Automation in Construction 20 (2011) 101–106

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Automation in Construction

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Scenarios for applying RFID technology in construction project management

Weisheng Lu a,⁎, George Q. Huang b, Heng Li c

a Dept. of Real Estate and Construction, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kongb Dept. of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, the University of Hong Kong, Hong Kongc Dept. of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail addresses: wilsonlu@hku.hk (W. Lu), bsheng

0926-5805/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. Aldoi:10.1016/j.autcon.2010.09.007

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Accepted 16 July 2010Available online 28 October 2010

Keywords:Project managementRadio Frequency IdentificationInformation managementInformation visibility and traceabilityScenariosConstruction

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology has been widely applied in various areas such as retail,electronic transaction, logistic and supply chain management, scientific research, security, etc. It has broughtabout great benefits in these areas through improving real-time information visibility and traceability.However, a widespread application of RFID in the construction industry has not taken place. One possiblereason is that construction practitioners may have not been fully informed of its potentials. This paper aims toinvestigate various scenarios that can illustrate the uses of RFID technology in construction projectmanagement. The research starts from a brief summary of recent developments of RFID technology indifferent industrial sectors including construction. 16 researchers were split into 3 groups to investigate howRFID can be used in the management of materials, men, and machinery (M3) for construction projects.Perspectives for future studies are proposed in order to fully realise the potentials. The research encourages awider adoption of RFID technology in improving current PM practices. It also provides academia with aplatform for further exploring the innovative uses of RFID technology in construction.

li@polyu.edu.hk (H. Li).

l rights reserved.

© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Increasing demands for speed and efficiency in the face of greatercomplexity of modern construction projects have given rise to theneed for management [1]. Today, there are higher standards forsuccessful construction project management (CPM); traditionalsuccess criteria for CPM have been broadened from cost, quality,and time (known as PM triangle) to include safety and environment[2]. This requires project managers to make better decision to alignmaterials, labour, and machinery based on the information available.Information is recognised as a new element for CPM success; someeven proposed the paradigm that doing construction business isessentiallymaking aweb of informed decision across its process basedon the information and knowledge available [3]. How to effectivelymanage information presents new challenges for contemporary CPM.

Among the many challenges for managing information in CPM, aparticularly keen one is to improve real-time information visibilityand traceability. Project managers need to acquire real-time informa-tion about materials, men, and machinery so as to make prompt andinformed decisions. This echoes with Flanagan and Lu [3] whosuggested that the main objective of information management is tomake sure that accurate information is always available at the righttime in the right format to the right person to support decisionmaking. Here the information could include inventory of materials,

positions of construction workers, conditions of machinery, and so on.The increasing complexity of modern construction projects, togetherwith some innovative CPM models such as Just-In-Time (JIT), leanconstruction, prefabrication, all desires new approaches to providereal-time information with better visibility and traceability.

Notably, in industrial sectors such as logistic and supply chainmanagement (LSCM), manufacturing, RFID technology has beenwidely discussed. In LSCM scenarios, for example, using RFIDtechnology, such real-time traceability and visibility, enabled at theupstream, are important for increasing the efficiency and quality ofsupply chain operations, especially towards the downstream (e.g.distribution, wholesale, and retail) [4–8]. In the manufacturing sector,Huang et al. [9–11] investigated the RFID-based wireless manufac-turing jobsites with better real-time information traceability andvisibility. However, little attention has been paid to the investigationof RFID technology in construction which is also viewed as aninformation-based industry in addition to its labour, material, andcapital intensive nature [31]. In comparison with the heated debatesin other sectors, a widespread adoption of the technology has notbeen seen in real-life construction practices.

The primary aim of this research is to explore the potentialapplications of RFID technology in CPM. The rest of the papercomprises of five sections. In Section 2, recent developments of RFIDtechnology in different industrial sectors including construction arereviewed. Research methods are presented in Section 3. Using anarrative form, Section 4 describes the various scenario cases thatillustrate the potential applications of RFID in CPM. These scenarioshave been further animated by using Google Sketch Up in our

102 W. Lu et al. / Automation in Construction 20 (2011) 101–106

research. Next in Section 5, perspectives for future studies areproposed for fully realising the potentials. Finally, conclusions aredrawn. The research encourages the industry to widely adopt RFIDtechnology which has great potentials to improve current PM practiceand its performance. It also provides academia with a new platformfor further exploring the applications of RFID technology, overcomingits technical and economical hurdles.

