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Sculpture “Sculptor” redirects here. For other uses, see Sculptor (disambiguation) and Sculpture (disambiguation). Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul [1] a Roman marble copy of a Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BCE Capitoline Museums, Rome Assyrian lamassu gate guardian from Khorsabad, c. 721–800 BCE in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal of material) and modelling (the addition of material, as clay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materi- als but, since Modernism, there has been an almost com- plete freedom of materials and process. A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. Michelangelo's Moses, (c. 1513–1515), San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, for the tomb of Pope Julius II. Netsuke of tigress with two cubs, mid-19th century Japan, ivory with shell inlay Sculpture in stone survives far better than works of art 1

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Page 1: Sculpture - sweethaven02.com

Sculpture

“Sculptor” redirects here. For other uses, see Sculptor(disambiguation) and Sculpture (disambiguation).Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates

The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul [1] a Roman marblecopy of a Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BCE CapitolineMuseums, Rome

Assyrian lamassu gate guardian from Khorsabad, c. 721–800BCE

in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts. Durablesculptural processes originally used carving (the removalof material) and modelling (the addition of material, asclay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materi-als but, since Modernism, there has been an almost com-plete freedom of materials and process. A wide varietyof materials may be worked by removal such as carving,assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast.

Michelangelo's Moses, (c. 1513–1515), San Pietro in Vincoli,Rome, for the tomb of Pope Julius II.

Netsuke of tigress with two cubs, mid-19th century Japan, ivorywith shell inlay

Sculpture in stone survives far better than works of art

1

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2 2 PURPOSES AND SUBJECTS

The Angel of the North by Antony Gormley, 1998

in perishable materials, and often represents the major-ity of the surviving works (other than pottery) from an-cient cultures, though conversely traditions of sculpture inwood may have vanished almost entirely. However, mostancient sculpture was brightly painted, and this has beenlost.[2]

Sculpture has been central in religious devotion in manycultures, and until recent centuries large sculptures, tooexpensive for private individuals to create, were usuallyan expression of religion or politics. Those cultures whosesculptures have survived in quantities include the culturesof the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, as well asmany in South America and Africa.The Western tradition of sculpture began in ancientGreece, and Greece is widely seen as producing greatmasterpieces in the classical period. During the MiddleAges, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and pas-sions of the Christian faith. The revival of classical mod-els in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures suchas Michelangelo's David. Modernist sculpture movedaway from traditional processes and the emphasis onthe depiction of the human body, with the making ofconstructed sculpture, and the presentation of found ob-jects as finished art works.

1 Types of sculpture

A basic distinction is between sculpture in the round,free-standing sculpture, such as statues, not attached (ex-cept possibly at the base) to any other surface, and thevarious types of relief, which are at least partly attachedto a background surface. Relief is often classified bythe degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, and sometimes an intermediate mid-relief. Sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancientEgypt. Relief is the usual sculptural medium for largefigure groups and narrative subjects, which are difficultto accomplish in the round, and is the typical techniqueused both for architectural sculpture, which is attached to

buildings, and for small-scale sculpture decorating otherobjects, as in much pottery, metalwork and jewellery.Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs,usually of stone, often also containing inscriptions.Another basic distinction is between subtractive carvingtechniques, which removematerial from an existing blockor lump, for example of stone or wood, and modellingtechniques which shape or build up the work from thema-terial. Techniques such as casting, stamping and mould-ing use an intermediate matrix containing the design toproduce the work; many of these allow the production ofseveral copies.

Open air Buddhist rock reliefs at the Longmen Grottos, China

The term “sculpture” is often used mainly to describelarge works, which are sometimes called monumentalsculpture, meaning either or both of sculpture that islarge, or that is attached to a building. But the term prop-erly coversmany types of small works in three dimensionsusing the same techniques, including coins and medals,hardstone carvings, a term for small carvings in stone thatcan take detailed work.The very large or “colossal” statue has had an enduringappeal since antiquity; the largest on record at 128m (420ft) is the 2002 Chinese Spring Temple Buddha. Anothergrand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue ofa rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades.The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the“head”, showing just that, or the bust, a representationof a person from the chest up. Small forms of sculptureinclude the figurine, normally a statue that is nomore than18 inches (46 cm) tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medalor coin.Modern and contemporary art have added a number ofnon-traditional forms of sculpture, including sound sculp-ture, light sculpture, environmental art, environmentalsculpture, street art sculpture, kinetic sculpture (involv-ing aspects of physical motion), land art, and site-specificart. Sculpture is an important form of public art. A col-lection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called asculpture garden.

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3

Moai from Easter Island, where the concentration of resourceson large sculpture may have had serious political effects.

2 Purposes and subjects

One of themost common purposes of sculpture is in someform of association with religion. Cult images are com-mon inmany cultures, though they are often not the colos-sal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greekart, like the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. The actual cultimages in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples,of which none have survived, were evidently rather small,even in the largest temples. The same is often true inHinduism, where the very simple and ancient form ofthe lingam is the most common. Buddhism brought thesculpture of religious figures to East Asia, where thereseems to have been no earlier equivalent tradition, thoughagain simple shapes like the bi and cong probably had re-ligious significance.Small sculptures as personal possessions go back to theearliest prehistoric art, and the use of very large sculp-ture as public art, especially to impress the viewer withthe power of a ruler, goes back at least to the Great Sphinxof some 4,500 years ago. In archaeology and art historythe appearance, and sometimes disappearance, of largeor monumental sculpture in a culture is regarded as ofgreat significance, though tracing the emergence is oftencomplicated by the presumed existence of sculpture inwood and other perishable materials of which no recordremains;[3] the totem pole is an example of a traditionof monumental sculpture in wood that would leave notraces for archaeology. The ability to summon the re-sources to create monumental sculpture, by transportingusually very heavy materials and arranging for the pay-ment of what are usually regarded as full-time sculptors,is considered a mark of a relatively advanced culture interms of social organization. Recent unexpected discov-eries of ancient Chinese bronze age figures at Sanxingdui,

some more than twice human size, have disturbed manyideas held about early Chinese civilization, since onlymuch smaller bronzes were previously known.[4] Someundoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valleycivilization, appear to have had no monumental sculptureat all, though producing very sophisticated figurines andseals. The Mississippian culture seems to have been pro-gressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when itcollapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and theEaster Island culture, seem to have devoted enormous re-sources to very large-scale monumental sculpture from avery early stage.

Medal of John VIII Palaeologus, c. 1435, by Pisanello, the firstportrait medal, a medium essentially made for collecting.

The collecting of sculpture, including that of earlier peri-ods, goes back some 2,000 years in Greece, China andMesoamerica, and many collections were available onsemi-public display long before the modern museum wasinvented. From the 20th century the relatively restrictedrange of subjects found in large sculpture expandedgreatly, with abstract subjects and the use or represen-tation of any type of subject now common. Today muchsculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries andmuseums, and the ability to transport and store the in-creasingly large works is a factor in their construction.Small decorative figurines, most often in ceramics, areas popular today (though strangely neglected by modernand Contemporary art) as they were in the Rococo, or inancient Greece when Tanagra figurines were a major in-dustry, or in East Asian and Pre-Columbian art. Smallsculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go wellback into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begramivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun.Portrait sculpture began in Egypt, where the NarmerPalette shows a ruler of the 32nd century BCE, andMesopotamia, where we have 27 surviving statues ofGudea, who ruled Lagash c. 2144 – 2124 BCE. In an-cient Greece and Rome, the erection of a portrait statue

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4 3 MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

in a public place was almost the highest mark of hon-our, and the ambition of the elite, who might also be de-picted on a coin.[5] In other cultures such as Egypt andthe Near East public statues were almost exclusively thepreserve of the ruler, with other wealthy people only be-ing portrayed in their tombs. Rulers are typically the onlypeople given portraits in Pre-Columbian cultures, begin-ning with the Olmec colossal heads of about 3,000 yearsago. East Asian portrait sculpture was entirely religious,with leading clergy being commemorated with statues,especially the founders of monasteries, but not rulers, orancestors. The Mediterranean tradition revived, initiallyonly for tomb effigies and coins, in the Middle Ages, butexpanded greatly in the Renaissance, which invented newforms such as the personal portrait medal.Animals are, with the human figure, the earliest subjectfor sculpture, and have always been popular, sometimesrealistic, but often imaginary monsters; in China animalsand monsters are almost the only traditional subjects forstone sculpture outside tombs and temples. The king-dom of plants is important only in jewellery and deco-rative reliefs, but these form almost all the large sculp-ture of Byzantine art and Islamic art, and are very im-portant in most Eurasian traditions, where motifs such asthe palmette and vine scroll have passed east and west forover two millennia.One form of sculpture found in many prehistoric culturesaround the world is specially enlarged versions of ordi-nary tools, weapons or vessels created in impractical pre-cious materials, for either some form of ceremonial use ordisplay or as offerings. Jade or other types of greenstonewere used in China, Olmec Mexico, and Neolithic Eu-rope, and in earlyMesopotamia large pottery shapes wereproduced in stone. Bronze was used in Europe and Chinafor large axes and blades, like the Oxborough Dirk.

