipation. Similar to their attitudes toward senior high school ELT practice,

respondents in this study reported that they enjoyed opportunities for learning

English through activities associated with a meaning-based approach (Total M

= 6.699 on a scale of15 to +15, SD = 6.35, t = 13.87, p < 0.01).


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Table 4. Attitude toward perceived classroom practice in senior high school

Item N Mean SD t

Form-based

II.1. Grammar-focused English teaching 174 0.94 1.64 7.54a

II.2. Sentence drilling and sentence repetition 174 0.03 1.63 0.23

II.3. Chinese used most of the time 174 0.51 1.48 4.56a

II.4. Most time spent on grammar rules

explanation

173 0.94 1.51 8.19a

II.5. S eldom needed to open my mouth 172 0.68 1.54 5.78a

Total 171 2.07 5.05 5.36a

Communication-based

II.6. Communication-based teaching practices 174 1.65 1.33 16.37a

II.7. Many activities involving communication 171 1.33 1.48 11.77a

II.8. Communication-focused with grammar


173 1.85 1.24 19.63a

II.9. Trial-and-error attempts allowed 174 1.99 1.26 20.94a

II.10. Atmosphere created for the use of English 174 2.03 1.13 23.70a

Total 170 9.00 5.35 21.69a

Error correction

II.11. Teachers corrected my errors in class 174 1.190 1.424 11.02a

a p < 0.01

3.3.3. Learner perceptions and attitudes compared. The findings summa-

rized above pertain to classroom practices as they were experienced by respon-

dents at both the senior and junior levels of high school as well as to the at-

titudes of these same respondents toward these practices. Generally speaking,

learners reported having experienced far more grammar-based than meaning-

based instruction at both levels of high school. They expressed highly negative

attitudes toward the former and positive attitudes toward the latter. They also

felt it important for teachers to correct their oral errors and favored Chinese as a

language of instruction. When the classroom experiences reported by learners

were compared with their attitudes, they were clearly at odds. Table 6 shows

the comparison of learner attitudes with reported classroom practices in seniorhigh school for each item in parts 1 and 2. All differences are significant.

The clear mismatch in senior high school between learner attitudes and their

perceptions of classroom practices can be seen in Figure 1 (p. 235).

Similarly, the results presented in Table 7 and Figure 2 (p. 235) show the

extent to which communication-based practice was favored and not perceived

for junior high schools.


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Table 5. Attitude toward perceived classroom practice in junior high school

Item N Mean SD t

Form-based

V.1. Grammar-focused English teaching 174 0.27 1.77 2.02a

V.2. Sentence drilling and sentence

repetition

174 0.52 1.60 4.26b

V.3. Chinese used most of the time 174 0.99 1.43 9.14b

V.4. Most time spent on grammar rules

explanation

174 0.37 1.76 2.76b

V.5. Seldom needed to open my mouth 174 0.38 1.81 2.77b

Total 174 0.49 5.75 1.12 (n.s.)

Communication-based

V.6. Communication-based teaching

practices

174 1.24 1.47 11.13b

V.7. Many activities involving

communication

173 1.08 1.55 9.11b

V.8. Communication-focused with grammar


174 1.31 1.50 11.51b

V.9. Trial-and-error attempts allowed 174 1.58 1.32 15.76b

V.10. Atmosphere created for the use of

English

174 1.53 1.35 14.94b

Total 173 6.70 6.35 13.87b

Error correction

V. 11. Teachers corrected my errors in class 173 0.79 1.50 6.91b

a p < 0.05

b p < 0.01


3.3.4. Learner beliefs about language learning. Table 8 shows learner at-

titudes and/or beliefs about English language learning in general, part 3 of

the questionnaire. Not surprisingly, learners considered important those same

classroom emphases for which they expressed a preference.

