SCIENCE Prepared by: Orlan Defensor Balano

A fact is a simple statement that everyone believes. It is innocent,

unless found guilty. A hypothesis is a novel suggestion that no one wants to

believe. It is guilty, until found effective.

Definition

• is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe

• Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era, and in many historical civilizations, but modern science is so distinct in its approach and successful in its results that it now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the term.

MEDIEVAL SCIENCE

• During the early medieval period, Syrian Christians from Eastern Europe such as Nestorians and Monophysites were the ones that translated much of the important Greek science texts from Greek to Syriac and the later on the translated many of the works into Arabic and other languages under Islamic rule.

RENAISSANCE AND EARLY MODERN SCIENCE

• Copernicus formulated a heliocentric model of the solar system unlike the geocentric model of Ptolemy's Almagest.

• René Descartes and Francis Bacon published philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Descartes argued that mathematics could be used in order to study nature, as Galileo had done, and Bacon emphasized the importance of experiment over contemplation. Bacon also argued that science should aim for the first time at practical inventions for the improvement of all human life.

20th Century

• Einstein's Theory of Relativity and the development of quantum mechanics led to the replacement of Newtonian physics with a new physics which contains two parts, that describe different types of events in nature.

PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE

Pure science

–is primarily concerned with the development of theories establishing relations between the phenomena of the universe. These relations (hypotheses, models) become the working laws or principles of science.

Applied science

• is directly concerned with the application of the working laws of pure science to practical affairs of life, and to increase man's control over his environment

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

• refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.[1] To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.

Steps of scientific method:

– Observation of a Phenomenon• Begins with observation• Use of five senses

– Definition of Problem• Defines the problem, and states the limit and

make it manageable

– Formulation of hypothesis– The experiment– Drawing of Conclusion–Hypothesis, theory and Law

BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

Physical Science

• Physics• Chemistry• Astronomy

The Earth Sciences

• Geology• Oceanography• Paleontology• Meteorology

Life Sciences

• Botany• Zoology• Genetics• Medicine• Physiology• Anatomy • Microbiology

BIOLOGY

Among the most important topics are five unifying principles that can be

said to be the fundamental axioms of modern biology:

• Cells are the basic unit of life• New species and inherited traits are

the product of evolution• Genes are the basic unit of heredity• An organism regulates its internal

environment to maintain a stable and constant condition

• Living organisms consume and transform energy

Brief history of Biology

• While the formal study of medicine dates back to Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC – ca. 370 BC), it was Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) who contributed most extensively to the development of biology.

• Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages

• Biology began to quickly develop and grow with Antony van Leeuwenhoek's

• In 1838 and 1839, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the ideas that– (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and – (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics

of life, although they opposed the idea that – (3) all cells come from the division of other cells.

• Carolus Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species

CELL THEORY

The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:

• All known living things are made up of one or more cells.

• All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.

• The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.

• The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.

• Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.

• Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed from cell to cell during cell division.

• All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species.

Types of cells• Prokaryotes– lack a nucleus (though they do have circular

DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). Bacteria and Archaea are two domains of prokaryotes.

• Eukaryotes– have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear

membrane and membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles). In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMAL CELL AND PLANT CELLTypical Animal Cell Typical Plant Cell

Organelle

Nucleus

o Nucleolus (within nucleus)

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Smooth ER

Ribosome

Cytoskeleton

Golgi apparatus

Cytoplasm

Mitochondria

Vesicles

Lysosomes

Centrosome

o Centrioles

Nucleus

o Nucleolus (within nucleus)

Rough ER

Smooth ER

Ribosomes

Cytoskeleton

Golgi apparatus (dictiosomes)

Cytoplasm

Mitochondria

Plastids and its derivatives

Vacuole(s)

Cell wall

EVOLUTION

“It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent that survives. It is the one that is the most adaptable to change.”

--- Charles Darwin

• Is any change across successive generations in the inherited characteristics of biological populations. Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organization, including species, individual organisms and molecules such as DNA and proteins.

HEREDITY

• Phenotype - The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism• Chromosomes - the long

strands of DNA form condensed structures

The Six Kingdoms of Living Organism

• Animals• Plants• Fungi• Protista• Eubacteria• Archaebacteria

Law of Mendel’s

• Law of Segregation states that every individual possesses a pair of alleles (assuming diploidy) for any particular trait and that each parent passes a randomly selected copy (allele) of only one of these to its offspring.

• Law of Independent Assortment, also known as "Inheritance Law", states that separate genes for separate traits are passed independently of one another from parents to offspring.

Homeostasis

• is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain stable conditions by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms

Branches of biology

• Aerobiology – the study of airborne organic particles

• Agriculture – the study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical applications

• Anatomy – the study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans

• Arachnology – the study of arachnids• Astrobiology – the study of evolution,

distribution, and future of life in the universe—also known as exobiology, exopaleontology, and bioastronomy

• Biochemistry – the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level

• Bioengineering – the study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology

• Biogeography – the study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally

• Bioinformatics – the use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data

• Biomathematics (or Mathematical biology) – the quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes, with an emphasis on modeling

• Biomechanics – often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or orthotics

• Biomedical research – the study of the human body in health and disease

• Biophysics – the study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical sciences

• Biotechnology – a new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology

• Building biology – the study of the indoor living environment

• Botany – the study of plants• Cell biology – the study of the cell as a

complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell

• Conservation biology – the study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife

• Cryobiology – the study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living beings

