scientific research journal of india (srji) volume-1 issue-3 year-2012

Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012 Scientific Research Journal of India 1

http://www.srji.co.cc

About Us: Scientific Research Journal of India(SRJI) is the official organ of Dr.L.Sharma Medical Care and Educational Development Society. It was founded by Dr. Krishna N. Sharma. It is funded by the Dr. L. Sharma Medical Care and Educational Development Society. It is a Multidisciplinary, Peer Reviewed, Open Access Journal of science. The intended audiences of this journal are the professionals and students. The scope of journal is broad to cover the recent inventions/discoveries in structural and functional principles of scientific research. The Journal publishes selected original research articles, reviews, short communication and book reviews in the fields of Botany, Zoology, Medical Sciences, Agricultural Sciences, Environmental Sciences, Natural Sciences, Anthropology and any other branch of related sciences. Frequency: The issues will be regularly published quarterly. Special Issue: Special issue based on specific themes may be published at the suggestion of the executive committee of Dr. L. Sharma Medical Care and Educational Development Society and the members of editorial of SRJI. Disclaimer:

• Information provided on the site is meant to complement and not replace any advice or information from a health professional.

• We do not make claims relating to the benefit or performance of a specific medical treatment, commercial product or service.

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Index

Editorial

Dr. Popiha Bordoloi 5

Perception of students for laptop

ergonomics and its use in the learning centre of Sheffield Hallam University,

U.K.

Mayank Pushkar, Shobhit Sagar

Physiotherapy

7

Effectiveness of Educational Sessions on

Reducing Diabetes in Women with PCOS— A Pilot Study

B. Sharmila, B. Arun 23

Efficacy of McKenzie Approach

combined with Sustained Traction in improving the Quality of life following

low Back Ache – A Case Report

A.Sridhar, S.Vimala

34

Diagnosis of Human Brucellosis by

Laboratory Standardized IgM and IgG ELISA

Rajeswari Shome, M. Nagalingam,

K. Narayana Rao, B.Jayapal Gowdu, B.

R. Shome, K. Prabhudas

Microbiology 40

Study of Non-Isothermal Kinetic of

Austenite Transformation to Pearlite in CK45 Steel by Ozawa Model Free

Method

Mohammad Kuwaiti Metallurgical Engineering 53

Face Exposure Technology

Thanigaivel.V

Computer Technology

60

Recovery of Decayed Species through

Image Processing

K.Priyadharsan, S.Saranya 70



Editorial

Dear Readers,

I am very pleased to present the third issue of the Scientific Research Journal

of India (SRJI). This multidisciplinary and open access Journal of science is the

official organ of Dr. L. Sharma Medical Care and Educational Development Society.

The previous issues had covered three disciplines of science Physiotherapy,

Agriculture, Anthropology and Computer science. In this current issue we are

covering two new branches of science- Microbiology and Metallurgical engineering.

I would like to mention that this journal is intended to publish selected original

research articles, reviews, short communications and book reviews etc. in the various

fields of science like Botany, Zoology, Medical Sciences, Agricultural Sciences,

Environmental Sciences, Natural Sciences, Anthropology and any other branch of

related sciences and we’ll be more than happy to recognize any of your works in

these field too.

Your comments and suggestions are very valuable for us.

Happy Reading.

Regards,

Dr. Popiha Bordoloi,

Editor in Chief



Perception of students for laptop ergonomics and its use in the learning

centre of Sheffield Hallam University, U.K.

Mayank Pushkar. BPT, MSAPT (Musculoskeletal)*, Shobhit Sagar. BPT, MSAPT (Musculoskelatal)**

Abstract: Background and purpose: Laptop ergonomics is one of the most

concerned topics which result in high number of symptoms. The aim of this study is to

find out student’s perception about laptop ergonomics and how to make the learning

centre more laptop friendly. Methodology: A Qualitative survey with questionnaire

consisting of both open and close ended questions was used. 80 volunteer

participants participated in this study. Convenience Sampling was used for the

selection of participants. Qualitative Content Analysis has been used for the analysis

of the data. Results: It was observed that most of the students use laptop but they also

get musculoskeletal problems (Laptopitis) because of the extended use and adopting

improper posture while using laptop. Poor adaptation of posture was mainly because

of unawareness about laptop ergonomics and also because of poor set-up in the

learning centre. Conclusion: Laptop can be used in more friendly way without

causing any discomfort if both the factors (awareness and ergonomics setup) will be

considered. Also the awareness about the laptop ergonomics and proper posture

should be spread among student populations as most of students from other faculties

(0ther than related with health faculty) was not aware about the proper posture and

ergonomics.

Keywords: Laptop Ergonomics, Library Setup, Workplace Ergonomics, Laptopitis/

Laptop Related Injury



INTRODUCTION Now a days, technological advances such as

use of personal computers directly affect the

life of people1. As per the National Centre

for Education Statistics (2000), the number

of students using computers has increased

by more than 50% between 1985 and 1999

in the United Kingdom alone. With 98% of

universities having internet facilities, the

number of students opting for use of laptops

to conduct their activities is also

increasing2.In fact, 80% of British students

own a laptop in which 40% spends 3 – 4

hours daily on internet3. Laptops are widely

being used by professionals who need to

travel and work in different places like

office or college4. This phenomenon is

occurring largely because of the many

benefits accruing from laptops. Laptop

offers high technology performance in a

compact, light, portable and self-sufficient

with battery provided2.

It may be noted though, that the laptop was

not configured for long or constant use2.

However, since they are increasingly

replacing desktops, students do use them for

extended periods of time. This has resulted

in a series of illnesses affecting different

parts of the body which include pain in the

neck, upper back, hands and wrists,

numbness, swellings, and tingling

sensation5.Laptops induced injuries have

become so common that an all-

encompassing term has been used to refer to

them as “Laptopitis”, which includes

musculoskeletal and vision related

disorders6. Laptops construction and usage

result in users assuming improper posture

resulting in body discomfort, visual and

mental strains2. Moreover, workstations

configured for laptop computers, unsuitable

furniture faulty lightings, further contribute

to the physical injuries resulting from use of

laptops5.

Hence, there is a great need to study the

ergonomics of laptops. Laptop ergonomics

is a sub discipline under the broad umbrella

of ergonomics that postulates the optimal

manner of working on laptops and the

design of workspaces, where they are used

in order to keep related injuries to a

minimum and optimize performance7. This

study is focused on the views of students

about the laptop ergonomics and how to

modify or redesign the learning centre, so

that laptops can be used in their preferred

way in the learning centre for extended

periods of time without causing any

physical discomfort or injury.



LITERATURE REVIEW

Few studies have been previously

undertaken on ergonomics related to the use

of laptops or computers. This report has

tried to discover the perception of

participants about laptop ergonomics and

their views about the lack of resources in

learning centre for use of laptop in

ergonomic way.

Straker and Harris (2000) have completed a

mixed study with both qualitative and

quantitative data in order to establish the

physical ergonomics issues associated with

the use and carry of laptop computers by

school children. In total 314 participants

aged between 10 and 17 years participated,

and filled the questionnaire in phase 1 of the

study and 20 participants were observed

using the laptop in various locations in

second phase of study. The result found that

the participant's discomforts were resulted

from using the laptop in a variety of non-

traditional work postures and also depend

on the model of laptop they use and carry.

The study identified the potential physical

implications associated with the use of

laptops.

Straker et al. (1997a) had studied the

adoptive posture while using laptops and

desktops. The study was a cross-over study

with 16 participants, who were government

employers. It was found that laptop users

adopt a posture with increased neck,

shoulder and elbow flexion but the

difference was not significant as compared

to desktop users. Similar results were

observed by Harbinson and Forrester (1995).

The study concluded that laptop users

required an increased forward head

inclination in order to operate the laptop due

to lack of its adjustability.

Gold et al. (2011) quantitatively studied

postural characterisation in Laptop users in

non-desk setting with 20 asymptomatic

right-hand dominant participants aged

between 18 and 25. The selected

participants were assessed in 3 postures

with two minute typing task followed by 5-

minute editing task on laptop. The study

has used MaxMATE motion data analysis.

It was found that subjects reported greater

intensity of discomfort while using laptop in

prone lying.

Price and Dowell (1998) conducted a

quantitative study on 14 volunteer

participants to evaluate the effect of laptop

configuration and external input device on

posture and comfort of laptop users. Each

participant was asked to work on 6 different

computer configuration and anthropometric

data and baseline Nordic Discomfort Scale

was completed before the start of the task.



The study concluded that use of extra

peripherals in laptop seems to be more

comfortable and thus decrease the

discomfort associated with laptop usage.

Kumari and Pandey (2010) have conducted

a cross-sectional study to analyse the health

problems associated with computer usage

and role of ergonomic factors. A total of

200 participants were selected by stratified

random sampling from different IT

industries. Close ended questionnaire were

used as data collection tool. The analysis of

the data was done by using SPSS software.

A standardized Nordic Questionnaire was

use to assess musculoskeletal problems and

Zung’s self-rating scale was used to assess

depression. The study concluded the various

problems associated with laptops or

desktops use and also the effects of

underlying factors like- environment,

lighting and setup of the work place on

laptop ergonomics.

Several studies on ergonomic research with

desktops while the same cannot be said for

laptops, through some studies have

indicated the development of physical

symptoms associated with laptop use. Few

of the researches have been done, which

found the symptoms associated with the use

of laptop2,4,5. As per the researcher’s

knowledge till now none of the studies tried

to find out the solution so that people can

use laptop in more comfortable and in their

preferred way for prolonged time without

causing any discomfort. Hence, this study

aims to focus on the ergonomics of laptops

and what modification can be done in the

learning centre of Sheffield Hallam

University, so that students can use their

laptop in learning centre in their preferred

way without any discomfort.

Ethical approval was obtained from

Dissertation Management Group (Sheffield

Hallam University). Participants were given

the information sheet and completion of an

anonymous questionnaire was considered as

consent from the participants.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

A Qualitative study design with

questionnaire survey was used to obtain the

student's perception about laptop

ergonomics. A qualitative research is the

best means of generating in-depth ideas and

developing hypothesis which may

eventually decide to test quantitatively8. As

the main aim of this study was to gather in-

depth information and generate ideas so the

design of the study was chosen as a

qualitative study.



Sampling

A total of 80 participants were selected

based on inclusion criteria by ‘convenience

sampling’ as it was not possible to approach

all the student population in Sheffield

Hallam University. It is practically easy and

fast method of sampling if the population is

very large9. Convenience Sampling is said

to be more appropriate for the study in

which the aim is to get in-depth

information10.

TABLE 1- INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA:

INCLUSION CRITERIA EXCLUSION CRITERIA Students of Sheffield Hallam University. Students who were using Laptop/ Desktop for their course work.

Students who knew English Language.

Students who were not using laptop/Desktop.

Students who were not student of Sheffield Hallam University.

Data collection:

The data was collected through the survey

method by using a tool called a

questionnaire as it is the essential form of a

survey to a large sample population11. A

questionnaire is an important method of

survey to a large sample population11. The

questionnaire consisted of both close and

open ended questions. Close ended

questions were objective and unambiguous.

Open ended questions were used for

collection of larger amounts of information.

The questionnaires were developed on the

basis of Environmental and Occupational

Health and Safety Service (EOHSS)

Computer Workstation Ergonomics

Questionnaire. Prior to the implementation

of questionnaire, they were circulated

among the colleagues to check for content

validity and suggestions were considered

while reframing the questionnaire. The

questionnaire was pilot tested with 7

participants and the information was taken

into consideration while making final

questionnaire. Changes were made in 7

questions after piloting of the study. The

evidence suggested that, for the

questionnaire to be valid and reliable, it

should go through the formal pilot of the

questionnaire by the same sample

population12.

Data Analysis:

The main purpose of data analysis is to

identify what the texts of participants talk

about. The qualitative content analysis is



used to process and analyse the information

given in text format or from an open ended

questions13. The data gathered was more

descriptive, hence it was suitable for

qualitative content analysis14.

Hence, the qualitative content data

analysis15 was used for data analysis, which

involves the following steps:

1. Prepare the data: Present all the

data collected in a chart format.

2. Identifying the unit of analysis:

Identify the different

Units/keywords from the text.

3. Developing categories and a

coding scheme: It can be derived

from three sources: the data,

previous related studies, and theories.

4. Code testing on a sample of text: It

is used for the clarity and

consistency of category definitions.

5. Code all the text: Involves coding

all the data which have been.

Different units/keywords with

similar sense were given single code

6. Assess coding consistency: This

step involves rechecking the

consistency of coding.

7. Draw conclusion from the coded

data: This step involves making

sense of themes and identified their

properties.

Rigour of analysis was enhanced by a

several-stage process of defining and

refiningthemes, by constant comparative

analysis between scripts and themes until

final themes were developed. This analysis

produced 7 key themes, which are listed

with their definition in Table 2.

TABLE- 2: Main Themes from Data Analysis.

THEMES DEFINITION

Factors which facilitates the use of

LC.

Reasons because of which students use

LC.

Preference of use of Laptop/Desktop in

LC

What’s the reason for preference of

using Laptop/Desktop.

Symptoms faced while

using Laptop/Desktop

Which all symptoms the participants

suffer and what’s its cause?

Posture Awareness Awareness about the posture in

participants.



Environment/ Infrastructure of LC How is the environment and setting of

LC for the use of laptop.

Interference with extra

Computer-accessories.

How does the extra computer-accessories

interfere the level of comfort and increase

the work efficacy.

Recommendation to Improve LC What changes can be done to improve the

LC for the use of Laptop.

RESULT:

The questions which were related were put

into similar themes and then the results

were presented on the basis of sub-themes.

Factors that facilitates use of Learning

Centre

Almost all participants were using the

learning centre for their course work

because of better facilities or resources like-

"Books, Journals, area, IT

equipment/resources, café etc.", while many

participants said that they prefer Learning

Centre because they like the environment of

Learning Centre as it is "Quite place and

easy to concentrate for the study". Some of

the participants use Learning Centre

because of the convenience and comfort,

like- they can "use leisure hours between

the lecture, the convenient opening and

closing hours of Learning Centre and group

study/work". Few of participants said about

“psychological motivation they get in

learning centre for study”.

Preference of use of laptop or desktop in

learning centre

When the participants were asked whether

they use laptop or desktop in learning centre,

42 participants said that they use desktop as

they feel it convenient and comfortable.

They said that they "do not have to bring

laptop and it is easy for them to use desktop

than laptop". Some of them said that, they

"prefer desktop because of big screen of

desktop and also there is less space and

plug points for laptop in learning centre…".

