scientific foundation of social brain beverly sutton research committee group for the advancement of...

Scientific Foundation of Scientific Foundation of Social BrainSocial Brain

Beverly SuttonBeverly SuttonResearch CommitteeResearch Committee

Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry (GAP)Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry (GAP)

Other committee members: Russell Gardner, John Beahrs, Jacob Other committee members: Russell Gardner, John Beahrs, Jacob Kerbeshian, Fred Wamboldt, Alan Swann, Johan Verhulst, Michael Kerbeshian, Fred Wamboldt, Alan Swann, Johan Verhulst, Michael Schwartz, Morton Sosland, Carlo Carandang, Doug Kramer, John Schwartz, Morton Sosland, Carlo Carandang, Doug Kramer, John

LooneyLooney

Copyright SLACK IncorporatedCopyright SLACK IncorporatedUsed with PermissionUsed with Permission

Reprint web site Reprint web site Http://www.slackinc.com/reprints/Http://www.slackinc.com/reprints/

Beverly J. Sutton, Scientific Foundations Beverly J. Sutton, Scientific Foundations for the Social Brain Concept, for the Social Brain Concept,

Psychiatric Annals, Psychiatric Annals, 35(10), pp 793-35(10), pp 793-802, 2005. 802, 2005.

““In nature there are no rewards or In nature there are no rewards or punishments, there are punishments, there are consequences.”consequences.”

Robert Ingersoll Robert Ingersoll

Presentation OverviewPresentation Overview Psychiatry & its social brain Psychiatry & its social brain

foundation foundation Depend on scientific study Depend on scientific study But areas requiring emphasis vary over But areas requiring emphasis vary over

time time The new overview of social brain The new overview of social brain

Fosters different arrangement of Fosters different arrangement of relevant data relevant data

Article presents research in novel Article presents research in novel orderorder

Article CharacteristicsArticle Characteristics

It reflects It reflects Integrative values of the social brain Integrative values of the social brain

concept concept Retaining the biomedical base Retaining the biomedical base While also emphasizing affective, moral & While also emphasizing affective, moral &

cultural developments of interacting people cultural developments of interacting people Uses selected examples of Uses selected examples of

developmental studies developmental studies Concludes with treatment implicationsConcludes with treatment implications

Presentation OutlinePresentation Outline

Introduction: new overview of social Introduction: new overview of social brainbrain

Chromosome disorders & Chromosome disorders & developmentdevelopment

Bonding researchBonding research Sociality in non-human animalsSociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memoryCulture, language, memory Treatment implicationsTreatment implications

Brains, genetics & behavior Brains, genetics & behavior through developmentthrough development

Animals including humans seem Animals including humans seem innately ready to learn certain innately ready to learn certain behaviorbehavior This readiness, called "prepared This readiness, called "prepared

learning" learning" Possesses adaptive advantage Possesses adaptive advantage Illustrates Darwinian fitness Illustrates Darwinian fitness

Genetic advantages passed to offspring Genetic advantages passed to offspring foster their better reproductionfoster their better reproduction

Genetics Revelations Genetics Revelations

Human genome uses only tens of Human genome uses only tens of thousands protein-encoding genes thousands protein-encoding genes

More expressed sequence tags More expressed sequence tags (messenger RNA) exist in brain than (messenger RNA) exist in brain than any other organ any other organ Apparently foster brain functionApparently foster brain function

Ancient Biological RootsAncient Biological Roots

Some physical features possess Some physical features possess ancient roots ancient roots Having a similar body plan such as four Having a similar body plan such as four

limbslimbs Some behavioral patterns of ancient Some behavioral patterns of ancient

originorigin Social rank hierarchy & territoriality. Social rank hierarchy & territoriality.

Evo DevoEvo Devo

Evolution+development = new fieldEvolution+development = new field11 What molecular building blocks of What molecular building blocks of

animal structure developed over animal structure developed over evolutionary time? evolutionary time?

Delineates differences resulting in the Delineates differences resulting in the many species as well as individual many species as well as individual differencesdifferences

Such similarities & contrasts include Such similarities & contrasts include socialitysociality

Brain Size IncreaseBrain Size Increase

Brain volume increased Brain volume increased In humans 4x expansion in past 3 million In humans 4x expansion in past 3 million

years via evolutionary processyears via evolutionary process Somehow the larger volume enhanced Somehow the larger volume enhanced

survival of humans & their genessurvival of humans & their genes

Vertebrate cranial vault of today Vertebrate cranial vault of today (including the human) resembles (including the human) resembles that of vertebrates 480 million years that of vertebrates 480 million years agoago22

Neocortex ExpansionNeocortex Expansion

Social group size accounts for 45% of Social group size accounts for 45% of brain-size variancebrain-size variance55

Neocortex comprised much of this growth Neocortex comprised much of this growth Expand areas of language & culture – its Expand areas of language & culture – its

symbol-based productsymbol-based product Old brain systems retain importanceOld brain systems retain importance33 Large brain may not mean increased function Large brain may not mean increased function

Autistic persons may have large brainsAutistic persons may have large brains4 4 though though intellectually retarded & asocial intellectually retarded & asocial

Fossils of island-dwelling humans showed brain Fossils of island-dwelling humans showed brain complexity with small brain sizescomplexity with small brain sizes

Brain Change in Function with AgeBrain Change in Function with Age

From 20 to 80 years of ageFrom 20 to 80 years of age Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex shrinks Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex shrinks

about 5% each decadeabout 5% each decade After 45 years of ageAfter 45 years of age

Hypocampus shrinks about 7% each Hypocampus shrinks about 7% each decadedecade

Brain & EmotionBrain & Emotion PET studies show medial prefrontal areas PET studies show medial prefrontal areas

and the thalamus activate in normal and the thalamus activate in normal emotionemotion

Other areas process emotional content & Other areas process emotional content & social cognitionsocial cognition Amygdala Amygdala Prefrontal cortexPrefrontal cortex Right somatosensory corticesRight somatosensory cortices6 6

Sensory association areas & the anterior Sensory association areas & the anterior temporal lobe likely provide emotional color to temporal lobe likely provide emotional color to sensory information sensory information

Anterior insular regions invest cognitive and Anterior insular regions invest cognitive and sensory information with negative emotional sensory information with negative emotional meaningmeaning77

Ethics & Morals EmotionalEthics & Morals Emotional

Earlier assumed that moral Earlier assumed that moral judgments stem from pure reasonjudgments stem from pure reason

But ethical dilemmas activate But ethical dilemmas activate emotional brain areasemotional brain areas Medial frontal gyrus, Medial frontal gyrus, Posterior cingulate gyrus Posterior cingulate gyrus Angular gyrusAngular gyrus88

Moral NeurotransmittersMoral Neurotransmitters

Moral-decision emotion activates Moral-decision emotion activates dopamine & serotonin dopamine & serotonin

These relate to positive & negative These relate to positive & negative feelingsfeelings Dopamine, a “pleasure chemical,” releases Dopamine, a “pleasure chemical,” releases

after eating, pleasant sexual interaction, or after eating, pleasant sexual interaction, or taking cocainetaking cocaine

Decreased serotonin Decreased serotonin to negative feelings of to negative feelings of depression, suicide, anxiety & social phobia depression, suicide, anxiety & social phobia

Serotonin reuptake inhibitors increase Serotonin reuptake inhibitors increase optimism & social confidenceoptimism & social confidence99

Sexes & MoralsSexes & Morals

Although the same areas in the brain Although the same areas in the brain are activated in moral matters, sexes are activated in moral matters, sexes differ in how they focus on the issuesdiffer in how they focus on the issues Women’s standards tend to involve Women’s standards tend to involve

responsiveness to othersresponsiveness to others Men’s morality ties to rules of fairness Men’s morality ties to rules of fairness

and separatenessand separateness

Evolution & psychopathologyEvolution & psychopathology

Evolution preserves some Evolution preserves some psychopathologypsychopathology

Removing some vulnerabilities may also Removing some vulnerabilities may also limit behaviors/mental states necessary limit behaviors/mental states necessary for survival/reproductive successfor survival/reproductive success22