3 Materials and techniques

The materials used in sculpture are diverse, changingthroughout history. The classic materials, with outstand-ing durability, are metal, especially bronze, stone and pot-tery, with wood, bone and antler less durable but cheaperoptions. Precious materials such as gold, silver, jade,and ivory are often used for small luxury works, andsometimes in larger ones, as in chryselephantine statues.More common and less expensive materials were used forsculpture for wider consumption, including hardwoods(such as oak, box/boxwood, and lime/linden); terracottaand other ceramics, wax (a very common material formodels for casting, and receiving the impressions ofcylinder seals and engraved gems), and cast metals suchas pewter and zinc (spelter). But a vast number of othermaterials have been used as part of sculptures, in ethno-graphic and ancient works as much as modern ones.Sculptures are often painted, but commonly lose their

Sumerian male worshipper, alabaster with shell eyes,2750−2600 B.C.E.

paint to time, or restorers. Many different paintingtechniques have been used in making sculpture, includ-ing tempera, oil painting, gilding, house paint, aerosol,enamel and sandblasting.[2][6]

Many sculptors seek new ways and materials to make art.One of Pablo Picasso's most famous sculptures includedbicycle parts. Alexander Calder and other modernistsmade spectacular use of painted steel. Since the 1960s,acrylics and other plastics have been used as well. AndyGoldsworthy makes his unusually ephemeral sculpturesfrom almost entirely natural materials in natural settings.Some sculpture, such as ice sculpture, sand sculpture, andgas sculpture, is deliberately short-lived. Recent sculptorshave used stained glass, tools, machine parts, hardwareand consumer packaging to fashion their works. Sculp-tors sometimes use found objects, and Chinese scholars’rocks have been appreciated for many centuries.

3.1 Stone

Stone sculpture is an ancient activity where pieces ofrough natural stone are shaped by the controlled removalof stone. Owing to the permanence of the material, ev-idence can be found that even the earliest societies in-dulged in some form of stone work, though not all ar-eas of the world have such abundance of good stone forcarving as Egypt, Greece, India and most of Europe.Petroglyphs (also called rock engravings) are perhaps theearliest form: images created by removing part of a rock

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3.3 Glass 5

Modern reconstruction of the original painted appearance (basedon scientific pigment analysis) of a Late Archaic Greek marblefigure from the Temple of Aphaea, c. 500 BCE

surface which remains in situ, by incising, pecking, carv-ing, and abrading. Monumental sculpture covers largeworks, and architectural sculpture, which is attached tobuildings. Hardstone carving is the carving for artis-tic purposes of semi-precious stones such as jade, agate,onyx, rock crystal, sard or carnelian, and a general termfor an object made in this way. Alabaster or mineralgypsum is a soft mineral that is easy to carve for smallerworks and still relatively durable. Engraved gems aresmall carved gems, including cameos, originally used asseal rings.The copying of an original statue in stone, which wasvery important for ancient Greek statues, which are nearlyall known from copies, was traditionally achieved by"pointing", along with more freehand methods. Pointinginvolved setting up a grid of string squares on a woodenframe surrounding the original, and then measuring theposition on the grid and the distance between grid andstatue of a series of individual points, and then using thisinformation to carve into the block from which the copyis made.[7]

3.2 Metal

Bronze and related copper alloys are the oldest and stillthe most popular metals for cast metal sculptures; a castbronze sculpture is often called simply a “bronze”. Com-mon bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable prop-erty of expanding slightly just before they set, thus fillingthe finest details of a mold. Their strength and lack ofbrittleness (ductility) is an advantage when figures in ac-tion are to be created, especially when compared to var-ious ceramic or stone materials (see marble sculpture forseveral examples). Gold is the softest and most preciousmetal, and very important in jewellery; with silver it issoft enough to be worked with hammers and other toolsas well as cast; repoussé and chasing are among the tech-niques used in gold and silversmithing.

Ludwig Gies, cast iron plaquette, 8 x 9.8 cm, “Refugees 1914–1915”

Casting is a group of manufacturing processes by whicha liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron)is (usually) poured into a mold, which contains a hollowcavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.The solid casting is then ejected or broken out to completethe process,[8] although a final stage of “cold work” mayfollow on the finished cast. Casting may be used to formhot liquid metals or various materials that cold set aftermixing of components (such as epoxies, concrete, plasterand clay). Casting is most often used for making complexshapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomicalto make by other methods. The oldest surviving casting isa copper Mesopotamian frog from 3200 BC.[9] Specifictechniques include lost-wax casting, plaster mold castingand sand casting.

3.3 Glass

Dale Chihuly, 2006, (Blown glass)

Glass may be used for sculpture through a wide range ofworking techniques, though the use of it for large worksis a recent development. It can be carved, with con-siderable difficulty; the Roman Lycurgus Cup is all but

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6 4 SOCIAL STATUS OF SCULPTORS

unique.[10] Hot casting can be done by ladling moltenglass into molds that have been created by pressing shapesinto sand, carved graphite or detailed plaster/silica molds.Kiln casting glass involves heating chunks of glass in akiln until they are liquid and flow into a waiting mold be-low it in the kiln. Glass can also be blown and/or hotsculpted with hand tools either as a solid mass or as partof a blown object.

A carved wooden Bodhisattva from the Song dynasty 960–1279,Shanghai Museum

3.4 Pottery

Pottery is one of the oldest materials for sculpture, as wellas clay being the medium in which many sculptures castin metal are originally modelled for casting. Sculptorsoften build small preliminary works called maquettes ofephemeral materials such as plaster of Paris, wax, un-fired clay, or plasticine.[11] Many cultures have producedpottery which combines a function as a vessel with asculptural form, and small figurines have often been aspopular as they are in modern Western culture. Stampsand moulds were used by most ancient civilizations, fromancient Rome and Mesopotamia to China.[12]

3.5 Wood carving

Wood carving has been extremely widely practiced, butsurvives much less well than the other main materials, be-ing vulnerable to decay, insect damage, and fire. It there-fore forms an important hidden element in the art his-tory of many cultures.[3] Outdoor wood sculpture doesnot last long in most parts of the world, so that we havelittle idea how the totem pole tradition developed. Manyof the most important sculptures of China and Japan inparticular are in wood, and the great majority of Africansculpture and that of Oceania and other regions.Wood is light, so suitable for masks and other sculptureintended to be carried, and can take very fine detail. Itis also much easier to work than stone. It has been veryoften painted after carving, but the paint wears less well

Detail of Jesus just dead, Spanish, wood and polychrome, 1793.

than the wood, and is often missing in surviving pieces.Painted wood is often technically described as “wood andpolychrome". Typically a layer of gesso or plaster is ap-plied to the wood, and then the paint is applied to that.

4 Social status of sculptors

Nuremberg sculptor Adam Kraft, self-portrait from St LorenzChurch, 1490s.

Worldwide, sculptors have usually been tradesmen whosework is unsigned; in some traditions, for example China,where sculpture did not share the prestige of literati paint-ing, this has affected the status of sculpture itself.[13]Even in ancient Greece, where sculptors such as Phidias

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6.1 Prehistoric periods 7

became famous, they appear to have retained much thesame social status as other artisans, and perhaps notmuch greater financial rewards, although some signedtheir works.[14] In theMiddle Ages artists such as the 12thcentury Gislebertus sometimes signed their work, andwere sought after by different cities, especially from theTrecento onwards in Italy, with figures such as Arnolfo diCambio, and Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni. Gold-smiths and jewellers, dealing with precious materials andoften doubling as bankers, belonged to powerful guildsand had considerable status, often holding civic office.Many sculptors also practised in other arts; Andrea delVerrocchio also painted, and Giovanni Pisano, Michelan-gelo, and Jacopo Sansovino were architects. Some sculp-tors maintained large workshops. Even in the Renais-sance the physical nature of the work was perceived byLeonardo da Vinci and others as pulling down the sta-tus of sculpture in the arts, though the reputation ofMichelangelo perhaps put this long-held idea to rest.From the High Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo,Leone Leoni and Giambologna could become wealthy,and ennobled, and enter the circle of princes, after a pe-riod of sharp argument over the relative status of sculp-ture and painting.[15] Much decorative sculpture on build-ings remained a trade, but sculptors producing individualpieces were recognised on a level with painters. From the18th century or earlier sculpture also attracted middle-class students, although it was slower to do so than paint-ing. Women sculptors took longer to appear than womenpainters, and were less prominent until the 20th century.

5 Anti-sculpture movements

Aniconism remained restricted to Judaism, which did notaccept figurative sculpture until the 19th century,[16] be-fore expanding to Early Buddhism and Early Christianity,neither of which initially accepted large sculptures. Inboth Christianity and Buddhism these early views werelater reversed, and sculpture became very significant, es-pecially in Buddhism. Christian Eastern Orthodoxy hasnever acceptedmonumental sculpture, and Islam has con-sistently rejected nearly all figurative sculpture, except forvery small figures in reliefs and some animal figures thatfulfill a useful function, like the famous lions supporting afountain in the Alhambra. Many forms of Protestantismalso do not approve of religious sculpture. There hasbeen much iconoclasm of sculpture from religious mo-tives, from the Early Christians, the Beeldenstorm of theProtestant Reformation to the 2001 destruction of theBuddhas of Bamyan by the Taliban.

6 History of sculpture

Venus of Hohle Fels (also known as the Venus of Schelklingen;is an Upper Paleolithic Venus figurine hewn from ivory of amammoth tusk found in 2008 near Schelklingen, Germany. It isdated to between 35,000 and 40,000 years ago, belonging to theearly Aurignacian, at the very beginning of the Upper Paleolithic,which is associated with the assumed earliest presence of Homosapiens in Europe (Cro-Magnon). Along with the Löwenmensch,it is the oldest undisputed example of Upper Paleolithic art andfigurative prehistoric art in general.