• Developmental biology – the study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure

• Ecology – the study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment

• Embryology – the study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth)

• Entomology – the study of insects• Environmental biology – the study of the natural world,

as a whole or in a particular area, especially as affected by human activity

• Epidemiology – a major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations

• Epigenetics – the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence

• Ethology – the study of animal behavior• Evolutionary biology – the study of the origin and

descent of species over time

• Genetics – the study of genes and heredity• Herpetology – the study of reptiles and amphibians• Histology – the study of cells and tissues, a

microscopic branch of anatomy• Ichthyology – the study of fish• Integrative biology – the study of whole organisms• Limnology – the study of inland waters• Mammalogy – the study of mammals• Marine biology (or Biological oceanography) – the

study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings

• Microbiology – the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things

• Molecular biology – the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry

• Mycology – the study of fungi• Neurobiology – the study of the nervous system,

including anatomy, physiology and pathology• Oncology – the study of cancer processes,

including virus or mutation oncogenesis, angiogenesis and tissues remoldings

• Ornithology – the study of birds• Population biology – the study of groups of

conspecific organisms, including– Population ecology – the study of how population dynamics

and extinction– Population genetics – the study of changes in gene

frequencies in populations of organisms

• Paleontology – the study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life

• Pathobiology or pathology – the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of disease

• Parasitology – the study of parasites and parasitism

• Pharmacology – the study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines

• Physiology – the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms

• Phytopathology – the study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology)

• Psychobiology – the study of the biological bases of psychology

• Sociobiology – the study of the biological bases of sociology

• Structural biology – a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules

• Virology – the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents

• Zoology – the study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior (branches include: Entomology, Ethology, Herpetology, Ichthyology, Mammalogy, and Ornithology)

ECOLOGY

Ecologists seek to explain:

– Life processes and adaptations– Distribution and abundance of

organisms– The movement of materials and energy

through living communities– The successional development of

ecosystems, and– The abundance and distribution of

biodiversity in context of the environment.

BIODIVERSITY

• Biodiversity (an abbreviation of biological diversity) describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. Biodiversity means different things to different people and there are many ways to index, measure, characterize, and represent its complex organization.

HABITAT

• The habitat of a species describes the environment over which a species is known to occur and the type of community that is formed as a result

• Biotope and habitat are sometimes used interchangeably, but the former applies to a communities environment, whereas the latter applies to a species' environment.

• NICHE- is the set of environmental conditions under which a species is able to persist.

• BIOMES - are larger units of organization that categorize regions of the Earth's ecosystems mainly according to the structure and composition of vegetation.– Examples of biome names include: tropical

rainforest, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, temperate deciduous forest, taiga, tundra, hot desert, and polar desert

POPULATION ECOLOGY

• Malthusian growth model : “a population will grow (or decline) exponentially as long as the environment experienced by all individuals in the population remains constant."

FOOD WEB

• is the archetypal ecological network. • Plants capture and convert solar energy into the

biomolecular bonds of simple sugars during photosynthesis. This food energy is transferred through a series of organisms starting with those that feed on plants and are themselves consumed. The simplified linear feeding pathways that move from a basal trophic species to a top consumer is called the food chain. The larger interlocking pattern of food chains in an ecological community creates a complex food web. Food webs are a type of concept map or a heuristic device that is used illustrate and study pathways of energy and material flows

SOIL ECOLOGY

• is the study of the interactions among soil organisms, and between biotic and abiotic aspects of the soil environment.

Features of the soil ecosystem

• Moisture itself becomes a major limiting factor on land. Terrestrial organisms are constantly confronted with the problem of dehydration. Transpiration or evaporation of water from plant surfaces is an energy dissipating process unique to the terrestrial environment.

• Temperature variations and extremes are more pronounced in the air than in the water medium.

• On the other hand, the rapid circulation of air throughout the globe results in a ready mixing and remarkably constant content of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

• Although soil offers solid support, air does not. Storing skeletons have been evolved in both land plants and animals and also special means of locomotion have been evolved in the latter.

• Land, unlike the ocean, is not continuous; there are important geographical barriers to free movement.

• The nature of the substrate, although important in water is especially vital in terrestrial environment. Soil, not air, is the source of highly variable nutrients; it is a highly developed ecological subsystem.

Aquatic Ecosystem

• is an ecosystem in a body of water• two types:–Marine–Freshwater

Marine Ecosystem

• cover approximately 71% of the Earth's surface and contain approximately 97% of the planet's water.

• They generate 32% of the world's net primary production

Marine ecosystems can be divided into the following zones:

• oceanic (the open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live); profundal (bottom or deep water);

• benthic (bottom substrates); • intertidal (the area between high and low

tides); • estuaries; • salt marshes; • coral reefs; and • hydrothermal vents (where chemosynthetic

sulfur bacteria form the food base)

Freshwater Ecosystem

• Three Basic Type of Freshwater Ecosystem

• Lentic: slow-moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes.

• Lotic: rapidly-moving water, for example streams and rivers.

• Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time

Lake ecosystems can be divided into zones:

• pelagic (open offshore waters); profundal; littoral (nearshore shallow waters); and

• riparian (the area of land bordering a body of water).

• Two important subclasses of lakes are ponds, which typically are small lakes that intergrade with wetlands, and water reservoirs. Many lakes, or bays within them, gradually become enriched by nutrients and fill in with organic sediments, a process called eutrophication.

• Eutrophication is accelerated by human activity within the water catchment area of the lake