school of thoughts summaries

8/12/2019 School of Thoughts Summaries

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School of thoughts

Nineteenth- Century Evolutionism

Unilineal Evolution: Taylor& Morgan

Edward B .Taylor was first professional anthropologist and Britain scholar. In 1871 he published

major work on primitive Culture. At that time Great Britain was involved in imperialistic

expansion in all over the world. Taylor had access to the description of non western society.

The question faced by early anthropologists was Why societies at similar or different level of

evolution and development? He tried to answer that question through unilineal evolution.

Unilineal evolution is view that society evolve in a single direction toward complexity, progress

and civilization. Taylor used accounts from Western observer to compare certain cultural

elements from different societies including technology, family, economy, political organization,

art, religion and philosophy. He organized this event into 3 stages savagery to barbarism to

civilization. Theorist assumed that hunter & gatherers and other non western societies were

living at a low level of existence then civilized societies of Europe. This was an ethnocentric

view of social development. Westren societies were the centre of the civilized world and other

non western societies were inherently inferior.

Another 19th

century anthropologist was Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) he belongs to

America. He was particularly interested in kinship term used in different part of world. He

observes that Iroquois kinship term is different from that of English, Latin, Greek and other

European societies. He also notice that Iroquois kinship term were similar to those of the

Ojibwa Indians, a group living in Midwestern United States. He assumes that human originally

lived in primitive hordes in which sexual behavior was not regulated and people did not know

who their father was? . Then brother sister marriage developed followed by matriarchal family

structure. According to Morgan Private property is one of the critical differences between

civilized societies and earlier society. He describes the savagery society as communistic incontrast to civilized society. Morgan believes that final stage of evolution began when male

took control of economy and politics.

Unilineal Evolution: Criticism

The views of these nineteen century thinker are ethnocentric, contradictory and speculative. Unilineal

evolutionist relied on nineteen century racist view of human development and misunderstandings of


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biological evolution to explain societal difference. Morgan maintains a Lamarckian view of heredity.

According to that human intelligence increase from generation to generation through the use of rational

thought, which increase brain size? But this view rejected by scientific community.

DiffusionismIt is also a school of thought which established in early twentieth century. Culture traveling from one

place to other place. Two major schools of diffusionism were Britain and German.

British Diffusionism

Smith and Perry studied Egyptian culture and they conduct their research in Egyptology for number of

years. They believed that civilization originated from Egypt and diffuse to all over the world.

German Diffusionism

Wilhelm Schmidt and his follower argue that civilizationdiffusion is like a circle. Cultural trait spreadaway from in circle to other Regionand people..

Strength

Diffusion has some validity to societal development .For example it help to explain the emergence of

classical understand civilization of Egypt, Greece, Phoenicia and Rome.

Limitations

The diffusionism assumes that some people are not sufficiently original to develop their own culture.

And culture traits in the same geographical vicinity will inevitable spread from one society to other.

However anthropologist fined that diffusion is not a predictable process.

Historical ParticularismThat theory led by US Anthropologist Franz Boas and it proposed an alternative answer to why societal

similarities and differences existed? Boas has great effect on the development of anthropology both in

U.S and internationally. Boas criticized the unilineal evolutionist. He criticized their attempt to propose

stages of evolution through which all society develop. He also said that nineteenth century scheme of

evolution is based on insufficient empirical evidence. Boas fieldwork experience guides him to conclude

that each society has its own unique historical development. One aspect of his view is that no society isevolved as higher as or lower than other. Boas is one of the first scientist in the united state that

demonstrate that brain size and cranial capacity of human were not directly linked to intelligence.


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FunctionalismFunctionalism is the study that society consists of institution that serves fundamental purpose for

people instead of focusing on origin and evolution of society. British functionalist explored the

relationship among different institution and how these institutions work for the welfare of the society.

Structural-FunctionalismThe functionalism that associated with Radclife Brown is referred as Structural-Functionalism. His

research had completed in Africa and on Andaman Island. He focused on the structure of society as

reflect in the differing institutions that function to facilitate the society.

Psychological Functionalism

Malinowski functionalism focused on how society functioned to serve the individuals interest or need.

He did his major ethnographic study in Trobiand Island.

The limitation of functionalism

Functionalism failed to explain that why societies are different and similar. That is not concerned with

the origin of the institute but they focused on how these institution works for the welfare of society. For

example they could not explain that why British society experience rapid technological change whereas

other societies did not although they both have similar needs. They also did not explain the social and

culture changes. However this school of thought influences research in anthropology. It encourages the

collection of valuable ethnographic data by focusing on the detailed specific functions of institutions

within existing societies.

Twentieth-Century EvolutionismLeslie White suggests a new twentieth century perspective on the evolution of society. which also

referred as neo-evolution. Whitessuggestion of cultural evolution explained in the level of societal

development by examining difference in the technology and energy production. For example his theory

that hunting gathering society had not developed complex social and cultural system because they

depend on human energy for production.

Steward and Cultural Ecology

Stewards cultural ecology framework divided a social and culture stem into two different sphere

cultural core and secondary feature. The culture core consist of those element s most closely related to

subsistence, the environment, technology and economic arrangement. The other characteristics such as

social organization, politics, or religion are secondary feature.


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The Strength of Neo_ evolutionism

The twentieth century evolution differed from nineteenth century in several ways.They did not assumeunilineal direction of society.They are not ethnocentrically biased. They did not assume social andcultural complexity toward was always equated with progress as did the nineteenth century.

Criticism of Cultural Ecology

Different anthropologistscritics that cultural ecology only highlight the role of environment and did not

give any importance to political or historical factors. And cultural ecology reduces human behavior to

simple adoption to external environment.

Cultural MaterialismDeveloped by Marvin Harris in expansion of 20

thcentury evolution focused on technology,

environmental and economic factors.Cultural materialists divide all social and cultural system into the

infrastructure, structure, and superstructure. The infrastructure includes mode of production and

reproduction and the practices employed for expanding or limiting basic subsistence production. The

structure consists of domestic economy like family structure etc .The superstructure includes

philosophy, art, music, religion, science etc. As infrastructure changes, the structure and superstructure

may change accordingly.

Marxist AnthropologyMarxist anthropology also referred as dialectical materialism. Dialectical materialism view the

relationship among the infrastructure, structure, super structure as continues interactive process in

which each element influence the others in a historically dynamic process.

Marx theorized that society had evolved through various stages: the tribal, the Asiatic, the feudal and

finally the capitalist stage. Marx proposed that specific mode of production within a society influences

the other characteristics of society.

Theoretical Application of Marxism

Marx anthropologists do not view the society as static, harmonious system as do the functionalists, but

rather as continually in conflict and in stat of transformation.

False Consciousness

This is an ability of none lite group to perceive their own interest within society. Marx believes those

powerful groups manipulate the cultural values and religion to maintain their privileged status in

society. These institutions convince the powerless people that they are responsible for their own

deprivation. But they never realize that their situation is due to unequal and unjust system.


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