6.1 Prehistoric periods

The earliest undisputed examples of sculpture belong tothe Aurignacian culture, which was located in Europeand southwest Asia and active at the beginning of theUpper Paleolithic. As well as producing some of theearliest known cave art, the people of this culture devel-oped finely-crafted stone tools, manufacturing pendants,bracelets, ivory beads, and bone-flutes, as well as three-dimensional figurines.[17][18]

The 30 cm tall Löwenmensch found in the HohlensteinStadel area of Germany is an anthropomorphic lion-manfigure carved from woolly mammoth ivory. It has beendated to about 35-40,000 BP, making it, along with theVenus of Hohle Fels, the oldest known uncontested ex-ample of figurative art.[19]

Much surviving prehistoric art is small portable sculp-tures, with a small group of female Venus figurines suchas the Venus of Willendorf (24-26,000 BP) found acrosscentral Europe.[20] The Swimming Reindeer of about13,000 years ago is one of the finest of a number ofMagdalenian carvings in bone or antler of animals in theart of the Upper Paleolithic, although they are outnum-bered by engraved pieces, which are sometimes classi-fied as sculpture.[21] Two of the largest prehistoric sculp-tures can be found at the Tuc d'Audobert caves in France,where around 12-17,000 years ago a masterful sculptorused a spatula-like stone tool and fingers to model a pairof large bison in clay against a limestone rock.[22]

With the beginning of the Mesolithic in Europe figurativesculpture greatly reduced,[23] and remained a less com-mon element in art than relief decoration of practical ob-jects until the Roman period, despite some works such

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8 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

as the Gundestrup cauldron from the European Iron Ageand the Bronze Age Trundholm sun chariot.[24]

• Löwenmensch, from Hohlenstein-Stadel, nowin Ulmer Museum, Ulm, Germany, the oldestknown anthropomorphic animal-human statuette,Aurignacian era, c. 35-40,000 BP

• Venus of Willendorf, c. 24,000−26,000 BP

• Magdalenian Horse, c. 17,000 BP Muséed'Archéologie Nationale, France

• Creeping Hyena, c. 12-17,000 BP, mammoth ivory,found in La Madeleine, France

• Swimming Reindeer c. 13,000 BP, female and maleswimming reindeer - lateMagdalenian period, foundat Montastruc, Tarn et Garonne, France

• The Trundholm sun chariot, perhaps 1800–1500BCE; this side is gilded, the other is “dark”.

• Venus of Laussel c. 27,000 BP, an Upper Palae-olithic carving, Bordeaux museum, France

• A Jōmon statue, Japan

6.2 Ancient Near East

Main articles: Art of Mesopotamia and Persian art

The Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia, dominated byUruk, saw the production of sophisticated works like theWarka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lionessis an outstanding small limestone figure from Elam ofabout 3000–2800 BC, part human and part lioness.[25]A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyedpriests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to afoot high, who attended temple cult images of the deity,but very few of these have survived.[26] Sculptures fromthe Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large,staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many master-pieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur(c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a Ram in aThicket, the Copper Bull and a bull’s head on one of theLyres of Ur.[27]

From themany subsequent periods before the ascendencyof the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 10th century BCEMesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylin-der seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefsof various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pot-tery for the home, some religious and some apparentlynot.[28] The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate andrelatively large (20 x 15 inches, 50 x 37 cm) terracottaplaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a birdof prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the18th or 19th centuries BCE, andmay also bemoulded.[29]

Stone stelae, votive offerings, or ones probably commem-orating victories and showing feasts, are also found fromtemples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptionsthat would explain them;[30] the fragmentary Stele of theVultures is an early example of the inscribed type,[31] andthe Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large andsolid late one.[32]

The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and muchsurrounding territory by the Assyrians created a largerand wealthier state than the region had known before,and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, nodoubt partly intended to match the splendour of the artof the neighbouring Egyptian empire. The Assyrians de-veloped a style of extremely large schemes of very finelydetailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, withscenes of war or hunting; the British Museum has an out-standing collection. They produced very little sculpture inthe round, except for colossal guardian figures, often thehuman-headed lamassu, which are sculpted in high reliefon two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effec-tively in the round (and also five legs, so that both viewsseem complete). Even before dominating the region theyhad continued the cylinder seal tradition with designswhich are often exceptionally energetic and refined.[33]

• The Guennol Lioness, 3rd millennium BCE, 3.25inches (8.3 cm) high

• One of 18 Statues of Gudea, a ruler around 2090BCE

• The Burney Relief, Old Babylonian, around 1800BCE

• Assyrian relief from Nimrud, from c. 728 BCE

6.3 Ancient Egypt

See also: Art of ancient Egypt and Amarna art

The monumental sculpture of ancient Egypt is world-famous, but refined and delicate small works exist inmuch greater numbers. The Egyptians used the distinc-tive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to verybright sunlight. The main figures in reliefs adhere to thesame figure convention as in painting, with parted legs(where not seated) and head shown from the side, butthe torso from the front, and a standard set of propor-tions making up the figure, using 18 “fists” to go from theground to the hair-line on the forehead.[34] This appearsas early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I. However,there as elsewhere the convention is not used for minorfigures shown engaged in some activity, such as the cap-tives and corpses.[35] Other conventions make statues ofmales darker than females ones. Very conventionalizedportrait statues appear from as early as Dynasty II, before2,780 BCE,[36] and with the exception of the art of theAmarna period of Ahkenaten,[37] and some other periods

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6.4 Europe 9

Thutmose, Bust of Nefertiti, 1345 BC, Egyptian Museum ofBerlin

such as Dynasty XII, the idealized features of rulers, likeother Egyptian artistic conventions, changed little untilafter the Greek conquest.[38]

Egyptian pharaohs were always regarded as deities, butother deities are much less common in large statues, ex-cept when they represent the pharaoh as another deity;however the other deities are frequently shown in paint-ings and reliefs. The famous row of four colossal stat-ues outside the main temple at Abu Simbel each showRameses II, a typical scheme, though here exceptionallylarge.[39] Small figures of deities, or their animal person-ifications, are very common, and found in popular mate-rials such as pottery. Most larger sculpture survives fromEgyptian temples or tombs; by Dynasty IV (2680–2565BCE) at the latest the idea of the Ka statue was firmly es-tablished. These were put in tombs as a resting place forthe ka portion of the soul, and so we have a good numberof less conventionalized statues of well-off administra-tors and their wives, many in wood as Egypt is one of thefew places in the world where the climate allows woodto survive over millennia. The so-called reserve heads,plain hairless heads, are especially naturalistic. Earlytombs also contained small models of the slaves, animals,buildings and objects such as boats necessary for the de-ceased to continue his lifestyle in the afterworld, and laterUshabti figures.[40]

• Facsimile of the Narmer Palette, c. 3100 BC, which

already shows the canonical Egyptian profile viewand proportions of the figure.

• Menkaura (Mycerinus) and queen, Old Kingdom,Dynasty 4, 2490–2472 BC. The formality of thepose is reduced by the queen’s arm round her hus-band.

• Wooden tomb models, Dynasty XI; a high adminis-trator counts his cattle.

• Tutankhamun’s mask, c. late Eighteenth dynasty,Egyptian Museum

• The Younger Memnon c. 1250 BC, British Museum

• Osiris on a lapis lazuli pillar in themiddle, flanked byHorus on the left, and Isis on the right, 22nd dynasty,Louvre

• The ka statue provided a physical place for the ka tomanifest. Egyptian Museum, Cairo

• Block statue of Pa-Ankh-Ra, ship master, bearing astatue of Ptah. Late Period, ca. 650–633 BC, Cab-inet des Médailles.

6.4 Europe

6.4.1 Ancient Greece

Charioteer of Delphi, ancient Greek bronze sculpture, 5th centuryBCE, close up head detail

Main article: Ancient Greek sculpture

The first distinctive style of ancient Greek sculpture de-veloped in the Early Bronze Age Cycladic period (3rdmillennium BCE), where marble figures, usually femaleand small, are represented in an elegantly simplified geo-metrical style. Most typical is a standing pose with armscrossed in front, but other figures are shown in differentposes, including a complicated figure of a harpist seatedon a chair.[41]

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The subsequent Minoan and Mycenaean cultures devel-oped sculpture further, under influence from Syria andelsewhere, but it is in the later Archaic period fromaround 650 BCE that the kouros developed. These arelarge standing statues of naked youths, found in templesand tombs, with the kore as the clothed female equiva-lent, with elaborately dressed hair; both have the "archaicsmile". They seem to have served a number of functions,perhaps sometimes representing deities and sometimesthe person buried in a grave, as with the Kroisos Kouros.They are clearly influenced by Egyptian and Syrian styles,but the Greek artists were much more ready to experi-ment within the style.During the 6th century Greek sculpture developedrapidly, becoming more naturalistic, and with muchmoreactive and varied figure poses in narrative scenes, thoughstill within idealized conventions. Sculptured pedimentswere added to temples, including the Parthenon inAthens, where the remains of the pediment of around 520using figures in the round were fortunately used as infillfor new buildings after the Persian sack in 480 BCE, andrecovered from the 1880s on in fresh unweathered con-dition. Other significant remains of architectural sculp-ture come from Paestum in Italy, Corfu, Delphi and theTemple of Aphaea in Aegina (much now in Munich).[42]

• Cycladic statue 2700–2300 BC. Head from the fig-ure of a woman, H. 27 centimetres (11 in)

• Cycladic Female Figurine, c. 2500–2400 BCE, 41.5cm (16.3 in) high

• Mycenae, 1600−1500 BC. Silver rhyton with goldhorns and rosette on the forehead