Few of the participants said that it is "easy

to work on desktop as the desktop is fast

and more comfortable" and also they "can

use it for prolonged period of time…". Only

11 participants said that they use laptop in

learning centre because they "prefer to use

laptop" and also it is "convenient for them

to save their data". Some of the participants



said that they use laptop as they "can use it

anywhere in learning centre, comfortable,

easy to use and it is more portable…".

Problems or symptoms faced by

participants while using laptop or desktop

From the result it was observed that, the

most experienced symptoms were “Tight,

sore neck and shoulder muscles”, followed

by “Pain or aching in wrists, forearms,

elbows, neck, or back followed by

discomfort”, and then “General fatigue or

tiredness”, then “Blurred or double vision”.

Also it was found that, the least faced

symptom was “Swelling or stiffness in the

hand or wrists”.

Most of the participants said that, these

symptoms are because of their bad or poor

posture like- (Keeping laptop on knee, using

laptop while lying down, Slouched posture

etc.), continuous position such as: (Sitting

for prolonged, focusing on small screen for

long period, no interval between work etc.),

and ergonomics setup like- (Desks and

chairs not adjusted, Too close to screen for

long period etc.). Some of the participants

said that there might be some other reasons

for the symptoms like- (weak joint, poor

posture throughout the day, Back and neck

pain from exercise).

Posture Awareness

Out of 80 participants, 55 participants stated

a positive response and defined posture in

their own words, while 25 participants have

given negative response as they were not

aware with the correct position or posture

for the use of laptop. The participants who

were not aware about the posture were

mainly from the faculty other than health

related courses such as: Criminology,

Events management, Information system

management, Law etc. Most of the

participants said, usually posture means: sit

straight, back support, hip and knee flexed,

and screen at eye level. Some of the

statements given by the different

participants to define posture for laptop are

presented below:

“Screen in line with eyes, elbow flexed to

90°, knee at 90°, hip at 90°, shoulder flexed.”

(2)

“Back support, Hip + Knee supported,

Appropriate Height.” (39)

“Sit erect, avoid neck flexion, sitting at

comfortable distance, and avoid excessive

elbow bending.” (62)



Environment or Infrastructure of

Learning Centre (LC)

More than half of participants found

environment of learning centre to be

comfortable for the use of Laptop.

Participants found environment of learning

centre comfortable because of different

resources like- “Tables, adjustable chairs,

more space for laptop, plug points, proper

lighting and easily accessible resources”.

While less than half of the participants

found the environment of Learning Centre

is not comfortable for laptop use.

Participants said that, there is “less space,

less number of tables for laptop, tables and

chairs are not setup at proper height or not

adjustable, and also there is less charging

plug/points for laptop use”.

When asked about the infrastructure/ setting

of Learning centre, most of them said that

the environment of learning centre is

comfortable because of “tables and

adjustable chairs, proper lighting and quite

area”. While one quarter of participants did

not find the infrastructure of LC to be

comfortable because of different difficulties

such as: “Limited space around the table,

uncomfortable chairs, cold environment,

chairs do not have armrest, very much

crowded”. Some of them said that there are

fewer resources such as: “Area, less table

and chairs, less space around the table”.

Interference with extra computer-

accessories like- keyboard and mouse on

laptop work

Out of 80 participants, some of the

participants answered that, use of extra

equipment like- mouse and keyboard could

provide more comfort and can work with

greater ease. Participants answered that use

of extra equipment can provide more

comfort, free movement and also they can

modify their position accordingly. Some of

the participants said that “mouse is better

than touchpad” and they can “work faster

and in more comfortable way”. Few

participants answered that use of keyboard

and can provides “more comfort to them

and they do not have to negotiate with

posture”. While more than half of

participants answered that, they do not find

any difference in comfort level with the use

of extra keyboard and mouse in the Laptop.

Some of them said that they “do not want to

carry keyboard and mouse and also they

can manage fine without it”.

Recommendation to improve Learning

Centre for use of Laptop



Major number of participants have

suggested with different recommendation

for the use of laptops in learning centre so

that laptop can be used for extended period

of time. Most of them want “proper

ergonomic setup for laptop users, more

laptop area, more spacious table,

comfortable chairs with neck and back

support, and plug points for laptop

changing”. Some of the participants have

suggested for the “Laptop stand, specific

type of table for laptop and dock station for

laptop”. Few of the participants said that

there should be “more tables for laptop in

silent area and also individual/ separate

booth/ room for laptop users”.

DISCUSSION

This qualitative study obtained student’s

perception about laptop ergonomics and its

use in the learning centre of SHU. Almost

all participants use learning centre for their

course work because of the better

environment and different types of

resources available. The environment of

learning centre provides more comfort and

motivation to the students for the study,

because the setup of the environment is

study oriented. It has also been shown that

hot and noisy environment directly affects

the work productivity and ergonomic

condition16. Student population use laptops

in the learning centre because of the many

benefits of the laptop. It is easy to carry and

use laptop as the participants can save their

data17.

It was observed that most of the participants

experienced some of the symptoms while

using either laptop or desktop. From the

data gathered by questionnaire, it was found

that the participants faced problems related

to neck, shoulder, hand, back and eyes. The

most common symptoms were “Pain or

aching in wrists, forearms, elbows, neck, or

back followed by discomfort” (42%) and

eye strain (42%). Similar type of results was

found by Kumari and Pandey (2010) and

said that the common causes of these

symptoms were sitting for prolonged in

awkward or poor posture (Fig-1). Also the

literature suggested that the participants

should take eye break every after 20 min to

reduce strain on eye while working on

laptop18. It was also found that participants

who use laptop faced more symptoms than

the one who use desktop. This could have

been in order to adjust the posture to use

desktop and laptop in more comfortable

position3. Even evidence proves that

participants adopt poor posture because of

the lack of adjustability of the laptop as the

screen and keyboard are attached2. This was



supported by another study by Straker et al.

(1997a), they have suggested that usually

laptop users tried to assume posture that

would compromise their posture by

increased neck, shoulder and elbow flexion.

They adopt this posture in order to see a

lower screen and reach a higher keyboard.

The main factors judged by the participants

as cause of their symptoms while using

laptop or desktop were “Sitting in same

posture for continuous long hours”,

“Awkward and poor posture”, and the

“setup for laptop” which was not

ergonomically correct.

As the height of table in the learning centre

is not appropriate, and also some of the

communal table which are being used for

laptop use are of very low height so it is

difficult to adjust the chairs accordingly. As

the evidence by Straker and Harris (2000)

suggested that the participants experienced

physical discomfort because of the physical

ergonomic issues as they use the laptop in

poor posture. This was supported by Moffet

et al. (2002) in their study; evaluated the

impact of two work station (desktop and

laptop) on neck and upper posture, muscle

activity and productivity. The study said

that the workstation setup influenced the

physical exposure variable while working

on laptop.

Fig-1: Shows the poor and good posture for Laptop.

Some of the participants who were not

related with health course, they did not

know about the correct position or posture

for the use of laptops. They have not

defined the posture. This might be because

of lack of awareness about ergonomics

among that students population. So the

participants adopt the poor posture while

working on laptop, because it has been

found that lack of knowledge about posture



can leads to symptoms as they do not adopt

the proper posture while working on

desktop or laptop5.

From the result it was also found that use of

extra computer- accessories can provide

more comfort, and can ease the symptoms

and increase the work efficacy of the

participants. This is because the extra

equipment provides the adjustability

according to the posture and the users do

not have to compromise with the posture.

This was supported by a study done by

Kumari and Pandey (2010) found that the

use of various computer accessories like-

adjustable keyboard tray, foot rest, best-fit

computer mouse design, task lighting and

docking station can help in preventing the

health related symptoms. Even some of the

participants have suggested for the use of

laptop stand or docking station (Fig-2). It

might be helpful because they can fix the

laptop and can use it in ergonomic way so

that the symptoms can be prevented.

Fig-2: Show the ideal Laptop stand/Docking station for laptop.

According to the ergonomic advice by

Stanford University, Environment Health

and Safety, the laptop workstation has been

suggested, so that the laptop could be used

as workstation if working for long hours

and the symptoms can be minimized.

Moffet et al. (2002) have given some

advices to prevent pain while using laptop.

The study has suggested the use of docking

station, so that the subjects do not have to

adopt the poor posture and can use laptop in

effective way.

The study had several limitations. Many of

the participants have not answered all the

questions which might be because of lack of

interest, lack of time or the structure of the



questions. All the analysis and calculations

were done manually so there might be some

chances of manual error. It was not possible

to explore in-depth perception of

participants as the method of data collection

was questionnaire. The sample size (n=80)

in the study was relatively large, which was

the strength of the study. The participants

were from different faculties, which might

have result in variable data as the students

from different course have different

perception about the ergonomics. Rich

informative data were gathered through the

open-ended questionnaire, which was one of

the aims of qualitative research.

CLINICAL IMPLICATION:

Laptop ergonomics is very applicable for all

who use laptops. The result of this study

might help not only the student populations

but also the general population who use

laptop. As it was found that there is lack of

awareness about the proper posture for

laptop use among students, so the measure

should be done to spread the awareness.

Mainly the student population, who are not

from health related courses, should be

focussed. It might be very helpful if there

should be some induction about the posture

for the student population before start of the

course. Awareness about the posture can be

spread though the means of Poster,

distributing leaflets, and induction or

seminar. The findings about the

recommendation in improving learning

centre can be given into the notice to the

learning centre authority Dept., so that they

can use the finding as feedback in

improving the learning centre for better use

for students and staffs. And also the

students will be benefited by these changes

and they might be able to use learning

centre in more efficient way.

The data of this study also has a further

clinical relevance; Symptoms are mainly

because of poor posture and wrong setup of

workstation of laptop, so in order to prevent

those symptoms, both the factors should be

corrected.

FURTHER RESEARCH:

As this was the first study to researcher's

knowledge done on the student population

in SHU about laptop ergonomics, so an

obvious need for more research in this area

is observed. More research should be done

in order to find out the actual ergonomic

setup of the working environment in the

learning centre.Also a quantitative study

could be suggested as further research in

order to find out the effectiveness of

ergonomics training program on posture



while working on laptop. Looking to the

current scenario it seems that in coming 10

years laptop or i-pad or tablet will be

replacing the desktop so the study should be

conducted in order to find out how the

learning centre should be designed

ergonomically for laptop or i-pad or tablet

use.

CONCLUSION:

From the research done, it can be seen that

students population prefer to use learning

centre because of the different facilities and

environment. But they also get symptoms

by using the resources like- desktop or

laptop, which is because of wrong posture

they adopt while working. So these

resources should be set-up on the basis of

ergonomics way and awareness about the

posture should be spread among students.

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1. Gulek, J. C. and Demirtas, H. Learning

with technology: The impact of laptop use

on student achievement. Journal of

Technology, Learning, and Assessment,

2005;3(2).

2. Harris, C. and Straker, L. Survey of

Physical Ergonomics Issues Associated with

School Children’s Use of Laptop

Computers.International Journal of

Industrial Ergonomics, 2000;26;337-346.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT:

A special thanks to my family and friends for their continuous support. Also thanks to the

management of Sheffield Hallam University for giving me opportunity to complete my study.

CORRESPONDENCE:

* Sheffield Hallam University, United Kingdom. Email: [email protected] **Sheffield Hallam

University, United Kingdom



Effectiveness of Educational Sessions on Reducing Diabetes in Women with

PCOS— A Pilot Study

B. Sharmila, BPT, MSc (Yoga)*, B. Arun, MPT**

Abstract: PCOS (Poly cystic ovarian syndrome) is one of the common syndromes in

females, around 10 % of females in world having PCOS. PCOS have a strong link on

Diabetes. Study is a descriptive study to find out the effect of educational session on

diabetes for women who has PCOS. Around 20 females with PCOS were selected, an

Educational session was conducted for duration of 4 weeks, and Diabetic

Questionnaire was given to analyze the knowledge of diabetes. Following the 4 weeks

of educational sessions, all participants have gained a good knowledge on PCOS and

Diabetes. This study concludes that educational session is very important for the

management of Diabetes and especially for females who has PCOS.

Key words: Type II diabetes, PCOS, Educational Session, Diabetic Questionnaire.

INTRODUCTION Diabetes is one of the most common health

problems in the world. India is the capital of

diabetes. Many studies conducted in India

showed that prevalence of type 2 diabetes

was more and it is increasing in urban

populations1, 2. Diabetes exerts a significant

impact on the lives of individuals and their

family members due to the constant need

for decision-making and actions to promote

good glycemic control, an outcome

acknowledged as the foremost goal in

diabetes care and treatment3.

The burden of diabetes on women is unique,

because the disease can affect both mothers



and their unborn children. Diabetes can

cause difficulties during pregnancy such as

a miscarriage or a baby born with birth

defects. Women with diabetes are also more

likely to have a heart attack and at a

younger age than women who do not have

diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is strongly

associated with Women who suffer from

PCOS (Poly cystic ovarian syndrome).

PCOS is a leading cause of menstrual

irregularity and female infertility. The

Statistical links between diabetes and PCOS

are very strong about 5%--10% of

reproductive age women have PCOS and 50%

--70% of women with PCOS also

experience insulin resistance and 20%--40%

obese women with PCOS may have insulin

resistance and diabetes.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a

common endocrine disorder, affecting

women in reproductive age, characterized

by chronic anovulation and

hyperandrogenism. The etiology of PCOS is

still unknown. However, several studies

have suggested that insulin resistance plays

an important role in the pathogenesis of the

syndrome. The risk of glucose intolerance

among PCOS subjects seems to be

approximately 5 to 10 fold higher than

normal and appears not limited to a single

ethnic group. Moreover, the onset of

glucose intolerance in PCOS women has

been reported to occur at an earlier age than

in the normal population (approximately by

the 3rd-4th decade of life). However, other

risk factors such as obesity, a positive

family history of type 2 diabetes and

hyperandrogenism may contribute to

increasing the diabetes risk in PCOS4.

Dr.Geoffrey Redmond said that “There is

no question about the association” one of

the problems is that people haven’t put the

pieces together” He added that there is a

strong association between PCOS and

Insulin resistance. While focusing the

infertility and menstrual changes, health

care professionals should also look for the

chance of diabetes, and screening of

diabetes is much desirable.

