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Scientific Method

INTRODUCTIONThis Teacher’s Guide provides information to help you get the most out of Scientific Method.The contents in this guide will allow you to prepare your students before using the program and present follow-up activities to reinforce the program’s key learning points.

This program examines the basic elements of the scientific method, including defining and researching the problem, forming a hypothesis, using experiments and observations to gather information, analyzing the data,forming a conclusion, and communicating the results. The video illustrates some practical applications of the scientific method including the testing of new drugs and analyzing the performance of various types of sportinggoods.

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter viewing the program, students will be able to: l Name the five steps of the scientific process.

l Describe the difference between applied science and pure science.

l Write a hypothesis, using appropriate terminology.

l Explain how the data that is collected in an experiment can support or refute a hypothesis.

l Identify the purpose of the independent variable, dependent variable, control group, and experimental groupwithin an experiment.

l Discuss how bias can affect the results and/or interpretation of an experiment or research.

l Describe the relevance of a “significant difference” in the analysis of data.

l Discuss at least two ways the scientific method is used in our everyday lives.

EDUCATIONAL STANDARDSNational StandardsThis program correlates with the National Science Education Standards from the National Academy of Sciencesand the Project 2061 Benchmarks for Science Literacy by the American Association for the Advancement ofScience. The content has been aligned with the following educational standards and benchmarks from theseorganizations.

l Understand the nature of science.

l Understand the nature of scientific knowledge.

l Understand science as a human endeavor.

l Understandings about scientific inquiry.

l Understand abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry.

l Understand evidence, models, and explanation.

l Understand that investigations are conducted for different reasons, including to explore new phenomena, to check on previous results, to test how well a theory predicts, and to compare different theories.

l Understand that scientists differ greatly in what phenomena they study and how they go about their work.Although there is no fixed set of steps that all scientists follow, scientific investigations usually involve the collection of relevant evidence, the use of logical reasoning, and the application of imagination in devisinghypotheses and explanations to make sense of the collected evidence.

l Understand that if more than one variable changes at the same time in an experiment, the outcome of theexperiment may not be clearly attributable to any one of the variables. It may not always be possible to prevent outside variables from influencing the outcome of an investigation (or even to identify all of the variables), but collaboration among investigators can often lead to research designs that are able to deal with such situations.

l Understand that hypotheses are widely used in science for choosing what data to pay attention to and whatadditional data to seek, and for guiding the interpretation of the data (both new and previously available).

l Understand that what people expect to observe often affects what they actually do observe. Strong beliefsabout what should happen in particular circumstances can prevent them from detecting other results.Scientists know about this danger to objectivity and take steps to try and avoid it when designing investiga-tions and examining data. One safeguard is to have different investigators conduct independent studies of the same questions.

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Reprinted with permission from National Science Education Standards © 1999 by the National Academy of Sciences, courtesy of the NationalAcademies Press, Washington, D.C.

From BENCHMARKS FOR SCIENCE LITERACY by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, copyright 1993 by the AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Science. Used by permission of Oxford University Press, Inc. Please note: judgments about the alignment of content presented here with the learning goals in BENCHMARKS FOR SCIENCE LITERACY are those of the author and do not represent theopinion or endorsement of the AAAS or Oxford University Press, Inc.

English Language Arts StandardsThe activities in this Teacher’s Guide were created in compliance with the following National Standards for theEnglish Language Arts from the National Council of Teachers of English.

l Use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information).

l Adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicateeffectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes.

l Conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. Theygather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and nonprint texts, artifacts, people)to communicate their discoveries.

l Use a variety of technological and information resources (e.g., libraries, databases, computer networks, video)to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge.

Standards for the English Language Arts, by the International Reading Association and the National Council of Teachers of English, copyright1996 by the International Reading Association and the National Council of Teachers of English. Reprinted with permission.

Technology StandardsThe activities in this Teacher’s Guide were created in compliance with the following National EducationTechnology Standards from the National Education Technology Standards Project.

l Practice responsible use of technology systems, information, and software.

l Use technology tools to enhance learning, increase productivity, and promote creativity.

l Use technology tools to process data and report results.

l Use technology to locate, evaluate, and collect information from a variety of sources.

l Develop positive attitudes toward technology uses that support lifelong learning, collaboration, personal pursuits, and productivity.

The ISTE National Education Technology Standards Project standards are reprinted with permission.