• Lifesize kouros, c. 590–580 BCE, MetropolitanMuseum of Art

• The "Naxian Sphinx" from Delphi, 570–560 BC,the figure 222 cm (87 in) high

• Peplos Kore, c. 530 BC, Athens, Acropolis Museum

• Late Archaic warrior from the east pediment of theTemple of Aphaea, c. 500

• The Amathus sarcophagus, from Amathus, Cyprus,2nd quarter of the 5th century BC Archaic period,Metropolitan Museum of Art

Classical There are fewer original remains from thefirst phase of the Classical period, often called the Severestyle; free-standing statues were now mostly made inbronze, which always had value as scrap. The Severe stylelasted from around 500 in reliefs, and soon after 480 instatues, to about 450. The relatively rigid poses of figuresrelaxed, and asymmetrical turning positions and obliqueviews became common, and deliberately sought. Thiswas combined with a better understanding of anatomy

High Classical high relief from the Elgin Marbles, which origi-nally decorated the Parthenon, c. 447–433 BCE

and the harmonious structure of sculpted figures, and thepursuit of naturalistic representation as an aim, which hadnot been present before. Excavations at the Temple ofZeus, Olympia since 1829 have revealed the largest groupof remains, from about 460, of which many are in theLouvre.[43]

The “High Classical” period lasted only a few decadesfrom about 450 to 400, but has had a momentous in-fluence on art, and retains a special prestige, despite avery restricted number of original survivals. The bestknown works are the Parthenon Marbles, traditionally(since Plutarch) executed by a team led by the most fa-mous ancient Greek sculptor Phidias, active from about465–425, who was in his own day more famous for hiscolossal chryselephantine Statue of Zeus at Olympia (c.432), one of the SevenWonders of the AncientWorld, hisAthena Parthenos (438), the cult image of the Parthenon,andAthena Promachos, a colossal bronze figure that stoodnext to the Parthenon; all of these are lost but are knownfrom many representations. He is also credited as thecreator of some life-size bronze statues known only fromlater copies whose identification is controversial, includ-ing the Ludovisi Hermes.[44]

The High Classical style continued to develop realism andsophistication in the human figure, and improved the de-piction of drapery (clothes), using it to add to the im-pact of active poses. Facial expressions were usually veryrestrained, even in combat scenes. The composition ofgroups of figures in reliefs and on pediments combinedcomplexity and harmony in a way that had a permanentinfluence on Western art. Relief could be very high in-deed, as in the Parthenon illustration below, where mostof the leg of the warrior is completely detached from thebackground, as were the missing parts; relief this highmade sculptures more subject to damage.[45] The LateClassical style developed the free-standing female nude

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statue, supposedly an innovation of Praxiteles, and de-veloped increasingly complex and subtle poses that wereinteresting when viewed from a number of angles, as wellas more expressive faces; both trends were to be takenmuch further in the Hellenistic period.[46]

The Pergamene style of the Hellenistic period, from the PergamonAltar, early 2nd century

Hellenistic The Hellenistic period is conventionallydated from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC,and ending either with the final conquest of the Greekheartlands by Rome in 146 BC or with the final defeat ofthe last remaining successor-state to Alexander’s empireafter the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, which also marksthe end of Republican Rome.[47] It is thus much longerthan the previous periods, and includes at least two ma-jor phases: a “Pergamene” style of experimentation, ex-uberance and some sentimentality and vulgarity, and inthe 2nd century BC a classicising return to a more aus-tere simplicity and elegance; beyond such generalizationsdating is typically very uncertain, especially when onlylater copies are known, as is usually the case. The ini-tial Pergamene style was not especially associated withPergamon, from which it takes its name, but the verywealthy kings of that state were among the first to collectand also copy Classical sculpture, and also commissionedmuch new work, including the famous Pergamon Altarwhose sculpture is now mostly in Berlin and which exem-plifies the new style, as do the Mausoleum at Halicarnas-sus (another of the Seven Wonders), the famous Laocoönand his Sons in the Vatican Museums, a late example,and the bronze original of The Dying Gaul (illustrated attop), which we know was part of a group actually com-missioned for Pergamon in about 228 BC, from whichthe Ludovisi Gaul was also a copy. The group called theFarnese Bull, possibly a 2nd-century marble original, isstill larger and more complex,[48]

Hellenistic sculpture greatly expanded the range of sub-jects represented, partly as a result of greater generalprosperity, and the emergence of a very wealthy classwho had large houses decorated with sculpture, althoughwe know that some examples of subjects that seem bestsuited to the home, such as children with animals, were

Small Greek terracotta figurines were very popular as ornamentsin the home

in fact placed in temples or other public places. For amuch more popular home decoration market there wereTanagra figurines, and those from other centres wheresmall pottery figures were produced on an industrial scale,some religious but others showing animals and elegantlydressed ladies. Sculptors becamemore technically skilledin representing facial expressions conveying a wide va-riety of emotions and the portraiture of individuals, aswell representing different ages and races. The reliefsfrom the Mausoleum are rather atypical in that respect;most work was free-standing, and group compositionswith several figures to be seen in the round, like the Lao-coon and the Pergamon group celebrating victory overthe Gauls became popular, having been rare before. TheBarberini Faun, showing a satyr sprawled asleep, presum-ably after drink, is an example of the moral relaxation ofthe period, and the readiness to create large and expensivesculptures of subjects that fall short of the heroic.[49]

After the conquests of Alexander Hellenistic culture wasdominant in the courts ofmost of theNear East, and someof Central Asia, and increasingly being adopted by Euro-pean elites, especially in Italy, where Greek colonies ini-tially controlled most of the South. Hellenistic art, andartists, spread very widely, and was especially influentialin the expanding Roman Republic and when it encoun-tered Buddhism in the easternmost extensions of the Hel-

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lenistic area. The massive so-called Alexander Sarcoph-agus found in Sidon in modern Lebanon, was probablymade there at the start of the period by expatriate Greekartists for a Hellenized Persian governor.[50] The wealthof the period led to a greatly increased production of lux-ury forms of small sculpture, including engraved gemsand cameos, jewellery, and gold and silverware.

• The Riace Bronzes, very rare bronze figures recov-ered from the sea, c. 460–430

• Hermes and the Infant Dionysos, possibly an originalby Praxiteles, 4th century

• Two elegant ladies, pottery figurines, 350–300

• Bronze Statuette of a Horse, late 2nd – 1st centuryB.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art

• The Winged Victory of Samothrace, c. 190 BC,Louvre

• Venus de Milo, c. 130 – 100 BC, Greek, the Louvre

• Laocoön and his Sons, Greek, (Late Hellenistic),perhaps a copy, between 200 BC and 20 AD, Whitemarble, Vatican Museum

• Leochares, Apollo Belvedere, c. 130 – 140 AD. Ro-man copy after a Greek bronze original of 330–320BC. Vatican Museums

6.4.2 Europe after the Greeks

Roman sculpture Main article: Roman sculptureEarly Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and

Section of Trajan’s Column, CE 113, with scenes from theDacianWars

that of the neighbouring Etruscans, themselves greatly in-fluenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscanspeciality was near life size tomb effigies in terracotta,usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up onone elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the

expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek ter-ritory, at first in Southern Italy and then the entire Hel-lenistic world except for the Parthian far east, officialand patrician sculpture became largely an extension ofthe Hellenistic style, from which specifically Roman el-ements are hard to disentangle, especially as so muchGreek sculpture survives only in copies of the Romanperiod.[51] By the 2nd century BCE, “most of the sculp-tors working at Rome” were Greek,[52] often enslaved inconquests such as that of Corinth (146 BCE), and sculp-tors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whosenames are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greekstatues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or theresult of extortion or commerce, and temples were oftendecorated with re-used Greek works.[53]

A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monu-ments, which very often featured portrait busts, of pros-perous middle-class Romans, and portraiture is arguablythe main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no sur-vivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that wereworn in processions at the funerals of the great familiesand otherwise displayed in the home, but many of thebusts that survive must represent ancestral figures, per-haps from the large family tombs like the Tomb of theScipios or the later mausolea outside the city. The fa-mous bronze head supposedly of Lucius Junius Brutus isvery variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival ofItalic style under the Republic, in the preferred mediumof bronze.[54] Similarly stern and forceful heads are seenon coins of the Late Republic, and in the Imperial pe-riod coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to beplaced in the basilicas of provincial cities were the mainvisual form of imperial propaganda; even Londinium hada near-colossal statue of Nero, though far smaller than the30 metre high Colossus of Nero in Rome, now lost.[55]

Augustan state Greco-Roman style on the Ara Pacis, 13 BCE

The Romans did not generally attempt to compete withfree-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from his-tory or mythology, but from early on produced historicalworks in relief, culminating in the great Roman triumphalcolumns with continuous narrative reliefs winding aroundthem, of which those commemorating Trajan (CE 113)

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and Marcus Aurelius (by 193) survive in Rome, wherethe Ara Pacis (“Altar of Peace”, 13 BCE) represents theofficial Greco-Roman style at its most classical and re-fined. Among other major examples are the earlier re-used reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and the base ofthe Column of Antoninus Pius (161),[56] Campana reliefswere cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and thetaste for relief was from the imperial period expanded tothe sarcophagus. All forms of luxury small sculpture con-tinued to be patronized, and quality could be extremelyhigh, as in the silver Warren Cup, glass Lycurgus Cup,and large cameos like the Gemma Augustea, GonzagaCameo and the "Great Cameo of France".[57] For a muchwider section of the population, moulded relief decora-tion of pottery vessels and small figurines were producedin great quantity and often considerable quality.[58]