No study shows genetic variation to No study shows genetic variation to account for all behavioral variations account for all behavioral variations between mentally ill & mentally healthy between mentally ill & mentally healthy peoplepeople1010


Introduction: new overview of social Introduction: new overview of social brain brain


Bonding researchBonding research Sociality in non-human animalsSociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memoryCulture, language, memory Treatment implications Treatment implications

Chromosomes & DisordersChromosomes & Disorders

Chromosomal abnormalities Chromosomal abnormalities behavioral and social problems behavioral and social problems Fragile XFragile X Prader-WilliPrader-Willi AngelmanAngelman The latter two involve chromosome 15 & The latter two involve chromosome 15 &

genomic imprinting genomic imprinting

Fragile X SyndromeFragile X Syndrome

Mental retardation, slow language development, Mental retardation, slow language development, attention disorders, pervasive developmental attention disorders, pervasive developmental disorder, typically anxious disorder, typically anxious

Fragile X syndrome stems from a mutation Fragile X syndrome stems from a mutation FMR locus at Xq28FMR locus at Xq28 A molecular component repeatsA molecular component repeats # of repeats proportional to severity of clinical # of repeats proportional to severity of clinical

presentationpresentation Mothers transmit full mutation to sons Mothers transmit full mutation to sons Carrier daughtersCarrier daughters

Not good in social relations Not good in social relations Often shy with poor eye contactOften shy with poor eye contact

25% have IQ <7025% have IQ <701111

Genomic Imprinting & Genomic Imprinting & Chromosome 15 DisordersChromosome 15 Disorders

Genomic imprinting: Genomic imprinting: A same gene expresses different A same gene expresses different

characteristics depending on whether characteristics depending on whether mother or father furnished the DNA mother or father furnished the DNA

Mechanism includes DNA-methylation Mechanism includes DNA-methylation switches off gene-expression switches off gene-expression

Prader-Willi SyndromePrader-Willi Syndrome

Prader-Willi syndrome shows in infancy Prader-Willi syndrome shows in infancy Weak hypotonic muscles, failure to thrive Weak hypotonic muscles, failure to thrive Short & never pubertalShort & never pubertal Overeat to extreme obesity unless Overeat to extreme obesity unless

restrainedrestrained Emotionally labile & slow intellectuallyEmotionally labile & slow intellectually

Paternally derivedPaternally derived 15q11-13 genes impaired 15q11-13 genes impaired Impaired function of hypothalamic & septumImpaired function of hypothalamic & septum NoNo cortex impairment cortex impairment

Angelman SyndromeAngelman Syndrome

Socially & cognitively more serious Socially & cognitively more serious Severe retardation Severe retardation Posturing tendencies Posturing tendencies Frequent laughter Frequent laughter

Spasmotic laughing or crying Spasmotic laughing or crying Such sx from corticobulbar tract pathologySuch sx from corticobulbar tract pathology33

Mother-derived 15q11-13 genes Mother-derived 15q11-13 genes impairedimpaired

Pathology primarily Pathology primarily neocorticalneocortical

William’s syndromeWilliam’s syndrome

Clinical picture Clinical picture Mild mental retardationMild mental retardation Cardiac & connective tissue problems Cardiac & connective tissue problems Profound visuospatial dysfunctionProfound visuospatial dysfunction Characteristic facial features Characteristic facial features

Unique: fluent language & much Unique: fluent language & much sociabilitysociability

Microdeletion on chromosome 7q11.23 Microdeletion on chromosome 7q11.23 Normally sized frontal cortex contrasts Normally sized frontal cortex contrasts

with small posterior lobeswith small posterior lobes1212

Moebius syndromeMoebius syndrome

• Bilateral Cranial VI & VII paralysesBilateral Cranial VI & VII paralyses• Autism in 40% of patients Autism in 40% of patients Autosomal dominant Autosomal dominant With lateral gaze problems they With lateral gaze problems they

show characteristic expressionless show characteristic expressionless faceface

Mother-child interactionsMother-child interactions

Development sensitive to interpersonal Development sensitive to interpersonal factorsfactors Including ideas about one’s childrenIncluding ideas about one’s children1313

Movie-frame microanalysis ofMovie-frame microanalysis of Mother-child gazing coded Mother-child gazing coded

““Attracting” contact if the two made visual Attracting” contact if the two made visual contact, contact,

““Avoidance” if either the mother or infant looked Avoidance” if either the mother or infant looked away from the other for a fraction of a secondaway from the other for a fraction of a second

These behaviors not otherwise detectableThese behaviors not otherwise detectable

Results of Mo & her twin boysResults of Mo & her twin boys

The mother identified one twin with her The mother identified one twin with her husband & the other with herselfhusband & the other with herself The “husband” twin & she used avoidant head The “husband” twin & she used avoidant head

movements to each other movements to each other This contrasted to an attracting pattern with This contrasted to an attracting pattern with

the other the other One year later One year later

The avoidant “husband” twin acted more The avoidant “husband” twin acted more fearfully with more dependencyfearfully with more dependency

The more independent brother had better The more independent brother had better social skillssocial skills

Development: Conception To First Development: Conception To First Few MonthsFew Months

Parental attitudesParental attitudes Expectations regarding the unborn baby Expectations regarding the unborn baby

strongly predict infant's attachment behavior strongly predict infant's attachment behavior beyond year 1beyond year 11414

Month old infants viewed negatively by their Month old infants viewed negatively by their mothers exhibit a sixfold greater likelihood for mothers exhibit a sixfold greater likelihood for psychosocial developmental disorder at 19 years psychosocial developmental disorder at 19 years compared to positively viewed controlscompared to positively viewed controls1414

Age 2-3 months Age 2-3 months Developmental capacities change in that:Developmental capacities change in that:

Infant becomes less fussy Infant becomes less fussy Permits mother to decrease her care-giving while Permits mother to decrease her care-giving while

increasing social interchange. increasing social interchange. But if fussiness fails to decrease, maternal attachment But if fussiness fails to decrease, maternal attachment

decreasesdecreases

Development: 6 Months - Development: 6 Months - ToddlerhoodToddlerhood

Age 7-9 months Age 7-9 months Infants behave as though they know Infants behave as though they know

that others can understand their that others can understand their thoughts, feelings and behavior and thoughts, feelings and behavior and

They show preferences for a few care-They show preferences for a few care-giving adultsgiving adults1515

The toddler The toddler Requires a sense of self to experience Requires a sense of self to experience

pride & shamepride & shame66

Visual Experience & Visual Experience & Critical Periods Critical Periods

Birth to 2-6 months of age Birth to 2-6 months of age Infants with congenital cataracts with an early Infants with congenital cataracts with an early

sightless period show permanent problems in sightless period show permanent problems in discriminating facial configurations that vary, discriminating facial configurations that vary, eg, spacing between features eg, spacing between features

Though they identify geometric patterns as Though they identify geometric patterns as well as children with normal early vision well as children with normal early vision

Therefore, different neural systems process faces and Therefore, different neural systems process faces and geometric objects in adultsgeometric objects in adults1616

Normal infants possess limited visual Normal infants possess limited visual acuity acuity But early exposure to faces sets up neural But early exposure to faces sets up neural

circuits that enable facial processing in the first circuits that enable facial processing in the first 10-12 years of life 10-12 years of life

Auditory ExperienceAuditory Experience

Infants after birth show ability to Infants after birth show ability to discriminate sound –they prefer the discriminate sound –they prefer the mother's voice over those of other mother's voice over those of other womenwomen1717