Women with polycystic ovary syndrome

(PCOS) are insulin resistant, have insulin

secretory defects, and are at high risk for

glucose intolerance. PCOS women are at

significantly increased risk for IGT and type

2 diabetes mellitus at all weights and at a

young age, The prevalence rates are similar

in 2 different populations of PCOS women,

suggesting that PCOS may be a more

important risk factor than ethnicity or race

for glucose intolerance in young women,

and the American Diabetes Association

diabetes diagnostic criteria failed to detect a

Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012

significant number of PCOS women with

diabetes by post challenge glucose values

Type 2 Diabetes has pancreas that

produces little or no insulin. As the pancreas

struggles to keep up with the body's need

for more insulin, excessive levels of glucose

and insulin build up in the blood stream,

often leading directly to Type 2 Diabetes.

Certain factors that figure in the onset of

PCOS are also implicated in the

development of Type 2 Diabetes: excessive

abdominal fat, high LDL "bad" blood

cholesterol and low HDL "good" cholesterol,

high levels of triglycerides and hypertension

(high blood pressure).

Although PCOS is much perceived as

gynecological disorder because it impairs

fertility and can cause irregular periods or

no periods at all. Evidences suggest that

PCOS is more of a disorder of the endocrine

system with gynecological consequences.

Diabetes Prevention Program study

2001, study shows that all of the factors

associated with Insulin Resistance,

Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome and Pre

Diabetes are interrelated. Obesity and lack

of exercise worsen Insulin Resistance,

which then has a negative effect on blood

lipid production, increasing VLDL (very

low-density lipoprotein), LDL cholesterol

(low-density lipoprotein

Scientific Research Journal of India

significant number of PCOS women with

diabetes by post challenge glucose values5.

Diabetes has pancreas that

produces little or no insulin. As the pancreas

struggles to keep up with the body's need

for more insulin, excessive levels of glucose

and insulin build up in the blood stream,

often leading directly to Type 2 Diabetes.

actors that figure in the onset of

PCOS are also implicated in the

development of Type 2 Diabetes: excessive

abdominal fat, high LDL "bad" blood

cholesterol and low HDL "good" cholesterol,

high levels of triglycerides and hypertension

Although PCOS is much perceived as

gynecological disorder because it impairs

fertility and can cause irregular periods or

no periods at all. Evidences suggest that

PCOS is more of a disorder of the endocrine

system with gynecological consequences.

Diabetes Prevention Program study

shows that all of the factors

associated with Insulin Resistance,

ic Ovarian Syndrome and Pre-

Diabetes are interrelated. Obesity and lack

of exercise worsen Insulin Resistance,

which then has a negative effect on blood

lipid production, increasing VLDL (very

density lipoprotein), LDL cholesterol

ein - the "bad"

cholesterol) and triglyceride levels in the

blood stream, as well as decreasing HDL

cholesterol (high-density lipoprotein

"good" cholesterol.)

While there is no cure for diabetes, a

number of steps can be taken to prevent

complications. Research showed that losing

5-7% of body fat and increasing physical

activity by taking a brisk walk 4

week can reduce risk of developing Type 2

Diabetes by almost 60%.

DIABETES PCOS LINK

DIABETES

CELL DYSFUNCTION

STIMULATE THE PANCREAS TO SECRETE MORE INSULIN

HYPER INSULINEMIA

HORMONAL IMBALANCE

INSULIN RESISTANCE

EXCESSIVE ANROGEN SECRETION

Scientific Research Journal of India 25


cholesterol) and triglyceride levels in the

blood stream, as well as decreasing HDL

density lipoprotein - the

"good" cholesterol.)

While there is no cure for diabetes, a

number of steps can be taken to prevent

plications. Research showed that losing

7% of body fat and increasing physical

activity by taking a brisk walk 4-5 times a

week can reduce risk of developing Type 2

Diabetes by almost 60%.

DIABETES PCOS LINK

DIABETES

CELL DYSFUNCTION


HYPER INSULINEMIA

HORMONAL IMBALANCE

INSULIN RESISTANCE

PCOS

EXCESSIVE ANROGEN SECRETION



Need for the study:

It's important to understand the distinction

between Insulin Resistance and Type 2

Diabetes. Type 2 Diabetes is one of the top

fatal disorders in the World. In 2000, it was

the sixth leading cause of death and has

been associated with long term

complications affecting almost every part of

the body, including blindness, heart and

blood vessel disease, stroke, kidney failure,

amputations and nerve damage. Obese

women are particularly susceptible to PCOS

and Type 2 Diabetes. A vicious cycle

quickly forms because these conditions, in

turn, put women at dramatically increased

risk of Cardiovascular Disease, as well as

the development of many other serious

health conditions, including stroke, kidney

damage and blindness. Overweight women

do not, however, have a monopoly of

Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome and its

related disorders because females of normal

weight and even lean women are also prone

to these conditions.

Insulin Resistance occurs when the body

produces enough insulin but its cells lack

enough receptor sites to allow the

absorption of insulin at a cellular level.

Type 2 Diabetes develops when the body

either doesn't produce enough insulin or it

can't process the insulin that is produced.

Aim of the study:

Study Objectives:

To educate the patient about disease (PCOS)

and teach on link between PCOS and

Diabetes

To make the patient learn about the

preventive methods

To reduce the risk of getting diabetes

To make patient to understand the

importance of Diet, Exercises etc.

METHODOLOGY:

The study is a descriptive study design, 100

women with PCOS were examined by the

Gynecologist and 20 women were selected

for the study. The subjects were selected

based on age group of 25—33years,

PCOS

INCREASE PRODUCTION OF ANDROGEN


HIGH SUGAR IN BLOOD

INSULIN RESISTANCE



Married females, Married within 2 years,

Obese or female in Borderline obesity. No

history of conception, No other

gynecological problems like irregular

menstrual periods or small uterus. No other

relevant medical problems. Before initiating

the study Blood test was conducted to check

their random blood sugar levels. Clear

instructions were given to all the

participants. The educational class is for 4

weeks of duration and the Diabetic educator

role is to make all participants attending all

the sessions. Prior to the class a Diabetic

knowledge Questionnaire was distributed to

all individuals and to find out how much

knowledge on Diabetes and PCOS. The

questionnaire was a single paged one which

includes the questions about the knowledge

on diabetes and the knowledge on PCOS.

The participants were asked to fill up the

questionnaire with Yes or No. Questions are

valued as 1 point for Yes and 0 point for No.

Educational Classes conducted on Every

Sunday Morning (10 am —1 pm). The

content of the Classes include 1) What is

PCOS 2) What are the Causes 3) Symptoms

of Diabetes with PCOS 4) Diabetes Link

with PCOS 5) Prevention Methods. The

questions asked by the women participants

were clarified. At the end of the programme

all participants were instructed to fill up the

questionnaire and their performance was

assessed. At the end of the 4 week class the

questionnaire was repeated and assessed the

knowledge on diabetes for women with

PCOS.

RESULTS:

The demographic data about the subjects

were mentioned in Table 1.

Table 1 Demographic Data

Age Group 25—27 28—30 31—33

7 6 7

Figure 1

The Table 2 shows the result using students ‘t’ test.

Groups

Pre Test mean

Post Test mean

S.D Paired ‘t’

Value

3.8 7.85 0.285 14.19

(P<0.05%)

7

6

7

Age 25-27 28-30 31-33

Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012

Figure 2

Table 2 shows the paired t values of the Diabetic

Questionnaire. This shows that the educational

programme has shown positive effect on the

participant’s attitude. It also shows that there

significant improvement on the knowledge on

diabetes mellitus.

DISCUSSION:

Women with PCOS are generally

Overweight or Obese. Because of obesity

they have more chance of insulin resistance.

Usually women with PCOS don’t have a

regular check up on diabetes. But screening

for diabetes is very important in prevention

of diabetes. A root cause of

Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS)

linked Insulin Resistance, which can also

increase the risk of developing Pre

and Type 2 Diabetes. All are disorders that

may result in Cardiovascular Disease

leading to a heart attack or

self awareness in people with PCOS is very

important, so that the Type 2, diabetes can

0

50

100

150

200

Pre Post

76


Table 2 shows the paired t values of the Diabetic

Questionnaire. This shows that the educational

programme has shown positive effect on the

participant’s attitude. It also shows that there was a

significant improvement on the knowledge on

Women with PCOS are generally

Overweight or Obese. Because of obesity

they have more chance of insulin resistance.

Usually women with PCOS don’t have a

regular check up on diabetes. But screening

for diabetes is very important in prevention

root cause of Polycystic

Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS) is obesity-

Insulin Resistance, which can also

increase the risk of developing Pre-Diabetes

and Type 2 Diabetes. All are disorders that

may result in Cardiovascular Disease

leading to a heart attack or stroke. Creating

self awareness in people with PCOS is very

important, so that the Type 2, diabetes can

be prevented as well as prevent the

complications following diabetes.

Women with PCOS (Polycystic Ovarian

Syndrome) who become pregnant may

experience more health problems than the

general population, including gestational

diabetes, pregnancy

pressure, miscarriage and premature

delivery.



women in reproductive ag






syndrome. The risk of glucose intoleranc







in the normal popul

the 3rd-4th decade of life). However, other




increasing the diabetes risk in PCOS

Post

157



be prevented as well as prevent the

complications following diabetes.

PCOS (Polycystic Ovarian

who become pregnant may

more health problems than the

general population, including gestational

diabetes, pregnancy-induced high blood

pressure, miscarriage and premature



women in reproductive age, characterized






syndrome. The risk of glucose intolerance







in the normal population (approximately by

4th decade of life). However, other




increasing the diabetes risk in PCOS



The link of PCOS with insulin resistance

was subsequently established by clinical

studies characterizing the profound insulin

resistance in obese and lean PCOS patients.

Insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, and

beta-cell dysfunction are very common in

PCOS, but are not required for the diagnosis.


major risk factor for impaired glucose

tolerance (IGT) and type 2 diabetes mellitus

(T2D). Several studies have examined

possible mechanisms related to glucose

metabolism and insulin secretion that may

be responsible for the high prevalence of

disorders of glucose metabolism in women

with PCOS. The actual pathogenic

mechanisms appear to be complex and

multifactorial, possibly characterized by the

lack of uniformity between patients, thus

reflecting the heterogeneity of PCOS.

Impaired insulin action and/or beta-cell

dysfunction and/or decreased hepatic

clearance of insulin have been implicated so

far.

The overall risk of developing diabetes

mellitus and glucose intolerance seems to be

higher in women with polycystic ovary

syndrome (PCOS) than in healthy women.

Limitations of this study include, no control

group, it was a pilot study; need a bigger

study to evaluate the effectiveness of the

programme. Blood report investigations can

show some reliable information. Efficacy of

the treatment can also be evaluated through

objective methods.

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APPENDIX I

DIABETIC QUESTIONNAIRE

Name : Date :

Age :

Occupation :

Address :

Weight :__________ Kgs.

Height : __________CMS

BMI :

� Do you have Diabetes : YES / NO

If YES, How long :___________ Months/ Years.

Are you in medications for Diabetes : YES / NO

If YES, Specify medicines : ________, ___________, ___________

� Do you have PCOS : YES / NO

If YES, Since when : ____________ Months / Years

Are you in medications for PCOS : YES / NO

If YES, Specify medicines : ________, ___________, ___________

Please fill up the given statement with Yes or No.

S.No STATEMENT Yes No

1. Do you know symptoms of Diabetes

2. Do you know about PCOS

3. Do you know Obesity may cause Diabetes

4. Do you know Obesity may cause PCOS

5. Do you know relation between PCOS & Diabetes

6. Do you know the Risk factors for Diabetes

7. Do you think it is good to do Exercises regularly

8. Do you think intake of Rice may cause Diabetes

9. Do you think you can get Diabetes

10. Do your Parents or Relative have Diabetes

Signature of the Participants Signature of the Assessor



CORRESPONDENCE:

*Physiotherapist, K.M.C.H Hospital, Coimbatore. Email: [email protected]. **Physiotherapist, K.G.

Hospital, Coimbatore.



Efficacy of McKenzie Approach combined with Sustained Traction in

improving the Quality of life following low Back Ache – A Case Report

A.Sridhar MPT (Neuro)*, S.Vimala BPT**

Abstract: Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of traction combined with

McKenzie approach for the sub acute low back ache (LBA) patient and evaluating the

quality of life post treatment. Design: Single Case Report Setting: PSG Hospitals

Participant: A 45 years old female with the complaint of LBA with 6 month duration,

gait problem, participatory problem in social activities and also with the impairment

of function. Intervention: One hour session of physiotherapy including traction and

McKenzie exercises interrupted with rest period. Outcome Measures: Visual

Analogue Scale (VAS) (Pain), Quality of life (QOL) (American chronic Pain

Association). Result: There is a significant reduction of pain and improvement of

quality of life after one month of treatment. Conclusion: McKenzie exercises

combined with traction plays a major role in reducing pain and improving the quality

of life following Low Back Ache patient.

Key words: LBA, McKenzie, Traction, Quality of Life, Visual Analogue Scale.

INTRODUCTION LBP affects 70–80% of adults at some point

in their lives, with peak prevalence in the

fifth decade. The drastic increase in LBP in

the past two to three decades. Low back

pain is a common disorder. Nearly everyone

is affected by it at some time. The acute low

back pain may develop to chronic pain and

disability. The treatment of low back pain



remains as controversial today as it was

fifty Years ago. Over the years the medical

profession used a wide range of treatments,

such as heat or cold, rest or exercise, flexion

or extension, Mobilization or

immobilization, manipulation or traction.

Nearly always drugs were prescribed, even

when the disturbance proved purely

mechanical in origin. Amazingly, most of

the patients recovered, very often inspite of

treatment rather than because of it. But

McKenzie approach in LBA is on

mechanical basis and he assessed the

movements of spine and also the treatment

is based on the patient complaints of pain

whether in flexion or extension or lateral

flexion. So we had tried to apply this

technique coupled with traction for LBA

patient.

METHODOLOGY :

Case History:

A 46 years old female came with the

complaints of pain in the bilateral lower

limb, difficulty in walking, getting up from

the floor, and toileting activities for 6 month

duration. But she doesn’t complaints of any

sensory loss over the bilateral lower limb

and also in anal area.

Basically she is from rural area and there is

no facility for her to go for hospitals. But

she went to nearby physician and she got

some pain medications and tropical

ointments for pain relief. As time goes on

she is complaining of severe pain in the

back and unable to walk for even 10

minutes continuously. She feels weakness

of bilateral lower limb and restricted her

participation in the social activities and also

reducing the usual work what she is doing

regularly. She could not do even carrying

the drinking water from a distance place as

their primary need.

Misdiagnosis:

After she felt more discomfort she went to

various hospitals and diagnosed as GBS,

and someone diagnosed as disc herniation

and advised her to go for surgery. She was

confused and she refused to undergo

surgery. Finally she came to our hospital

and she got medications. In the mean time

we send her for the neuro consult but the

neurologist also advised her to take MRI

and after the he also advised her to go for

surgery.