After moving through a late 2nd-century “baroque”phase,[59] in the 3rd century, Roman art largely aban-doned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpturein the classical tradition, a change whose causes remainmuch discussed. Even the most important imperial mon-uments now showed stumpy, large-eyed figures in a harshfrontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing powerat the expense of grace. The contrast is famously il-lustrated in the Arch of Constantine of 315 in Rome,which combines sections in the new style with roundels inthe earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere,and the Four Tetrarchs (c. 305) from the new capital ofConstantinople, now in Venice. Ernst Kitzinger found inboth monuments the same “stubby proportions, angularmovements, an ordering of parts through symmetry andrepetition and a rendering of features and drapery foldsthrough incisions rather than modelling... The hallmarkof the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatichardness, heaviness and angularity — in short, an almostcomplete rejection of the classical tradition”.[60]

This revolution in style shortly preceded the period inwhich Christianity was adopted by the Roman state andthe great majority of the people, leading to the end oflarge religious sculpture, with large statues now only usedfor emperors. However, rich Christians continued tocommission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the Sarcophagusof Junius Bassus, and very small sculpture, especially inivory, was continued by Christians, building on the styleof the consular diptych.[61]

• Etruscan sarcophagus, 3rd century BCE

• The "Capitoline Brutus", dated to the 3rd or 1st cen-tury BCE

• Augustus of Prima Porta, statue of the emperorAugustus, 1st century CE. Vatican Museums

• Tomb relief of the Decii, 98–117 CE

• Bust of Emperor Claudius, c. 50 CE, (reworkedfrom a bust of emperor Caligula), It was found in

the so-called Otricoli basilica in Lanuvium, Italy,Vatican Museums

• Commodus dressed as Hercules, c. 191 CE, in thelate imperial “baroque” style

• The Four Tetrarchs, c. 305, showing the new anti-classical style, in porphyry, now San Marco, Venice

• The cameo gem known as the "Great Cameo ofFrance", c. 23 CE, with an allegory of Augustusand his family

Silver monster on a chape, Scottish or Anglo-Saxon, St Ninian’sIsle Treasure, c. 800?

The Gero Cross, c. 965–970, Cologne, Germany

Early Medieval and Byzantine The Early Chris-tians were opposed to monumental religious sculpture,though continuing Roman traditions in portrait busts and

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sarcophagus reliefs, as well as smaller objects such as theconsular diptych. Such objects, often in valuable materi-als, were also the main sculptural traditions (as far as isknown) of the barbaric civilizations of the Migration pe-riod, as seen in the objects found in the 6th-century burialtreasure at Sutton Hoo, and the jewellery of Scythian artand the hybrid Christian and animal style productions ofInsular art. Following the continuing Byzantine tradition,Carolingian art revived ivory carving, often in panels forthe treasure bindings of grand illuminated manuscripts,as well as crozier heads and other small fittings.Byzantine art, though producing superb ivory reliefs andarchitectural decorative carving, never returned to mon-umental sculpture, or even much small sculpture in theround.[62] However, in the West during the Carolingianand Ottonian periods there was the beginnings of a pro-duction of monumental statues, in courts and majorchurches. This gradually spread; by the late 10th and 11thcentury there are records of several apparently life-sizesculptures in Anglo-Saxon churches, probably of preciousmetal around a wooden frame, like the Golden Madonnaof Essen. No Anglo-Saxon example has survived,[63] andsurvivals of large non-architectural sculpture from before1,000 are exceptionally rare. Much the finest is the GeroCross, of 965–70, which is a crucifix, whichwas evidentlythe commonest type of sculpture; Charlemagne had setone up in the Palatine Chapel in Aachen around 800.These continued to grow in popularity, especially in Ger-many and Italy. The rune stones of the Nordic world, thePictish stones of Scotland and possibly the high cross re-liefs of Christian Great Britain, were northern sculpturaltraditions that bridged the period of Christianization.

• Archangel Ivory, 525–550, Constantinople

• Late Carolingian ivory panel, probably meant for abook-cover

• The Harbaville Triptych, Byzantine ivory, mid-10thcentury

• Detail of Christ on the Gero Cross, Cologne 965–970, the first great example of the revival of largesculpture

Romanesque Main article: Romanesque art

From about 1000 there was a general rebirth of artis-tic production in all Europe, led by general economicgrowth in production and commerce, and the new styleof Romanesque art was the first medieval style to be usedin the whole of Western Europe. The new cathedrals andpilgrim’s churches were increasingly decorated with ar-chitectural stone reliefs, and new focuses for sculpturedeveloped, such as the tympanum over church doors inthe 12th century, and the inhabited capital with figuresand often narrative scenes. Outstanding abbey churches

The Brunswick Lion, 1166, the first large hollow casting of afigure since antiquity, 1.78 metres tall and 2.79 metres long

with sculpture include in FranceVézelay andMoissac andin Spain Silos.[64]

Romanesque art was characterised by a very vigorousstyle in both sculpture and painting. The capitals ofcolumns were never more exciting than in this period,when they were often carved with complete scenes withseveral figures.[65] The large wooden crucifix was a Ger-man innovation right at the start of the period, as werefree-standing statues of the enthroned Madonna, but thehigh relief was above all the sculptural mode of the pe-riod. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed tobe flexible to squeeze themselves into the shapes of cap-itals, and church typanums; the tension between a tightlyenclosing frame, from which the composition sometimesescapes, is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art. Figuresstill often varied in size in relation to their importanceportraiture hardly existed.Objects in precious materials such as ivory and metalhad a very high status in the period, much more so thanmonumental sculpture — we know the names of moremakers of these than painters, illuminators or architect-masons. Metalwork, including decoration in enamel, be-came very sophisticated, and many spectacular shrinesmade to hold relics have survived, of which the bestknown is the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathe-dral by Nicholas of Verdun. The bronze Gloucester can-dlestick and the brass font of 1108–17 now in Liège aresuperb examples, very different in style, of metal cast-ing, the former highly intricate and energetic, drawing onmanuscript painting, while the font shows theMosan styleat its most classical and majestic. The bronze doors, atriumphal column and other fittings at Hildesheim Cathe-dral, the Gniezno Doors, and the doors of the Basilica diSan Zeno in Verona are other substantial survivals. Theaquamanile, a container for water to wash with, appearsto have been introduced to Europe in the 11th century,

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and often took fantastic zoomorphic forms; surviving ex-amples are mostly in brass. Many wax impressions fromimpressive seals survive on charters and documents, al-though Romanesque coins are generally not of great aes-thetic interest.[66]

The Cloisters Cross is an unusually large ivory crucifix,with complex carving including many figures of prophetsand others, which has been attributed to one of the rel-atively few artists whose name is known, Master Hugo,who also illuminated manuscripts. Like many piecesit was originally partly coloured. The Lewis chessmenare well-preserved examples of small ivories, of whichmany pieces or fragments remain from croziers, plaques,pectoral crosses and similar objects.

• Baptismal font at St Bartholomew’s Church, Liège,Baptism of Christ, 1107–1118

• The tympanum of Vézelay Abbey, Burgundy,France, 1130s

• Facade, Cathedral of Ourense 1160, Spain

• Pórtico da Gloria, Cathedral of Santiago de Com-postela, Galicia, Spain, c. 12th–13th centuries

Gothic Main article: Gothic artThe Gothic period is essentially defined by Gothic ar-chitecture, and does not entirely fit with the developmentof style in sculpture in either its start or finish. The fa-cades of large churches, especially around doors, contin-ued to have large typanums, but also rows of sculpted fig-ures spreading around them. The statues on the Western(Royal) Portal at Chartres Cathedral (c. 1145) show anelegant but exaggerated columnar elongation, but thoseon the south transept portal, from 1215 to 1220, showa more naturalistic style and increasing detachment fromthe wall behind, and some awareness of the classical tra-dition. These trends were continued in the west portal atRheims Cathedral of a few years later, where the figuresare almost in the round, as became usual as Gothic spreadacross Europe.[67]

In Italy Nicola Pisano (1258–78) and his son Giovannideveloped a style that is often called Proto-Renaissance,with unmistakable influence from Roman sarcophagiand sophisticated and crowded compositions, includinga sympathetic handling of nudity, in relief panels ontheir pulpit of Siena Cathedral (1265–68), the FontanaMaggiore in Perugia, and Giovanni’s pulpit in Pistoia of1301.[68] Another revival of classical style is seen in theInternational Gothic work of Claus Sluter and his fol-lowers in Burgundy and Flanders around 1400.[69] LateGothic sculpture continued in the North, with a fashionfor very large wooden sculpted altarpieces with increas-ingly virtuoso carving and large numbers agitated expres-sive figures; most surviving examples are in Germany, af-ter much iconoclasm elsewhere. Tilman Riemenschnei-der, Veit Stoss and others continued the style well into

French ivory Virgin and Child, end of 13th century, 25 cm high,curving to fit the shape of the ivory tusk

the 16th century, gradually absorbing Italian Renaissanceinfluences.[70]

Life-size tomb effigies in stone or alabaster became pop-ular for the wealthy, and grand multi-level tombs evolved,with the Scaliger Tombs of Verona so large they had tobe moved outside the church. By the 15th century therewas an industry exporting Nottingham alabaster altar re-liefs in groups of panels over much of Europe for eco-nomical parishes who could not afford stone retables.[71]Small carvings, for a mainly lay and often female mar-ket, became a considerable industry in Paris and someother centres. Types of ivories included small devo-tional polyptychs, single figures, especially of the Virgin,mirror-cases, combs, and elaborate caskets with scenesfrom Romances, used as engagement presents.[72] Thevery wealthy collected extravagantly elaborate jewelledand enamelled metalwork, both secular and religious, likethe Duc de Berry's Holy Thorn Reliquary, until they ranshort of money, when they were melted down again forcash.[73]

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• West portal of Chartres Cathedral (c. 1145)

• South portal of Chartres Cathedral (c. 1215–20)

• West portal at Rheims Cathedral, Annunciationgroup

• Nicola Pisano, Nativity and Adoration of the Magifrom the pulpit of the Pisa Baptistery

• The Bamberg Horseman 1237, life-size stoneequestrian statue, the first such antiquity

• Lid of the Walters Casket, with the Siege of the Cas-tle of Love at left, and jousting. Paris, 1330–1350

• Siege of the Castle of Love on a mirror-case in theLouvre, 1350–1370; the ladies are losing.