2. Recent developments

2.1. Understanding RFID technology

Few people know about RFID technology although almosteveryone today has at least one item with RFID in their wallet (e.g.subway card). In simple terms, RFID is a technology using radio wavesof different frequencies for identifying objects. A typical RFID systemcomprises of a RFID tag and a RFID reader. A RFID tag is oftenformulated by a microchip which stores data and an integratedantenna serving as a transmitter. There are two types of RFID: thepassive RFID and the active RFID where the former one has no powersources inside them but relies on the reader to supply power forwireless communication, and the latter has power sources installedinside.

RFID was firstly introduced as a sister technology to replacebarcode system for identifying items. Table 1 is a summary ofadvantages of RFID by comparing it with barcode system andmagnetic strip system. In contrast, it can store a relatively largenumber of data; for Passive RFID its memory can vary from 128 to256 bytes while memory of active RFID can range from 32 to128 kilobytes (KB) [12]. These data can be encrypted to increasedata security. It is possible to read data frommultiple tags in one timethus increase the efficiency of data processing. In comparison withbarcode or magnetic system, no direct contact between a RFID readerand the tagged item is needed as it uses radio wave which can beclassified as low, high, ultrahigh frequencies ranging from 125 KHz to5.875 GHz. The reading distance can be as great as 15–25 m ifpowered in active RFID [12]. In addition to reading data, it is possibleto write data back to the RFID tag, which greatly increases theinteraction between items, system, and people. All these advantagesenable a better real-time information visibility and traceability.

2.2. RFID technology in various industries

Owing to its advantages, the RFID technology has been used in awide range of areas. Walmart is a big figure in promoting RFIDtechnology; using its dominant position in industries, Walmartrequires its top suppliers at the upstream to adopt RFID technologywhich will facilitate operations towards the downstream (e.g.distribution, wholesale, and retail) (RFID Journal, 2003; [10,11]).RFID is also widely used in facilitating electronic transaction (e.g. Tollcollection in U.S., Octopus card in Hong Kong, or Oyster card in

Table 1A comparison of RFID with its sister technologies.

RFID technology Barcode system Magnetic strip

Read rate Fastest Slow MediumStorage capacity Largest Smallest ModestEase of reproducing a“fake” one

Difficult Easy Difficult

Ease of positioningfor sensing

Easy Difficult Easy

Cost of a tag Cheap Cheapest ExpensiveEase of obtaininginformation

Difficult (if encryptionis done)

Easy Easy (use areader)

Knowledge of items'exact position

Easy Difficult Difficult

Write Possible Impossible Impossible

London), logistic and supply chain management (e.g. the internet ofthings), manufacturing and assembly (e.g. the assembly of cars),express service (e.g. American express), scientific research (e.g.tracing snakes and migratory birds), medicine (e.g. identifying aspecific patient), and security (e.g. access control). It is envisaged thatthe technology, with its superior capability to provide real-timeinformation, will significantly improve the effectiveness and efficien-cy of the above processes. More up-to-date applications of RFID can befound in the RFID Journal which devotes solely to the technology andits many business applications. Many governments and institutionstake RFID as a strategic direction.

The research on RFID is developing popularity. In the manufac-turing industry, for example, RFID was recognised as an automaticobjective identification (auto-ID) technology. Notably, research isconducted to investigate how RFID technology can deal with real-timefield information, and consequently how it can reengineer traditionalmanufacturing systems such as the development of wireless manu-facturing, assembly shop-floor configuration, and adaptive assemblyplanning and control (e.g. [9–11]). According to Tajima [8], the largestarea of applications of RFID was logistic and supply chain manage-ment (LSCM). Li and Visich [32] attempted to summarise RFIDbenefits in LSCM by listing 39 benefits across the supply chain. Tajima[8] reported that research of RFID in LSCM, either adopting anempirical or an analytical approach, was mainly motivated by thesame research question: what is the realistic value of RFID? Incomparison with the studies focused on a given industry, a futurevision is to integrate the above process of manufacturing, distribu-tions, and sale, and to achieve an ambition of the ‘Internet of Things’.According to Teresko [13], the ‘Internet of Things’ refers to a globalnetwork of computers and objects in which computers are able toidentify and store information on any object, anywhere in the world,instantly.