Being a low economic status she could not

spend more money and she refused for

surgery and come back to our hospital with

the reports.



Our Views:

As we (Physician, Junior Doctors and

Physical therapist Team) read the MRI and

also observed her complaints of pain. We

taught that she does not need surgery at this

stage and we make her bed rest for one day

and we started our own assessment and

treatment procedures.

We underwent observational, palpation, and

examination of various movements

including reflex, muscle strength, balance,

coordination and Activities of daily living.

We came to the conclusion that she had a

derangement syndrome one with complaints

of symmetrical pain across L4, L5, no

radiating pain and no deformity so it comes

under the first type of derangement so we

decided to treat her with McKenzie

approach and traction. As McKenzie

exercises are very much appreciated in

treatment of lower back ache population in

world wide. we tried our traditional

approach of traction and McKenzie

approach

Outcome Measures:

1. Visual Analogue Scale (VAS).

2. Quality of Life (QOL).

Visual Analogue Scale:

Its is widely used to measure the severity of

pain from patient feeling of pain. Zero

indicates no pain and 10 indicate severe not

tolerable pain.

Quality of Life:

American Chronic Pain Association created

this measure with the following explanation.

Pain is a highly personal experience. The

degree to which pain interferes with the

quality of a person’s life is also highly

personal. The American Chronic Pain

Association Quality of Life Scale looks at

ability to function, rather than at pain alone.

It can help people with pain and their health

care team to evaluate and communicate the

impact of pain on the basic activities of

daily life. This information can provide a

basis for more effective treatment and help

to measure progress over time.

Scoring system zero indicates non

functioning and ten indicates normal quality

of life.

Treatment protocol:

Traction:

Sustained Traction

This term denotes that a steady amount of

traction is applied for periods from a few

minutes up to ½ hour. This shorter duration

Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012

is usually coupled with stronger poundage.

This method is most widely used in Europe

and much of the literature describes various

applications of sustained traction. Sustained

traction is sometimes referred to as static

traction. As per the patient’s weight we

applied 15kg of lumbar static traction for 30

minutes.

McKenzie Exercises:

This is a set of exercises we asked her to do

for 30 min.

1. Prone Lying.

2. Extension in prone lying (forearm

support).

3. Extension in prone lying ( hand support).

4. Extension in prone lying with belt

fixation.

5. Sustained extension in

6. Extension in standing.

7. Extension Mobilization (Therapist doing

passively)

RESULT AND INTERPRETATION:

The assessment is taken on the first visit,

2nd week, 3rd week, and 4th week.

According to McKenzie approach at any

time of disease the particul

exercise may worse the condition so we are

assessed her at one week interval.


is usually coupled with stronger poundage.

thod is most widely used in Europe

and much of the literature describes various

applications of sustained traction. Sustained

traction is sometimes referred to as static

traction. As per the patient’s weight we

applied 15kg of lumbar static traction for 30

This is a set of exercises we asked her to do

Extension in prone lying (forearm

Extension in prone lying ( hand support).

Extension in prone lying with belt

Sustained extension in tilt bed.

Extension Mobilization (Therapist doing

RESULT AND INTERPRETATION:

The assessment is taken on the first visit,

3rd week, and 4th week.

According to McKenzie approach at any

time of disease the particular form of

exercise may worse the condition so we are

assessed her at one week interval.

Table 1.1 Comparing the visual analogue

scale on the first visit and 4

Visual Analogue Scale (Pain)

1st visit

2nd Week

9

7

Graph 1.1 comparing the values of visual

analogue scale

Initially when we assess in VAS she

complaints of pain as nine and at the end of 4

week she complaints of 0.5 which means near

normal.(table 1.1)(graph 1.1)

Table 1.2 Comparing the quality of

scale on the first visit and 4

Quality of Life ( American chronic Pain

0

2

4

6

8

10

1st visit 2nd Week




omparing the visual analogue

scale on the first visit and 4th week


Week

3rd Week

4th Week

4

0.5

Graph 1.1 comparing the values of visual

analogue scale

Initially when we assess in VAS she

complaints of pain as nine and at the end of 4th

week she complaints of 0.5 which means near

(table 1.1)(graph 1.1)

Table 1.2 Comparing the quality of life

scale on the first visit and 4th week


Association)

2nd Week 3rd Week 4th Week


Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012

1st

visit

2nd Week 3rd

1 4

Graph 1.2 comparing the values of

Life Scale

Initially when we assess in QOL she

complaints of 1, and at the end of 4th week

she complaint of 9 which means she can

work for 8 hours and she actively

participate in family and social

activities.(table 1.2) (graph 1.2)

From the above mentioned table and graph

its clearly seen that patient’s pain is

and her quality of life is improved a lot.

Thereby this case report is strongly

recommending that traction coupled with

McKenzie exercises are very much helpful

in treating the disc herniation condition.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1st Visit 2nd Week


Association)


rd Week 4th Week

8 10

Graph 1.2 comparing the values of Quality Of

cale

Initially when we assess in QOL she

of 1, and at the end of 4th week

she complaint of 9 which means she can

work for 8 hours and she actively

participate in family and social

activities.(table 1.2) (graph 1.2)

From the above mentioned table and graph

its clearly seen that patient’s pain is reduced

and her quality of life is improved a lot.

Thereby this case report is strongly

recommending that traction coupled with

McKenzie exercises are very much helpful

in treating the disc herniation condition.

DISCUSSION:

There are various treatment p

widely used in treating the LBA cases. On

reviewing 21 papers in 1995, only one paper

was found to be of

high quality, Van der Heijden concluded no

inferences could be drawn(Phys Ther 1995).

A trial by Cherkin (N Eng J Med 1998)

compared three groups: chiropractic

manipulation, McKenzie exercise, vs

education leaflet. He did not find any

difference among the three groups with

regard to pain recurrence or days off work.

The chiropractic group performed

significantly better than the minimal

intervention group at 4 weeks, but not at 3

months and the 1

complaints of the patient we have to choose

the technique and apply with precautions

and assess the patients periodically to get

the knowledge of patients pain and related

features. This case report is a eye opening

for the new physio to apply these

procedures widely for most of the LBA

patients and thereby improving the patient

condition. Static lumbar Traction is useful

for this patient as there is narrowing of the

disc space, after applying traction there will

be a reduction of the nerve impingement.

McKenzie had classified the low back pain

2nd Week 3rd Week 4th Week


Association)



There are various treatment procedures are

widely used in treating the LBA cases. On

reviewing 21 papers in 1995, only one paper

was found to be of

high quality, Van der Heijden concluded no

inferences could be drawn(Phys Ther 1995).

A trial by Cherkin (N Eng J Med 1998)

e groups: chiropractic

manipulation, McKenzie exercise, vs

education leaflet. He did not find any

difference among the three groups with

regard to pain recurrence or days off work.

The chiropractic group performed

significantly better than the minimal

rvention group at 4 weeks, but not at 3

months and the 1-year. But as per the

complaints of the patient we have to choose

the technique and apply with precautions

and assess the patients periodically to get

the knowledge of patients pain and related

es. This case report is a eye opening

for the new physio to apply these

procedures widely for most of the LBA

patients and thereby improving the patient

condition. Static lumbar Traction is useful

for this patient as there is narrowing of the

fter applying traction there will

be a reduction of the nerve impingement.

McKenzie had classified the low back pain



in 3 categories viz. dysfunction, postural

and derangement syndrome. As this patient

had complaint of derangement symptoms so

we applied the treatment protocol for

derangement syndrome one.

Conclusion:

This case report supports that traction

combined with McKenzie exercises plays a

major role in reducing pain and improving

the quality of life.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks to my client & PSG Hospitals and

also to our superintendent and deputy

superintendent for having confident with us

in treating the patients who need physical

therapy.

REFERENCES:

1. Lumbar spine, mechanical diagnosis and

therapy,(1981) R.A. McKenzie, pages

122-150

2. Orthopaedic rehabilitation, assessment

and enablement , John C.Y.Leong et al.

pages 481-488.

3. Low Back Pain, royal college of

practitioners pages 3-39.

4. Lumbar traction, journal of orthopaedic

and sports therapy 1979, H.duane

saunders pages 36-40

CORRESPONDENCE

*Neurophysiotherapist- TLM Naini, UP. [email protected] Cont: +91-8765152734. **Physiotherapist

Trainer- TLM Naini, UP.



Diagnosis of Human Brucellosis by Laboratory Standardized IgM and IgG

ELISA

Rajeswari Shome*, M Nagalingam*, K. Narayana Rao*, B.Jayapal Gowdu**, B. R. Shome* and K. Prabhudas*

Abstract:

Brucellosis is a zoonosis caused by facultative intracellular bacteria of the genus

Brucella, which are capable of surviving and multiplying inside the cells of

mononuclear phagocytic system. ELISA is rapid, robust, coast effective and is most

commonly used diagnostic technique for brucellosis. Our present research

communication deals with optimization of IgM and IgG antibodies for diagnosis of

brucellosis in human beings. In the present investigation, out of the 179 sera samples

from risk groups screened for brucellosis, 10(5.58%) and 4(2.23%) were positive for

anti Brucella antibodies by RBPT and STAT respectively. Seropositivity by IgM and

IgG ELISAs were 2.23% (4/179) and 17.3% (31/179) respectively. In case of blood

donors, out of 123 serum samples 1.62% and 4.87% were positive by RBPT and IgG

ELISA respectively. No antibodies were detected by STAT and IgM ELISA in blood

donors. Among serum samples from Pyrexia of Unknown Origin patients tested, 7. 61%

(15/197) by RBPT, 1.01% (2/179) by STAT and 0.5% (1/197) by IgM ELISA and

11.67% (23/197) IgG ELISA respectively were found positive.

INTRODUCTION Brucellosis is a zoonosis caused by

facultative intracellular bacteria of the

genus Brucella, which are capable of

surviving and multiplying inside the cells of

mononuclear phagocytic system and are

widely distributed in both humans and



animals1. Human brucellosis varies from an

acute fabrile illness to chronic, low grade ill

defined disease. It is a systemic disease

characherized by pausity of signs

accompanied with nocturnal sweating,

malaise, fatigue and backache2. The disease

can be a very debilitating, despite the fact

that the fatality rate is generally low. It

often becomes sub-clinical or chronic,

especially if not diagnosed early and

properly treated. The incidence in humans

ranges widely between different regions,

with values of up to 200 cases per 100,000

populations with high prevalence in Middle

East, Mexico, Central and South America

and the Indian subcontinents2, 3. High-risk

groups include those exposed through

occupation in contexts where animal

infection occurs, such as slaughterhouse

workers, hunters, farmers and veterinarians.

The diagnosis of brucellosis can be

challenging, and its diagnosis demands

epidemimology, clinical and laboratory

information. Its routine biochemical and

hematological laboratory tests also overlap

with those of many other pathogens such as

Salmonella, Yersinia, and Vibrio4. Many

tests are reported for diagnosis of Brucella,

ranging from microbilogical culture to

serodiagnostic tests such as slide or tube

agglutination, indirect coombs test, enzyme-

linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and

indirect fluorescent assays, to the recent

molecular techniques such as polymerase

chain reaction (PCR) are available.5, 6, 7.

Isolation from blood, bone marrow and

other tissues of suspect is classical

diagnostic (gold standard) method for

brucellosis. However, this microbiological

technique is having the draw back of time

consumption as the organism is having

incubation period of 6 weeks and possibility

of contamination to personnel cannot be

avoided8. Rose Bengal Plate test (RBPT) is

commonly used for the screening of

brucellosis however results may at times

inconclusive9. In standard tube

agglutination test (STAT), interpretation of

the result is difficult due to false positive

reaction with Salmonella, Yersinia and

Vibrio species. Further PCR is the

molecular technique which is employed for

the detection of brucellosis, but the

technique is uneconomic and poorly suited

for the laboratory with limited resources. In

view of these limitations, robust , coast

effective and rapid ELISA has been found

an ideal tool for the diagnosis .

In brucellosis, titre of IgM usually raises

from day 5 to 7 with peak titre and IgG

starts to appear from day 14 to 21, reaching

peak during next 2 to 3 weeks in the



infected individuals. Clinical applications

of IgM and IgG ELISA in human disease

have been reported10, 11. This manuscript

deals with the study on diagnosis of

Brucella infection by laboratory

standardized IgM and IgG ELISA protocol

and its comparison to conventional

serological tests.

Materials and methods:

Collection of sera samples

During the course of the study, 2 ml of

blood samples without anticoagulant was

collected aseptically in vaccutainers. The

samples were sourced from risk group

(veterinarians, para veterinarians, farm

workers, animal-handlers and farmers),

blood donors and patients with pyrexia of

unknown origin (PUO). The pyrexia may be

due to systemic cause of rheumatic fever,

jaundice, C reactive protein, hepatitis etc.,

The samples were allowed to clot,

transported to laboratory immediately at

4°C. The serum was separated by

centrifuging the sample at 2500 r.p.m for 5

min and stored at –20°C for further use.

Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and

Standard Tube Agglutination Test (STAT)

Sera samples received were initially

subjected to rapid screening RBPT

according to standard procedures12. Briefly,

for the RBPT , undiluted serum sample (30

µl) was mixed with an equal volume of

colored antigen on a glass slide. The results

were rated negative when agglutination was

absent and 1+ to 4+ ratings as positive,

according to the strength of the

agglutination within 1 to 3 min.

RBPT positive samples were further

evaluated by STAT and 2ME STAT by

preparing two-fold serial dilutions of the

serum samples starting at a dilution of 1:20

in the test tube and the addition of an equal

volume of plain antigen according to

Weybridge technique12. The 2ME test is

identical to STAT except that 2ME was

added to each test tube to a final

concentration of 0.05 M, and 0.85% saline

was used to dilute the antigen. The

mixtures were incubated for 24 hours at

37°C and read by visual inspection for

transparency of suspension and mat

formation. The highest dilution of the serum

which showed 50 percent agglutination was

taken as end point titre and titre of 1:160

(320 IU/ml) and above was considered as

positive for humans brucellosis13, 14. The B.

abortus S99 colored and plain antigens were

procured from Institute of Animal Health

and Veterinary Biologicals (IAH&VB),

Hebbal, Bangalore, India.



Smooth Lipopolysaccharide (sLPS)

antigen extraction

Standard strain

Standard antigenic strain of B. abortus S99

procured from Indian Veterinary Research

Institute, Izatnagar, U.P., India and

confirmed as B. abortus by biochemical

tests, PCR, cloning and sequencing in our

was used for antigen extraction15.