4 day old French infants suck harder 4 day old French infants suck harder to hear a recording in French (vs to hear a recording in French (vs Russian)Russian) Perhaps a preference acquired in uteroPerhaps a preference acquired in utero1818

Sibling SequenceSibling Sequence Sibling order produces systematic influences that Sibling order produces systematic influences that

mold attitudes & behaviormold attitudes & behavior1919 First-born children tend to identify with power & First-born children tend to identify with power &

authority but later-born children question the authority but later-born children question the status quo & resist pressure to conformstatus quo & resist pressure to conform First-borns more likely become political leaders and First-borns more likely become political leaders and

establishment scientists whereas socially successful establishment scientists whereas socially successful later-borns support unpopular causeslater-borns support unpopular causes

Six or more years between siblings restarts the birth Six or more years between siblings restarts the birth order effect, i.e., another first born child seems to order effect, i.e., another first born child seems to appearappear

Siblings perceive differences in the way they are Siblings perceive differences in the way they are treated and this continues over the life spantreated and this continues over the life span Children who felt one or both parents provided more Children who felt one or both parents provided more

affection to them than siblings reached higher academic affection to them than siblings reached higher academic & occupational goals& occupational goals1010

Factors in BehaviorFactors in Behavior Parents using mild, inductive techniques of Parents using mild, inductive techniques of

behavior management produce children with behavior management produce children with high moral development. high moral development.

Benign management in the form of ignoring Benign management in the form of ignoring negative and rewarding positive behavior negative and rewarding positive behavior better socializes poor inner-city children better socializes poor inner-city children (black and white) than do conventional (black and white) than do conventional restriction and punishment-oriented classes restriction and punishment-oriented classes The effect holds from kindergarten through 8th The effect holds from kindergarten through 8th

grade grade Attractive children usually gain more Attractive children usually gain more

popularitypopularity Peers favor tall thin ectomorphs not short fat Peers favor tall thin ectomorphs not short fat

endomorphsendomorphs2020

Men & WomenMen & Women Adult social roles reflect exposure to family & cultural Adult social roles reflect exposure to family & cultural

dictatesdictates2121 Women maintain networks with other women even with a Women maintain networks with other women even with a

stable marriage stable marriage While intimacy tends to threaten men, divorced men remarry While intimacy tends to threaten men, divorced men remarry

faster & more often than divorced womenfaster & more often than divorced women Men exhibit less depression than women, less often seek help, Men exhibit less depression than women, less often seek help,

& they respond faster to treatment& they respond faster to treatment Women on the other hand show more panic disorder & Women on the other hand show more panic disorder &

somatization disorders somatization disorders Men exhibit more alcohol dependence, antisocial personality Men exhibit more alcohol dependence, antisocial personality

disorder, delusions about homosexuality, paranoid disorders, & disorder, delusions about homosexuality, paranoid disorders, & compulsive disorderscompulsive disorders

Most men value working & earning money Most men value working & earning money Women often take low paying jobs that men refuse to considerWomen often take low paying jobs that men refuse to consider Men in "pink collar" jobs (jobs typically held by women) face Men in "pink collar" jobs (jobs typically held by women) face

derision by uninformed or homophobic community members derision by uninformed or homophobic community members

Stress Levels & SongStress Levels & Song

Birth-order of laboratory rhesus monkeysBirth-order of laboratory rhesus monkeys Later born baby monkeys show lower cortisol Later born baby monkeys show lower cortisol

levels levels Their lower levels of stress may reflect better Their lower levels of stress may reflect better

care from experienced motherscare from experienced mothers2424 Brain areas for song in white-crowned Brain areas for song in white-crowned

sparrows develop as longer days increase sparrows develop as longer days increase sex hormonessex hormones2525

Males with females had 15-20% larger song areas Males with females had 15-20% larger song areas Compared to bachelors or males in all-male Compared to bachelors or males in all-male

groups groups

Environment & quantitative Environment & quantitative neurophysiological changesneurophysiological changes

Social behavior & a specific synapse Social behavior & a specific synapse A large crayfish neuron responds to serotonin A large crayfish neuron responds to serotonin

differently depending on the animal’s social differently depending on the animal’s social statusstatus2222

Neuron Neuron tail-flip response used for fight or escape tail-flip response used for fight or escape 5HT applied to it 5HT applied to it enhanced dominant’s neuron firing- enhanced dominant’s neuron firing-

raterate22

2 subordinate crayfish put together results in one winning2 subordinate crayfish put together results in one winning In the same neuron of the new dominant, 5HT more In the same neuron of the new dominant, 5HT more

excitableexcitable

Simply injecting serotonin into crayfish (& lobsters) Simply injecting serotonin into crayfish (& lobsters) produces aggressive dominant behavior onlyproduces aggressive dominant behavior only

Not Eating & daf GenesNot Eating & daf Genes

In the worm In the worm C. ElegansC. Elegans, insufficient food from , insufficient food from overpopulation induces overpopulation induces A suspended animation phase for 2 or more months A suspended animation phase for 2 or more months daf-2 gene inducing this insulin receptor protein daf-2 gene inducing this insulin receptor protein

Environment extremes may Environment extremes may daf genes daf genes Similar arrests in many vertebrate & invertebrate Similar arrests in many vertebrate & invertebrate

groups seems to operate to prolong reproductive groups seems to operate to prolong reproductive periodperiod

Obesity & prevalence of type II diabetes in humans Obesity & prevalence of type II diabetes in humans may reflect survival of past generations from may reflect survival of past generations from faminefamine26 26

Functional hypoglycemia may have helped human Functional hypoglycemia may have helped human adaptation to infrequent but large food suppliesadaptation to infrequent but large food supplies

Too Many or Too Few RatsToo Many or Too Few Rats Overcrowding can alter non-human social Overcrowding can alter non-human social

behaviorbehavior2727 Wild Norwegian rats raised in a confined space Wild Norwegian rats raised in a confined space

eventually stabilized their numberseventually stabilized their numbers Increased numbers and deteriorated care-Increased numbers and deteriorated care-

taking behavior by mother rats taking behavior by mother rats Likely from disordered social rank effectsLikely from disordered social rank effects

When fewer young survived, numbers When fewer young survived, numbers stabilizedstabilized

Rats raised in isolation show behavior Rats raised in isolation show behavior changes & high levels of dopamine (DA)changes & high levels of dopamine (DA) DA-blocking agents ameliorate these rat DA-blocking agents ameliorate these rat

symptomssymptoms DA involved in addiction, motor control, & DA involved in addiction, motor control, &

perhaps schizophrenia perhaps schizophrenia

Amygdala ExperimentsAmygdala Experiments

Maternally deprived rats Maternally deprived rats low levels of low levels of 5HT5HT2424 Rat pups handled by people may show less fear Rat pups handled by people may show less fear

because of their mother’s behavior after the pups because of their mother’s behavior after the pups return to herreturn to her

Rat mother does extra licking, grooming and nursing Rat mother does extra licking, grooming and nursing Baby rats with such “mindful” mothers develop Baby rats with such “mindful” mothers develop

more neurotransmitter receptors that in turn decrease more neurotransmitter receptors that in turn decrease amygdala activity & amygdala activity &

fewer receptors for CRH (involved with stress)fewer receptors for CRH (involved with stress)

Amygdala Amygdala stimulation stimulation rage in some animals rage in some animals2828 lesions lesions docility docility

Amygdala: rage Amygdala: rage vsvs docility docility

Field studies of chimpanzees show Field studies of chimpanzees show variation in patterns of tool use behavior, variation in patterns of tool use behavior, grooming, and sexual behaviorsgrooming, and sexual behaviors

Different chimpanzee groups exhibit Different chimpanzee groups exhibit unique styles, communal behavior unique styles, communal behavior previously thought characteristic of previously thought characteristic of human cultures onlyhuman cultures only2929