2.3. RFID in construction

The construction industry has characteristics that separately areshared by other industries but in combination appear in constructionalone [14]. The areas seeing the applications of RFID in otherindustries can also be seen in construction while with heterogeneity.To the construction industry, RFID technology is not completely new.Early in 1995, Jaselskis et al. [15] envisaged its potential applicationsin construction, including concrete processing and handling, costcoding for labour and equipment, and materials control. Since that, afew more studies have been conducted to explore potential applica-tions of RFID in this industry.

Jang and Skibniewski [16] developed an embedded system fortracking construction assets (e.g. materials and equipment) bycombining radio and ultrasound signals. Likewise, Goodrum et al.[12] implemented the technology for tool tracking on construction jobsites. Dziadak et al. [17] developed a model for the 3D location ofburied assets based on RFID technology. Domdouzis et al. [18]explored the applications of RFID in the construction industryincluding automated tracking of pipe spools and other valued items,and an on-site inspection support system. Tzeng et al. [19] exploredthe influence of combination manners of RFID and interior decoratingmaterials on RFID system recognition. Yin et al. [20] developed aprecast production management system using RFID technology in theface that prefabrication is increasingly adopted in construction. Wang[21] explores how the RFID technology can be used to enhanceconstruction quality inspection and management. Chin et al. [22]developed an information system to support the logistics and progressmanagement based on this strategy by combining the RFID and 4DCAD.

However, not many applications of RFID have been seen in real-lifeconstruction practices in spite of the desire for this technology. InHong Kong, for example, institutions are starting to explore the use of

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RFID in construction. The Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC)has introduced RFID in their projects. The Housing Authority (HA)encourages the applications of RFID in their projects but starting froma pilot project. In universities, students are encouraged to explore howthe incapability of CPM can be improved by using RFID. It wasintroduced as a cutting-edge technology yet to be highly promoted inthe construction industry. The possible reasons are many. Projectmanagers may not have been fully aware of the potential uses of RFIDin construction. Various technical, financial, or ethical hurdles mayalso prevent it from being widely adopted in this heterogeneousindustry. These encourage the authors to investigate a comprehensivelist of potential applications of RFID in CPM by envisaging itsadvantages and hurdles.

3. Methods

A research framework borrowing ideas from the manufacturingindustry was proposed to guide the investigation in this study. Inmanufacturing, a Wireless Manufacturing Framework was developedto achieve a better working environment with real-time informationvisibility and traceability for improving the effectiveness of manage-rial decisions and operational efficiency [10,11]. These frameworksnormally comprise of five layers from bottom to top: traceable objectswith RFID or other auto-ID technologies, smart objects, smartgateway, shop-floor gateway, and enterprise application systems.Similar to borrowing the lean production idea from Toyota, frame-works in manufacturing may be applicable to construction. But theresearch reported herein focuses on RFID and how it as a fundamentalpart of the frameworks can be used in construction.

Bearing the research framework in the mind, 16 researchers weredivided into 3 groups to collect data for this research. This wasorganised as a studio project to be completed within four weeks. Thestudents have learnt CPM in other subject while this studio projectfocuses on incapability of CPM and sees how RFID technology can helpwith particular emphasis placed on real-life PM practices. They wereencouraged to start the explorations from a review of the literaturewhich reports the RFID technology in terms of its technicalspecifications and its applications in various industries includingconstruction. They were further involved in the exploration of thescenarios in CPM through interviewing projectmanagers, experts, andconducting case studies.

Four principles behind the investigation differentiate itself fromthe previous studies alike.

(a) Comprehensiveness of the investigation. Unlike previous studiesintroducing uses of RFID in a piecemeal fashion, this researchaims to investigate a comprehensive list of RFID applicationsthat can inform more in-depth studies. In addition to acomprehensive literature review, brainstorming is thereforeadopted as an effective tool for generating as many ideas aspossible. Moreover, a matrix as shown in Table 2 is given asguideline for exploring the potential applications.

(b) Hypothetical cases. For investigating the potential uses of RFID,a large number of hypothetical scenarios were formulated asmeaningful representatives of typical CPM practices frommorethan one project. Huang et al. [9,10] adopted a similar approach

Table 2A guideline for exploring RFID in project management.

Materials Man Machinery

TimeCostQualitySafetyEnvironment

by formulating a hypothetical job shop and a product line, andthis proved to be very effective for the ease of understandingand discussion.

