SCIENCE ETHICS AND SOCIETY:SCIENCE, ETHICS AND SOCIETY:MNSES9100

Deborah Oughton

Department of Plant and Environmental ScienceDepartment of Plant and Environmental Science

University of Oslo’s Ethics Programme

d b h ht @ bdeborah.oughton@umb.no

21112005

NO

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EGIAN Ethical Analysis

ETHICAL G

UN U

NIVERSITY

Ethical AnalysisUID

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NY OF LIFE SCIEN

Case based

Against Ethical Guidelines or Codes of Conduct

NSES9100 (AutuN

CES

Against Fundamental Ethical Principles

umn 2008) D

eeborah Oughtonn

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RESEACH ET Scientific Fraud and MisconductN

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THICS M

NSES

Scientific Fraud and Misconduct

1. Fabrication and construction of data (forgery)

2 D t i l ti /f l ifi ti ( l ti

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9100 Deborah

2. Data manipulation /falsification (selection, substitution, misleading statistical methods)

3 Deliberate distortion of results or conclusionsNCES

h Oughton

3. Deliberate distortion of results or conclusions

4. Plagiarism of results, publications or ideas

5 Proposal applications containing incorrect5. Proposal applications containing incorrect information

6. Inappropriate author credit (omission or honorary

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author credit)

7. Negligent filing and storage of data

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NENT: Den nasjonale forskningsetiske komité for naturvitenskap og teknologi www.etikkom.no

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EGIAN UiO

ETHICAL G

UN U

NIVERSITY

UiO

UiO Forskningsetikk http://www uio no/forskning/om-forskningen/

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NY OF LIFE SCIEN

http://www.uio.no/forskning/om-forskningen/ etikk/

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ebNCES

– UiOs 10 bud for god forskningsskikk

– Håndbok for god forskningsskikk

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– Forskningsetisk utvalg

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ETHICAL G

U Ethical GuidelinesN U

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Ethical Guidelines

General guidelines – NENT (www.etikkom.no)Y OF LIFE SCIEN

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UiO Forskningsetikk http://www.uio.no/forskning/hverdag/forskningsetikk/

Guidelines for publication and review The InternationalNCES

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Guidelines for publication and review – The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) – “Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals” (the Vancouver Convention) www icmje orgJournals” (the Vancouver Convention) www.icmje.org

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Research Ethics Guidelines

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General guidelines – NENT and NESH (www.etikkom.no)- Research Ethics Guidelines for Natural Science and Technology (NENT)

- Research Ethics Guidelines for Social Sciences, Humanites, Law and Theology

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Research Ethics Guidelines for Social Sciences, Humanites, Law and Theology

- Both available in Norwegian and English

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NENT Guidelines

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Overarching Obligations of Research– Human rights, sustainability, peace, democracy, justice

Good research practice

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N

THURS

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p– Including Publication and Authorship

Uncertainty, risk and the precautionary principle

P t ti f h bj t

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ebNCES Protection of research subjects

Protection of animals in research

Relationship with traditional and alternative sources of

borah Oughton

Relationship with traditional and alternative sources of knowledge

Openness, contract research and conflicts of interest

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Whistle-blowing and ethical responsibility

Research and popularization

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ENVIRO

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Deontology

N U

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ENTAL ETH

ICS

Rule based theory of ethics. e.g., Do not kill, lie, cheat, etc.;Y O

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(MIN

A100) D

kill, lie, cheat, etc.;

Treat persons as ends in themselves, never as means to an end (Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804)N

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Deborah O

ughto

Kant, 1724 1804)

Some actions are impermissible whatever the consequences (lying, killing, breaking promises)on promises)

Emphasis on rights, duties and constraints

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ENVIRO

NM

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Utilitarianism/Consequentialism

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ENTAL ETH

ICS

“The greatest happiness of the Y OF LIFE SCIEN

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greatest number” (Jeremy Bentham 1748-1832; John Stuart Mill 1806-1873)N

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Deborah O

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Mill 1806-1873).

Weighing positive and negative consequenceson consequences

Ethical significance depends on outcomes, not on intrinsic values

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outcomes, not on intrinsic values of acts themselves

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BIOETH

ICS

Case: ”Designer babies”

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INTR

O (BIO

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• The Adam Nash caseA l b i ti di

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40) Deborah O

• A couple bearing a genetic disease had given birth to a child, Molly, who need a bone marrow transplantN

CES

Oughton

transplant• They decided to have a new child,

using IVF, and by genetic screening of the embryos select g ythe child that would make the best donor.

• What are the best utilitarian and

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deontological arguments for andagainst embryo screening?