PROGRAM OVERVIEW This program describes the five stages of the scientific process. It includes a step-by-step explanation of each ofthe stages, and practical examples of how the scientific method is applied in a variety of situations.

MAIN TOPICSTopic 1: What is the Scientific Method?The first section introduces the concept of science and how scientists use an observable, measurable systemcalled the scientific method to help them arrive at answers to the questions that interest them.

Topic 2: Identify and Find the ProblemThis section discusses how scientists develop questions for investigation and focus their question or problem so it can be investigated through experimentation and observation. “Applied science” and ”pure science” aredefined, and examples of problems that are investigated in each category are provided.

Topic 3: Form a HypothesisThe definition of a hypothesis as an educated guess is explained in detail, as are the essential requirements of a hypothesis. A comparison is made between a theory and a hypothesis. The evolving cycle of hypothesis, data,and theory is described.

Topic 4: Experiments and ObservationsThe role of experiments and observations in the collection of data is examined. The four key components of anexperiment, which ensure the validity of the cause and effect, are identified. The purpose of repeated trials andthe role of bias are also explored in this segment.

Topic 5: Analyzing the DataThis section explores the data analysis step. Scientists study data looking for a significant difference between thecontrol group and the experimental group in order to establish if a true effect is occurring. A brief introduction tothe role of statistics in this process is provided.

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Topic 6: Forming a ConclusionThis section describes how a scientist arrives at a conclusion, and explains why it is necessary to communicateresearch results in print. The appropriate language used to report the results is introduced.

Topic 7: Drug DevelopmentThis section illustrates a practical application of the scientific method in pharmaceutical drug development.

Topic 8: The Scientific Method in our Daily LifeThe program concludes with ideas for how students can use the scientific method in their own lives to solve aproblem or for self-improvement.

FAST FACTSl Science is based on observable, measurable evidence. To arrive at the evidence, scientists use the scientific

method, which is a series of steps that help them work in a rational and logical way.

lThe five steps of the scientific method are 1) define the problem, 2) form a hypothesis, 3) carry out experi-ments and/or observations, 4) analyze the data, and 5) form a conclusion and communicate the results.

l Applied science is a form of research where scientists work on a problem that affects many people, such as a cure for cancer, AIDS, or heart disease. It also includes worldwide problems like pollution or hunger.

l Pure science is a form of research where scientists work on problems out of curiosity or a special interest. Its purpose is to answer questions, and it has no obvious or immediate application to our daily lives.

l A scientific hypothesis must meet essential requirements: it must be testable, it must be stated in an“If…then” format, and it must be proved or disproved by experimentation.

l A theory explains a body of data.

l Experiments are carefully designed activities that test a hypothesis.

l An “experimental group” is the group upon which the experiment is being performed.

lThe “control group” is the group that serves as a standard of comparison. The same conditions of the experi-mental group are in place, except for the one factor or variable being tested.

l Repeated trials are multiple tests of the same experiment to be sure of the outcome.

l Both the researcher’s bias and the bias of the people in the experiment can affect the outcome of the results.

l When scientists form conclusions they report the findings in print for other scientists to read, respond to, andcriticize.

l One of the most important applications of the scientific method is the development of pharmaceutical drugs.

lThe U.S. government regulates how the scientific method is applied in clinical trials. This is called the GoodClinical Practice Program.

l Under current law, all new drugs need proof that they are effective, as well as safe, before they can beapproved for marketing.

VOCABULARY TERMSanalyze:To examine critically, so as to bring out the essential elements.

bias: A particular tendency or inclination, especially one which prevents unprejudiced consideration of a question.

conclusion: A reasoned deduction or inference, the logical consequence of a reasoning process.

data: Factual information used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation.

dependent variable:The element in an experiment that is being measured.

evidence: Ground for belief; that which tends to prove or disprove something; proof.

hypothesis: An assumption made especially to test its logical or empirical consequences.

independent variable:The element of an experiment that is being manipulated.

observation:The gathering of information (as for scientific studies) by noting facts or occurrences.

statistics: A branch of mathematics dealing with the analysis and interpretation of masses of numerical data.

theory: A plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle offered to explain observed facts.4

PRE-PROGRAM DISCUSSION QUESTIONSl If you need a question answered or problem solved, what steps would you take to find the answer?

l How do you think or act like a scientist in your daily life?

l What part does the human trait of curiosity play in the lives of scientists?

l How has science changed over the last 200 years? How has it remained the same?

l Why is it important for scientists to follow the same procedure or format when conducting research?

l What would happen if every scientist followed his or her own procedure instead?