(c) Innovative uses of RFID in construction. In addition to theexisting applications, those more innovative ones that have notbeen seen in the construction industry are highly desired in thisresearch. The investigators have been encouraged to makesome reasonable assumptions that technical or financialhurdles of current RFID technology will be eliminated in thenear future. The RFID technology can also be combined withother technologies such as sensors and digital technology tofulfil an innovative use.

(d) Cross-sector learning. Applications of RFID in other industriescan be replanted to CPM by examining its applicability. Theformulation of the research team has included researchers frommanufacturing, construction, RFID, and IT background.

4. Case scenarios for applying RFID technology in constructionproject management

This section describes the case scenarios for applying RFID in CPM.A large number of scenarios have been formulated but for easierdiscussion, they were distilled into representative ones includingmanagement of materials, men (labour and other personnel), andmachinery (M3). It is known that that up to 70% of the overallconstruction cost is direct cost relating to materials, men, andmachinery [23]. CPM, in a sense, is to manage materials, men, andmachinery.

4.1. Management of materials

4.1.1. Logistic and supply chain management (LSCM)In a typical material supply chain, construction materials ordered

were shipped or transported by trucks from factory to materialdistributors, and then on-site warehouse. Material information suchas manufacturer, quantity, specifications, etc. should be readilyavailable to decision makers such as buyers in the head office, projectmanagers on site, and truck drivers on the road. Real-timeinformation is more important when Just-In-Time (JIT) method isadopted to deal with compacted jobsites commonly seen in congestedurban areas. For example, a concrete caisson foundation using a JITsite cast technology needs real-time information and coordinationamongst offsite concrete mixers, tilting drum truck drivers, and siteworkers, otherwise the concrete could be delayed or reach earlier,thus cause loss. Steel members or prefabricated components (e.g.outriggers, composite beams) should be transported to sites timely orthe construction process will be disrupted or there is no enough spaceto store these items. Ideally, material information such as size,weights, handling instructions, and assembly methods, should also beavailable to construction workers. In these case scenarios, real-timeinformation visibility and traceability is highly desired and RFIDtechnology can be implemented for this purpose.

Material information will be stored in RFID tags pasted on thematerials. Similar to Wal-Mart's practice to tag its food and drink, thishas been seen in construction to tag big construction components.What is more encouraging is that today's material manufacturers areopen to RFID technology in tagging their products. Locations ofmaterials can be efficiently tracked by combining it with GlobalPositioning System (GPS) and Geographic Information System (GIS)[24]. Meanwhile, concerns are many. The information that is tailor-made for construction uses (e.g. assembly of prefabricated compo-nents) is yet to be explored. The reading range and the accuracy ofinformation become critical since construction components arenormally large in dimensions. The unit price for RFID should belowered before it can be massively adopted in construction LSCM.

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4.1.2. Inventory managementMaterial inventory management is of particular importance in

construction. A proper amount of materials in stock can maintain ahealthy cash flow for a contractor. This is particularly truewhen today'scompanies tend to purchase materials from global market, meanwhilestoring them inwarehouse and construction sitesdonot come from free.In addition, a good inventory management of materials can ensure thesmoothness of construction processes. Real-time inventory informationcan further facilitate another round of material management processessuch as ordering, transporting, stocking, and using. Traditionally thesewere donemanually through sending paper documents back and forth.With their obvious weaknesses, traditional inventory managementmethods turned out to be of low efficiency and effectiveness. RFIDtechnology can be implemented to improve the inventorymanagementof construction materials.

At the storage area, long-range RFID readers will be installed toretrieve the material information embedded in RFID tags that wereattached onmaterials. When the newly arrivedmaterials are placed inthe area, the readers read the tags and update the inventory databaseautomatically. When the materials are taken out for using, the systemworks in a reverse way where the inventory is deducted from thedatabase. The RFID technology can improve productivity by readingall the information in a go, and updating it automatically. It is alsoeasier for construction workers to find the right materials by tracingthe information attached on materials.

An important point coming up from the research is to integrate theLSCM and the inventory management with RFID embedded informa-tion flowing seamlessly through the two processes. The integrationshould be further aligned with the heterogeneous constructionprocesses which were characterised with JIT, lean production,efficiency nowadays. This resonates with the vision of the “Internetof Things” where ubiquitous IT and auto-ID can enable identificationand storage of information on any object and in anywhere.