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RESEACH ET

Research Ethics: Three areas of ibilit

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NIVERSITY

THICS M

NSES

responsibility

S i ifi i h

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9100 Deborah

Scientific community: research norms, misconduct, publication

NCES

h Oughton

Research subjects: humans, embryos, animals

Society: the public, environment, patents,

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environment, patents, technological risk

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RESEACH ET

Case 1: Harming Research Subjects: Milgram’s Obedience StudiesN

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Obedience Studies

Stanley Milgram: Psychologist at Yale UniversityY OF LIFE SCIEN

9100 Deborah

y g y g yExperiment: “Obedience to Authority” 1974

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Oughton

Research volunteers, “teachers”, were told to give electric shocks to what they thought were research subjects, “learners”, as part of a study on the effect of punishment on learning. Even though many showed unease and asked questions, 65% followed the orders “all the way”, to 450 Volt

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RESEACH ETN

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9100 DeborahN

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h Oughton

Obedience to Authority 1974

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Obedience to Authority, 1974

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RESEACH ET Milgram’s ResultsN

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THICS M

NSES

Milgram s Results65%Initial studyY O

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48%

65%

Low prestige setting

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30%

40%

Teacher touches learner

Teacher, learner together

22%Teacher experimenterapart

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20%

Two Confederates rebel

Non-professor in charge

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0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

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RESEACH ET Tuskegee ”Experiments”N

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THICS M

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Tuskegee Experiments

Time and place: Alabama 1932-1972Y OF LIFE SCIEN

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pAim: To investigate the long-term effect of untreated

syphilis Studies: 400 poor, black American men (200N

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Oughton

Studies: 400 poor, black American men (200 controls) were led to believe that they were receiving free medical treatment for syphilis from doctors

The studies lasted until 1972 when Jean Heller broke the story. By then,100 of the research subjects were already dead, even though penicillin was a long established treatment

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g

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RESEACH ET Presidential apology in 1997N

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THICS M

NSES

Presidential apology in 1997

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9100 DeborahN

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h Oughton

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Scientific Norms:

R b t

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RobertMerton

NCES

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July 4, 1910 July 4, 1910 –– February 23, 2003February 23, 2003

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CUDOS (Robert Merton)

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Communalism: knowledge produced by science should be available to all; that scientific results are the common property of the entire scientific communityY O

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Universalism: claims to truth are evaluated in terms of universal or impersonal criteria, and not on the basis of race, class, gender, religion, or nationality; all scientists can N

CES contribute to science regardless of race, nationality, culture, or gender

Disinterestedness: Objectivity; Non-biased, free from ideology

Originality: Research should be novel and add something to our knowledge and understanding.

Scepticism: Results should be vigorously tested

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Ziman, Is Science losing its objectivity? Nature

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Objectivity

N U

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Complicated by many definitions/antonyms

– Ontological: Objective v SubjectiveY OF LIFE SCIEN

Ontological: Objective v. Subjective (existing independently of the scientist)

Epistemological: Objective v False (truthNCES – Epistemological: Objective v. False (truth,

universality)

h d l i l b– Methodological: Objective v. Biased/Value-laden (unbiased, without presupposition non ideologicalpresupposition, non-ideological)

www.umb.nodeborah.oughton@umb.no MNSES9100

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Examples of ideologies?

N U

NIVERSITY Genetics and eugenics Y O

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Creationism vs Darwanian evolution

Genetic determinism: ”nature vsNCES

Genetic determinism: nature vs nurture”

Climate change debateClimate change debate

www.umb.noPotential threats to scientific objectivity?

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RESEACH ET

Research Ethics: Three areas of ibilit

N U

NIVERSITY

THICS M

NSES

responsibility

S i ifi i h

Y OF LIFE SCIEN

9100 Deborah

Scientific community: research norms, misconduct, publication

NCES

h Oughton

Research subjects: humans, embryos, animals

Society: the public, environment, patents,

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environment, patents, technological risk

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Ethics, Science and Society

Research EtN U

NIVERSITY What responsibility do scientists have for the

thics –D

eborahY OF LIFE SCIEN

p ypossible negative consequences of their research?

How should we best evaluate and balance the harms and benefits of potentially harmful research

h Oughton

NCES harms and benefits of potentially harmful research

and technologies?

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EGIAN Case 2: Manhattan project

Research EtN U

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Case 2: Manhattan projectthics –D

eborahY OF LIFE SCIEN

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NCES

Richard Rhodes: The Making of the Atomic Bomb

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Chain of events

Research EtN U

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1933 Leo Szilard realises the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction

Aug 1939 Einstein (and Szilard) write to

thics –D

eborahY OF LIFE SCIEN

Aug 1939 Einstein (and Szilard) write to Roosevelt recommending research into nuclear weapons

Sept 1939 WWII begins

h Oughton

NCES 1941 Roosevelt authorises Manhattan

Project

1942 Fermi achieves controlled fission at Chicago Robert OppenheimerChicago

May 1945 War ends in Europe

August 6th 1945 Hiroshima (Truman’s orders)

Robert Oppenheimer

)

August 9th 1945 Nagasaki

August 11th Japan surrendered

www.umb.noTrinity, July 16 1945 (Berlyn Brixner)

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The Large Hadron Collider, CERN

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0 Risk –

DeboraY O

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ah Oughton

NCES

Fabrice Coiffrini, AFP

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Lawsuit bought against CERN, claiming the scientists were risking creating a black hole www.lhcdefense

