Schedule:Thursday, 3/05, lectureTuesday, 3/17, after semester break, lectureThursday, 3/19, E5

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PSY 4600

Note: the last day to withdraw from classes w/o academic penalty is Monday, 3/23

May feel there is a gap in your knowledge of psychology – there is, and VB fills that gap

Need to understand verbal behavior to understand what is commonly referred to as higher level “cognitive processes” Thinking Memory Consciousness

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(what you have learned to date just can’t account for these; you are right; complex; only going to touch on it in this unit – chapter by Sundberg does go further than I am going to go. )

Verbal Behavior: 3 articles in the unit Article by Mark Sundberg

▪ Ph.D., WMU, 1980▪ First to systematically apply Skinner’s analysis

of vb to language intervention programs for children with autism and developmental disabilities

▪ First to develop an assessment of vb in children using Skinner’s analysis▪ First version sold over 175,000 copies around the globe▪ Second version, published in Sept. 2008, has sold over

125,000 copies, with sales in 25 different countries (VB MAPP) 3

(not the first, language tr.; Sundberg&Assoc; BattleCreek,dept. dist alum, 2001; the current version is based on over 30 years of research)

Research article by LaMarre & Holland Demonstrates the “functional independence”

of mands and tacts Proves one of Skinner’s most important and

basic analyses about VB▪ A word is not a word is not a word – more on this later

Make-believe memories: Elizabeth Loftus Not required for the exam Fascinating and somewhat “scary” article

about how easily our memories can be altered by suggestion (the vb of others) and reinforcement of our vb by others

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marksundberg.com

The formal properties of language involve the structure (i.e., form) of language Phonemes: individual speech sounds Morphemes: words, units that have meaning Lexicon: total collection of words in a language Syntax: organization of words, clauses,

phrases into sentences Grammar: established conventions in a

language

6(classification of words as nouns, pronouns, adverbs, verbs, prepositional clauses, etc.)

The functional properties of language involve the causes of the response Why we say, write, sign, etc. what we do

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(signing: American Sign Language; no more on slide)

Skinner’s analysis is a functional analysis of language

Skinner did not criticize formal analyses of language (common misconception)

Skinner, however, was critical of the fact that there weren’t any adequate functional analyses of verbal behavior

A complete account of verbal behavior requires both formal and functional analyses

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Verbal Behavior, 1957 Skinner believed it was his most

important work However, it wasn’t until 20-25 years later

that his book became a “best seller” Sundberg was the one who really made it

catch fire because of his development of a practical training program for children with DD and autism (started at Croydon Ave –now Woods Edge, back in the 1970s.)

9(Skinner was actually an English major in college; wanted to be a writer; failed at that)

Linguists VB was strongly criticized by Chomsky, a

popular psycholinguist Individuals in the humanities and social

sciences do/did tend to have general anti-behavioral beliefs

Recent reviews have been more sympathetic Behavior Analysts

Completely conceptual: no data! Extremely difficult book

10(Bob D’Louhy, Celcis; is incredible, because his analyses that have been investigated have been supported: LaMarre&Holland, TAVB, MS)

1982

Verbal and nonverbal behavior Verbal behavior is no different than

nonverbal operant behavior with respect to its causes

It is learned, extended, and maintained by the same variables that cause nonverbal operant behavior

▪ Motivating operations▪ SDs and S∆s▪ Reinforcement, punishment, and extinction

11(definition on next slide)

Verbal behavior is behavior that is reinforced through the mediation of another person’s behavior

Nonverbal: R (open door) Sr (door is open)Verbal: R (“open door”) Sr (listener opens door)

Nonverbal: R (gets a glass of water) SR (water)Verbal: R (“May I have water?”) SR (listener

gives water)12

Skinner makes a clear distinction between the speaker and listener

The speaker is the verbal behaver* The listener is the person who is

affected by what the speaker says**Skinner’s analysis focuses on the

speaker – that is, why does the speaker say what he says?

*traditionally called “expressive language”**traditionally called “receptive language”

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For Skinner vb is any behavior reinforced through the mediation of another person's behavior.