Large scale bacterial culturing

Freshly grown pure colonies were

suspended in 10 ml of sterile PBS, after

vortexing, the bacterial suspension was

overlaid on Ttyptose Agar (TA) in Roux

flasks. Thirty flasks were simultaneously

inoculated from the same master plate to

provide the identical bacterial population

originating from a single colony. After one-

hour adsorption, Roux flasks were inverted

and incubated for 72 hours at 37oC. The

purity of the culture in every flask was

confirmed by Gram’s staining after 48

hours. To each flask, 30 ml of 2% phenol

saline was added, gently agitated and

incubated for 24 hours at 37oC. The

suspensions were collected, pooled,

centrifuged at 14,000 r.p.m at 4oC for 20

min. The centrifugation was repeated and

pellets were carefully collected, weighed

and used for antigen extraction.

Preparation sLPS antigen extraction

Wet cells of Brucella (5 gm) were

suspended in 17 ml of distilled water and

followed by the addition of 19 ml of 90%

(v/v) phenol at 66°C. The mixture was

stirred continuously at 66°C for 15 min,

cooled and centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for

15 min at 4°C. The brownish phenol in the

bottom layer was aspirated with a long

micro tip and large cell debris was removed

by filtration (using a Whatman No.1

filter).The sLPS was precipitated by the

addition of 50 ml chilled methanol

containing 0.5 ml methanol saturated with

sodium acetate. After 2 hours incubation at

4°C, the precipitate was removed by

centrifugation at 10,000 r.p.m for 10 min,

stirred with 8 ml of distilled water for 18

hours and centrifuged at 10,000 r.p.m for 10

min. The collected supernatant solution was

kept at 4°C and this step was repeated

twice for the best recovery of antigen. Then,

0.8 g of trifluroacetic acid was added to the

16 ml of crude sLPS, stirred for 10 min and

the precipitate was removed by

centrifugation. The translucent supernatant

solution was concentrated and dialyzed

against distilled water (two changes of at

least 4000 ml each) and then freeze dried to

get the final yield of 10 ml of sLPS



containing the antigen concentration of 3

mg/10ml. [16].

The optimum concentration of antigen for

ELISA was standardized by checkerboard

titration against 1:100 and 1:200 dilution of

strong positive convalescent sera. The OD

values were plotted on a graph and the point

where there was sharp fall on the line graph

was taken as the optimum dilution of

antigen.

Controls for ELISA

The convalescent sera for IgM and IgG

ELISA were selected first by RBPT

screening, the strong RBPT positive sera

showing the 2 ME- STAT titer of 1:640

(1280IU /ml) and STAT titre of 1:1280

was considered positive control for IgM

ELISA and STAT titres of 1:1280 (2560IU

/ml) was considered as positive

convalescent sera control for IgG ELISA.

These sera samples were further confirmed

by DOT-ELISA antibody detection Kit

(DRDE Jhansi, Gwalior, India). The

undiluted sera were used as strong positive

controls and sera from healthy donors as the

negative control. The moderate positive

control was prepared by diluting strong

positive sera with 1:500 dilutions donor sera.

Standard ELISA protocol

The polysorp micro titer plates (Nunc,

Germany) were coated with 1:300 dilution

of sLPS antigen at 100 µl per well in

carbonate-bicarbonate buffer (pH 9.6) and

incubated 4°C for overnight. Antigen coated

plates were washed three times with PBST

wash buffer (Phosphate buffered saline

containing 0.05 % Tween 20) pH 7.2. Test

and control sera diluted in PBST blocking

buffer (1:100) containing 2% bovine gelatin

was added to respective wells (100 µl) of

the plates in duplicates (test sera) and

quadruplicate (controls) and incubated at

37°C for 1hour. The plates were then

washed as mentioned earlier. The anti-

human IgG and IgM HRP conjugates

(Pierce, Germany), diluted 1:8000 and

1:4000 respectively in PBST buffer were

added to all the wells (100 µl) and incubated

for 1 hour at 37°C on orbital shaker (300

r.p.m./min). After washing, freshly prepared

o-Phenylenediaminedihydrochloride (OPD)

(Sigma, Germany) solution containing 5 mg

OPD tablet in 12.5 ml of distilled water and

50 µl of 3% H2O2 was added and kept for

color development for 10 min. Enzyme-

substrate reaction was stopped by adding

1M H2SO4 (50 µl) and color development

was read at 492 nm using an ELISA micro

plate reader (Biorad). The optical density

(OD) obtained for the negative and positive



samples were interpreted by cutoff values

set at 3 standard deviations above the

arithmetical mean of the OD obtained for

the healthy controls17.

RESULTS

To obtain 5 gm wet weight of bacteria,

fifteen Roux flasks were used and from 5 g

wet weight of bacterial cells, 10 ml of sLPS

was extracted (3mg). The convalescent sera

positive by RBPT, DOT-ELISA and

showing 2ME-STAT titer of 1:640 (1280IU

/ml) and STAT titres of 1:1280 (2560IU /ml)

were considered as positive convalescent

sera controls for IgM ELISA and IgG

ELISA respectively.

In ELISA, the 1 in 200 antigen

concentration was found optimum at serum

concentration of 1 in 100 (Fig 1). Similarly,

the conjugate dilutions were established by

checkerboard titration and IgM conjugate

of 1 in 4000 and IgG conjugate at 1 in 8000

were found optimum dilutions for the test

(Fig. 2)

Among the 179 sera samples from risk

groups screened for brucellosis, 10(5.58%)

and 4 (2.23%) were positive for Brucella

antibodies by RBPT and STAT respectively.

In IgM and IgG ELISA, 4 (2.23%) and 31

(17.3%) were detected positive respectively.

In case of blood donors, out of 123 samples

tested, 2 (1.62%) and 6 (4.87%) were

positive by RBPT and IgG ELISA

respectively. In case of PUO sera samples, a

total 197 samples were analyzed, out of

which, 34(17.25%), 2(1.01%), 1(0.5%) and

23 (11.26%) were found positive by the

RBPT, STAT, IgM ELISA and IgG ELISA

respectively (Table 1). Out of 27 RBPT

positive samples, only one sera (0.5%) was

found positive by 2ME-STAT.

DISCUSSION

The true incidence of human brucellosis

however, is unknown for most countries and

no data are available for many parts of India.

It has been estimated that the true incidence

may be 25 times higher than the reported

incidence due to misdiagnosis and under-

reporting. Several publications indicate that

human brucellosis can be a common disease

in India. The ELISA was first developed by

Carlson et al, for the diagnosis of human

brucellosis and since then, a large number

of variations have been described18. ELISA

have a distinct advantage over conventional

serological tests in that, they are primary

binding assays that do not rely on secondary

properties of antibodies such as their ability

to agglutinate or to fix complement.

Secondly, ELISA can be tailored to be more



specific by using highly purified reagents

such as antigens and monoclonal antibodies.

The sLPS antigen of Brucella is considered

the most important antigen during immune

response and is the target for many

serological and immunological studies. The

strains that are pathogenic for humans carry

sLPS involved in the virulence of these

bacteria. It gives better sensitivity and

specificity with good reproducibility. It also

possesses a convenient cut off value for

diagnostic purposes. Finally, it is not

restricted to bovines alone and can be

adapted to different species of animals as

well as to humans beings3.

The sLPS antigen coated passively on to a

polystyrene matrix is the method commonly

employed in the ELISA19. The indirect

ELISA and AB-ELISA have seen

standardized by several researchers using

sLPS antigen from B. abortus S99 to screen

the livestock and humans for brucellosis15, 19,

20, 21. According to Guarino et al.22, the high

percentage of positivity was due to the

ability of ELISA to detect very low levels

of antibodies present in the early stage of

infection, while RBPT and STAT cannot

detect it. Keeping this in view, a pilot study

was aimed to develop and evaluate ELISA

for diagnosis of human brucellosis. In this

investigation, it was observed that, antigen

at concentration of 1 in 200, serum

concentration of 1 in 100 and conjugate

concentrations of 1 in 4000 and 1 in 8000

for IgM and IgG were optimum

concentrations/ dilutions for the test.

Currently, RBPT is regarded as one of the

essential procedures for initial screening of

livestock and humans for brucellosis. This

test is sensitive, rapid and simple as well as

it gives high throughput to localize the

range and frequency of the disease, but

suffers from low specificity13, 23. Similarly,

STAT is most preferred for serodiagnosis of

brucellosis in many countries, however,

OIE recommended for its discontinuation,

as the test is susceptible to false positive

reaction by cross reacting antibodies (IgM).

In our investigation, out of the 179 sera

samples from risk groups screened for

brucellosis, 10(5.58%) and 4(2.23%) were

positive for anti Brucella antibodies by

RBPT and STAT respectively. Latest

investigation reports from Karnataka

revealed the similar findings of higher

prevalence in the risk group ranging from

2.26% to 15.69% positivity among 618

human samples by RBPT and indirect

ELISA respectively21. A extensive study by

Mantur et al, reported the prevalence of 1.6%

and 1.8% by STAT (≥ 1:160) in 93 children

and 495 adult patients respectively in



Bijapur24, 25. Further the incidence rate from

other parts of the country has been reported

to be ranging between 0.9 and 18.1%26, 27, 28,

29. The higher prevalence rates reported by

various researchers are in accordance with

our present findings in the high risk groups 21, 25, 30. High sero prevalence in the risk

group is attributed to constant exposure to

infection due to contamination of hands and

arm while handling animals and also human

infection can occur through aerosol,

occupational exposure of abattoir workers,

veterinarians and laboratory technicians. In

addition, consumption of infected raw milk,

raw milk products and raw meat can result

in infection25.

The transmission of brucellosis to man is

primarily by direct contact with infected

animals or their products. However, the

organisms can also be transmitted by

transfusion of infected blood31. The blood

donors tested in the study, showed 1.62%

positivity by RBPT and 4.87%, by IgG

ELISA. Two such similar reports from

Karnataka, revealed the prevalence ranging

from 1.8% (out of 26,948 adult donors ) 25 to 14.7% (out of 353 donors) by

RBPT32. These findings are relatively

identical to our findings. The higher

prevalence of 4.87%, in case of IgG ELISA

signifies the better efficiency of test. This

infection in the donors might be due to the

exposure of the donors unintentionally to

the animals or due to the consumption of

raw milk, or may be due to the cross

reacting antibodies such as vibrio or

yersinia.

Brucellosis has fluctuating manifestations

with similarities to other un-diagnosable

fevers, these patients were considered under

the category of PUO. These patients

generally referred for various other

laboratory investigations, but not for

Brucella testing. The presence of Brucella

antibodies in 197 PUO patients tested

ranged from 15 (7. 61%) and 2 (1.01%) by

RBPT and STAT respectively and 0.5%

and 11.67% by IgM and IgG ELISA

respectively. A Similar studies on

seroprevalence of 3.30% out of 121 PUO

cases27, 6.8% of 414 patients with PUO33

and 0.8% seropositive cases in a group of

3,532 patients with PUO34 have been

reported. In the present study, the higher

sero prevecelance of anti Brucella antibody

was detected ranging from 7.61% (RBPT)

to 11.67% (IgG ELISA). This is attributed

to the collection of samples from diagnostic

laboratories located in Bangalore rural areas

where intensive dairy is practiced. So

exposure might be due to animal handling



(farmers) or consumption of unpasteurized

milk

In general, overall prevalence of the disease

by RBPT and STAT tests were 5.14% and

1.2% respectively whereas, 1.00% and

12.02% by IgM and IgG ELISA

respectively. All the 27 RBPT positive sera

samples were found positive by either of the

two ELISAs confirming the 100%

agreement of the test with the classical test

(RBPT. This numerical data is the evidence

for the higher efficiency of the ELISA over

RBPT and STAT. The basic knowledge of

this study will help us for the development

of indigenous ELISA kit for sero screening

of the disease in humans and to identify

active infection (IgM ELISA). The use of

sLPS as antigen in the I-ELISA might be

one of the reasons for higher sensitivity as

the stronger immune responses are elicited

against sLPS in infected individual. The

advantage of using the indigenously

developed kit/tests is that the large number

of samples can be analyzed economically

and it will also help to generate

seroepidemiological data of the disease in

the country. Screening of large number of

sera samples and validation as per OIE

guidelines is underway.

REFERENCES:

1. Jarvis BW, Harris TH, Qureshi N,

Splitter GA: Rough

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abortus and Escherichia coli

differentially activates the same

mitogen-activated protein kinase

signaling pathways for tumor

necrosis factor alpha in RAW 264.7

macrophage-like cells. Infect Immun

2002; 70:7165-7168.

2. Vaishnavi C, Kumar S. Investigation

for background prevalence of

Brucella agglutinins among the

blood donors. Indian J Med Micro

2007; 25:302-304.

3. Salmani AS, Siadat S, Fallahian MR,

Ahmadi H, Norouzian D, Yaghmai

P, Aghasadeghi MR, Mobarakeh JI,

Sadat SM, Zangeneh M,

Kheirandish M. Serological

evaluation of Brucella abortus S99

Lipopolysaccharide extracted by an

optimized method. Am J Infe Dis

2009; 5:11-16.

4. Fadeel MA, Wasfy MO, Pimental G,

Klenna JD, Mahoney FJ, Hajjeh RA.

Rapid enzyme linked



immunosorbent assay for the

diagnosis of human brucellosis in

surveillance and clinical settings in

Egypt. Saudi Med J. 2006; 27:975-

981.

5. Baily G, Krahn G, Drasar JB, Stoker

NG. Detection of Brucella

melitensis and Brucella abortus by

DNA amplification. J Trop Med

Hyg 1992; 95:271–275.

6. Bricker BJ, Halling SM.

Differentiation of Brucella abortus

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Brucella ovis, and Brucella suis bv.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to Deputy Director General, (Animal Sciences) ICAR, New Delhi for his moral

support and encouragement. The laboratory help from Hanumantharaju B (supporting staff) is

also acknowledged.

CORRESPONDENCE

Vol.1 ● No. 3 ● 2012 Scientific Research Journal of India 52


*Project Directorate on Animal Disease Monitoring And Surveillance, (PD-ADMAS), Hebbal Bangalore-560 024.

Email: [email protected].

** Asst Professor, Dept of Microbiology, Yogi vemana University Kadapa, Andhra pradesh



mino

molKJ

Study of Non-Isothermal Kinetic of Austenite Transformation to Pearlite in

CK45 Steel by Ozawa Model Free Method

Mohammad Kuwaiti*

Abstract:

In recent years, many researchers have been done about the kinetics of thermal

decomposition processes. In this study, The Ozawa model free method were used to

study the Non-Isothermal kinetic of Austenite Transformation to Pearlite. DTA

method was used at cooling rates of 5, 10 and 20 , under argon atmosphere.