In humans, lower social status correlates In humans, lower social status correlates with lower serotonin responsivitywith lower serotonin responsivity3030

Dominance & fitnessDominance & fitness Dominance status in animal groupings typically Dominance status in animal groupings typically

correlates with reproductive success & control of correlates with reproductive success & control of resourcesresources However, dominance studied with reproduction DNA studies However, dominance studied with reproduction DNA studies

showed that 2showed that 2ndnd or 3 or 3rdrd rank rhesus males may impregnate rank rhesus males may impregnate females while the dominant male worked to maintain females while the dominant male worked to maintain territoryterritory3131

Primate species vary in female rank & breeding:Primate species vary in female rank & breeding: In great apes, females passively receive male sexual In great apes, females passively receive male sexual

advances advances Though higher ranking female baboons & macaques show more Though higher ranking female baboons & macaques show more

breeding success breeding success In Gombe, dominant chimpanzee females weaned twice as In Gombe, dominant chimpanzee females weaned twice as

many infants than non-dominantsmany infants than non-dominants3232 Infant production, infant survival, & infant development also Infant production, infant survival, & infant development also

indexed female fitness indexed female fitness

Preagricultural Human HxPreagricultural Human Hx

~7 million years ago humans began evolving ~7 million years ago humans began evolving from ancestral forms in Africa from ancestral forms in Africa

~ 500,000 years ago Homo sapiens appeared~ 500,000 years ago Homo sapiens appeared Used crude stone tools, fire. Used crude stone tools, fire.

~ 40,000 years ago Cro-Magnons (modern ~ 40,000 years ago Cro-Magnons (modern man) left evidence of stone & bone tools, man) left evidence of stone & bone tools, nets, jewelry, clothes, spears, bows and nets, jewelry, clothes, spears, bows and arrows. arrows. They also painted, sculpted and played musical They also painted, sculpted and played musical

instruments. Ships appearing 13,000 years ago instruments. Ships appearing 13,000 years ago made it possible for people to travel outside made it possible for people to travel outside landmasses.33 landmasses.33

Hx: Agriculture OnwardsHx: Agriculture Onwards

~ 10,000 years ago the agricultural ~ 10,000 years ago the agricultural revolution began in the Middle East, China, revolution began in the Middle East, China, & Mesoamerica & Mesoamerica More people lived in discrete areas without More people lived in discrete areas without

needing to move for food needing to move for food ~ 4000 BC horses enhanced travel and ~ 4000 BC horses enhanced travel and

farming after their domestication farming after their domestication Food supplies obtained by farming caused rapid Food supplies obtained by farming caused rapid

population increases. population increases. Average time between children is 2 years for Average time between children is 2 years for

farm people but 4 years for hunter-gatherersfarm people but 4 years for hunter-gatherers3434

Gene-culture Co-evolutionGene-culture Co-evolution

The group mind produces culture The group mind produces culture Yet each individual mind possesses genetic Yet each individual mind possesses genetic

determinantsdeterminants Gene-culture co-evolution a special form of natural Gene-culture co-evolution a special form of natural

selectionselection33 Social brain concept provides focus for study Social brain concept provides focus for study

Culture provides a special environment for Culture provides a special environment for behavioral genesbehavioral genes

Definition of culture: Definition of culture: Everyday ways of doing things, preferred forms of Everyday ways of doing things, preferred forms of

interaction, & what people feel as “common interaction, & what people feel as “common sense”sense”2828

Culture & DiagnosisCulture & Diagnosis

Culture determines what people consider Culture determines what people consider normal, including how illnesses have normal, including how illnesses have meaning and the necessary elements for meaning and the necessary elements for cures cures Bodily expression of mental illness represents a Bodily expression of mental illness represents a

more common worldwide attribution than more common worldwide attribution than psychological expressionpsychological expression

Yet Yet DSMDSM used on this continent focuses on used on this continent focuses on psychological presentations psychological presentations

Unsuitable for diagnoses in non-Western areas Unsuitable for diagnoses in non-Western areas People on this continent from non-Western cultures People on this continent from non-Western cultures

often receive misdiagnosis and incorrect treatment often receive misdiagnosis and incorrect treatment

Emotions = SignalsEmotions = Signals People in all cultures detect accurately facial People in all cultures detect accurately facial

expressions of emotion:expressions of emotion: Fear, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise & Fear, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise &

happiness. happiness. Emotional expression over developmentEmotional expression over development

Some facial expressions seem innate, not learned Some facial expressions seem innate, not learned nor imitated nor imitated

Infants less than 71 hours old mimic facial expressionsInfants less than 71 hours old mimic facial expressions3434 Infants 1 to 9 months old express distinct, situationally Infants 1 to 9 months old express distinct, situationally

appropriate facial emotionappropriate facial emotion Awareness of emotional communication helps Awareness of emotional communication helps

youngsters respond to social experiences youngsters respond to social experiences 89% of 4-5 year olds rely on facial expression to 89% of 4-5 year olds rely on facial expression to

determine another's emotional state. determine another's emotional state. By 8 to 9 years of age, children use facial and By 8 to 9 years of age, children use facial and

situational cues to assess emotionsituational cues to assess emotion66

Pathology Instructs on EmotionPathology Instructs on Emotion

Bilateral amygdalar damage impairs Bilateral amygdalar damage impairs recognition of a face expressing fearrecognition of a face expressing fear

Manic patients deficiently recognize Manic patients deficiently recognize negative emotions negative emotions Particularly fear & disgustParticularly fear & disgust3535 Euthymic bipolar and healthy persons Euthymic bipolar and healthy persons

scored similarlyscored similarly Manics frequently evaluated a fear face Manics frequently evaluated a fear face

as expressing surprise as expressing surprise

Cultural RitualsCultural Rituals Cultural rituals including religious ones help people Cultural rituals including religious ones help people

copecope3636 Small groups place importance on physical grooming Small groups place importance on physical grooming

behaviorsbehaviors Social interaction in larger groups gains enhancement Social interaction in larger groups gains enhancement

through use of social "grooming" (talking & rituals) through use of social "grooming" (talking & rituals) Rituals reduce anxiety, make sense of experience & Rituals reduce anxiety, make sense of experience &

provide hopeprovide hope Compelling powerful experiences enhance social control Compelling powerful experiences enhance social control Further, groups ritualistically set the ways that people Further, groups ritualistically set the ways that people

behave when eating, grooming, & otherwise interacting behave when eating, grooming, & otherwise interacting with one anotherwith one another

Religious ceremonies and courting behavior may entail Religious ceremonies and courting behavior may entail inflexible components of behavior required by all inflexible components of behavior required by all

In OCD, actions & thoughts echo social ritualistic In OCD, actions & thoughts echo social ritualistic behavior, behavior, But often differ from accepted social conventions in extent But often differ from accepted social conventions in extent

& timing& timing3737

Culture & Genetic DiversityCulture & Genetic Diversity 70% of human societies expect the bride 70% of human societies expect the bride

to move to her husband's birthplace to move to her husband's birthplace (patrilocal)(patrilocal)

Study of 3 matrilocal (men move to Study of 3 matrilocal (men move to woman's birthplace) and 3 patrilocal woman's birthplace) and 3 patrilocal groups in northern Thailand showed groups in northern Thailand showed findings expected from the chromosome findings expected from the chromosome characteristics of the different sexescharacteristics of the different sexes3838

Patrilocal groups Patrilocal groups High variation in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) High variation in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

inherited only from mothers inherited only from mothers Low variability in the y-chromosome (transmitted to Low variability in the y-chromosome (transmitted to

sons from fathers) sons from fathers) Matrilocal groups Matrilocal groups low mtDNA & high y- low mtDNA & high y-

chromosome variabilitychromosome variability

American FamiliesAmerican Families ~10% of American families = tradition ~10% of American families = tradition

of man-provider & woman-homemaker of man-provider & woman-homemaker Unique families & child care practicesUnique families & child care practices2121

Dual-career marriagesDual-career marriages Single parent families Single parent families Lesbian and gay parentsLesbian and gay parents Complex or "blended" families (children Complex or "blended" families (children

from former marriages)from former marriages) Boomerang families (adult children Boomerang families (adult children

returning home)returning home) Adult-oriented multigenerational familiesAdult-oriented multigenerational families

When mothers maltreat infantsWhen mothers maltreat infants

At age 12 months At age 12 months 82% of the children show disorganized 82% of the children show disorganized

behavior behavior compared with 19% of controls. compared with 19% of controls.