Items measuring the same variable are grouped. Items 15 and 1216 re-

late to grammar-based teaching and learning; items 610 and 1719 relate tomeaning-based teaching and learning. The t-test results clearly show learners

to believe that language teaching should focus on communication (M = 15.51on a scale of24 to +24, SD = 6.87, t = 29.60, p < 0.01) and that languagelearning should not be grammar-based, or form-focused (M =3.26 on a scaleof30 to +30, SD = 8.23, t =5.21, p < 0.01). Items 24, 25, and 28 revealhighly positive attitudes toward English (M = 5.82 on a scale of9 to +9, SD


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Table 6. Needs and perceived classroom practice in senior high school

Emphases/Attitudes (Item) N Emphases

Mean

SD Needs

Mean

SD t

1. Grammar-focused English

teaching

174 1.13 1.55 0.94 1.64 13.03b

2. Sentence drilling and sentence

repetition

174 1.18 1.58 0.03 1.63 7.64b

3. Chinese used most of the time 174 0.89 1.63 0.51 1.48 2.57a

4. Most time spent on grammar

rules explanation

171 1.21 1.47 0.94 1.51 13.63b

5. Seldom needed to open my

mouth

172 0.36 1.95

0.68 1.54 6.11b

6. Communication-based

teaching practices

174 0.40 1.83 1.65 1.33 12.26b

7. Many activities involving

communication

171 0.58 1.92 1.33 1.48 10.96b

8. Communication-focused with

grammar explained when

necessary

173 0.35 2.20 1.85 1.24 11.48b

9. Trial-and-error attempts

allowed

174 0.82 1.70 1.99 1.26 9.56b

10. Atmosphere created for the

use of English

174 0.20 1.79 2.03 1.13 14.96b

a p < 0.05

b p < 0.01

= 2.98, t = 25.67, p < 0.01), consistent with the generally positive attitudestoward English in Taiwan society as a whole (see C. Wang 2000). Items 22 and

23 indicate that those surveyed did not consider good pronunciation to be an

indicator of English language ability (M =2.26 on a scale of6 to +6, SD= 2.79, t=10.68, p < 0.01). However, they did feel that teachers should cor-rect learner errors. Items 26 and 27 showed that students did not believe there

to be a correlation between intelligence and the ability to learn a new language,

an indication that they considered language learning attainable by all students,

irrespective of their overall academic aptitude.

3.3.5. Learner variables. In anticipation of school language study, it is com-

mon for Taiwanese parents to enroll their children in private English language

classes, or bushiban, for one or more years of advance preparation. Parents who

send their children to these private English language classes seek to give them

not only an early start but also better communication skills. English teaching


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Figure 1. Comparison of perceived classroom practice and learner needs in senior high

school (Items in Parts 1 and 2 of the questionnaire)

Figure 2. Comparison of perceived classroom practice and learner needs in junior high

school (Items in Parts 4 and 5 of the questionnaire)

in these settings emphasizes oral communication in a pleasant, non-threatening

environment (C. Wang 2000). Most bushiban for children learning English em-

ploy native speakers of English with one Chinese teacher per class to assist

them.

Inasmuch as learners who have experienced the communication-based prac-

tices familiar in bushiban ELT may have attitudes or beliefs different from

those without such experience, the attitudes of those who had begun their En-

glish language learning priorto entering secondary school were compared withthose whose English language learning had not begun until junior high school.

Results were analyzed using one-way MANOVA for a between-groups design.

The analysis of the results regarding attitudes and beliefs about communication-

based practices showed no significant difference between these two groups:

Wilks lambda = 0.99, F(3,157) = 0.70; p > 0.05. However, the analysis ofthe results regarding attitudes and beliefs about form-based instruction revealed


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Table 7. Needs and perceived classroom practice in junior high school