• Central German Pietà, 1330–40

• Claus Sluter, David and a prophet from the Well ofMoses

• Base of the Holy Thorn Reliquary, a Resurrection ofthe Dead in gold, enamel and gems

• Section of a panelled altarpiece with Resurrectionof Christ, English, 1450–90, Nottingham alabasterwith remains of colour

• Detail of the Last Supper from Tilman Riemen-schneider's Altar of the Holy Blood, 1501–05,Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Bavaria

6.4.3 Renaissance

Michelangelo, Pietà, 1499.

Renaissance sculpture proper is often taken to begin withthe famous competition for the doors of the Florence

Michelangelo, The Tomb of Pope Julius II, c. 1545, with statuesof Rachel and Leah on the left and the right of his Moses.

Baptistry in 1403, from which the trial models sub-mitted by the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and FilippoBrunelleschi survive. Ghiberti’s doors are still in place,but were undoubtedly eclipsed by his second pair for theother entrance, the so-called “Gates of Paradise”, whichtook him from 1425 to 1452, and are dazzlingly confidentclassicizing compositions with varied depths of relief al-lowing extensive backgrounds.[74] The intervening yearshad seen Ghiberti’s early assistant Donatello develop withseminal statues including hisDavids in marble (1408–09)and bronze (1440s), and his Equestrian statue of Gat-tamelata, as well as reliefs.[75] A leading figure in the laterperiod was Andrea del Verrocchio, best known for hisequestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice;[76]his pupil Leonardo da Vinci designed an equine sculp-ture in 1482 The Horse for Milan-but only succeeded inmaking a 24-foot (7.3m) claymodel which was destroyedby French archers in 1499, and his other ambitious sculp-tural plans were never completed.[77]

The period was marked by a great increase in patron-age of sculpture by the state for public art and by thewealthy for their homes; especially in Italy, public sculp-ture remains a crucial element in the appearance of his-toric city centres. Church sculpture mostly moved in-side just as outside public monuments became common.Portrait sculpture, usually in busts, became popular inItaly around 1450, with the Neapolitan Francesco Lau-rana specializing in young women in meditative poses,while Antonio Rossellino and others more often depictedknobbly-faced men of affairs, but also young children.[78]

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The portrait medal invented by Pisanello also often de-picted women; relief plaquettes were another new smallform of sculpture in cast metal.Michelangelo was an active sculptor from about 1500 to1520, and his great masterpieces including his David,Pietà, Moses, and pieces for the Tomb of Pope Julius IIand Medici Chapel could not be ignored by subsequentsculptors. His iconic David (1504) has a contrappostopose, borrowed from classical sculpture. It differs fromprevious representations of the subject in that David isdepicted before his battle with Goliath and not after thegiant’s defeat. Instead of being shown victorious, as Do-natello and Verocchio had done, David looks tense andbattle ready.[79]

• Lorenzo Ghiberti, panel of the Sacrifice of Isaacfrom the Florence Baptistry doors; oblique viewhere

• Luca della Robbia, detail of Cantoria, c. 1438,Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence

• Donatello, David c. 1440s, Bargello Museum,Florence

• Donatello, Judith and Holofernes, c. 1460, PalazzoVecchio, Florence

• Francesco Laurana, female bust (cast)

• Verrocchio, Doubting Thomas, 1467–83,Orsanmichele, Florence

• Michelangelo, David, c. 1504, Galleriadell'Accademia, Florence

• Michelangelo, Dying Slave, c. 1513–1516

6.4.4 Mannerist

Main article: Mannerism

As in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture was verylargely an attempt to find an original style that would topthe achievement of the High Renaissance, which in sculp-ture essentially meant Michelangelo, and much of thestruggle to achieve this was played out in commissionsto fill other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Flo-rence, next to Michelangelo’s David. Baccio Bandinellitook over the project of Hercules and Cacus from themaster himself, but it was little more popular than it isnow, and maliciously compared by Benvenuto Cellini to“a sack of melons”, though it had a long-lasting effectin apparently introducing relief panels on the pedestal ofstatues. Like other works of his and other Mannerists itremoves far more of the original block than Michelan-gelo would have done.[80] Cellini’s bronze Perseus withthe head of Medusa is certainly a masterpiece, designed

Adriaen de Vries,Mercury and Psyche Northern Mannerist life-size bronze, made in 1593 for Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor.

with eight angles of view, another Mannerist character-istic, but is indeed mannered compared to the Davids ofMichelangelo and Donatello.[81] Originally a goldsmith,his famous gold and enamel Salt Cellar (1543) was hisfirst sculpture, and shows his talent at its best.[82] As theseexamples show, the period extended the range of secularsubjects for large works beyond portraits, with mytho-logical figures especially favoured; previously these hadmostly been found in small works.Small bronze figures for collector’s cabinets, oftenmytho-logical subjects with nudes, were a popular Renaissanceform at which Giambologna, originally Flemish but basedin Florence, excelled in the later part of the century, alsocreating life-size sculptures, of which two joined the col-lection in the Piazza della Signoria. He and his followersdevised elegant elongated examples of the figura serpenti-nata, often of two intertwined figures, that were interest-ing from all angles.[83]

• Stucco overdoor at Fontainebleau, probably de-signed by Primaticcio, who painted the oval inset,1530s or 1540s

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• Benvenuto Cellini, Perseus with the head of Medusa,1545–1554

• Giambologna, Samson Slaying a Philistine, about1562

• Giambologna, The Rape of the Sabine Women,1583, Florence, Italy, 13' 6” (4.1 m) high, marble

6.4.5 Baroque and Rococo

Main article: Baroque sculpture

In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new im-portance, and there was a dynamic movement and en-ergy of human forms— they spiralled around an emptycentral vortex, or reached outwards into the surroundingspace. Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal view-ing angles, and reflected a general continuation of the Re-naissance move away from the relief to sculpture createdin the round, and designed to be placed in the middleof a large space – elaborate fountains such as Bernini’sFontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Rome, 1651), or those inthe Gardens of Versailles were a Baroque speciality. TheBaroque style was perfectly suited to sculpture, with GianLorenzo Bernini the dominating figure of the age in workssuch as The Ecstasy of St Theresa (1647–1652).[84] MuchBaroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, forexample, concealed lighting, or water fountains, or fusedsculpture and architecture to create a transformative ex-perience for the viewer. Artists saw themselves as in theclassical tradition, but admired Hellenistic and later Ro-man sculpture, rather than that of the more “Classical”periods as they are seen today.[85]

The Protestant Reformation brought an almost total stopto religious sculpture in much of Northern Europe, andthough secular sculpture, especially for portrait bustsand tomb monuments, continued, the Dutch GoldenAge has no significant sculptural component outsidegoldsmithing.[86] Partly in direct reaction, sculpture wasas prominent in Catholicism as in the late Middle Ages.Statues of rulers and the nobility became increasinglypopular. In the 18th century much sculpture continuedon Baroque lines – the Trevi Fountain was only completedin 1762. Rococo style was better suited to smaller works,and arguably found its ideal sculptural form in early Euro-pean porcelain, and interior decorative schemes in woodor plaster such as those in French domestic interiors andAustrian and Bavarian pilgrimage churches.[87]

• Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Apollo and Daphne in theGalleria Borghese, 1622–1625

• Bust of Louis XIV, 1686, by Antoine Coysevox

• Pierre Paul Puget, Perseus and Andromeda, 1715,Musée du Louvre

• Franz Anton Bustelli, Rococo Nymphenburg Porce-lain group

6.4.6 Neo-Classical

Main article: Neoclassical sculptureThe Neoclassical style that arrived in the late 18th cen-

Antonio Canova: Psyche Revived by Love’s Kiss, 1787

tury gave great emphasis to sculpture. Jean-AntoineHoudon exemplifies the penetrating portrait sculpture thestyle could produce, and Antonio Canova's nudes the ide-alist aspect of the movement. The Neoclassical periodwas one of the great ages of public sculpture, thoughits “classical” prototypes were more likely to be Romancopies of Hellenistic sculptures. In sculpture, the most fa-miliar representatives are the Italian Antonio Canova, theEnglishman John Flaxman and the Dane Bertel Thorvald-sen. The European neoclassical manner also took hold inthe United States, where its pinnacle occurred somewhatlater and is exemplified in the sculptures of Hiram Pow-ers.