4.1.3. Quality assuranceRFID technology can be used to improve construction quality

through a number of ways. For example, it was used by the MTRC toindicate the depth of piles as there were construction practices thatpiles did not actually penetrate to the designated depth. In this case,RFID tags can be planted into the pile ends and their radio signals willindicate the depth that the piles have actually penetrated into theground. RFID can also help anti-counterfeit materials. With RFID tagsbeing applied, each material will have a unique serial number fromthe manufacturer. Similar to the practice in library to attach RFID tagsin books, these tags can be placed in materials. Project managers candouble-check the materials to ensure the materials used are providedby a qualified supplier and are used appropriately. Once the materialswere used, the embedded information can be used in the future suchas showing buried assets, or facilities management. By implantingRFID into concrete blocks, it can facilitate the quality test, for example,to indicate the concrete testing samples. The advantage of using RFIDtags over the use of paper labels is that the former are set into theconcrete and become irremovable unless destroying it. Therefore, itprevents the concrete blocks from unintentionally being replaced.

The list of innovative applications of RFID in ensuring constructionquality can be longer. It is not that RFID is a mysterious ingredient butit can improve information visibility and traceability thanks to itsadvantages. For example, no direct contact is needed to read its signal.In comparison with barcode, the information in RFID can be betterretrieved, particularly on site with a dusty or muddy environment.RFID tags are thin and flexible, which can be set into constructionmaterials.

4.1.4. Waste managementConstruction and demolition (C&D) waste is defined as the waste

that arises from construction, renovation and demolition activities

[25,26]. During the past decades, construction and demolition (C&D)waste issues have received increasing attention around the world.Normally, C&D waste should be delivered to landfill or designatedplaces. Research shows that illegal dumping of waste is a seriousproblem yet to be solved. In Hong Kong, for example, a “trip ticketsystem” is implemented to prevent illegal dumping. The trip ticketsystem is a recording system for trucks transporting waste, ensuringthat each type of waste is directed to the appropriate facility for reuse,recycling, recovery or disposal. Nonetheless, the effectiveness isreported to be insufficient, and in this case the RFID technology canhelp.

A RFID reader/writer is installed at the exit of the construction site.Information such as departure time, waste type, target places will bewritten into the RFID tag as a beacon placed on the truck. Upon thearrival of the truck at the designated destination, another RFID reader/writer will read the information, match it, and give or deny the access.Information in the RFID tags can be read and written automaticallywithout intervention of the contractor or lorry drivers thus illegaldumping can be reduced. The RFID system can be combined withother systems, e.g. waste charging scheme, to enable a more efficientmanagement of C&D waste.

4.2. Management of men

4.2.1. Access control and labour attendance recordConstruction sites have specific needs for access control; an

effective access control system can keep the site, staff, and assetssecure; if combined with an attendance checking system, it canprovide time and attendance record as a basis for further uses such asallocating works, calculating wage, and so on. Current access controland labour attendance check, undertaken manually by punching inand out their timecards, have many drawbacks. For example, it istime-consuming. In the construction sites we investigated, there wasoften a long queue for checking-in after the workers lunched out.Although rare, there are cases that workers cheat the attendancecheck system. Sometimes, there are disputes over wages which areoften calculated on an hourly rate and workers' attendance record.RFID can be implemented to develop a more efficient and accurateaccess control and labour attendance record system.

Each worker will have a RFID card which could be integrated withexisting card (e.g. railway card) to record their IDs, photos, accessauthorities, and companies when there is more than one sub-contractor. A reader at the entrance/exit of the construction site willretrieve the information, match it, and give or deny access. The systemwill record the entering and exiting times automatically and thisinformation will be used for calculating wages by a computer system.In view of the potential cheating, this RFID system can be combinedwith biometric information such as fingerprints, iris scanning, or facialrecognising. This proposed system is hardly new in other areas such asborder controls but in construction it is yet to be widely introduced.

4.2.2. Safety of menConstruction safety is a key issue in modern CPM. RFID can be

implemented to improve safety performance on site. Research hasshown that a major problem accounting for site accidents is thatworkers do not wear their safety gears properly, particularly in a hotor humid working environment such as a construction site. It issuggested to put RFID tags in safety gears including safety helmet,fluorescent jacket, safety boots, and belt. A system is to detectwhether they have worn the gears properly, for example, by detectingtheir relative positions in line with strengths of signals. Nonetheless,the algorithm for this is yet to be developed.