[In some contexts verbal is a synonym for vocal (making sounds with the vocal musculature). In such contexts, writing, gesturing, etc. would be nonverbal.]

vocal verbal

making sounds with vocal musculature -- talking to someone to affect another person

nonvocal verbal

writing, signing (ASL), finger spelling, waving someone over, pointing to something, gesturing to affect another person

nonvocal nonverbal

walking, picking something up, opening a door, turning lights on, putting a key in a lock

vocal nonverbal

coughing, yawning, grunting, -- making sounds with vocal musculature that are not done to affect another person

Vocal verbal behavior 1. Say “tree” as a result of seeing a tree

2. Smack your lips audibly so someone will give you food or water

(use of vocal musculature)3. Sigh audibly to get the attention of your significant other

(use of vocal musculature)4. Clear your throat to get attention (use of vocal musculature)

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Nonvocal verbal behavior*1. Arms up, wants to be lifted up by Mom

2. Kick your sig. other under the table, wanting him to shut up3. Pointing to a pastry in a bakery shop, wanting the clerk to get it for you4. Waving for attention

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*in addition to writing, signing, reading, braille, picture communication systems

Vocal nonverbal1.Grunting as a result of lifting something heavy2. Coughing as a result of an irritated throat3. Yawning as a result of being tired, or to “unclog your ears”

Nonvocal nonverbal behavior1. Looking at the clock, wanting to know the time2. Putting up an umbrella, don’t want to get wet

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(could be verbal as well – grutning, wanting your roomate to help you lift something; yawning, wanting someone to leave; next slide, verbal operants)

Skinner identified six verbal operants(also called elementary verbal relations) Mand Tact Echoic Intraverbal Textual Transcription

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Skinner identified six verbal operants(also called elementary verbal relations) Mand Tact Echoic Intraverbal Textual Transcription

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I am going to have you learnthese four for the exam

(these are the ones required on the BA certification exam as well)

Verbal responses that are controlled/caused by the same variables The classification system is based on what

causes the verbal response▪ What antecedent event/stimulus evokes the

response▪ What type of reinforcement follows the response

20Examples, next page)

Child wants the SpongeBob video

ResponseMO ResponseSpecific

Reinforcement

“SpongeBob”Mom gives the child the SpongeBob video

Mand

Nonverbal SD ResponseGeneralized

Sr

Tact

Child sees poster of SpongeBob“SpongeBob” Mom says, “Good! Yes, that is SpongeBob.”

(verbal response is the same; different antecedent and different type of reinforcement; antecedents …)

:

:

Mand: Asking for reinforcers you want

Saying “shoe” because you want a shoe Tact: Naming/identifying objects, actions, events, etc.

Saying “shoe” because you see a shoe Echoic: Repeating what is said, signed, or written

Saying “shoe” after someone else says “shoe” Intraverbal: Answering questions or word associations

Saying “shoe” after someone else says “socks” Textual: Reading written words

Saying “shoe” because you see the written word “shoe” Transcription: Writing or spelling words spoken to you

Writing “shoe” because you hear someone say “shoe”

22(present them altogether first, then we will do them one by one; Not precise enough for science, but helpful; taking dictation – finger spelling)

Plain English: Asking for reinforcers you want Technically,

The antecedent event that controls the mand is the MO

The type of reinforcement that follows the mand is reinforcement related to the MO

ExamplesMO (want cookie): R (“cookie”) SR (cookie, provided

by listener)MO (want to leave party): R (sign “leave”) Sr (leave

with date)

23(form and MO next; more examples in a moment)

The mand is a verbal operant for which the form of the response is under the functional control of MOs and specific reinforcement What is meant by the form of the response?