Activation energy as a kinetics parameter was determined by using of Ozawa model

free method. The results show that the Activation energy in Ozawa model free method

is in range of 44.8-45.6 .

Keywords: Kinetic, Non-Isothermal, Austenite, Pearlite, Ozawa model, DTA,

Activation Energy.

INTRODUCTION Heterogeneous chemical reactions are

reactions that the components of reaction

are in different phases, these phases that

make up the interfaces and usually reactions

are performed in interfaces1. Reactions are

started in Austenite transformation to

pearlite from interface of austenite and

ferrite. In kinetic study of heterogeneous

reactions, is assumed that the equation of

rate is also true in the homogeneous gas

reactions2. In the effect of cooling, in

diagram of equilibrium of Iron – Carbon,

austenite transformation to pearlite occurs at

the temperatures near 727°C 3, 4. In this



study, Ozawa and Friedman models free

method were used for kinetic of austenite

transformation to pearlite in non-isothermal

conditions. Using model free methods begin

to investigate non-isothermal kinetics from

60 A. D.5, 6. In model free methods, is

assumed that changing rate of heating the

sample, do not change the reaction

mechanism and rate reaction is only a

function of temperature. Today, determining

parameters of kinetics are used by model

free methods and the development of

equipment7. On the base, these methods are

obtained from STA or DTA8. Freeman,

Carroll to calculation parameters of kinetic,

use from equation of gases rate, although

these equations are correct from the

standpoint of mathematical, but from the

standpoint of practical are excited some

limitations9. In addition, Coats and Redfern

use from the approximation of temperature

function in integral equations, although this

approximation has some limitation to

convert data into logarithms, but it can be a

suitable method for the evaluation initial of

the models of kinetic10. Ozawa for

calculating the activation energy proposes

his own method in a fraction of the

distinguished converter. In this method,

equation 1 is used for calculating activation

energy in the various progresses fraction of

reaction11.

(1)

ii RT

EC

,)ln(

ααβ −=

In equation 1, C is the constant, iT ,α is the

temperature in the fraction of distinguished

progress, R is the gas constant, iβ is

cooling rate andαE is activation energy in

the fraction of reaction progress. For

calculating activation energy in each

fraction of the distinguished progress)(α ,

changing of iLnβ are drawn vs.

iTαو

1

and the activation energy is calculated

according to slope of the drawn line. Model

of fraction of the converter was proposed by

Friedman, in this method, is necessary that

the experiments are performed at least three

different heating rates5. In this method, from

Equation 2 is used for calculating the

activation energy in the various progresses

fraction of reaction.

(2)

[ ] αα ααβ )()(ln)(lnRT

EAf

dT

di −=

In this equation, α is the fraction progress

of reaction, T is the temperature, R is the

gas constant, iβ is the cooling rate, A is the



pre-exponential factor, )(αf is the reaction

mechanism andE is the activation energy.

For calculating the activation energy in each

α , changing

α

αβ )(lndT

di is drawn vs.

α

T

1and similar Ozawa method, the slope

of the drawn lines, will be determined the

activation energy. In this study, by using

Ozawa and Friedman model free methods,

activation energy of austenite

transformation to pearlite in CK45 steel was

calculated at cooling rates of 5, 10 and 20

minCo .

METHOD OF RESEARCH

The simple of CK45 steel, with the

specified chemical composition in Table 1,

was used as basic material.

Table 1. Chemical composition of CK45 steel used in this study

%S %Mn %C steel Heat treatment

<0.03 0.5-0.8

0.42-0.5 CK45 %Si %P

<0.4 0.35

Figure 1 shows microstructure of the sample

which is used.

Figure 1. Microstructure austenite

transformation to pearlite of CK45 steel a) 500X b) 100X

50 mg samples of the steel was used for the

DTA experiments, by apparatus STA 503,

for cooling rates of 5, 10 and 20 minCo , in

non-isothermal conditions and under argon

atmosphere. The used range for the DTA

experiments was 1200 to 650Co .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 2 is shown the results of the DTA

experiments at cooling rates of 5, 10 and 20

minCo .



Figure 2. Used peaks to calculate the fraction progress of reaction of austenite transformation to pearlite in the cooling

rates (a) 5, (b) 10 and (c) 20 minCo .

According to this figure, the start and finish

temperatures of austenite transformation to

pearlite are calculated and with increasing

the cooling rate, the starting temperature of

transformation is reduced from 883 to 679

Co . For calculating the fraction progress of

reaction, the area under peak of DTA curve

calculated at any moment and is divided on

the area of peak total. Figure 3 shows, the

fraction progress of reaction vs. time at

different cooling rates.

Figure 3. The fraction progress of reaction vs. time

In this Method, not only parameter of time

but also temperature is important, values of

the fraction progress of reaction and the

transformation temperatures were calculated

at different cooling rates that are specified

in Table 2.

Table 2. Values of the fraction progress of

reaction at different cooling rates

fraction progress

of reaction

5 minC

10 minC 20

minC

)( CT o )( CT o )( CT o 0.0 883 886 679 0.1 879 882 675 0.2 877 881 672 0.3 876 880 672 0.4 875 879 670 0.5 875 878 669 0.6 874 877 668 0.7 873 876 667 0.8 872 874 666 0.9 871 872 665 1 867 867 662



As explained in Equation 1, for Calculating

activation energy in each fraction of

progress should be drawn changing of iLnβ

vs.

iTαو

1. Table 3 shows the values of

iTαو

1 for the fraction progress of

reaction in various cooling rates.

Table 3. The calculated values by the Ozawa method at different cooling rates

This information has been calculated by

using available information in Figure 3.

Figure 4 shows changing of iLnβ vs.

iTαو

1for the austenite transformation to

pearlite.

Figure 4. Curves iLnβ vs. α

T

1in the

fraction progress of reaction 0.1-0.9

It noticed that the drawn lines are almost

parallel and thus can be concluded that

according to Ozawa model, changing the

fraction progress of reaction did not

fluctuate in activation energy. Table 4

shows the calculated values of activation

energy by using the Ozawa model, for the

fraction progress of reaction.

Table 4. The values of activation energy in the fraction progress of reaction of austenite transformation to pearlite is obtained from

Figure 4 for the Ozawa method

Fraction progress

of reaction

5=β

α

T

1

10=β

α

T

1

20=β

α

T

1

0.1 0.0008679 0.0008654 0.0001054 0.2 0.0008688 0.0008663 0.0001057 0.3 0.0008696 0.0008671 0.0001025 0.4 0.0008704 0.0008679 0.0001060 0.5 0.0008704 0.0008679 0.0001060 0.6 0.0008713 0.0008688 0.0001062 0.7 0.0008721 0.0008696 0.0001063 0.8 0.0008729 0.0008713 0.0001064

0.9 0.0008738 0.0008729 0.0001065

Activation

Energy(mol

J )

Fraction

progress of reaction

45685 0.1 45319 0.2 45269 0.3 45228 0.4 45111 0.5 44945 0.6 44870 0.7 44870 0.8 44912 0.9



On this base, with increasing the fraction

progress of reaction, reduced activation

energy partially and in addition to Kinetic

barriers that exist in the early stages of

transformation, it is justified. It is important

that the calculated values of activation

energy is the apparent activation energy of

transformation and can be included stages

of nucleation and growth. Different reports

and models in the cases of kinetic of

austenite transformation to pearlite have

been published But the numerical values is

not registered for the activation energy of

this transformation 13-17.

REFERENCES

1. W., Christian: The theory of

transformations in metals and alloys ,

Pergamon, Oxford, 2002.

2. L.W., Coudurier, “Thermodynamics

Study of Mo-O-S system”, Trans.

Inst. Min. Met., C79, pp.34-40, 1970.

3. E., Mortimer: Chemistry, A

Conceptual Approach, Van

Nostrand, New York, 1979.

4. D.A., Porter and K.E., Easterling:

Phase transformations in metals and

alloys., Chapman&hall, London,

1993.

5. H., Friedman, "Kinetics of thermal

degradation of char-forming plastics

from thermogravimetry. Application

to a phenolic plastic", Polym. Sci. J.,

Vol.7, pp. 183–195, 1964.

6. J.H., Flynn, “The isoconversional

method for determination of energy

of activation at constant heating

rates”, J. therm. Anal., Vol.27,

pp.95-101, 1983.

7. M ., Enomoto and H.I., Aaronson,

"Austenite to Ferrite Transformation

Kinetics", Metall.trans. A., Vol.

12A, pp. 1547-1557, 1986.

8. J.S., Kirlcaldy and Baganis," A

computational model for the

prediction of steel hardenability",

Metall.trans. A., Vol. 9A , pp.495-

501, 1978.

9. E.S., Freeman, B.J., Carroll, “The

Application of Thermoanalytical

Techniques to Reaction Kinetics:

The Thermogravimetric Evaluation

of the Kinetics of the Decomposition

of Calcium Oxalate Monohydrate”,

Phys. Chem., Vol. 62, pp.394-397,

1958.

10. A.V., Coats and J.P., Redfern,

“Kinetic Parameters from



Thermogravimetric Data”, Nature,

201, pp.68-69, 1964.

11. T., Ozawa, “A New Method of

Analyzing Thermogravimetric Data”,

Bull. Chem. Soc., Japan., Vol.38,

pp.1881-1887, 1965.

12. C. W., Wegst: Stahlschlussel,

western, Germany, 1989.

13. M., Hillert, L., Höglund," Reply to

comments on kinetics model of

isothermal pearlite formation in a

0.4C–1.6Mn steel ", Scripta Mater,

Vol. 141, p. 46-78, 2003.

14. J.S., Kirlcaldy and Baganis," A

computational model for the

prediction of steel hardenability",

Metall.trans. A., Vol. 9A, pp.495-

501, 1978.

15. M., Hillert, " Formation of Pearlite

Colonies for Simple Models of

Alloys Iron-Carbon-Mangenise",

Jernkont. Ann., Vol.88, p. 130,

1962.

16. A., Roósz, Z., Gácsi, E.G., Fuchs, "

Isothermal formation of austenite in

eutectoid plain carbon steel ", Acta.

Metall., Vol. 31, p.509, 1983.

17. C., García de Andrés, L.F., Alvarez,

M., Carsí, "Modelling of Kinetics

and Dilatometric Behavair of Non-

Isothermal Pearlite-to-Austenite

Transformation in an Eutectoied

Steel.", Welding International, Vol.6,

p.612, 1992.

CORRESPONDENCE

* Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Islamic Azad University of Najaf Abad University, Iran Email: [email protected]



Face Exposure Technology

Thanigaivel.V*

Abstract:

The Face recognition is concerned with determining which part of an image contains

a face. If present, return the image location and content of each face. The automatic

system that analyzes the information contained in faces. While earlier works deal

primarily with standing front faces, several systems have been developed that are

able to detect faces reasonably truly plane or out-of-plane rotations in real time.

Even if a face exposure module is normally designed to deal with single images, its

performance can be improved if video capture.

INTRODUCTION The technology has facilitated the

development of real-time visualization

modules that interact with humans. For

biometric systems that use faces as non-

intrusive input modules, it is imperative to

locate faces in a picture before any

recognition algorithm can be applied. A

vision based user interface should be able to

tell the attention focus of the user in order to

respond as a result. To detect facial features

truly for applications such as digital

foundation, faces need to be located and

registered first to facilitate further

processing. It is evident that face detection

plays an important and critical role for the

success of any face processing systems. The

face detection problem is testing as it needs

to account for all possible look difference

caused by change in lights, facial features,

occlusions. In addition, it has to detect faces

that appear at different technology, with in

plane revolution. In spite of all these



difficulty, great progress has been made in

the last decade and many systems have

shown inspiring real-time act. The recent

advances of these algorithms have also

made major help in detecting other objects

such as humans,

Face Exposure System

Most exposure systems carry out the task by

extracting certain properties of a set of

training images acquired at a fixed pose in

an off-line setting. To reduce the effects of

illumination change, these images are

processed with histogram equalization1, 3

Based on the extracted properties, these

systems typically scan through the entire

image at every possible location and scale

in order to locate faces. The extracted

properties can be either manually coded or

learned from a set of data as adopted in the

recent systems that have demonstrated

impressive results1, 2, 3, 4, 5. In order to detect

faces at different scale, the detection

process is usually repeated to a pyramid of

images whose resolution is reduced by a

certain factor (1.2) from the original one1, 3.

Such procedures may be expedited when

other visual cues can be accurately

incorporated (motion) as pre-processing

steps to reduce the search space5. As faces

are often detected across scale, the raw

detected faces are usually further processed

to combine overlapped results and remove

false positives with heuristics1 or further

processing (e.g., edge exposure and

intensity variance). Numerous

representations have been proposed for face

exposure, including pixel-based1, 3, 5, parts-

based4, 6, 7, local edge features8, 9, Haar

wavelets4,10, and Haar-like features2, 11.

While earlier holistic representation

schemes are able to detect faces1, 3, 5, the

recent systems with Haar-like features2, 12, 13

have demonstrated impressive empirical

results in detect faces under occlusion. A

large and representative training set of face

images is essential for the success of

learning-based face detector. From the set

of collected data, more positive examples

can be synthetically generated by perturbing;

mirroring, rotating and scaling the original

face images1, 3. On the other hand, it is

relatively easier to collect negative

examples by randomly sampling images

without face images1, 3. As face exposure

can be mainly formulated as a pattern

recognition problem, numerous algorithms

have been proposed to learn their generic

templates (e.g., eigenface and statistical

distribution) or discriminate classifiers (e.g.,

neural networks, Fisher linear discriminate,

sparse network of Winnows, decision tree,



Bays classifiers, support vector machines,

and AdaBoost). Typically, a good face

detection system needs to be trained with

several iterations. One common method to

further improve the system is to bootstrap a

trained face detector with test sets, and re-

train the system with the false positive as

well as negatives1. This process is repeated

several times in order to further improve the

performance of a face detector. A survey on

these topics can be found in5, and the most

recent advances are discussed in the next

section.

Recent technology

The AdaBoost-based face detector by Viola

and Jones2 demonstrated that faces can be

fairly reliably detect in real-time (i.e., more

than 15 frames per second on 240 by

320images with desktop computers) under

partial occlusion. While Haar wavelets were

used in10 for representing faces and

pedestrians, they proposed the use of Haar-

like features which can be computed

efficiently with integral image2. Figure 1

shows four types of Haar-like features that

are used to encode the horizontal, vertical

and diagonal intensity information of face

images at different position and scale.