At 36 months, At 36 months, 35% of maltreated infants remained 35% of maltreated infants remained

disorganized & 21% securely reactive disorganized & 21% securely reactive Control infants: opposite rates of 27% Control infants: opposite rates of 27%

disorganized & 71% securedisorganized & 71% secure

Maltreatment EffectsMaltreatment Effects

Maltreated infants withdraw physically Maltreated infants withdraw physically & emotionally & emotionally They use fewer internal state words than They use fewer internal state words than

non-maltreated infants with otherwise non-maltreated infants with otherwise similar vocabulariessimilar vocabularies1515

Abusive behavior persists: Abusive behavior persists: Abused children likely become abusing Abused children likely become abusing

adultsadults Maltreat their children in the next generation Maltreat their children in the next generation As well as their elderly parentsAs well as their elderly parents

Family ConflictFamily Conflict

Children with more maternal affection than Children with more maternal affection than sibs sibs Later express less depression or other Later express less depression or other

internalizing symptomsinternalizing symptoms1515 When parents display physical conflict:When parents display physical conflict:

Children show more problems than when Children show more problems than when exposed to parallel verbal conflictexposed to parallel verbal conflict

When exposed to parental disagreement When exposed to parental disagreement about child rearing about child rearing Boys express more behavior problems Boys express more behavior problems

When parents constructively disagreeWhen parents constructively disagree Children play, smile, & laugh as if nothing Children play, smile, & laugh as if nothing

important has happened important has happened

Sibling ConflictSibling Conflict

Parent-child and child-child conflicts differParent-child and child-child conflicts differ19 19

Sibling struggle to gain maximum parental Sibling struggle to gain maximum parental resources resources

This is a conflict not sex linked, This is a conflict not sex linked, Not associated with a parent of the same or opposite sex, Not associated with a parent of the same or opposite sex, Not the result of sexual drive Not the result of sexual drive

Each child aims at greatest benefit from both Each child aims at greatest benefit from both parentsparents

If a favorite child exists in a family: If a favorite child exists in a family: "make sure that you are the favored one" "make sure that you are the favored one" This generates sibling rivalries, but the competition This generates sibling rivalries, but the competition

generally proves adaptive as does altruism among generally proves adaptive as does altruism among siblingssiblings

Young MothersYoung Mothers Adolescent mothers (less than 16 years old) Adolescent mothers (less than 16 years old)

Talk to their children less, but command moreTalk to their children less, but command more They smile less and touch base less with eye and physical They smile less and touch base less with eye and physical

contact compared to older motherscontact compared to older mothers Children exhibit poorer cognitive & language outcomesChildren exhibit poorer cognitive & language outcomes1515

Young mothers display less sensitivity to their Young mothers display less sensitivity to their children but more intrusiveness children but more intrusiveness Children show more avoidanceChildren show more avoidance Punitive discipline results in more aggression, impulsivity, Punitive discipline results in more aggression, impulsivity,

social withdrawal & fewer friendssocial withdrawal & fewer friends These mothers underestimate their children's These mothers underestimate their children's

ability to think, interact & communicate but ability to think, interact & communicate but overestimate mastery of the next developmental overestimate mastery of the next developmental level level

Family Facts Family Facts White women more likely work for economic White women more likely work for economic

independence compared to African-American independence compared to African-American women who work from economic needwomen who work from economic need

One- to two-thirds of American women One- to two-thirds of American women experience abuse from their spouses each experience abuse from their spouses each yearyear

Although the economics of divorce usually Although the economics of divorce usually increases a man's & decreases a woman's increases a man's & decreases a woman's standard of living, men show more standard of living, men show more psychological and physical distress than psychological and physical distress than women from separation and divorce women from separation and divorce

Male elders provide important superego Male elders provide important superego models and cultural supports to the family as a models and cultural supports to the family as a groupgroup2121

Cultural DifferencesCultural Differences Experience of depression varies with culture: Experience of depression varies with culture:

American Indians, Alaskan Natives, & Southeast American Indians, Alaskan Natives, & Southeast Asians Asians no word for "depressed" no word for "depressed"

Hopi commonly express sadness Hopi commonly express sadness Therefore, to diagnose depression, 1 month of depression Therefore, to diagnose depression, 1 month of depression

should elapse rather than the usual 2 weeks should elapse rather than the usual 2 weeks Eskimos and Tahitians rarely show anger Eskimos and Tahitians rarely show anger Iranians encourage but Navajos discourage Iranians encourage but Navajos discourage

displays of extreme sadness. displays of extreme sadness. Javanese seek serenity Javanese seek serenity A woman staying at home at all times may be A woman staying at home at all times may be

agoraphobic in the West but virtuous if Muslimagoraphobic in the West but virtuous if Muslim

Culture-bound disordersCulture-bound disorders These exist in all countries, These exist in all countries,

disorders stem from anger, fright, witchcraft, "evil disorders stem from anger, fright, witchcraft, "evil eye", preoccupation with bodily function or other eye", preoccupation with bodily function or other precipitantsprecipitants28 28

Anxiety disorders reflect bodily arousal, Anxiety disorders reflect bodily arousal, cognitive interpretation, & ineffective coping cognitive interpretation, & ineffective coping skills, skills, Cultural belief and practice influence all theseCultural belief and practice influence all these

Blood-injury phobia Blood-injury phobia makes blood pressure drop (not rise)makes blood pressure drop (not rise)

In Puerto Rico 16% In Puerto Rico 16% hx of ataque de nervios hx of ataque de nervios Somatic & dissociative sx after a stressful eventSomatic & dissociative sx after a stressful event2828

Symptoms & CultureSymptoms & Culture

Westerners often struggle for thinness, Westerners often struggle for thinness, Elsewhere overweight people seem more Elsewhere overweight people seem more

attractive attractive European comparisonsEuropean comparisons

English feel concern with constipation & chilblains English feel concern with constipation & chilblains So physicians may ignore these complaintsSo physicians may ignore these complaints

French people typically complain of fatigue & French people typically complain of fatigue & headache plus other problems caused by "liver headache plus other problems caused by "liver crisis" crisis"

German physicians vigorously treat low blood German physicians vigorously treat low blood pressure or poor circulationpressure or poor circulation

Use of Drugs Use of Drugs Drugs affect reward systems in the Drugs affect reward systems in the

brainbrain Knockout mice that lack a dopamine Knockout mice that lack a dopamine

transporter protein show "no interest” in transporter protein show "no interest” in cocaine or amphetaminecocaine or amphetamine3939

People typically learn drug use from People typically learn drug use from peers. peers.