Just the specific “word”You say “pizza” if you want a pizza or food rather than “DVD”You say “stop” if you want someone to stop doing something rather than “book”

24(MO, next slide)

What is a motivating operation?A motivating operation: -- makes a consequence more or less reinforcing and -- evokes or suppresses responses that have, in the

past, resulted in that consequence Food deprivation:

-- makes food more reinforcing and -- evokes responses that have, in the past, resulted in food

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For now, it’s OK to use “wanting” (except for the answer to SO9A: technically, what antecedent event controls the mand)

Next unit, we spend the entire unit on MOs; it will NOT be OK to substitute the “wanting” for MO in that unit

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A TENDENCY TO:

Say “apple” Sign “pen” Text “cm” Say “awesome boots” Hold up 2 fingers Say “salt, please” Write “this lecture

sucks” Point to item on menu Say “thanks”

SOLELY AS A RESULT OF:

wanting an apple wanting a pen wanting a person to call you wanting more interaction wanting two things tasting food, wanting salt wanting attention frm

another stdnt wanting to order that item wanting someone to help you

in the future27(questions about the mand? next slide, tacts)

Mand: Reinforcement is specific to the MO

▪ If the MO is “wanting water” (water dep), the rft is water

▪ If the MO is “wanting” a pen, the reinforcement is the pen

▪ If the MO is “wanting” two things, the rft is the two things

All other verbal operants Reinforcement is generalized conditioned

reinforcement

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So, before dealing with the tact, I want to deal with GSr, Sos 14, 15, 16

In Table 25.2, the abbreviation for a generalized conditioned reinforcer is GCSR

What’s wrong with that?

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(answer not on slide)

A conditioned reinforcer is a reinforcer that has been paired with one other reinforcer when the individual has been deprived of that reinforcer When food deprived: NS/SR (food) When water deprived: NS/SR (water) When in pain: NS/SR (relief of pain) When attention deprived: NS/Sr (mom’s

attention)

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A generalized conditioned reinforcer is a reinforcer that has been paired with a variety of reinforcers when the individual has been deprived of those reinforcers When food deprived, water deprived, in pain,

deprived of mom’s attention:

NS/SR (food), NS/SR (water), NS/SR (relief from pain),

NS/Sr (mom’s attention) Common GSrs include

Praise, attention, social interaction, smiles, money, etc.

31(become almost independent of any motivating operation; function as reinforcers almost all the time)

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The difference between a conditioned reinforcer and a generalized conditioned reinforcer is that:

-- a conditioned reinforcer reinforces only one behavior-- a generalized conditioned reinforcer reinforces any behavior that it follows

(answer not on slides; cannot use SO15 definition to answer this; it does not answer this question, now onto the tact, that is reinforced by GSr;)

Plain English: Naming/identifying objects, actions, events, etc.

Technically, The antecedent event that controls a tact is

a nonverbal SD The type of reinforcement that follows the

tact is a generalized conditioned reinforcer

Examples:SpeakerSD (see mommy): R ( say “mommy”) GSr (“that’s

right, I’m mommy!”)

SD (smelling smoke): R (sign “fire”) GSr (signs, “yes”)

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Listener reinforces

A TENDENCY TO:

Sign “tree” Say “up” Text “AITR” Write “helicopter” Say “DVD”* Finger spell “Caio” Say “bacon” Say “high” Write “PSY 4600, U5”

SOLELY AS A RESULT OF:

seeing a tree feeling the elevator go

up seeing an adult in the

room hearing a helicopter seeing a CD seeing Caio’s girlfriend smelling bacon cooking seeing a kite in the air seeing Dr. Dickinson

enter the room34(*”correctness” doesn’t matter)

A TENDENCY TO

Say “pizza” Sign “truck” Write “leave”

AS A RESULT OF*

both wanting and seeing a pizza

both wanting and seeing a toy truck

both wanting to leave a lecture and seeing someone else leave the lecture early

35(not “solely now; echoic next)

Plain English: Repeating what is heard, signed or written

Technically, The antecedent event that controls an echoic is

a verbal SD that has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with the response product

The type of reinforcer that follows the echoic is a generalized conditioned reinforcer

36(I’ll deal with point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity a bit later; all verbal operants, except the mand are reinforced with GSrs; examples next slide )

Examples:Speaker

SD (hear “book”): R ( say “book”) GSr (“good!”)SD (see someone sign “cat”): R (sign “cat”) GSr

( “yes”)SD (see “echoic” on white board): R (write “echoic”)

GSr (OK gesture)

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Listener reinforces

Definition of a responseMovement of the skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and secretion of the glands

Definition of a response productThe visual, auditory, or tactile stimulus that results from the response (i.e., the product of the response)