Given a sample image of 24 by 24 pixels,

the exhaustive set of parameterized Haar-

like features (at different position and scale)

is very large (about 160,000). Contrary to

most of the prior algorithms that use one

single strong classifier (e.g., neural

networks and support vector machines),

they used an ensemble of weak classifiers

where each one is constructed by

shareholding of one Haar-like feature. The

weak classifiers are selected and weighted

using the AdaBoost algorithm14. As there is

large number of weak classifiers, they

presented a method to rank these classifiers

into several cascades using a set of

optimization criteria. Within each stage, an

ensemble of several weak classifiers is

trained using the AdaBoost algorithm. The

motivation behind the cascade of classifier

is that simple classifiers at early stage can

filter out most negative examples efficiently,

and stronger classifiers at later stage are

only necessary to deal with instances that

look like faces. The final detector, a 38

layer cascade of classifiers with 6,060 Haar-

like features, demonstrated impressive real-

time performance with fairly high detection

and low false positive rates. Several

extensions to detect faces in multiple views

with in-plane ration have since been

proposed12, 13, 15. An implementation of the

AdaBoost-based face detector2 can be found

in the Intel Open CV library. Despite the



excellent run-time performance of boosted

cascade classifier2, the training time of such

a system is rather lengthy. In addition, the

classifier cascade is an example of

degenerate decision tree with an unbalanced

data set (i.e., a small set of positive

examples and a huge set of negative ones).

Numerous algorithms have been proposed

to address these issues and extended to

detect faces in multiple views. To handle

the asymmetry between the positive and

negative data sets, Viola and Jones

proposed the asymmetric AdaBoost

algorithm16 which keeps most of the

weights on the positive examples. In 2, the

AdaBoost algorithm is used to select a

specified number of weak classifiers with

lowest error rates for each cascade and the

process is repeated until a set of

optimization criteria (i.e., the number of

stages, the number of features of each stage,

and the detection/false positive rates) is

satisfied. As each weak classifier is made of

one single Haar-like feature, the process

within each stage can be considered as a

feature selection problem. Instead of

repeating the feature selection process at

each stage, Wu et al.17 presented a greedy

algorithm for determining the set of features

for all stages first before training the

cascade classifier. With the greedy feature

selection algorithm used as a pre-computing

procedure, they reported that the training

time of the classifier cascade with AdaBoost

is reduced by 50 to 100 times. For learning

in each stage (or node) within the classifier

cascade, they also exploited the asymmetry

between positive and negative data using a

linear classifier with the assumptions that

they can be modeled with Gaussian

distributions17. The merits and drawbacks of

the proposed linear asymmetric classifier as

well as the classic Fisher linear discriminate

were also examined in their work. Recently,

Pham and Champ proposed an online

algorithm that learns asymmetric boosted

classifiers18 with significant gain in training

time. In 19, an algorithm that aims to

automatically determine the number of

classifiers and stages for constructing a

boosted ensemble was proposed. While a

greedy optimization algorithm was

employed in 2, Brubaker et al. proposed an

algorithm for determining the number of

weak classifiers and training each node

classifier of a cascade by selecting operating

points within a receiver operator

characteristic (ROC) curve20. The solved the

optimization problem using linear programs

that maximize the detection rates while

satisfying the constraints of false positive

rates19. Although the original four types of



Haar-like features are sufficient to encode

upright frontal face images, other types of

features are essential to represent more

complex patterns (e.g., faces in different

pose)11,12,13,15,21. Most systems take a divide-

and-conquer strategy and a face detector is

constructed for a fixed pose, thereby

covering a wide range of angles (e.g., yaws

and pitch angles). A test image is either sent

to all detectors for evaluation or to a

decision module with a coarse pose

estimator for selecting the appropriate trees

for further processing. The ensuing

problems are how the types of features are

constructed, and how the most important

ones from a large feature space are selected.

More generalized Haar-like features are

defined in11, 12 in which the rectangular

image regions are not necessarily adjacent,

and furthermore the number of such

rectangular blocks is randomly varied11.

Several greedy algorithms have been

proposed to select features efficiently by

exploiting the statistics of features before

training boosted cascade classifiers17, 21.

There are also other fast face detection

methods that demonstrate promising results,

including the component-based face

detector using Naive Bays classifiers4, the

face detectors using support vector

machines7, 22, 23, the Anti-face method24

which consists of a series of detectors

trained with positive images only, and the

energy-based method25 that simultaneously

detects faces and estimates their pose in real

time.

Quantifying Performance

There are numerous metrics to gauge the

performance of face detection systems,

ranging from detection frame rate, false

positive/negative rate, number of classifier,

number of feature, and number of training

image, training time, accuracy and memory

requirements. In addition, the reported

performance also depends on the definition

of a “correct” detection result1, 5. Figure 2

shows the effects of detection results versus

different criteria, and more discussions can

be found in1, 5. The most commonly adopted

method is to plot the ROC curve using the

de facto standard MIT + CMU data set 1

which contains frontal face images. Another

data set from CMU contains images with

faces that vary in pose from frontal to side

view4. It has been noticed that although the

face detection methods nowadays have

impressive real-time performance, there is

still much room for improvement in terms

of accuracy. The detected faces returned by

state-of-the-art algorithms are often a few

pixels (around 5) off the “accurate”



locations, which is significant as face

images are usually standardized to 21 by 21

pixels. While such results are the trade-offs

between speed, robustness and accuracy,

they inevitably degrade the performance of

any biometric applications using the

contents of detected faces. Several post-

processing algorithms have been proposed

to better locate faces and extract facial

features (when the image resolution of the

detected faces is sufficiently high)26, 27.

Applications

As face detection is the first step of any face

processing system, it finds numerous

applications in face recognition, face

tracking, facial expression recognition,

facial feature extraction, gender

classification, clustering, attentive user

interfaces, digital cosmetics, biometric

systems, to name a few. In addition, most of

the face detection algorithms can be

extended to recognize other objects such as

cars, humans, pedestrians, and signs, etc5.

Summary

The advance in face exposure has created a

lot of exciting and reasonably applications.

As most of the algorithms can also be

applied to other problem domains, it has

broader impact than detecting faces in

images alone. The research will focus on

improvement of detection precision for face

exposure.

Adaptive Boosting

The Adaptive Boosting) is a machine

learning algorithm formulated by Freund

and Shapiro14 that learns a strong classifier

by combining an ensemble of weak

classifiers with weights. The discrete

Adaptive Boosting algorithm was originally

developed for classification using the

exponential loss function and is an instance

within the boosting family.

Hear-like features

Similar to the what Haar wavelets are

developed for basis functions to encode

signals, the objective of two-dimensional

Haar features is to collect local oriented

intensity difference at different scale for

representing image patters. This

representation transforms an image from

pixel space to the space of wavelet

coefficients with an over-complete

dictionary of features. The Haar-like

features, similar to Haar wavelets, compute

local oriented intensity difference using

rectangular blocks (rather than pixels)

which can be computed efficiently with the

integral image2.

Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012

Receiver operating characteristic

A receiver operating characteristic is a p

commonly used in machine learning and

data mining for exhibiting the performance

of a classifier under different criteria. The y

axis is the true positive and the x

false positive (i.e., false alarm). A point on

operating characteristic sho

trade-off between the achieved trues

positive detection rate and the accepted

false positive rate.

Classifier cascade

In face detection, a classifier cascade is a

degenerate decision tree where each node

(decision stump) consists of a binary

classifier. In 2, each node is a boosted

classifier consisting of several weak

classifiers. These boosted classifiers are

constructed so that the ones near the root

can be computed very efficiently at very

high detection rate with acceptable false

positive rate. Typically, most patches in a

test image can be classified as faces/non

faces using simple classifiers near the root,

and relatively few difficult ones need to be

analyzed by nodes with deeper depth. With

this cascade structure, the total computation

REFERENCES


Receiver operating characteristic

A receiver operating characteristic is a plot

commonly used in machine learning and

data mining for exhibiting the performance

of a classifier under different criteria. The y-

axis is the true positive and the x-axis is the

false positive (i.e., false alarm). A point on

operating characteristic shows that the

off between the achieved trues

positive detection rate and the accepted

In face detection, a classifier cascade is a

degenerate decision tree where each node

(decision stump) consists of a binary

, each node is a boosted

classifier consisting of several weak

classifiers. These boosted classifiers are

constructed so that the ones near the root

can be computed very efficiently at very

high detection rate with acceptable false

rate. Typically, most patches in a

test image can be classified as faces/non-

faces using simple classifiers near the root,

and relatively few difficult ones need to be

analyzed by nodes with deeper depth. With

this cascade structure, the total computation

of examining all scanned image patches can

be reduced significantly.

(a) Face images

Fig. 1. Four types of Haar

These features appear at different position

and scale.The Haar

computed as the difference of dark and light

regions. They can be considered as features

that collect local edge information at

different orientation and scale. The set of

Haar-like features is large, and only a small

amount of them are learned from positive

and negative examples for face detection.

(a) Test image

Fig. 2. Detection results depend heavily on

the adopted criteria. Suppose all the sub

images in (b) are returned as face patterns

by a detector. A loose criterion may de

all the faces as “successful” detections

while a more strict one would declare most

of them as non



of examining all scanned image patches can

be reduced significantly.

(b)Non-face images

Fig. 1. Four types of Haar-like features.

These features appear at different position

and scale.The Haar-like features are

the difference of dark and light

regions. They can be considered as features

that collect local edge information at

different orientation and scale. The set of

like features is large, and only a small

amount of them are learned from positive

ive examples for face detection.

(b)Detection results

Fig. 2. Detection results depend heavily on

the adopted criteria. Suppose all the sub-

images in (b) are returned as face patterns

by a detector. A loose criterion may declare

all the faces as “successful” detections

while a more strict one would declare most

of them as non- faces.



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Neural network-based face detection. IEEE

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Machine Intelligence 20(1) (1998) 23–38

2. Viola, P., Jones, M.: Robust real-time

face detection. International Journal of

Computer Vision 57(2) (2004) 137–154

3. Sung, K.K., Poggio, T.: Example-based

learning for view-based human face

detection. IEEE Transactions on Pattern

Analysis and Machine Intelligence 20(1)

(1998) 39–51

4. Schneiderman, H., Kanade, T.: Object

detection using the statistics of parts.

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5. Yang, M.H., Kriegman, D., Ahuja, N.:

Detecting faces in images: A survey. IEEE


MachineIntelligence 24(1) (2002) 34–58

6. Mohan, A., Papageorgiou, C., Poggio, T.:

Example-based object detection in images

by components. IEEE Transactions on

PatternAnalysis and Machine Intelligence

23(4) (2001) 349–361

7. Heisele, B., Serre, T., Poggio, T.: A

component-based framework for face

detection and identification. International

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167–181

8. Amit, Y., Geman, D.: A computational

model for visual selection. Neural

Computation 11(7) (1999) 1691–1715

9. Fleuret, F., Geman, D.: Coarse-to-fine

face detection. International Journal of

Computer Vision 41(12) (2001) 85–107

10. Papageorgiou, C., Poggio, T.: A

trainable system for object recognition.


38(1) (2000) 15–33

11. Dollar, P., Tu, Z., Tao, H., Belongie, S.:

Feature mining for image classification. In:

Proceedings of IEEE Conference on

ComputerVision and Pattern Recognition.

(2007)

12. Li, S., Zhang, Z.: Floatboost learning

and statistical face detection. IEEE


Machine Intelligence28(9) (2004) 1112–

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13. Huang, C., Ai, H., Li, Y., Lao, S.: High-

performance rotation invariant multiview

face detection. IEEE Transactions on

PatternAnalysis and Machine Intelligence

29(4) (2007) 671–686

14. Freund, Y., Schapire, R.: A decision-

theoretic generalization of on-line learning

and application to boosting. Journal of

computer andsystem sciences 55(1) (1997)

119–139

15. Jones, M., Viola, P.: Fast multi-view

face detection. Technical Report TR2003-

96, Mitsubishi Electrical Research

Laboratories (2003)

16. Viola, P., Jones, M.: Fast and robust

classification using asymmetric Adaboost

and a detector cascade. In: Advances in

Neural Information Processing Systems.

(2002) 1311–1318

17. Wu, J., Brubaker, S.C., Mullin, M.,

Rehg, J.: Fast asymmetric learning for

cascade face detection. IEEE Transactions

on Pattern Analysis and Machine

Intelligence 30(3) (2008) 369–382

18. Pham, M.T., Cham, T.J.: Online

learning asymmetric boosted classifiers for

object detection. In: Proceedings of IEEE

Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern

Recognition. (2007)

19. Brubaker, S.C., Wu, J., Sun, J., Mullin,

M., Rehg, J.: On the design of cascades of

boosted ensembles for face detection.


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classification for imprecise environments.

Machine Learning 42(3) (2001) 203–231

21. Pham, M.T., Cham, T.J.: Fast training

and selection and Haar features using

statistics in boosting-based face detection.

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Osuna, E., Poggio, T.: Pedestrian detection

using wavelet templates. In: Proceedings of

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Blake, A.: Computationally efficient face

detection. In: Proceedings of the Eighth

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Computer Vision. Volume 2. (2001) 695–

700

24. Keren, D., Osadchy, M., Gotsman, C.:

Antifaces: A novel fast method for image

detection. IEEE Transactions on Pattern


(2001) 747–761

25. Osadchy, M., LeCun, Y., Miller, M.:

Synergistic face detection and pose

estimation with energy-based models.

Journal of Machine Learning Research

(2007) 1197–1214

26. Moriyama, T., Kanade, T., Xiao, J.,

Cohn, J.: Meticulously detailed eye region

model and its application to analysis of

facial images. IEEE Transactions on Pattern


(2006) 73800752

27. Ding, L., Martinez, A.: Precise detailed

detection of faces and facial features. In:

Proceedings of IEEE Conference on

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

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28. Friedman, J., Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R.:

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CORRESPONDENCE

*Centre for Research and Development. PRIST University, India. E-Mail:[email protected]



Recovery of Decayed Species through Image Processing

K.Priyadharsan*, S.Saranya**

Abstract:

The problem of rebuilding a structure from decayed remains has been, until now,

especially relevant in the ambit of forensic sciences, where it is obviously oriented

toward the identification of unrecognizable corpses; but its potential interest to

archaeologists and anthropologists is not negligible. This paper is about recovering

the decayed species’ structure, through Spiral Computed Tomography data and

virtual modeling techniques (in this case with VTK software), 3-D models of the

possible physiognomy of ancient mummies. The species representation is based on

3D models and soft tissues are reconstructed.Isosurfaces generation is based on

Marching cubes algorithm. The resulting voxel models are converted into 3d

wrapped models that are coded using VTK software. The presented results iiustrate

that based on the proposed methods a complete recovery of decayed structure can be

built with less cost.