Low alcohol dehydrogenase cause Low alcohol dehydrogenase cause some Asians to flush & feel sick from some Asians to flush & feel sick from alcohol usealcohol use

Alcohol & CultureAlcohol & Culture Cultural variations:Cultural variations:

Some northern/western Europeans use it heavilySome northern/western Europeans use it heavily Mormons forbid its useMormons forbid its use Muslims & Buddhist monks do not drinkMuslims & Buddhist monks do not drink Some American Indian & Hispanic American men Some American Indian & Hispanic American men

do all day drinking partiesdo all day drinking parties2828 If an American Indian refuses a drink, peers may consider If an American Indian refuses a drink, peers may consider

the abstinence impolitethe abstinence impolite Use/nonuse of alcohol during cultural rituals Use/nonuse of alcohol during cultural rituals

varies with group & countryvaries with group & country Some religious ceremonies regularly involve the Some religious ceremonies regularly involve the

use of mind-altering substancesuse of mind-altering substances At funerals, Irish Americans drink & tell jokesAt funerals, Irish Americans drink & tell jokes African Americans grieve & sing spiritualsAfrican Americans grieve & sing spirituals

Aggression & CultureAggression & Culture Environment and culture change violent Environment and culture change violent

expressionexpression Exposure to it usually increases Exposure to it usually increases

aggressionaggression2828 Drug addicts may use violence to obtain Drug addicts may use violence to obtain

drugsdrugs Willingness to use violence to maintain the Willingness to use violence to maintain the

status quo typifies firstborn, conservative, status quo typifies firstborn, conservative, tough-minded behaviortough-minded behavior1919

Aggression typifies boys’ behavior on the Aggression typifies boys’ behavior on the playground unless supervised at "play" by playground unless supervised at "play" by adults who stop predatory behavior, model adults who stop predatory behavior, model nonviolent behavior and teach social skills nonviolent behavior and teach social skills

Non-Violence TaughtNon-Violence Taught

A study taught non-violence in an A study taught non-violence in an elementary schoolelementary school4040 Increased academic achievement Increased academic achievement Reduced disciplinary referralsReduced disciplinary referrals Program emphasized zero tolerance for Program emphasized zero tolerance for

pathological behavioral roles (bully, pathological behavioral roles (bully, observer, victim) observer, victim)

While teaching appropriate social While teaching appropriate social behaviorsbehaviors

LanguageLanguage Culture construction stems from Culture construction stems from

language used for information language used for information exchangeexchange Language shapes thinking Language shapes thinking

New words enable thinking in new patterns New words enable thinking in new patterns Words change the way we feel & may Words change the way we feel & may

substitute for other behaviorsubstitute for other behavior Language unites those in a social groupLanguage unites those in a social group

Individuals in a group hold it in high regardIndividuals in a group hold it in high regard

Conflicted LanguageConflicted Language

Religious/political turmoil may result Religious/political turmoil may result from language use/nonuse from language use/nonuse BelgiumBelgium French-speaking Canada French-speaking Canada Basque-speaking Spain Basque-speaking Spain Moses protested that he could not lead Moses protested that he could not lead

the people of Israel from language the people of Israel from language difficulties (Genesis, Chapter 11)difficulties (Genesis, Chapter 11)

Pre-Humans & LanguagePre-Humans & Language

Communicating with language Communicating with language seemed specific for humans, butseemed specific for humans, but Chimpanzees can communicate with Chimpanzees can communicate with

sign languagesign language Also teach their babies to use itAlso teach their babies to use it

A pygmy chimpanzee learned to A pygmy chimpanzee learned to respond to oral English language to an respond to oral English language to an extent comparable to a 2 year old extent comparable to a 2 year old human infanthuman infant6 6

Change In Humans Change In Humans

Evolution of the larynx position, i.e., Evolution of the larynx position, i.e., migration to a lower neck position migration to a lower neck position made it possible to create more made it possible to create more soundssounds4141 Human brain reorganized to accommodate Human brain reorganized to accommodate

this function particularly in the frontal area, this function particularly in the frontal area, including Broca' s area including Broca' s area

Human speech uses 50 sounds or 4x Human speech uses 50 sounds or 4x those of other higher primatesthose of other higher primates ~ 5000 languages presently exist with ~ 5000 languages presently exist with

associated distinctive culturesassociated distinctive cultures

People & TalkPeople & Talk People discriminate about ten sounds/second People discriminate about ten sounds/second

In the range needed to decode speech In the range needed to decode speech Baby talk exemplifies intuitive parenting; Baby talk exemplifies intuitive parenting;

High pitched, slow, & melodious verbalization High pitched, slow, & melodious verbalization Attracts baby's attention & encourages attunementAttracts baby's attention & encourages attunement

Shouting & vowelsShouting & vowels A cultural group that shouts use easily recognized A cultural group that shouts use easily recognized

vowels, vowels, Loudness of verbalizations is inversely proportional Loudness of verbalizations is inversely proportional

to the number of vowels in the languageto the number of vowels in the language4242 About two-thirds of human speech is gossipAbout two-thirds of human speech is gossip

Language in Early DevelopmentLanguage in Early Development Reciprocity with mother organizes Reciprocity with mother organizes

communicationcommunication Sentence mind-traces make thoughts easier to followSentence mind-traces make thoughts easier to follow

Social referencingSocial referencing Young children may interrupt play to reference the Young children may interrupt play to reference the

mother for emotional informationmother for emotional information66 At age 6 months, the infant seeks reassurance from At age 6 months, the infant seeks reassurance from

a parent's presence a parent's presence By 1 year also seeks information from the parent's By 1 year also seeks information from the parent's

face face At 1 year feelings expressed in words & self-At 1 year feelings expressed in words & self-

talk talk To change both their own feeling states &To change both their own feeling states & Perceptions of an environmental situation Perceptions of an environmental situation

Sounds to VocabularySounds to Vocabulary Infants make many sounds until ~10 Infants make many sounds until ~10

monthsmonths Number then decreases Number then decreases Change stems from restricted set baby Change stems from restricted set baby

hears in the familyhears in the family66

At 1-month, infant can distinguish a At 1-month, infant can distinguish a "ba" sound from a "pa" sound. "ba" sound from a "pa" sound.

A 1-year old infant has 2-3 words & A 1-year old infant has 2-3 words & About 20 signs when exposed to sign About 20 signs when exposed to sign

languagelanguage

VocabularyVocabulary

At 2 years, the child knows about 50 wordsAt 2 years, the child knows about 50 words Factors forecasting large vocabularies Factors forecasting large vocabularies

include include Adults reading and talking about stories, Adults reading and talking about stories, Quality of mealtime conversations, Quality of mealtime conversations, Large vocabulary and mean length of Large vocabulary and mean length of

utterance by the mother, utterance by the mother, Higher socioeconomic status of family, Higher socioeconomic status of family, Firstborn statusFirstborn status Talkative mother with sophisticated languageTalkative mother with sophisticated language4343

Language & EmotionLanguage & Emotion Stress on a sound or change in rhythm of the Stress on a sound or change in rhythm of the

sounds sounds May change meaning (Chinese) or May change meaning (Chinese) or Emotional tone (English)Emotional tone (English)

In Japan and Korea, words chosen must fit the In Japan and Korea, words chosen must fit the relative social status of the participantsrelative social status of the participants

Over half of Japanese sentences omit the subject Over half of Japanese sentences omit the subject reflecting the favored indirect approach reflecting the favored indirect approach

Swear wordsSwear words Japanese & American Indian languages contain no native Japanese & American Indian languages contain no native

cursescurses An extremely crude swear word may arouse anger in one An extremely crude swear word may arouse anger in one

culture but usually no emotional reaction in another culture but usually no emotional reaction in another culture culture

Sex & LanguageSex & Language

Sexes equate on overall intelligence Sexes equate on overall intelligence but but Men excel on visuo-spatial abilities Men excel on visuo-spatial abilities

(especially mental rotation of complex (especially mental rotation of complex figures) & figures) &

Women on verbal abilities (especially Women on verbal abilities (especially fluent production of words)fluent production of words)2121

Developmental language disorders Developmental language disorders Girls withdraw moreGirls withdraw more Boys tend to hyperactivityBoys tend to hyperactivity4242

Language Impairment & DxLanguage Impairment & Dx

Men who had been language-impaired Men who had been language-impaired display more antisocial disorder display more antisocial disorder compared to controls compared to controls