38(Before I deal with ptp corresp and formal similarity; response product; move this to U2: its an important distinction in NVB as well as VB)

RESPONSE Movement of the

vocal musculature when saying “milk”

Movement of the skeletal muscles when writing “milk”

Movement of the skeletal muscles when signing “milk”

RESPONSE PRODUCT The auditory stimulus

of hearing “milk”

The visual stimulus of the written word “milk”

The visual stimulus of the sign “milk”

39(questions? Next slide pt to pt correspondence)

Plain English: the response product is the same word as the stimulus (not good enough for the exam, but possibly helpful)

Technically, the beginning, middle, and end of the verbal SD matches the beginning, middle, and end of the response product

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(Reminder: echoics are evoked by a verbal SD that has pt to pt correspondence andformal similarity with the response product)

ExamplesSD (hear “cat”): R (say “cat”)

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SD (hear “cat”): R (write “cat”)

Examples SD (see “cat”): R (say “cat”)

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SD (see “cat”): R (write “cat”)

More examplesSD (see someone sign “dog”): R (sign “dog”)SD (see someone finger spell “dog”): R (finger spell “dog”)SD (see “WMU” written): R (finger spell “WMU”)SD (see “snow” written): R (say “snow”)SD (hear someone say “bell”): R (write “bell”)

43(nonexamples, next slide)

NonexamplesSD (hear “dog”): R (say “chiuaua”)SD (see “5”): R (write “five”)SD (hear “percentage”): R (write “%”)SD (hear “write your name”): R (write your name: “Jeana”)SD (see someone sign “dog”): R (say “dog”)SD (see “cat”): R (sign “cat”)

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(cannot be ptp correspondence between signing and anything but signing)

Formal similarityBoth the verbal SD and the response product are in the same sense modeThat is, both are auditory, visual, or tactile*

45examples and nonexamples next)

*For signing must be another sign, not just a visual stimulus such as a written word

ExamplesSD (hear “bear”): R (say “bear”) auditory/auditorySD (see “bear” written): R (write “bear”) visual/visual SD (see someone sign “bear”): R (sign “bear”) sign/signSD (hear “milk”): R (say “cookies”)SD (see someone sign “milk”): R (sign “cookies”)SD (see “milk” written): R (write “milk”)

NonexamplesSD (hear “bear”): R (write “bear”) auditory/visualSD (see “bear” written): R (sign “bear”) visual/signSD (see someone sign “bear”): R (say “bear”) sign/auditory SD (hear someone say “milk”): R (sign “cookies”) auditory/sign

46(questions? Examples of echoics next)

Note these twocarefully. They haveformal similarity eventhough they do not have point-to-pointcorrespondence

Plain English: Repeating, imitating what is heard, signed or written

Technically, the antecedent event that controls an echoic is a verbal SD that has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with the response product

ExamplesSD (hear “book”): R ( say “book”) ptp:

auditory/auditory

SD (see someone sign “cat”): R (sign “cat”) ptp: sign/sign

SD (see “echoic” on white board): R (write “echoic”) ptp: visual/visual

SD (see someone finger spell “WMU”): R (finger spell “WMU”)

ptp: finger spell/finger spell

47(less technically, there is an exact match between the verbal SD and response product; onto intraverbals)

Plain English: Answering questions and word associations

Technically, The antecedent event that controls an IV is a

verbal SD that does not have point-to-point correspondence with the response product▪ Note: formal similarity is irrelevant

The type of reinforcer that follows an intraverbal is a generalized conditioned reinforcer

48(Sundberg doesn’t say word associations, but particularly helpful; words controlled by different words; examples next slide)

Examples:Speaker

SD (hear “color”): R ( say “red”) GSr (“Yes, red is a color. I like red, too”)

SD (see someone sign “cat”): R (sign “dog”) GSr ( “yes”)

SD (see “red, white, and”): R (say “blue”) GSr (listener smiles, nods)

SD (hear “five”): R (write “5”) GSr (“yep”)SD (hear “where do you live?”): R (say “Kalamazoo”) GSr

(“that’s cool”)