Emphases/Attitudes (Item) N Emphases

Mean

SD Needs

Mean

SD t

1. Grammar-focused

English teaching

174 1.71 1.38 0.27 1.77 12.51a

2. Sentence drilling

and sentence

repetition

174 1.74 1.38 0.52 1.60 8.54a

3. Chinese used most

of the time

174 2.05 1.20 0.99 1.43 8.14a

4. Most time spent on

grammar rules

explanation

174 1.89 1.20

0.37 1.76 14.70a

5. Seldom needed to

open my mouth

174 1.13 1.71 -0.38 1.81 9.05a

6. Communication-

based teaching

practices

174 0.79 1.57 1.24 1.47 13.00a

7. Many activities

involving

communication

173 1.06 1.57 1.08 1.55 13.00a

8. Communication-

focused with

grammar explainedwhen necessary

174 0.13 1.82 1.31 1.50 8.25a

9. Trial-and-error

attempts allowed

174 0.44 1.66 1.58 1.32 7.96a

10. Atmosphere

created for the use

of English

174 0.84 1.67 1.53 1.35 15.20a

a p < 0.01

a significant multivariate effect for different groups who began learning En-

glish at different ages: Wilks lambda = 0.93, F(3,160) = 3.80; p < 0.05. The

age of initial English learning showed a significant effect on attitudes towardform-focused instruction in both senior and junior high school, as well as on

beliefs about language learning in general. The sample means are displayed in

Figure 3.

Tukeys HSD test showed that respondents who had begun learning English

before they entered secondary school scored significantly lower on the three

dependent variables (p < 0.05). That is to say, they expressed significantly


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Table 8. Beliefs about learning English

Item N Mean SD t

Grammar-based: III.15 and 1216 173 3.26 8.23 5.21a

Communication-based: III.610 and 1719 172 15.51 6.87 29.60a

Correction: III.11, 20, 21 174 3.37 2.58 17.21a

Pronunciation III.22, 23 174 2.26 2.79 10.68a

Attitude toward English: III.24, 25, 28 173 5.82 2.98 25.67a

Intelligence: III.26, 27 171 1.75 2.36 9.71a

a p < 0.05

Figure 3. Mean levels of attitude and belief about form-based instruction observed forparticipants beginning learning English before secondary school and on entering sec-

ondary school

more negative attitudes about form-focused instruction than did those who did

not begin to learn English until after they had entered secondary school.

One-way MANOVA was used to see if this early experience of learning En-

glish had an effect on beliefs about pronunciation, the importance of English,

the relationship of intelligence and good learners, and/or error correction. The

results failed to show a significant multivariate effect: Wilks lambda = 0.99,F(4,161) = 0.53; p = 0.72.

Gender and the university to which they had been admitted were learner

variables potentially affecting their views of instruction. Results were ana-lyzed using a two-way MANOVA, between-groups design. This analysis failed

to show significant multivariate effects on attitudes and beliefs about either

form-based practices (Wilks lambda = 0.99, F(3,159) = 0.76; p > 0.05) orcommunication-based practices (Wilks lambda = 0.98, F(3,156) = 0.79; p >0.05). The effect of these two variables on each variate was further examined

by means of a two-way ANOVA. Their individual effect on each variate was


16/28


also examined by means of a one-way ANOVA. No significant effect was found

for these two variables.

Similarly, results analyzed with a two-way ANOVA revealed no significant

effect for gender or university on views of error correction, pronunciation, and

the relationship of intelligence and good learners. However, the university in

which repondents were enrolled did have a significant main effect on their

views of the importance of English, F(1,164) = 11.88; p < 0.01. Tukeys HSDtest indicated that respondents from one university scored significantly higher

on their views of the importance of English than did those in the other univer-

sity (p < 0.05). The analysis using a one-way ANOVA yielded similar results.

Since both universities were located in Taipei, access to and awareness of En-glish would not appear to be an explanatory factor. However, it may be relevant

to note that of the two universities, the one from which was drawn the sample

of learners who expressed more markedly positive views about the importance

of English was the university with higher academic entrance requirements.

4. Discussion

The results of this study suggest a mismatch between the needs and preferences

of English language learners in Taiwan and their perceptions of instructional

practice. Instructional practice in secondary schools is described as generally

form-focused in nature. These learner perceptions are consistent with the obser-

vations of Du-Babcock and Du-Babcock (1987), who report the predominance

of grammar-translation and audiolingual methods in English language teaching

in Taiwan, as well as with the experience of the second author of this article as

both a learner and teacher of EFL in Taipei. The results are also consistent with

data found in the narrative accounts of a group of prominent Taiwan English

language teacher educators reported in C. Wang (2002).