Children with speech & language Children with speech & language disorders disorders Followed 14 years showed higher rates of Followed 14 years showed higher rates of

anxiety disorder (social phobia) than anxiety disorder (social phobia) than controlscontrols4343

Language-impaired youth tend to have Language-impaired youth tend to have other psychiatric disorders other psychiatric disorders

Genetic Factors in LanguageGenetic Factors in Language A single gene on chromosome 7q31 A single gene on chromosome 7q31

Relates to brain circuitry for speech & Relates to brain circuitry for speech & languagelanguage4545

3-generations of a family & an unrelated 3-generations of a family & an unrelated person had severe speech & language person had severe speech & language problemsproblems

A disrupted gene, FOXP2 transmits as an A disrupted gene, FOXP2 transmits as an autosomal-dominant autosomal-dominant

A guanine nucleotide substituted for an adenineA guanine nucleotide substituted for an adenine Unaffected family members & other Unaffected family members & other

unaffected nonrelated persons have no such unaffected nonrelated persons have no such substitutionsubstitution

MemoryMemory Memory stores and recalls experienceMemory stores and recalls experience 2-memory systems: 2-memory systems:

Declarative (explicit), features awareness Declarative (explicit), features awareness of past experiences, andof past experiences, and

Nondeclarative (working) memory works Nondeclarative (working) memory works outside consciousnessoutside consciousness4646

Fosters skills/habits, classical conditioning, & Fosters skills/habits, classical conditioning, & nonassociative learning (reflexes)nonassociative learning (reflexes)

Neural CorrelatesNeural Correlates

Neuroanatomy & neurologyNeuroanatomy & neurology Explicit memory requires Explicit memory requires

An intact hippocampus & related structures in the medial An intact hippocampus & related structures in the medial temporal lobetemporal lobe

Dorsal & anterior thalamic nuclei & mammillary bodies Dorsal & anterior thalamic nuclei & mammillary bodies produces apathy and problem with explicit memory produces apathy and problem with explicit memory

Nondeclarative (working) memory needsNondeclarative (working) memory needs Frontal lobes do temporary storage of info for specific Frontal lobes do temporary storage of info for specific

tasks tasks Puts experience in context & allows memory searchPuts experience in context & allows memory search

2-prefrontal areas, dorsolateral & orbitomedial2-prefrontal areas, dorsolateral & orbitomedial Damage to the former impairs integration of cognitionDamage to the former impairs integration of cognition Damage to the latter affects emotional & social functioningDamage to the latter affects emotional & social functioning

Face Recognition/MemoryFace Recognition/Memory

Humans and other species use face Humans and other species use face recognition as an important social taskrecognition as an important social task Sheep remember both sheep & human faces for Sheep remember both sheep & human faces for

over 2 years, distinguishing both frontal & profile over 2 years, distinguishing both frontal & profile viewsviews

Small cell-groups in temporal & medial Small cell-groups in temporal & medial prefrontal cortices mediate this functionprefrontal cortices mediate this function4747 Particularly on the rightParticularly on the right

21 day old human babies21 day old human babies Hold in memory the imitated model of a facial Hold in memory the imitated model of a facial

expression for at least 2.5 minutesexpression for at least 2.5 minutes

Development & MemoryDevelopment & Memory

Episodic memory (the recollection of one's Episodic memory (the recollection of one's personal past) appears at ~4 years of agepersonal past) appears at ~4 years of age

Over time child becomes aware of self Over time child becomes aware of self experience experience

Memory consolidation helped by REM sleep & Memory consolidation helped by REM sleep & dreams may serve a role in social adaptationdreams may serve a role in social adaptation

Better recollection occurs if one’s mood state Better recollection occurs if one’s mood state at the time of an experience recurs at at the time of an experience recurs at attempted retrieval (state-dependent attempted retrieval (state-dependent learning)learning)

NeurogenesisNeurogenesis

New neurons form in adult New neurons form in adult mammalian brains including monkeys mammalian brains including monkeys & humans in the olfactory bulb (smell) & humans in the olfactory bulb (smell) & hippocampus (memory) & hippocampus (memory) Sensorimotor stimulation stimulates Sensorimotor stimulation stimulates

neuronal replacement neuronal replacement 4848 Neurogenesis decreases from stress, a Neurogenesis decreases from stress, a

boring environment & perhaps depressionboring environment & perhaps depression Human story-memory Human story-memory increased increased

size of L hippocampussize of L hippocampus

Neurogenesis: Stress & DementiaNeurogenesis: Stress & Dementia

Human high cortisol levels over a 5-Human high cortisol levels over a 5-year period year period Reduced hippocampus volume (14%) Reduced hippocampus volume (14%) VersusVersus those with low-cortisol levels those with low-cortisol levels4949

Early problem in Alzheimers is Early problem in Alzheimers is olfactory identification olfactory identification Lack of neurogenesis in olfactory bulb Lack of neurogenesis in olfactory bulb

neurons likely lessens itneurons likely lessens it

Neurogenesis in Other AnimalsNeurogenesis in Other Animals

In rats, timing of learned responses & In rats, timing of learned responses & temporal relationship between temporal relationship between events depends on the neurogenesis events depends on the neurogenesis

Many birds add neurons involved in Many birds add neurons involved in song production & memory song production & memory throughout adulthoodthroughout adulthood5050

Monkeys with damage to the Monkeys with damage to the hippocampus & amygdala behave hippocampus & amygdala behave like autistic personslike autistic persons66




Bonding researchBonding research Sociality in non-human animalsSociality in non-human animals CultureCulture Treatment implicationsTreatment implications

Therapeutic implications of Therapeutic implications of social brain researchsocial brain research

Delineating specific genetic and Delineating specific genetic and environmental roles in development environmental roles in development will allow will allow More accurate diagnoses of malfunction More accurate diagnoses of malfunction

and interventions that support survival and interventions that support survival of the individual & of mankind of the individual & of mankind

Massive amounts of genetic research Massive amounts of genetic research increasingly increasingly Delineate specific genetic chromosomal Delineate specific genetic chromosomal

or metabolic entities or metabolic entities

Gene Therapy PossibilitiesGene Therapy Possibilities

For some problems, ? gene therapy For some problems, ? gene therapy e.g., neural stem cells may eventually e.g., neural stem cells may eventually

treat patients with neurodegenerative treat patients with neurodegenerative disorders disorders

Adult mouse brain stem cells have Adult mouse brain stem cells have been isolatedbeen isolated These versatile cells produce both These versatile cells produce both

neurons and glia & when plated on neurons and glia & when plated on muscle-cell cultures, half produce muscle muscle-cell cultures, half produce muscle cellscells5151

Physical DisordersPhysical Disorders

About 9% of physical disorders present About 9% of physical disorders present with psychiatric symptoms:with psychiatric symptoms: Most common depression, anxiety, confusion, Most common depression, anxiety, confusion,

memory & speech disordersmemory & speech disorders Some after Group A beta-hemolytic Some after Group A beta-hemolytic

streptococcal infections streptococcal infections Display autoimmune problems presenting as Display autoimmune problems presenting as

obsessive compulsive disorder, Syndenhan’s chorea obsessive compulsive disorder, Syndenhan’s chorea or Tourette's disorderor Tourette's disorder22

Such symptoms resemble idiopathic Such symptoms resemble idiopathic psychiatric entitiespsychiatric entities

But post-infectious conditions respond to But post-infectious conditions respond to plasmaphoresis & antibioticsplasmaphoresis & antibiotics

Animal Model for Cocaine Addiction Animal Model for Cocaine Addiction Prophylaxis Prophylaxis

Possible treatment for drug addiction stem Possible treatment for drug addiction stem from rats given methylphenidate from rats given methylphenidate When given this stimulant during When given this stimulant during

preadolescence & then exposed to cocaine as preadolescence & then exposed to cocaine as adults, mature rats responded less and have adults, mature rats responded less and have increased aversionincreased aversion5252

If exposed to methylphenidate as adults, these If exposed to methylphenidate as adults, these rats responded less to cocaine but no aversionrats responded less to cocaine but no aversion

Developmental stage thus played a role in cocaine Developmental stage thus played a role in cocaine responsivity responsivity

Treatment RelationsTreatment Relations

Diagnostic errors may stem from Diagnostic errors may stem from stereotypes as might an undue emphasis stereotypes as might an undue emphasis on environment with little attention to on environment with little attention to personal or social factorspersonal or social factors A person facing adverse personal and social A person facing adverse personal and social

conditions may seem flat or suspiciousconditions may seem flat or suspicious Some clinicians may see this alone as pathologicSome clinicians may see this alone as pathologic

Patients feeling "one down" do not long Patients feeling "one down" do not long remain in treatmentremain in treatment2121 For success, the therapist should find something For success, the therapist should find something

likeable in the patientlikeable in the patient

SchoolsSchools

Schools can play important roles in Schools can play important roles in decreasing violence. decreasing violence.