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Listener reinforces

(no ptp, formal similarity doesn’t matter)

Examples:Speaker

SD (hear “color”): R ( say “red”) no ptp

SD (see someone sign “cat”): R (sign “dog”) no ptp

SD (see “red, white, and”): R (say “blue”) no ptp

SD (hear “five”): R (write “5”) no ptp

SD (hear “where do you live?”): R (say “Kalamazoo”) no ptp

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(same examples, no ptp, formal similarity doesn’t matter)

Plain English: Reading* written wordsTechnically,

The antecedent event that controls a textual is a visual or tactile (braille) verbal SD that has point-to-point correspondence but not formal similarity

The response product is auditory The type of reinforcement is GSr

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(I am going to give you examples to classify on exam, and I will have textuals and transcriptions, but I am not going to require you to identify them as such, bonus pts. “V”; do have to recognize that they are not examples of mands, tacts, echoics, and intraverbals;* textuals – not reading because reading implies“understanding” and Skinner did not want that implication)

ExamplesSD (see “car”): R (say “car”) GSr (“yes!”) ptp: visual/auditory

SD (see “mand”): R (say “mand”) GSr (“OK!”) ptp: visual/auditory

SD (see “up”): R (say “up”) GSr (“Yep”) ptp: visual/auditory

SD (see “cat”): R (say “cat”) GSr (“good!”) ptp: visual/auditory

Reminder: SD is a written verbal stimulus Response product has point-to-point correspondence with SD Response product does not have formal similarity with the

SD Reinforcement is GSr

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Plain English: Writing, typing, and finger spelling words you hear (taking dictation)

Technically, The antecedent event that controls a transcription

is an auditory verbal SD that has point-to-point correspondence but not formal similarity

The response product is visual: (written, typed, or spelled)▪ Basically, a visual stimulus that is not signing: signing

cannot have point-to-point correspondence with an auditory SD

The type of reinforcement is a GSr

53(Skinner: Taking dictation, Mark changed name to better include finger spelling)

ExamplesSD (hear “car”): R (write “car”) GSr (“good!”)

SD (hear “WMU”): R (finger spell “WMU”) GSr (“yeah, man, go Broncos!”)

SD (hear“Jake”) : R (write “Jake”) GSr (“yep, that’s Jake”)SD (hear “library”): R (text “library”) GSr (message/noise

that text has been sent)

Reminder:

54(Skinner: Taking dictation, Mark changed name to better include finger spelling)

•SD: auditory verbal stimulus•Response product has point-to-point correspondence with SD•Response product does not have formal similarity with SD•Response product is visual (written, typed, or finger spelled)•Reinforcement is GSr

ExamplesSD (hear “car”): R (write “car”) ptp: auditory/visual

SD (hear “WMU”): R (finger spell “WMU”) ptp: auditory/visual

SD (hear“Jake”): R (write “Jake”) ptp: auditory/visualSD (hear “library”): R (text “library”) ptp: auditory/visual

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(ptp, auditory/visual (but not signing)

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Elementary Verbal Operants (Relations)

MO SD

Form of R controlled by

mand

verbal SD nonverbal SD

ptp no ptp

tact

intraverbal

formal similarity no formal similarityechoi

ctextual (visual/auditory)transcription (auditory/visual)

In Table 25.3, the classification exercise in the chapter, the textuals are misclassified!

Incorrect examples7. Write “book” as a result of hearing “book”

26. Finger spell “run” as a result of hearing “run”

These are both transcriptions, not textuals ptp: auditory/visual

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A TENDENCY TOA TENDENCY TO

Say “airplane” Say “I’m fine” Say “cookies” Step on the brakes Say “red” Write “book” Sign “apple” Say “mesa”

SOLELY AS A RESULT OFSOLELY AS A RESULT OF

Hearing an airplane Hearing “How are you?” Smelling cookies baking* Seeing “stop” written on

sign Hearing “color”* Hearing “book”* Seeing “apple” written Hearing “table”

58(*Why T/M as answer in book?; why M?; why IV/T as answer in book?; TS, not TX; all signs except T and E, must be IV )