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EGIAN Distribution of costs/benefits

PHI400 ReseN

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– Testing of risky technologies in developing

erach Ethics 2 Y OF LIFE SCIEN

countries

– Patenting of research results

–D

eborah OuN

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– Inequitable distribution of the benefits of science and technology (Global Justice)

ughton

science and technology (Global Justice)

• Within a country (public, industry, inequity, )…)

• between industrialised and developing countries (energy, IT, “brain drain”, etc…)

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countries (energy, IT, brain drain , etc…)

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Distribution of Risks and Benefits

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Benefits of research

Negative consequences of research (eg biofuels andY OF LIFE SCIEN

Negative consequences of research (eg., biofuels and proce of food)

Bioprospecting and Biopiracy

NCES Testing of risky technology in developing countries

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EGIAN Patent ExamplesN

UN

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Patent Examples

US patent on Basmati rice, Mexican yellow Enola Y OF LIFE SCIEN

beans

Australian patent on Zimbabwe and Zambian NCES cows (embryo sales: $800 million/year)

Univ. of Wisconsin patent on a "super sweet" protein from Gabon berries ($ 1.4 billion)

US and Japanese patents on Neem products (a i di d f i bi i idtree in India used for centuries as a biopesticide

and medicine)

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SES9100 Pfizer and Trovan tests in Nigeria

N U

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0 Risk –

Debora

Clinical trials carried out in 1996. Meningitis epidemic in Nigeria

Administered Trovan to 200 children selected from crowds at a makeshift meningitis camp in Kano Gave half the children an

Y OF LIFE SCIEN

ah Oughton

makeshift meningitis camp in Kano. Gave half the children an “untested” antibiotic Trovan

The other children received a “dangerously low dose of a comparison drug” made by a rival companyN

CES

drug made by a rival company

Charges are that no consent was obtained from parents, that actions resulted in the death of children or left them deaf, blind or paralysed

C t t t d O t b 2007 Court case started October 2007

Suspicion stirred by new of the trial- in 2006 parents refused to have children immunised against polio

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SES9100 Case 3: Information TechnologyN U

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0 Risk –

Debora

Case 3: Information Technology

Consequences – welfareB fit Von Neuman at Los Almos

Y OF LIFE SCIEN

ah Oughton

– Benefits, …

– Harms – misuse of technology; computer or programing error, …

Von Neuman at Los Almos

NCES

Distribution of the benefits– Free source

– Open access

– Contract research/Dual-Purpose Research

Autonomy– Privacy issues

d i i h h i ( di l di i )

”EUs datalagringsdirektiv”

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– Reduction in human choice (e.g. medical diagnosis)

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All knowledge has the potential to be b d i d ll k l d h

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0 Risk –

Debora

absued or misused; all knowledge has the potential to be beneficial to society; all technologies carry risksY O

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society; all technologies carry risks

NCES Is this part of Research Ethics??

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Strand and Oughton 2009 Risk and Uncertainty as a Research Ethics Challenge. NENT (www.etikkom.no)

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The overriding obligations of research to mankind

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mankind

1. Research must be in accordance with human rights.

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2. Research must be in accordance with sustainable development and respect for the environment

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Misinterpretation: all research projects and individual scientists need to show they are actively promoting peace sustainableN

CES 3. Research must promote peace

4. Research must promote and take part in the development of democracy.

borah Oughton

actively promoting peace, sustainable development, …

Intentiondevelopment of democracy.

5. Research must promote greater global justice in the distribution of wealth through the spread of information

Intention: - to recognise the potential for research to be misused

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information

…24 principles

- to recognise that the utimate aims of research should be for the benefit of humanity

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Personal and Institutional Responsibility

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Science/Research is value free : how the knowledge is or may be used is not an issue

0 Risk –

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knowledge is, or may be, used is not an issue for science or scientists

ah Oughton

Stig S. Frøland, prof. Rikshospilatlet..does Utgard mean that natural scientists should try to predict how their results could be used or misused?N

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Scientists have an obligation to consider the possible positive and negative benefits of their

predict how their results could be used or misused? … Utgard demands that scientists should untertake an ongoing idological and political assessment in their research This is incompatible ith research there ispossible positive and negative benefits of their

researchresearch. This is incompatible with research… there is only one ethical demand for research: that it has acceptable quality and that the results are presented

Governments and institutions bear the

as objectively as possible”

Letter in Aftenposten 29th April 2010

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Governments and institutions bear the main/only responsibility for controlling the use and application of research.

Letter in Aftenposten 29th April 2010

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NENT: Proposal for a Science Oath (as part of PhD graduation)

ETHICAL G

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(as part of PhD graduation)

”I will carry out my activities as a scientist truthfully and honestly. I will endeavour to use my scientific knowledge for

UID

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y y gthe benefit of mankind. I will show respect for animals and nature. I will act in accordance with research ethics, and shall not let ideology, religion, ethnicity, predjudice or

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gy, g , y, p jmaterial benefits impede my ethical responsibility as a researcher.” Revisions by MNSES students, Spring 2010

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