Real-time location information on the whereabouts of peoplewithin a site can be very helpful in construction safety management.For example, Spanish construction companies FCC and ACCIONAimplement employee tracking solution for tunnel workers' safety

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using its existing Wi-Fi network as the infrastructure (Ekahau Inc.,2009). By using RFID technology, an affordable employee trackingsystem can be developed to provide real-time information, which iscritical for construction safety. Meanwhile, the system of this kindneeds to solve problem which belong to a domain called localizationusing RFID technology. Authors have discussed this in the construc-tion sector (e.g. [16,27,28]). In addition, the ethical issue for trackingconstruction workers on site also needs to be taken into considerationin this case.

Another imaginative application is to develop an RFID-enabledsafety precaution system that could inform workers of potential riskson site using ubiquitous RFID. In this case, a construction site will bedivided into different zones, with each having a different colour (e.g.red, green, and amber) to indicate the potential dangers. All thepotential risks such as fire, electrical, and chemical hazards wereregistered in RFID tags that are ubiquitous on site. By linking the tagswith a RFID reader and an alarming system, it is possible to giveworkers instructions and precautions of the potential risks. RFID hasthe advantages to provide this real-time visible and traceableinformation on site. Nonetheless, a lot of concerned problems needto be solved before the system can be really implemented. Besides theconcerns for capturing real-time information of workers on site, howto zone construction site, and how to register potential risks usingRFID tags are all unresolved issues. The technical and financialchallenges with this RFID-enabled safety precaution system also needto be further explored.

4.3. Management of machinery

4.3.1. Tracking of machines and toolsConstruction machinery ranges from large-scale machines such as

cranes and excavators to smaller tools such as pneumatic breakers,welding machines, and wrenches. Managing machines and toolsefficiently is not only to manage them as assets but also to ensure thesmoothness of scheduled construction works. The real-time visibilityand traceability of machinery become more important when theconstruction site is big (e.g. civil work) and the placement of machinesand tools becomes more critical. Domdouzis et al. [18] describedseveral similar scenarios. Tracking of machinery is equally importantas tracking of men but the former is even more difficult; projectmanagers can talk using walkie-talkie or mobile phone in trackingmen but this is not applicable to the tracking of machinery. RFIDtechnology can help in this case.

RFID tags can store the log of borrowing and returning thus helptracking the machines and tools, preventing lost, misplacement, orburglar. This can be further enhanced by linking the log with thelabour attendance recording system as introduced in Section 4.2.1. Inaddition, RFID technology can be applied to locating machines andtools. Similar to the tracking of men, this belongs to the problemdomain of localization. RFID technology can help solve the problemsfor tracking of machines and tools with its strengths of wave length,and contactless.

4.3.2. Machine operation and recordA machine operation permission system can be developed using

RFID technology. In order to start the engine and operation of heavymachines like cranes and excavators, operators have to flash theirRFID card in front of a RFID reader installed in the machine operationroom. They need to do it again when leaving or stopping themachines. Ideally, this permission should be related to the qualifica-tions and experiences of authorised persons which can be indicated ina RFID card. Information such as the operator and operation time isrecorded and stored in a central system. This allows a project managerto monitor the utilization history of every machine and to estimate itsdepreciation. This information will also be very useful for inspection,maintenance, or calculation of quantities.

In this system, RFID presents a few advantages over other similartechnologies. For example, it can read and write back information; itcan store a relative large amount of information. It is recommendedthat the system should be developed by working with the machinemanufacturers who know its specifications better.

4.3.3. Machine maintenance recordHeavy machines are often a company's valuable assets. They are

also critical to ensure the smoothness of construction processes. Toensure their quality and functionality, regular checking andmaintenance of machines is of absolute necessity. Currently this isconducted manually and the records are kept in paper forms. Thiscan be improved by using RFID technology. While checking andmaintaining the machines, the inspectors or maintenance techni-cians can use a handheld RFID device (e.g. a PDA) to scan the RFIDtags on the machine. All maintenance records such as time ofinspection, the personnel who conducts the checking, conditions ofthe machines, and repair work done, can be read. After theinspection and maintenance are finished, the information can besaved into the tags immediately and updated in the central systemfor further use.