A TENDENCY TO

Write “wet” Sign “tree” Say “WMU” Turn up heat Write “large” Say “cat” Write “book” Say “loud”

Sign “4”

SOLELY AS A RESULT OF

Hearing “ocean” Seeing a tree Seeing “WMU” Wanting it to be warmer Hearing “large” Seeing someone sign

“cat” Wanting a book Hearing someone yell

“GO BRONCOS” Hearing “four”

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Previously….The listener mediates the reinforcement for the speaker

And also (new, 28A) The listener becomes an SD for the

speaker’s behavior* Non-technically, the listener is an

audience for verbal behavior

60(Skinner quote next slide along with diagram, 28B)

*Note carefully that the listener does not become a reinforcer for the listener – which is a commonincorrect answer when I ask this question (actually the listener could become a reinforcer for the listener but that is not the point of this analysis, so I will consider this answer incorrect)

Skinner:“An audience, then, is a discriminative stimulus in the presence of which verbal behavior is characteristically reinforced and in the presence of which, therefore, it is characteristically strong.” *

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SD: R (speaker) GSr or SR/Sr (audience) verbal responsereinforcement

provided byS∆: R (speaker) EXT No (audience) verbal response No reinforcement

*And in the absence of which verbal behavior is not reinforced, emphasis on Sr, Ext)

The audience is an SD in the presence of which a verbal response is characteristically strong, but the audience does not control the type of the verbal response (verbal operant)

The antecedent MO, nonverbal stimulus, or verbal stimulus that is also present controls the type of the verbal response

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(whether you emit a mand, tact, intraverbal, etc.,

Example

MO: (food dep): SD (friend): R (will you share your potato chips with me?) SR (food)

SD: (sight of Dr. D): SD (friend): R (hey, there’s Dr. D!) Sr (“glad you warned me, man!”)

LaMarre & Holland (1985) JEAB

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This study demonstrates that the elementary verbal operants are fucntionally independent, that is: Controlled by different variables (MO, verbal SD,

nonverbal SD) Just because a person can say “milk” as a mand does

not mean that the person can say “milk” as a tact▪ A word is not a word is not a word

Common belief both in both linguistics and lay community is that we learn the “meaning” of a word and then can use it in all different situations

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(as we get older and become fluent speakers, this changes, and we can/do generalize across the verbal operants; the fact that children can’t means that weshould be teaching verbal behavior to those who have trouble developing it very differently than has often been done in the past; stroke victims/brain injured/alzhiemerstend to loose Ts before other elementary operants – can mand easily, but not emit tacts)

Participants: 9 children, 3 ½ - 5 years old Verbal responses: “on the right” and “on the left” 4 participants

1. Trained “on the right” and “on the left” as mands2. Tested to see whether the kids could then tact “on the

right” and “on the left”3. Trained to tact “on the right” and “on the left”4. Reversed mand training: Retrained the kids to say

▪ “on the right” when they wanted an object placed on the left and

▪ “on the left” when they wanted an object placed on the right

5. Tested to see if the tacts “on the right” and “on the left” reversed as well

65(typically developing kids, couldn’t use colors, animals, etc., verbal response the kids couldn’t emit as a mand or tact)

5 participants as control received tact training first1. Trained “on the right” and “on the left” as tacts2. Tested to see whether the kids could then mand

“on the right” and “on the left”3. Trained to mand “on the right” and “on the left”4. Reversed tact training: Retrained the kids to say

▪ “on the right” when the object was on the left and

▪ “on the left” when the object was on the right5. Tested to see if the mands “on the right” and “on

the left” reversed as well

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However, a word of caution about SO34:“What did the collateral tacting testing procedure consist of?”

I define what collateral tacting testing is in the study objective, but I do not tell you how they did it. That is different, and that is what I am asking you to learn.