• Jean-Antoine Houdon, Bust of Benjamin Franklin,1778, Metropolitan Museum of Art

• Bertel Thorvaldsen: Jason and the Golden Fleece(1803)

• John Flaxman, Memorial in the church at Badger,Shropshire, c. 1780s

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6.5 Asia 19

• Hiram Powers, 1851, The Greek Slave, Yale Univer-sity Art Gallery

6.5 Asia

6.5.1 Greco-Buddhist sculpture and Asia

One of the first representations of the Buddha, 1st–2nd centuryCE, Gandhara

Main article: Greco-Buddhist art

Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between the ClassicalGreek culture and Buddhism, which developed over aperiod of close to 1000 years in Central Asia, betweenthe conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th centuryBCE, and the Islamic conquests of the 7th century CE.Greco-Buddhist art is characterized by the strong idealis-tic realism of Hellenistic art and the first representationsof the Buddha in human form, which have helped definethe artistic (and particularly, sculptural) canon for Bud-dhist art throughout the Asian continent up to the present.Though dating is uncertain, it appears that strongly Hel-lenistic styles lingered in the East for several centuriesafter they had declined around the Mediterranean, as lateas the 5th century CE. Some aspects of Greek art were

adopted while others did not spread beyond the Greco-Buddhist area; in particular the standing figure, often witha relaxed pose and one leg flexed, and the flying cupidsor victories, who became popular across Asia as apsaras.Greek foliage decoration was also influential, with Indianversions of the Corinthian capital appearing.[88]

The origins of Greco-Buddhist art are to be found inthe Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250 BCE –130 BCE), located in today’s Afghanistan, from whichHellenistic culture radiated into the Indian subcontinentwith the establishment of the small Indo-Greek kingdom(180 BCE-10 BCE). Under the Indo-Greeks and then theKushans, the interaction of Greek and Buddhist cultureflourished in the area of Gandhara, in today’s northernPakistan, before spreading further into India, influencingthe art of Mathura, and then the Hindu art of the Guptaempire, which was to extend to the rest of South-EastAsia. The influence of Greco-Buddhist art also spreadnorthward towards Central Asia, strongly affecting theart of the Tarim Basin and the Dunhuang Caves, and ulti-mately the sculpted figure in China, Korea, and Japan.[89]

• Gandhara frieze with devotees, holding plantainleaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside Corinthiancolumns, 1st–2nd century CE. Buner, Swat,Pakistan. Victoria and Albert Museum

• Fragment of the wind god Boreas, Hadda,Afghanistan.

• Coin of Demetrius I of Bactria, who reigned circa200–180 BC and invaded Northern India

• Buddha head from Hadda, Afghanistan, 3rd–4thcenturies

• Gandhara Poseidon (Ancient Orient Museum)

• The Buddhist gods Pancika (left) and Hariti (right),3rd century, Gandhara

• Taller Buddha of Bamiyan, c. 547 AD., in 1963 andin 2008 after they were dynamited and destroyed inMarch 2001 by the Taliban

• Statue from a Buddhist monastery 700 AD,Afghanistan

6.5.2 China

Main articles: Chinese art, Chinese ceramics,Lacquerware, and Chinese jadeChinese ritual bronzes from the Shang and WesternZhou Dynasties come from a period of over a thousandyears from c. 1500 BC, and have exerted a continuinginfluence over Chinese art. They are cast with complexpatterned and zoomorphic decoration, but avoid thehuman figure, unlike the huge figures only recentlydiscovered at Sanxingdui.[90] The spectacular TerracottaArmy was assembled for the tomb of Qin Shi Huang,

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A Liao dynasty polychrome wood-carved statue of Guan Yin,Shanxi Province, China, (907–1125 AD)

the first emperor of a unified China from 221–210 BCE,as a grand imperial version of the figures long placed intombs to enable the deceased to enjoy the same lifestylein the afterlife as when alive, replacing actual sacrificesof very early periods. Smaller figures in pottery or woodwere placed in tombs for many centuries afterwards,reaching a peak of quality in the Tang dynasty.[91] Thetradition of unusually large pottery figures persistedin China, through Tang sancai tomb figures to laterBuddhist statues such as the near life-size set of Yixianglazed pottery luohans and later figures for temples andtombs. These came to replace earlier equivalents inwood.Native Chinese religions do not usually use cult images ofdeities, or even represent them, and large religious sculp-ture is nearly all Buddhist, dating mostly from the 4thto the 14th century, and initially using Greco-Buddhistmodels arriving via the Silk Road. Buddhism is also thecontext of all large portrait sculpture; in total contrast tosome other areas, in medieval China even painted im-ages of the emperor were regarded as private. Imperialtombs have spectacular avenues of approach lined withreal and mythological animals on a scale matching Egypt,and smaller versions decorate temples and palaces.[92]

Small Buddhist figures and groups were produced to avery high quality in a range of media,[93] as was reliefdecoration of all sorts of objects, especially in metal-work and jade.[94] In the earlier periods, large quantitiesof sculpture were cut from the living rock in pilgrimage

cave-complexes, and as outside rock reliefs. These weremostly originally painted. Sculptors of all sorts were re-garded as artisans and very few names are recorded.[95]From the Ming dynasty onwards, statuettes of religiousand secular figures were produced in Chinese porcelainand other media, which became an important export.

• A bronze ding from late Shang dynasty (13th cen-tury BC-10th century BC)

• A tomb guardian usually placed inside the doors ofthe tomb to protect or guide the soul, Warring Statesperiod, ca. 3rd century BCE

• Lifesize calvalryman from the Terracotta Army, Qindynasty, ca. 3rd century BC

• Gold stag with eagle’s head, Xiongnu tomb on theMongolian frontier, 4th-3rd century BC

• Tomb figure of dancing girl, Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD)

• Bronze cowrie container with yaks, from the DianKingdom (4th century BC - 109 BC) tradition ofthe Western Han

• Northern Wei dynasty Maitreya (386–534)

• Sancai pottery, tomb figure of horse and groom,Tang dynasty (618-907)

• Seated Buddha, Tang dynasty ca. 650.

• An agate cup shaped in an animal head, Tang dy-nasty

• The LeshanGiant Buddha, Tang dynasty, completedin 803.

• Awooden Bodhisattva from the Song dynasty (960–1279)

• Seated Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (Guanyin), woodand pigment, 11th century, Chinese Northern Songdynasty, St. Louis Art Museum

• Chinese jade Cup with Dragon Handles, Song dy-nasty, 12th century

• Guanyin Bodhisattva in Blanc de Chine (Dehuaporcelain), by He Chaozong, Ming dynasty, early17th century

• Blue underglaze statue of a man with his pipe, fromJingdezhen, Ming Wanli period (1573-1620)

• A Chinese guardian lion outside Yonghe Temple,Beijing, Qing dynasty, ca. 1694

• The giant wooden bodhisattva of Puning Temple,Chengde, Hebei province, built in 1755 under theQianlong Emperor

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6.5.3 Japan

See also: Japanese art, Japanese sculpture, and List ofNational Treasures of Japan (sculptures)Towards the end of the long Neolithic Jōmon period,

Nara Daibutsu, c. 752, Nara, Japan

some pottery vessels were “flame-rimmed” with extrav-agant extensions to the rim that can only be calledsculptural,[96] and very stylized pottery dogū figures wereproduced, many with the characteristic “snow-goggle”eyes. During the Kofun period of the 3rd to 6th centuryCE, haniwa terracotta figures of humans and animals ina simplistic style were erected outside important tombs.The arrival of Buddhism in the 6th century brought with itsophisticated traditions in sculpture, Chinese styles medi-ated via Korea. The 7th century Hōryū-ji and its contentshave survived more intact than any East Asian Buddhisttemple of its date, with works including a Shaka Trinityof 623 in bronze, showing the historical Buddha flankedby two bodhisattvas and also the Guardian Kings of theFour Directions.[97]

The wooden image (9th century) of Shakyamuni, the“historic” Buddha, enshrined in a secondary building atthe Murō-ji, is typical of the early Heian sculpture, withits ponderous body, covered by thick drapery folds carvedin the hompa-shiki (rolling-wave) style, and its austere,withdrawn facial expression. The Kei school of sculptors,particularly Unkei, created a new, more realistic style ofsculpture.

Almost all subsequent significant large sculpture in Japanwas Buddhist, with some Shinto equivalents, and afterBuddhism declined in Japan in the 15th century, mon-umental sculpture became largely architectural decora-tion and less significant.[98] However sculptural work inthe decorative arts was developed to a remarkable levelof technical achievement and refinement in small objectssuch as inro and netsuke in many materials, and metaltosogu or Japanese sword mountings. In the 19th centurythere were export industries of small bronze sculpturesof extreme virtuosity, ivory and porcelain figurines, andother types of small sculpture, increasingly emphasizingtechnical accomplishment.

• Dogū with “snow-goggle” eyes, 1000–400 BC.