In contrast, an analysis of attitudes toward English teaching and learning in

general shows learner preference for a meaning-based approach. Learners sam-

pled expressed strong agreement with such statements as Learning English is

learning to use the language. They disagreed with such statements as Learn-

ing English is learning its grammar rules and I believe my English improves

most quickly if I study and practice the grammar. (The statements used here

for illustration, like the questionnaires provided as an appendix to this article,

are English translations and therefore only approximations of the Chinese state-ments that were used in the study. The actual Chinese statements are available

from the authors.) Learner attitudes toward classroom practice reflected a simi-

lar preference. There was strong agreement with statements such as I liked my

(high school) English teachers to create an atmosphere that encouraged us to

use English in class and I liked communicative activities where we could in-

teract in English with peers. There was general disagreement with such state-


17/28


ments as I liked English classes in which I did not need to open my mouth

or I liked sentence drilling and repeating phrases after my teacher. In sum,

learners expressed negative attitudes toward grammar-based instruction and

positive attitudes toward a more communicative approach. These findings cor-

roborate those of Huang (1998) who found Taiwanese senior high school stu-

dents view of the ideal way to learn English to be through the use of English.

She observed that grammar instruction was being emphasized while learners

communicative needs were being ignored. They are moreover consistent with

current classroom language learning theory which underscores the value of

meaning-based experience in the development of communicative competence

(see, for example, Lightbown and Spada 2000; Savignon in press; Wong andvanPatten in press).

Although a majority of the learners in both groups expressed a preference

for communicative practices, negative attitudes toward form-focused instruc-

tion were stronger among those those who had had more English language

learning experience. Of particular significance was the effect of age of initial

English language learning on learner attitudes. Learners who had begun learn-

ing English prior to entering secondary school expressed stronger negative at-

titudes about form-focused instruction than did those whose initial classroom

experience had been in junior high school.

As was reported in the introduction to this article, public school English lan-

guage learning in Taiwan has until recently begun at the junior high school

level. In recognition of the high value accorded communicative competence

in English, effective in Fall 2000, island-wide curricular reform mandates the

introduction of English language learning at the 5th grade elementary school

level. The elimination of form-focused senior high school and college entrance

examinations effective in 2001 and 2002, respectively, further signals a com-

mitment to communicative goals for ELT. If the trend of preparing children

for state school ELT by sending them for prior private school instruction in

English continues, a likely supposition given the high stakes of school achieve-

ment in Taiwan, learners will be afforded even greater opportunity to develop

their communicative skills. The findings of this study suggest that upon reach-

ing the secondary school level, these learners may well have established beliefs

and preferences that strongly favor communicative language teaching.

It is true that classroom practices are not necessarily a reflection of teach-

ers beliefs about language teaching and learning, let alone those of learners.Theory and practice are often at odds for a number of reasons (Sato and Klein-

sasser 1999; Savignon 2002). A discrepancy between learners beliefs and

classroom practices, however, has been shown to affect learning no less than

does a discrepancy between learner beliefs and teacher beliefs (Horwitz 1988;

Kern 1995; Schulz 1996). Successful instructional programs thus depend upon

a clarification of the needs and expectations of learners. Where there is a mis-


18/28


match with learner perceptions of classroom practices, there may be a need for

teachers to convey to learners their own expectations as to the goals and nature

of language learning (Nunan 1993). Or, more relevant to the focus of the study

reported here, a mismatch may suggest a need to reconsider classroom prac-

tices. Although many of the learners who responded to the questionnaire in this

study consider the integration of a grammar component necessary for initial

language interaction and practice, the majority felt that their English language

needs are best met through communicative programs that encourage language

use in class. They favor the idea of adopting a meaning-based approach, with

grammar taught in class as needed. Moreover, they feel it important that lan-

guage teachers do not overemphasize the teaching of rules.