67

For all nine participants, mands and tacts were shown to be functionally independent. That is, Children who were first trained to mand

“on the right” and “on the left” were not able to tact “on the right” and “on the left” and

Children who were first trained to tact “on the right” and “on the left” were not able to mand “on the right” and “on the left”

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For six of the nine participants reversing one verbal operant did not reverse the other. That is, Children who were retrained to say

“on the right” when they wanted the object on the left and “on the left” when they wanted the object on the right as mands

continued to tact “on the right” when the object was, indeed, on the right and “on the left” when the object was, indeed, on the left

Children who were retrained to say▪ “on the right” when the object was actually on the left and “on

the left” when the object was actually on the right as tacts▪ continued to say “on the right” when they wanted the object on

the right and “on the left” when they wanted the object on the left as mands

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The tacts and mands in this study were not “pure” tacts and mands

When training and testing tacts, the Es placed objects on the right or on the left and asked:Where is the [dog, flower, car]?Because of that, the tact was really a part tact, part IV

When training and testing mands, the Es askedWhere do you want me to put the [dog, flower, car]?Again, because of the question, the mand was really part mand, part IV

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(last slide on this – next slide, Loftus)

Elizabeth F. Loftus (2003), American Psychologist

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Nothing from this article will be on the exam The article demonstrates how easily our memories

become “make-believe” Below are some of the general results of her work

Eyewitness testimony – it is very easy to influence what a person “remembers” after seeing a crime or an accident

Planting false memories – it is also easy to create a memory for an event that never happened; even very implausible events like witnessing the demonic possession of a child can be “planted”

Rich false memories – individuals create details and embellish events that never happened; that is they don’t just repeat or “remember” the false memory that was planted

People act on those false memories - people believe them and even change their nonverbal behavior to be consistent with the false memory

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(I included it because it is fascinating work you should know about and is highly relevant to our analysis of verbal behavior, although Loftus does not talk about it that way; last point – they have already altered their verbal behavior)

Implications are far reaching False convictions based on (or at least partially on)

eyewitness testimony False indictments of individuals for sexual or

physical abuse based on “recovered memories” of victims

False indictments of individuals for sexual and physical abuse done during satanic rituals

Less dramatic, but nonetheless,▪ Changes in the way we behave toward certain people

based on our false memories of being insulted by them or something we falsely remember them doing that we found offensive

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Loftus: Two things can affect memory Simple suggestion Plying the person with false feedback

More behaviorally: Altering the form of the verbal SDs that

control/evoke our intraverbal and echoic responses Reinforcing the intraverbal/echoic responses that

are emitted by the speaker, and shaping them through subtle forms of reinforcement▪ “Good, you remember that.”▪ “I know that must have been traumatic for you. Tell me more

about it”▪ A simple nod, eye contact, or smile▪ Note all of the above are forms of GSrs

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Showed people videos of traffic accidents and then altered the questions she asked them The verbal SD of “Did you see the broken

headlight” led to more false reports of a broken headlight than did the verbal SD of “Was there a broken headlight?”

The verbal SD of “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other” led to higher estimates of speed than did “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”

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(it’s pretty easy to analyze, under ordinary circumstances, in a regular conversation, people don’t ask us if we saw the something if that something never happened-and In fact may provide mild punishment if we say no – what do you mean you didn’t see it?? second question is much more “neutral.”)

College students were given descriptions of events that had happened when they were young (put together by family members)

One event, being lost in a mall, was false 25% of the participants came to believe

they had indeed become lost in a mall for an extended period of time, were highly upset, and were ultimately rescued and returned to their family by an elderly individual

Many added embellishing details

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Adults were led to believe that they had personally met Bugs Bunny at Disneyland 62% of those who believed this personal

encounter said they shook his hand 46% remembered hugging him Others remembered touching his ear or

tail, or hearing him say “What’s up Doc?”

77(led to believe Bugs had touched them inappropriately)

What is wrong with this?Why isn’t this even possible?

Bugs Bunny is a Warner Brothers cartoon character and----

“the wascally Warner Bros. Wabbit would be awwested on sight” at Disney

(Malcolm, 2003, Los Angeles Times)

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Much of what we refer to as memory is verbal behavior (some is visual memory)

Our verbal behavior can be easily influenced by The verbal SDs that evoke and control our

intraverbals Reinforcement provided by the listener for what we

say Be careful – some of your memories may be

false And remember the memories of others may be

false, But in both cases they may be “honest lies”

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(notice that we believe them to be true – we are not lying, they are, rather “honest” lies”)

THE END

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