Keywords: VTK, CT,3-D

INTRODUCTION Reconstruction is an important key feature

of image processing applications. It uses CT

scanning’s numbers allowed a very fine

discrimination between materials with

different densities providing an enormous

amount of information not only about the

mummy and its skeleton, but also about the

artifacts buried with the mummy and its

coffin2. Compared to traditional x-ray

techniques, multiple axial images displayed

Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012

in a clearer way the different details of car

tonnage, wrappings, amulets an

organs of a mummy3 and allowed easy

measurements of exact distances between

objects inside or outside the mummy. In the

last years, spiral CT has considerably

enhanced clinical imaging. The use of this

new technique has fatherly widened the

range and quality of possi

on mummies.

So far, related work only considered initial

representation of the fossil using CT

scanning. Soft tissue reconstruction and

texture mapping has to be studied in detail.

In my paper, surface is constructed using

Marching cubes algorithm and some

changes are made to the existing a

to get better results. 3D models are wrapped

and coded using VTK software

This process is organized as follows. In the

next section, I describe the process of

anthropological and egyptological

of the head. Section 2 presents spiral CT of

the head. Section 3 presents. Reconstruction

of a 3-D model of the skull generated from

CT data processing. Section 4 presents

application of textures fitting the somatic

features.

1. Preliminary Anthropological Results


in a clearer way the different details of car

tonnage, wrappings, amulets and internal

and allowed easy

measurements of exact distances between

objects inside or outside the mummy. In the

last years, spiral CT has considerably

enhanced clinical imaging. The use of this

new technique has fatherly widened the

range and quality of possible investigations

So far, related work only considered initial

representation of the fossil using CT

scanning. Soft tissue reconstruction and

texture mapping has to be studied in detail.

In my paper, surface is constructed using

s algorithm and some

changes are made to the existing algorithm

3D models are wrapped

and coded using VTK software

This process is organized as follows. In the

next section, I describe the process of

anthropological and egyptological analysis

of the head. Section 2 presents spiral CT of

the head. Section 3 presents. Reconstruction

D model of the skull generated from

CT data processing. Section 4 presents

application of textures fitting the somatic

thropological Results

The anthropological study of the

mummified cranial remains allowed us to

identify a male subject with an age at death

of around 40 years. The skull is

dolichocranic, of medium height and with

rounded occiput, narrow face, high

cheekbones, gracile even if well developed

in its height, jaw; the orbits are narrow, the

nose is well-shaped, and of Europoid look.

2. Spiral CT Scanning

Fig. 2 CT scanning of the head

The cranial cavity was filled with hot

melted resin, later solidified,

with the mummy resting on its back, as the

model reconstructed from the CT images

clearly displays.

3. Reconstruction of a 3D Model of the

Skull

CT slices must be stacked up and

interpolated in order to build a volume.



The anthropological study of the

mummified cranial remains allowed us to

identify a male subject with an age at death

of around 40 years. The skull is

dolichocranic, of medium height and with

rounded occiput, narrow face, high

bones, gracile even if well developed

in its height, jaw; the orbits are narrow, the

shaped, and of Europoid look.

Spiral CT Scanning

Fig. 2 CT scanning of the head

The cranial cavity was filled with hot

melted resin, later solidified, introduced

with the mummy resting on its back, as the

model reconstructed from the CT images

Reconstruction of a 3D Model of the

CT slices must be stacked up and

interpolated in order to build a volume.

Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012

Once created a volume, it

means of suitable algorithms, to generate

surfaces whose points have the same

function value. They are called is surfaces A

popular algorithm for determining is

surfaces is the so called marching cubes.

The principle underlying the applica

this algorithm to the kind of problem here

described is that similar materials have the

same radio-opacity and are, consequently,

represented in a CT scan by the same

densitometry level. In CT slices, the

intensity associated to each pixel in the

grey-scale is proportional to tissues density:

black corresponds to air, white to bones. It

is therefore possible processing the CT

scans sequence so as to obtain a 3

where to each "knot" (control point) is

associated the densitometry value measured

by the CT scans. The result is a 3

grey levels image.

Fig. 3 a) hard tissues b) external surface

4. Reconstruction of Soft Tissues


Once created a volume, it is possible, by

means of suitable algorithms, to generate

surfaces whose points have the same

function value. They are called is surfaces A

popular algorithm for determining is

surfaces is the so called marching cubes.

The principle underlying the application of

this algorithm to the kind of problem here

described is that similar materials have the

opacity and are, consequently,

represented in a CT scan by the same

densitometry level. In CT slices, the

intensity associated to each pixel in the

scale is proportional to tissues density:

black corresponds to air, white to bones. It

is therefore possible processing the CT

scans sequence so as to obtain a 3-D grid,

where to each "knot" (control point) is

associated the densitometry value measured

by the CT scans. The result is a 3-D 256

Fig. 3 a) hard tissues b) external surface

f Soft Tissues

This stage of our work is still in a

preliminary phase. Among the possible

methodologies to deal with this complex

problem, I focused two different promising

ways:

A. Protocols developed to the reconstruction

of soft tissues on skull

B. Use of warping t

A. The thickness of the soft tissues is

reconstructed on the bones through the use

of pegs at marked points. All the pegs are

joined by strips of plotline of fixed

thickness and the empty spaces among them

are then slowly filled with mould able

material: in this way, it is possible to

reconstruct nearly all the face that belonged

to the living subject; on this, nose cartilage,

eye globes and lips are added.

B. A different method consists in the

distortion (warping) of the 3

reference scanned head, until its hard tissues

match those of the mummy. The subsequent

stage is the construction of the hybrid model

composed by the hard tissues of the

mummy plus the soft ones of the reference

head.

5. Textures Fitting t



This stage of our work is still in a

preliminary phase. Among the possible

methodologies to deal with this complex

problem, I focused two different promising

rotocols developed to the reconstruction

of soft tissues on skull

warping techniques.

The thickness of the soft tissues is

reconstructed on the bones through the use

of pegs at marked points. All the pegs are

joined by strips of plotline of fixed

empty spaces among them

are then slowly filled with mould able

material: in this way, it is possible to

reconstruct nearly all the face that belonged

to the living subject; on this, nose cartilage,

eye globes and lips are added.

A different method consists in the

distortion (warping) of the 3-D model of a

ce scanned head, until its hard tissues

match those of the mummy. The subsequent

stage is the construction of the hybrid model

composed by the hard tissues of the

mummy plus the soft ones of the reference

Textures Fitting the Somatic Features



While hard and soft tissues give

morphological information, textures provide

colours and aesthetical features. They are

"pasted" over the 3D models by means of

mapping procedures. Moreover, being a

frontal view, it does not give sufficient

information for the mapping of the entire

model. We get a low resolution image (fig4).

Fig 4 low resolution image

The texture was mapped onto the 3D model

to perfectly match the frontal view of the

mummy but it loses its grain as soon as we

depart from the frontal view. Much better

results could be obtained with different high

resolution views of a new subject.

Fig 5texture, processed and colored, is

mapped onto the 3-D model.

Fig.6Lateralview

Development of the project: soft tissue

reconstruction using VTK

After a first part of work, open problem is to

reconstruct the lacking elements of a 3D

digital model generated from CT scans

applied to a mummified cranial remains.

The aim is to obtain a perfect match among

hard tissues so that soft tissue of reference

model can be used to represent those of the

mummy with a good approximation.

Moreover a tool is developed in order to

apply to the model cylindrical textures

obtained multiple views of a well suited

individual Software implementation has

been designed using VTK.

Cylindrical textures obtained multiple views

of a well suited individual Software

implementation has been designed using

VTK.

CT scans data representing our model and

mummy should have the same placing,

orientation, dimensions and resolution. This

is generally not true especially when dealing

with data coming from different machine so



the first step is to perform a manual

registration (Figure 3), that is a rigid

transformation, among volumes in order to

work in the same system of coordinates.

Software like AIR are also available for

automatic registration but sometimes,

especially when volumes are quite different,

they do not produce satisfactory results.

As further requirement grayscales of hard

tissues must be similar, in spite of different

methodologies of acquisition though

mummy’s tissues has been deteriorated. It is

possible to correct these differences shifting

and scaling intensities using histogram

information.

For volume resembling, smoothing (to

remove aliasing phenomena) and surface

generation Vtk internal facilities are used.

At this point we precede with the setup of

the Manchester pegs onto the surface of the

hard tissues of the mummy while for the

reference model it can be predetermined.

The aim of this phase is to fix some

constraints for the resulting physiognomy

and to provide a first guess for the following

step that is the features tracking.

Pegs are mapped onto a spherical surface of

parametric ratio, so that the user can place

quickly the whole set and the adjust single

pegs.

Fig.6 Manchester points placed over the

mummy

Calculating vector displacement among

couples of corresponding points we obtain a

scattered field to drive a first warp phase. A

feature tracking consists in determining a

correspondence between sets of

characteristic points pertaining to the

volumes in order to obtain a scatter motion

field with more details. It is the most

important step.

Initially this set of points is chosen as a

subset of points that are vertices of hard

tissues surface of the mummy; some of

these points, corresponding position in the

reference volume. If the result is good, the

resulting motion field is defined among

subsets of bone surfaces, with particular

characteristics, are identified as features.

If, consecutively a test, a feature is retained

reliable, we search the from the reference

Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012

model to the mummy volume..….

Once generated a scattered motion field, it

must be diffused within the whole reference

volume. Diffused motion field can be used

to warp every structure pertaining to

reference model coherently with mummy

model therefore we reconstruct mummy soft

tissues warping those of reference model

Fig 7 wrap driven by manchester points

Fig.8 Model skull (blue) after this stage

overlapped with mummy skull (white)


model to the mummy volume..….

Once generated a scattered motion field, it

must be diffused within the whole reference

volume. Diffused motion field can be used

arp every structure pertaining to

reference model coherently with mummy

model therefore we reconstruct mummy soft

tissues warping those of reference model

Fig 7 wrap driven by manchester points

Model skull (blue) after this stage

overlapped with mummy skull (white)

Fig .9 Model skin (blue) and mummy skull

(white)

Fig 10 Face generated

We consider the relation between hard

tissues surface of the reference model and

hard tissue surface of the mummy as a

continuous deformation in the time.

If is the intensity of a point

of coordinates (x,y,z) at time t in the

mummy volume

and

is the m

where

e are components in x, y e z

directions of velocity vector, we suppose

that the intensity function is the same at the

time

point



Fig .9 Model skin (blue) and mummy skull

(white)

Fig 10 Face generated

We consider the relation between hard

tissues surface of the reference model and

hard tissue surface of the mummy as a

continuous deformation in the time.

is the intensity of a point

of coordinates (x,y,z) at time t in the

mummy volume

is the motion field,

,

are components in x, y e z

directions of velocity vector, we suppose

that the intensity function is the same at the

in the

of the

Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012

reference model,

where

e and

(1)

If the intensity function change sm

with x, y, z e t, we can manipulate the

equation (1) with Taylor’s series to obtain

(2)

where e contains terms in

higher than first order.

Eliminating

and calculating limit for

obtain

(3)

that is the totally derivative of

time.

(4)

Using abbreviated notation:


reference model,

,

.

If the intensity function change smoothly

with x, y, z e t, we can manipulate the

equation (1) with Taylor’s series to obtain

where e contains terms in x, y, z e t

, rationing by t,

and calculating limit for , we

totally derivative of in the

Using abbreviated notation:

we can write the 3 as

(5)

Known as motion field constraint equation,

where Ex, Ey, Ez ed Et are partial

derivatives.

We say that x is a reliable feature if

(6)

Where:

I ( , t) is the matrix of intensity function

E in the point =(x,y,z) in the region W(x)

at the time t;

is the gradient operator;

min () represents the smaller eigenvalue

of matrix ;

are predetermined thresholds.

We consider a window

of

We represent (6) in discrete fashion

(7)

The solution of (4) respect to V is given

by In this moment this stage is still in

developing so we have no picture, anyway

the idea is simple: for each of the

Manchester points w



we can write the 3 as

Known as motion field constraint equation,

where Ex, Ey, Ez ed Et are partial

We say that x is a reliable feature if

, t) is the matrix of intensity function

=(x,y,z) in the region W(x)

is the gradient operator;

) represents the smaller eigenvalue

are predetermined thresholds.

We consider a window (q) centered in q

dimensions.

We represent (6) in discrete fashion

The solution of (4) respect to V is given

In this moment this stage is still in

developing so we have no picture, anyway

the idea is simple: for each of the

Manchester points we find its corresponding



on the skin surface, in this way we can

measure the actual soft tissue thickness. By

consulting the thickness table we find the

corresponding desired thickness measure.

Saying that the actual thickness must

become the desired thickness we generate

another scattered field.

Texture Application

CONCLUSION:

In this paper, for obtaining better

performances through the virtual 3D

visualization of the reconstruction i have

used the powerful workstation Onyx2

equipped with an architecture of type

multiprocessor, with 4 processors R10K, 1

Gbyte of RAM, computing power of 1.5

Gflop, 1 graphic pipeline, that it can process

11 millions of polygons per second. In fact

the main problem, processing a large

amount of data, was to process and visualize

in real time and in 3D the data volume.

Through this paper I hope that this method

will be a useful one to the society.

REFERENCES

1. S.B. Kang, R. Szeliski, and P.

Anandan, “The Geometry-Image

Representation Trade off for

Rendering”, Proc. ICIP, Vancouver,

Canada, September 2000.

2. P. Eisert, E. Steinbach, and B. Girod,

“Multi-hypothesis, Volumetric

Reconstruction of 3-D Objects. Proc.

ICASSP, pp. 3509-3512, Phoenix,

Mar. 1999.

3. W. E. Lorensen, and H. E. Cline,

“Marching Cubes: A high resolution

3D surface reconstruction algorithm,”

Proc. SIGGRAPH, vol. 21, no. 4, pp

163-169, 1987.

4. P. Debevec, C. Taylor, and J. Malik,

“Modeling and rendering

architecture from photographs: A

hybrid geometry image based

approach,” Proc. SIGGRAPH, pp.

11-20, 1996.



CORRESPONDENCE

*DR-DO Project Assistant, Centre for R&D, PRIST University, Thanjavur, India. Email:

[email protected]. **Lecturer, Department of Comp Science & Engg, Bharadhidasan University,

Trichy, India. Email: [email protected]



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