5. Conclusion

Taiwanese learners may be typical of learners in other EFL contexts in that

they are very good at explaining the rules of English but are often unable to

use English for communication (Liang 1994). Activities or tasks designed to

engage them in making meaning orally or in writing offers an opportunity to

learn English by using the language in context rather than simply recognizing

or memorizing grammatical rules. Research has documented the difficulties in

adopting a communication-based approach in many EFL contexts. Nonethe-

less, teaching for communicative competence appears to be the appropriate

guiding principle of English pedagogy in settings such as Taiwan where learn-

ers and the society as a whole expect and value communicative skills. Over-

coming the many obstacles confronted when implementing a communicative

program is, of course, in no way the responsibility of classroom teachers and

learners alone. Successful program implementation requires efforts from ad-

ministrators, parents and society as a whole (Kleinsasser 1993).

This study is not without limitations. The learner samples used in this study

were drawn from populations of first-year university students in Taipei who

were asked to reflect post hoc on their secondary school EFL classroom ex-

perience. Although the questionnaire response rate was quite high (88 %), the

preference expressed for communication-based English language learning can-

not be said to represent the views of university students throughout Taiwan.

Moreover, additional research is needed before any claim can be made about

the experiences and preferences of learners who do not continue English lan-guage study beyond secondary school. On a yet more basic level, the statement

of learner attitudes and beliefs about classroom language teaching practices

on a Likert-type scale may or may not be an accurate reflection of learner atti-

tudes. And, certainly, reports of learnerperceptions of their classroom language

learning experiences cannot be claimed to accurately reflect actual classroom

practices.


19/28


The learner perceptions and attitudes reported in this study represent but one

feature of English language learning and teaching in Taiwan, an EFL context

among many worldwide currently engaged in or contemplating curricular re-

form. In addition to the perceptions and attitudes of learners, numerous other

factors necessarily inform pedagogical decisions. The findings are nonethe-

less encouraging in the support they reflect for ongoing Ministry of Education

revisions of English education policy. Given the documented struggles for lan-

guage teaching reform in other international contexts, the implementation of

new curricula reflective of communication-based teaching in Taiwan promises

to be a challenge. An understanding of learner attitudes and their perceptions

of current teaching practices is important to an accurate definition of the func-tion and goals of EFL and of the methods of teaching that best help learners to

attain these goals.

The Pennsylvania State University

[email protected]

Ming Chuan University

[email protected]

Appendix

Questionnaire (English translation of the Chinese questionnaire used in the

study)

Please circle the number or provide an answer that best reflects your view for

each item.

I. English practice in the classroom in my Senior high school

1. English teaching in my high school was grammar-focused.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

2. My English teachers in high school often asked us to do sentence drilling

and repeat sentences after them.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

3. The language used in the classroom by my teachers was mostly Chinese.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

4. English teaching in my high school was mainly explaining and practicing

grammar rules.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree


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5. I seldom needed to open my mouth in the classroom.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

6. English teaching in my high school was communication-based.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

7. My teachers often designed activities to have us interact in English with

peers.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

8. Our focus in class was communication, but the teacher would explaingrammar when necessary.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

9. English teachers in my high school allowed us trial-and-error attempts

to communicate in English.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

10. My English teachers often created an atmosphere for us to use English.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

11. My English teachers often corrected my errors in class.

II. My attitude toward the instructional practice in my senior high school

1. I liked grammar-focused English teaching in my high school.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

2. I liked sentence drilling and repeating sentences after my teachers in my

high school English class.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

3. I liked the language used in the classroom by my English teachers in

high school to be mostly Chinese.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

4. I liked much of the time in the classroom to be spent in explaining and

practicing grammar rules.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

5. I liked an English class in which I did not need to open my mouth.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree


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6. I liked communication-based English teaching.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

7. I liked communicative activities so that we could interact in English with

peers.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

8. I liked my English class to be focused on communication, with grammar

explained when necessary.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

9. I liked English teachers in my high school to allow us to make trial-and-

error attempts to communicate in English.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