Teaching & modeling socially appropriate Teaching & modeling socially appropriate behavior & includesbehavior & includes Adequate supervision on the playgroundAdequate supervision on the playground No tolerance for predatory or bullying behavior No tolerance for predatory or bullying behavior

will decrease aggression and increase academic will decrease aggression and increase academic performanceperformance

Adults also need to help children avoid Adults also need to help children avoid watching such behavior & to refuse watching such behavior & to refuse assuming victim rolesassuming victim roles

Culture & TherapyCulture & Therapy

Altering people's behavior or group Altering people's behavior or group environment usually a long-term project environment usually a long-term project Requires group incentives, education, & clear Requires group incentives, education, & clear

objectivesobjectives A problem’s meaning typically reflects group A problem’s meaning typically reflects group

beliefs beliefs Understanding the cultural background of the Understanding the cultural background of the

family helps tailor the approach usedfamily helps tailor the approach used2828 Approved child punishment in one culture may Approved child punishment in one culture may

constitute abuse in another constitute abuse in another Family therapists demonstrate sensitivity to Family therapists demonstrate sensitivity to

values and “agree to disagree” with the family if values and “agree to disagree” with the family if necessary necessary

Specific ExamplesSpecific Examples

African-American families respond to a African-American families respond to a short term, present-oriented, problem-short term, present-oriented, problem-solving approach:solving approach: As when encouraging the family to solve its As when encouraging the family to solve its

own problemsown problems2828

Some African-American teenagers receive Some African-American teenagers receive covert messages that a new child is covert messages that a new child is desireddesired

Teenagers bear over 50% of Teenagers bear over 50% of pregnancies borne by black women and pregnancies borne by black women and the pregnancy often surprises them the pregnancy often surprises them

Extended FamilyExtended Family

Therapists should consider the Therapists should consider the potential support that stems from potential support that stems from extended familyextended family2121

Asian-American families benefit from Asian-American families benefit from formal, structured and practical formal, structured and practical assistance; indirect communication assistance; indirect communication helps avoid shamehelps avoid shame

Tolerance of differences can be Tolerance of differences can be taught & encouragedtaught & encouraged2222

Changed Family RolesChanged Family Roles

Changed family roles need careful scrutiny Changed family roles need careful scrutiny Sensitive care critical when diagnosing or treating Sensitive care critical when diagnosing or treating

family dysfunctionfamily dysfunction2222 Dual career marriages may benefit from help Dual career marriages may benefit from help

In communications, problem solving, conflict In communications, problem solving, conflict resolution, & time management resolution, & time management

Teenage mothers with educational Teenage mothers with educational assistance more likely become self-sufficient assistance more likely become self-sufficient

Pregnancy may deter the education of a Pregnancy may deter the education of a teenage father, making assistance requiredteenage father, making assistance required

Non-Conventional IssuesNon-Conventional Issues

Lesbian & gay families may use assistance Lesbian & gay families may use assistance to cope with societal reactionsto cope with societal reactions

New families (after remarriage) may relate New families (after remarriage) may relate stressfullystressfully Family members may have to expand contacts Family members may have to expand contacts

to more than the immediate stepfamily to to more than the immediate stepfamily to satisfy relationships satisfy relationships

When adult children return home: When adult children return home: Effective rules help work out problems Effective rules help work out problems As with household labor, family property, As with household labor, family property,

authority relationships, financial obligations, & authority relationships, financial obligations, & communicationcommunication

Parentified ChildrenParentified Children

Children of deaf or immigrant parents may Children of deaf or immigrant parents may do "language brokering" for parents do "language brokering" for parents Such “parentified” children produces problemsSuch “parentified” children produces problems e.g., as interpreters for parents, inappropriate e.g., as interpreters for parents, inappropriate

exposure to intimate medical & legal issuesexposure to intimate medical & legal issues This expectation for the child becomes the This expectation for the child becomes the

norm in most families and must be challenged norm in most families and must be challenged especially regarding inappropriate use of especially regarding inappropriate use of children for adult-only conversationschildren for adult-only conversations

Help For Some Children & WomenHelp For Some Children & Women

Children in dysfunctional families Children in dysfunctional families learn not to express emotion learn not to express emotion Reason: to feel nothing. Reason: to feel nothing. They must be taught to be open, direct They must be taught to be open, direct

and assertive. and assertive. Women may overfunction emotionally Women may overfunction emotionally

(responsible for everyone) (responsible for everyone) May overfunction by advising, rescuing, May overfunction by advising, rescuing,

and taking over with stress and taking over with stress Need help for healthier mutual Need help for healthier mutual

relationshipsrelationships2121

Help For Some Men Help For Some Men

Men tend not to ask for help, Men tend not to ask for help, My become quite isolated, & underestimate My become quite isolated, & underestimate

their distress their distress Therapists may need to reach out to them in Therapists may need to reach out to them in

an invitational manner. an invitational manner. In US, African-American men with behavior In US, African-American men with behavior

problems problems More likely than white men go to correctional More likely than white men go to correctional

system rather than the mental health systemsystem rather than the mental health system2121 Knowing this helps ensure needed diagnosis & Knowing this helps ensure needed diagnosis &

treatmenttreatment

Group TherapiesGroup Therapies Some therapists routinely overlook some real life Some therapists routinely overlook some real life

issues issues e.g., male infertility, menstruation, physical illness, or e.g., male infertility, menstruation, physical illness, or

sexual function sexual function Reason: these issues "not discussed in polite society"Reason: these issues "not discussed in polite society"

Sex of leadersSex of leaders In a group situation, men more likely respond negatively In a group situation, men more likely respond negatively

to women leaders to women leaders But positively to men leaders for saying the same thingBut positively to men leaders for saying the same thing More early developmental issues come up in same-sex More early developmental issues come up in same-sex

groupsgroups Mixed sex groups may help issues of professional Mixed sex groups may help issues of professional

developmentdevelopment2121

ConclusionConclusion Addressing molecular-genetic pathogenesis of Addressing molecular-genetic pathogenesis of

disorders more readily accomplished in our present disorders more readily accomplished in our present era of considerable data productionera of considerable data production Of course, such levels of analysis need analytic integration Of course, such levels of analysis need analytic integration e.g, attention often restricted to medicatione.g, attention often restricted to medication

But additionally many other factors impact the But additionally many other factors impact the person’s, the family’s and groups’ views of person’s, the family’s and groups’ views of dysfunctiondysfunction Considering these factors, views & communicational states Considering these factors, views & communicational states

takes time, motivation, education, and consensus opinion to takes time, motivation, education, and consensus opinion to changechange

To work most integratively, we need a social brain To work most integratively, we need a social brain focusfocus Such integration of treatment plans means they will achieve Such integration of treatment plans means they will achieve

greater adequacy for troubled people greater adequacy for troubled people

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