POST-PROGRAM DISCUSSION QUESTIONSl How can the scientific method of inquiry be used to solve a problem in your own life?

l What might happen if scientists accepted the first set of research results without any further exploration orrepetition? What impact could this have on the public?

l Is it ever possible for bias to be removed from research? Explain your answer.

l Do you believe that all scientific research has value and that money is never wasted? Is it possible for millionsof dollars to be spent on unnecessary scientific research? Explain your answer.

l Should we curtail the amount of money spent or put limits on how much research is conducted on specifictopics?

l How do you feel about the length of time it takes the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to approve a newdrug? Is it necessary to go through so many steps to approve new drugs?

l Some people travel to foreign countries to get access to experimental drugs that fight diseases like cancer orAIDS. What is your opinion about trying experimental drugs that are not approved by the FDA? Would youconsider that option for yourself? Why or why not?

GROUP ACTIVITIESScience FairAs a class, act as consultants for younger students in organizing a science fair. Go into classrooms to teach students about the scientific method. You may assist with the design of experiments and/or presentations.

DebateChoose a current area of research in any field. Hold a class debate arguing the pros and cons of the topic ofresearch. Points to be covered might include: • The cost of the research vs. benefit of the product;• Need for the product; • Environmental impact as a result of production and/or distribution.

INDIVIDUAL STUDENT PROJECTSResearch ProjectDevelop a research project or science experiment using all five steps of the scientific method. Make sure youdefine the problem, form a hypothesis, present your observations, analyze the data, and write a conclusion. Be sure to include a dependent variable, an independent variable, an experimental group, and a control group.Present your findings to the class, using one or more visual aids.

Personal ReflectionIdentify a personal issue or problem you would like to resolve. Develop a journal to document the scientificmethod to address the issue. Begin by defining the problem, and then develop a hypothesis to help you solveyour problem. Conduct your research by writing in your journal for a period of one month while you implementyour hypothesis. Analyze your data at the end of the month to determine what effect the implementation of your hypothesis had on your problem. Finally, draw a conclusion about whether you were able to solve yourproblem.

INTERNET ACTIVITIESDrug DevelopmentBefore any drug goes on the market, there are many steps involved in the process of testing it. Research thejourney a drug takes from the lab to the medicine cabinet. Then, write a short story about the journey of a newdrug through its development cycle. Identify several reasons that might prevent a drug from going to market.The following Internet sites may assist you in this activity.5

www.drugdevelopment-technology.com

www.fda.gov/cder/learn/CDERLearn/default.htm

http://clinicaltrials.georgetown.edu/patients/questions_trials.html#ideas

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONSQ: Name the five steps of the scientific method.Answer/Feedback: 1) Define the problem, 2) form a hypothesis, 3) carry out the experiment and/or observa-tions, 4) analyze the data, and 5) form a conclusion and communicate the results. These same steps can be usedto resolve any problem or question that allows for trial and error, testing, and observation.

Q: How is applied science different from pure science?Answer/Feedback: Applied science involves specific problems that affect many people. The information fromthe research is applied to specific situations. Pure science, unlike applied science, has no immediate or obviousapplication to our daily lives. It is an investigation of areas of interest for the scientist. Pure science, however, isthe foundation upon which most applied science is based. Pure science answers many questions and adds toour understanding of the world around us, from what materials make up other planets to the chemical composi-tion of water.

Q: A hypothesis is _______________________. (a) the same as a theory(b) the final answer to a question or problem(c) an educated guess(d) formed after the research is started

A: (c)Feedback: A hypothesis is a guess because the outcome of an experiment is never known until the experimentstarts. It is considered an “educated guess” because it is based on the best possible information that can begathered at that time.

Q: What four components must be present in an experiment? Answer/Feedback: An independent variable, a dependent variable, an experimental group, a control group. Thepresence of all four components ensures that the results of the experiment are real and not due to another factoror to bias on the part of someone in the experiment. It helps to protect the scientific validity of the experiment.