10. I liked my English teachers to create an atmosphere that encouraged us

to use English in class.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

11. I liked my errors in speaking to be corrected by my teachers.

III. My beliefs about learning English

1. Learning English is learning its grammar rules.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

2. English learning through sentence drilling is effectiveStrongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

3. I believe Chinese should be frequently used in my English class for my

better understanding of the lessons.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

4. I believe the more grammar rules one memorizes, the better he/she is at

using English.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

5. Opening ones mouth to practice speaking in the classroom is not essen-

tial for English learning.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

6. A language classroom should be communication-focused.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree


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7. It is important to practice English in real-life or real-life like situations.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

8. Languages are learned mainly through communication, with grammar

rules explained when necessary.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

9. I believe making trial-and-error attempts to communicate in English

helps me to learn English.Strongly

disagree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7Strongly

agree

10. A teacher should create an atmosphere in the classroom to encourage

interaction as a class or in groups.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

11. It is important for the teacher to correct students errors in class.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

12. The formal study of grammar is essential to eventual mastery of English.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

13. I believe my English improves most quickly if I study and practice the

grammar.Stronglydisagree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7Strongly

agree

14. There should be more formal study of grammar in English class.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

15. It is more important to study and practice grammatical patterns than to

practice English in an interactive way in the classroom.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

16. Grammar rules should be explicitly explained in class.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

17. Learning English is learning to use the language.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

18. Learning English by practicing the language in communicative activities

is essential to eventual mastery of a foreign language.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree


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19. A communication-focused language program often meets the learners

needs.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

20. I believe it is important to avoid making errors in the process of learning

English.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

21. Teachers should correct students pronunciation or grammatical errors in

class.

Stronglydisagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Stronglyagree

22. A good language learner usually pronounces beautifully.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

23. A persons good pronunciation usually indicates good English.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

24. Learning English is important for people in Taiwan.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

25. English is useful in getting a good job.

Stronglydisagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Stronglyagree

26. Good language learners are intelligent.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

27. Students who have good grades in other subjects are likely to be good

language learners.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

28. English education should begin in elementary school.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

29. I wish to speak like English native speakers. If you agree with the abovestatement, what English would you like to learn to use?

IV. English practice in the classroom in my Junior high school

1. English teaching in my school was grammar-focused.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree


24/28


2. My English teachers in school often asked us to do sentence drilling and

repeat sentences after them.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

3. The language used in the classroom by my teachers was mostly Chinese.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

4. English teaching in my school was mainly explaining and practicing

grammar rules.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

5. I seldom needed to open my mouth in the classroom.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

6. English teaching in my school was communication-based.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

7. My teachers often designed activities to have us interact in English with

peers.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

8. Our focus in class was communication, but the teacher would explain

grammar when necessary.Stronglydisagree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7Strongly

agree

9. English teachers allowed us trial-and-error attempts to communicate in

English.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

10. My English teachers often created an atmosphere for us to use English.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

11. My English teachers often corrected my errors in class.

V. My attitude toward the instructional practice in my junior high school

1. I liked grammar-focused English teaching in my school.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

2. I liked sentence drilling and repeating sentences after my teachers in my

school English class.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree


25/28


3. I liked the language used in the classroom by my English teachers in

school to be mostly Chinese.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

4. I liked much of the time in the classroom to be spent in explaining and

practicing grammar rules.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

5. I liked an English class in which I did not need to open my mouth.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

6. I liked communication-based English teaching.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

7. I liked communicative activities so that we could interact in English with

peers.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

8. I liked my English class to be focused on communication, with grammar

explained when necessary.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

9. I liked English teachers in my school to allow us trial-and-error attempts

to communicate in English.Stronglydisagree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7Strongly

agree

10. I like my English teachers to create an atmosphere that encouraged us to

use English in class.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

11. I liked my errors in speaking to be corrected by my teachers.Strongly

disagree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly

agree

Background information1. Male Female Major College/University

2. Age: 1520 2125 2629 3035 3640 Over 40

3. When did you start learning English?

Before 7 years old Between 7 and 11 Between 12 and 15

At 16 or after

4. Senior high school Junior high school


26/28


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