5. Hurdles and research perspectives towards RFID integration

RFID is a proven technology that is being widely used in manyareas. Owing to its various advantages, RFID can also be used in awide range of CPM scenarios that require real-time informationwith visibility and traceability. Nonetheless, hurdles ahead are tobe overcome. These include (1) technical hurdles; (2) costs; and(3) health and ethical issues.

There are many technical problems that need to be solved beforethe above envisaged scenarios can become realities. Some of theseproblems are commonly seen in other industries, while others areunique to the construction industry. One emerging issue is the lowdegree of standardization. There is no global public body that governsthe frequencies used for RFID. The frequencies used for RFID in onecountry are currently incompatible with those in other countries.Furthermore, there is no standard information structure thatfacilitates share among supply chain partners although RFID-gener-ated product information can provide unprecedented visibility in thesupply chain. Reading range/distance should be increased, particu-larly in respect of construction components which are often large insize. Normally the reading distance range is less than 16 cm but usingactive RFID and being powered the reading distance can be as large as15–25 m [12]. However this will add to the cost when using activeRFID. While having its advantages, radio signal can be seriouslyinterfered by steel objects, water, or other radio frequency signals[29]. This is particularly true for construction sites where steelmembers are widely seen.

In comparison with barcode systems, RFID technology is stillrelatively expensive although the cost has been reduced over the pastyears. As mentioned above, when reading distance is concerned,expensive active RFID tags are often used, which makes thetechnology less competitive. Clearly isolating benefits contributedby RFID technology and demonstrating them to contractors are criticalfor this technology to be widely adopted in CPM. In addition, thehealth issues related to RFID are still in doubt although there is noreport to prove whether radio frequency is harmful to human. Ethicalissues should also be taken into consideration, in particular for thecase scenarios above where their positions were tracked or theirinformation was captured.

Nonetheless, a contractor should be forward-looking in exploringthe RFID technology in CPM. Researchers have given many insightfulrecommendations on how to achieve its wider applications in practice(e.g. [18,29]). By appreciating these recommendations and the ever-

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changing information age, this study proposes some researchperspectives characterised as “integration”:

(1) Integrate with the developments of RFID in other industries. Thereis a debate that construction is not a heterogeneous industry;the features in the construction industry (e.g. bespoke design,fixed-position layouts, complex supply chain, JIT) can all beseen in others. Therefore, the advancements of RFID in otherindustries can also be applied in construction. Investigation ofRFID in construction should integrate itself with the develop-ments outside the sector such as technical advancements,information standard, radio frequency regulations, etc.

(2) Integrate with Building Information Model (BIM). BIM isenvisaged to bring a paradigm shift in CPM through managingbuilding information in a systematic way and fostering acollaborative working environment [30]. The discussions ofBIM are pervasive in the sector but a big problem is that theyfailed to explore how a BIM can really talk to a constructionproject in a real-time manner. RFID, with its real-timeinformation with visibility and traceability, can bridge theinterface between a BIM and a real project.

(3) Integrate with people, project, and process. RFID is not silverbullet but gains its momentum through providing real-timeinformation throughout people, project, and process in con-struction. Future research should be undertaken to investigatehow RFID can integrate into these rather than disrupting them.This is not a pure technical issue but about how to managetechnology to be a facilitator.

6. Conclusions

This paper envisages the promise for RFID technology to beimplemented in construction project management (CPM). It is foundthat RFID shows great potential in improving CPM goals such as time,quality, cost, safety, and environment by applying it in themanagement of materials, labours, andmachinery. The great potentialcomes from the increasing importance of information in contempo-rary CPM. Managing a construction project is essentially making aweb of decisions across its process based on the information available.RFID technology can largely enhance the real-time informationvisibility and traceability in CPM thanks to its unique advantages.

In spite of its great potential, RFID is slowly adopted in theconstruction industry. There are two possible ways to achieve itswider applications. One is to inform the industry of the potential in aneffectiveway. The scenarios identified in thiswork, animated later usingGoogle Sketch Up, can serve as a vehicle for better communicating thepotential of RFID to construction practitioners. Another way is to realisethe systems as suggested in this study through overcoming its manytechnical, financial, and ethical hurdles. Future studies are recom-mended integrating itself (1) with the developments of RFID in otherindustries, (2) with Building Information Model (BIM), and (3) withpeople, project, and process in construction.

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