Q: Describe the “placebo effect.” Use an example to explain your answer.Answer/Feedback:The placebo effect is a term to explain how human beliefs or biases can convince one thatan outcome is occurring within a given situation. For example, when someone is sick, they may expect medicineto make them feel better; because they expect the medicine to work, it does. This is the “placebo effect.” To com-bat this reaction, researchers may conduct a “single blind” experiment. Two different pills that look and tasteidentical are created; one (the actual drug) is given to the experimental group, and one (the placebo) is given tothe control group. Only the researchers know which group is the control group, and which is the experimentalgroup.

Q: How can bias affect the results of an experiment or research?Answer/Feedback: Scientists may have their own bias—a conscious or subconscious opinion—regarding whatthe expected outcome of their experiment will reveal. This may lead them to focus on the data that support theirhypothesis. The scientist may analyze the data with a tendency to lean towards their own expectations, and thentry to fit the data into that conclusion. A “double blind” experiment can be used to eliminate bias. In the experi-ment someone not involved in the research gives the pills to each group. Both the subjects of the research andthe scientist are “blind” to which pill was given to whom. Only after the experiment is completed does the scien-tist find out which group received the placebo and which group received the pill.

Q: When data is being analyzed, scientists are looking for a _____________ to exist between the control andexperimental groups.

(a) significant difference(b) bias(c) variable(d) standard

A: (a)Feedback:The reason a significant difference needs to be established between the control and experimentalgroups is that the scientists need to be sure that there is a real effect occurring as a result of the variable beingtested. If a significant difference is not present, the results may exist because of a random variation due tochance or an error in measurement.6

Q: Scientists use _________ to decide if an effect in an experiment is large enough to be called significant.(a) data(b) variables(c) standards(d) statistics

A: (d)Feedback:The commonly accepted standard for significant difference is a confidence level of at least 95% thatthe independent variable caused the effect on the dependent variable.

Q: One of the most important applications of the scientific method is the development of __________.(a) food products(b) marketing strategies(c) beauty products(d) drugs

A: (d)Feedback: By the time a drug is approved by the federal government, it has gone through a long, involved, and costly testing process.

Q: Scientists can be confident of their results after conducting their experiment only one time, as long as theyhave carefully eliminated any extenuating circumstances and have done thorough research. (True or False)

A: FalseFeedback: Repeated trials are necessary in order to be certain that the results of an experiment are reallycaused by the variable being tested and not due to other factors that could affect the outcome. The use of repeat-ed trials helps scientists average out the differences, and allows for greater confidence in the data.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCESThe Scientific Method Todaywww.scientificmethod.com

Experiment-Resources.comwww.experiment-resources.com

Using the Scientific Method to be a Field Researcherwww.forestry.mtu.edu/kidscorner/face_nf.html

What is the Scientific Method?http://biotech.biology.arizona.edu/Scientific_Method/scientific_method.html

BOOKS

Scientific Revolution by Harry Henderson and Lisa Yount. Gale Group, 1996. ISBN: 1560062835

Sciencewise: Discovering the Scientific Process through Problem Solving by Holly Dennis. The Critical Thinking Books and Software, 1999. ISBN: 0894556487

How Do You Know It Is True?: Discovering the Difference Between Science and Superstitionby Hyman Ruchlis. Prometheus Books, 1991. ISBN: 0879756578

OTHER PRODUCTSThe Scientific MethodThis 2-part video and CD-ROM series examines the basic elements of the scientific method including definingand researching the problem, forming a hypothesis, using experiments and observations to gather information,analyzing the data, forming a conclusion, and communicating the results. The CD-ROM looks at the way in whichscientists work in exploring new areas of knowledge, or new aspects of existing knowledge, and teaches stu-dents how to analyze evidence and data. A Cambridge Educational Production.Order #: 14690, www.cambridgeeducational.com, 1-800-468-4227

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Understanding Scientific MeasurementOperating on the premise that the physical world can be described by mathematical relationships, this programuses a simple yet powerful series of experiments to study a specific physical phenomenon—the motion of asteel spring. Viewers learn how to construct equations involving dependent variables, independent variables,and known constants in order to predict and measure acceleration and periods of oscillation. Also illustrated arethe most effective ways to graph test results and a typical approach for writing a clear and persuasive report onan experiment—including its aim, apparatus, method, results, analysis, evaluation, and conclusion.Viewable/printable educational resources are available online. Original title: Measurement and the Search forRelationships: Understanding Scientific Measurement. (20 minutes) © 2008Order #: 40289, www.cambridgeeducational.com,1-800-468-4227

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