• 6th century haniwa figure

• Kongo Rishiki (Guardian Deity) at the Central Gateof Hōryū-ji

• Priest Ganjin (Jianzhen), Nara period, 8th century

• Jōchō, Amida Buddha, Heian Period, 1053, Byōdō-in, Kyoto

• Tsuba sword fitting with a “Rabbit Viewing the Au-tumn Moon”, bronze, gold and silver, between 1670and 1744

• Izumiya Tomotada, netsuke in the form of a dog, late18th century

• Yamada Chōzaburō, Wind God in repoussé iron, c.1915

6.5.4 India

See also: Sculpture in South Asia, List of rock-cut tem-ples in India, and Sculpture of BangladeshThe first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinentis from the Indus Valley civilization (3300–1700 BC),found in sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modern-day Pakistan. These include the famous small bronze fe-male dancer. However, such figures in bronze and stoneare rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery figurines andstone seals, often of animals or deities very finely de-picted. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilizationthere is little record of sculpture until the Buddhist era,apart from a hoard of copper figures of (somewhat con-troversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad.[99] Thus thegreat tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stoneappears to begin, relative to other cultures, and the de-velopment of Indian civilization, relatively late, with thereign of Asoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars ofAshoka he erected around India, carrying his edicts andtopped by famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of

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22 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

Hindu Gupta terracotta relief, 5th century CE, of Krishna Killingthe Horse Demon Keshi

which six survive.[100] Large amounts of figurative sculp-ture, mostly in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pil-grimage stupas, above all Sanchi; these probably devel-oped out of a tradition using wood that also embracedHinduism.[101]

The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculpturesof Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reflectedboth native Indian traditions and the Western influencesreceived through the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara,and effectively established the basis for subsequent Indianreligious sculpture.[101] The style was developed and dif-fused through most of India under the Gupta Empire (c.320-550) which remains a “classical” period for Indiansculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves,[102] thoughthe Elephanta Caves are probably slightly later.[103] Laterlarge-scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious,and generally rather conservative, often reverting to sim-ple frontal standing poses for deities, though the at-tendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often havesensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly de-tailed, with an intricate backing behind the main figurein high relief. The celebrated bronzes of the Chola dy-nasty (c. 850–1250) from south India, many designedto be carried in processions, include the iconic formof Shiva as Nataraja,[104] with the massive granite carv-ings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallavadynasty.[105]

• The “dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro", 3rd millen-nium BCE (replica)

• Ashoka Pillar, Vaishali, Bihar, c. 250 BCE

• Stupa gateway at Sanchi, c. 100 CE or perhaps ear-lier, with densely packed reliefs

• Buddha from Sarnath, 5–6th century CE

• The Colossal trimurti at the Elephanta Caves

• Rock-cut temples at Ellora

• Hindu, Chola period, 1000

• Typical medieval frontal standing statue of Vishnu,950–1150

• In Khajuraho

• Marble Sculpture of female yakshi in typical curvingpose, c. 1450, Rajasthan

• Gopuram of the Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chi-dambaram, Tamil Nadu, densely packed with rowsof painted statues

• Sculpture of Guardian at the entrance of the Man-dapam of Sri Jalagandeeswarar Temple, Vellore,Tamil Nadu

6.5.5 South-East Asia

9th century Khmer lintel

The sculpture of the region tends to be characterisedby a high degree of ornamentation, as seen in the greatmonuments of Hindu and Buddhist Khmer sculpture (9thto 13th centuries) at Angkor Wat and elsewhere, theenormous 9th-century Buddhist complex at Borobudurin Java, and the Hindu monuments of Bali.[106] Bothof these include many reliefs as well as figures in theround; Borobudur has 2,672 relief panels, 504 Buddhastatues, many semi-concealed in openwork stupas, andmany large guardian figures.In Thailand and Laos, sculpture was mainly of Buddhaimages, often gilded, both large for temples and monas-teries, and small figurines for private homes. Traditionalsculpture in Myanmar emerged before the Bagan period.As elsewhere in the region, most of the wood sculpturesof the Bagan and Ava periods have been lost. In later pe-riods Chinese influence predominated in Vietnam, Laosand Cambodia, andmore wooden sculpture survives fromacross the region.

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• Apsara and Gandarva pedestal, Trà Kiệu, Cham art,Vietnam, c.7th–8th century

• Relief sculpture from Borobudur temple, Indonesia,c. 760–830

• Vairocana Buddha from Borobudur temple,Indonesia, c. 760–830

• Bronze Avalokiteshvara torso from Chaiya,Southern Thailand, Srivijayan art, c. 8th century

• Bronze Avalokiteshvara from Bidor, Perak,Malaysia, c. 8th-9th century

• Vishnu from Prasat Rup Arak, Kulen, Khmer art,Cambodia, c. 800-875

• Dragon head palace decoration from the Lý dynasty,Vietnam, c. 1009–1225

• Buddha in Ananda Temple, Bagan, Myanmar, c.1105

• Stone bas-relief of apsaras from Bayon temple,Cambodia, c. 1200

• Prajnaparamita Singhasari art, East Java, Indonesia,c. 13th century

• Phra Achana, Wat Si Chum, Big Buddha image inSukhothai, Thailand, c. 14th century

• “the Buddha calling the earth to witness”, The Bud-dha’s hands are in the bhūmisparsa mudrā (subduingMāra) position. Ho Phra Kaeo temple, Vientiane,Laos

6.6 Islam

Ivory with traces of paint, 11th–12th century, Egypt

Islam is famously aniconic, so the vast majority of sculp-ture is arabesque decoration in relief or openwork, basedon vegetable motifs, but tending to geometrical abstractforms. In the very early Mshatta Facade (740s), nowmostly in Berlin, there are animals within the densearabesques in high relief, and figures of animals and menin mostly low relief are found in conjunction with decora-tion on many later pieces in various materials, includingmetalwork, ivory and ceramics.[107]

Figures of animals in the round were often acceptable forworks used in private contexts if the object was clearlypractical, so medieval Islamic art contains manymetal an-imals that are aquamaniles, incense burners or supportersfor fountains, as in the stone lions supporting the famousone in the Alhambra, culminating in the largest medievalIslamic animal figure known, the Pisa Griffin. In thesame way, luxury hardstone carvings such as dagger hiltsand cups may be formed as animals, especially in Mughalart. The degree of acceptability of such relaxations ofstrict Islamic rules varies between periods and regions,with Islamic Spain, Persia and India often leading relax-ation, and is typically highest in courtly contexts.[108]

• The Mshatta Facade, from a palace near Damascus,740s

• The Pisa Griffin, 107 cm high, probably 11th cen-tury

• Part of a 15th-century ceramic panel fromSamarkand with white calligraphy on a bluearabesque background.

• Mughal dagger with hilt in jade, gold, rubies andemeralds. Blade of damascened steel inlaid withgold.

6.7 Africa

Mask from Gabon

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Two Chiwara c. late 19th early 20th centuries, Art Institute ofChicago. Female (left) and male Vertical styles

Historically, with the exception of some monumentalEgyptian sculpture, most African sculpture was created inwood and other organic materials that have not survivedfrom earlier than a few centuries ago; older pottery figuresare found from a number of areas. Masks are importantelements in the art of many peoples, along with humanfigures, often highly stylized. There is a vast variety ofstyles, often varying within the same context of origin de-pending on the use of the object, but wide regional trendsare apparent; sculpture is most common among “groupsof settled cultivators in the areas drained by the Niger andCongo rivers" inWest Africa.[109] Direct images of deitiesare relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are orwere often made for religious ceremonies; today manyare made for tourists as “airport art”.[110] African maskswere an influence on European Modernist art, which wasinspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depic-tion.The Nubian Kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan was inclose and often hostile contact with Egypt, and producedmonumental sculpture mostly derivative of styles to thenorth. In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures arefrom the Nok culture which thrived between 500 BC and500 AD in modern Nigeria, with clay figures typicallywith elongated bodies and angular shapes. Later WestAfrican cultures developed bronze casting for reliefs todecorate palaces like the famous Benin Bronzes, and veryfine naturalistic royal heads from around the Yoruba townof Ife in terracotta and metal from the 12th–14th cen-turies. Akan goldweights are a form of small metal sculp-tures produced over the period 1400–1900, some appar-ently representing proverbs and so with a narrative ele-ment rare in African sculpture, and royal regalia includedimpressive gold sculptured elements.[111]

Many West African figures are used in religious ritualsand are often coated with materials placed on them forceremonial offerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of

the same region make pieces of wood with broad, flatsurfaces and arms and legs are shaped like cylinders. InCentral Africa, however, the main distinguishing charac-teristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inwardand display patterns of circles and dots.Populations in the African Great Lakes are not known fortheir sculpture.[109] However, one style from the region ispole sculptures, carved in human shapes and decoratedwith geometric forms, while the tops are carved withfigures of animals, people, and various objects. Thesepoles are, then, placed next to graves and are associ-ated with death and the ancestral world. The cultureknown from Great Zimbabwe left more impressive build-ings than sculpture but the eight soapstone ZimbabweBirds appear to have had a special significance and weremounted onmonoliths. Modern Zimbabwean sculptors insoapstone have achieved considerable international suc-cess. Southern Africa’s oldest known clay figures datefrom 400 to 600 AD and have cylindrical heads with amixture of human and animal features.

• Nok terracotta, 6th century BC–6th century CE

• Ife head, terracotta, probably 12–14th centuries CE

• Yoruba bronze head sculpture, Ife, Nigeria c. 12thcentury

• Sculpture of a 'Queen Mother' from Benin, 16thcentury.

• 16th century ivory mask from Benin

• One of the Benin Bronzes, 16th–18th century, Nige-ria.

• Mask from Burkina Faso, 19th century

• Mambila figure, Nigeria

6.8 The Americas

See also: Sculpture of the United States, Visual arts byindigenous peoples of the Americas, Pre-Columbian art,Northwest Coast art, and Inuit art

Sculpture in what is now Latin America developed intwo separate and distinct areas, Mesoamerica in the northand Peru in the south. In both areas, sculpture wasinitially of stone, and later of terracotta and metal asthe civilizations in these areas became more technolog-ically proficient.[112] The Mesoamerican region producedmore monumental sculpture, from the massive block-likeworks of the Olmec and Toltec cultures, to the superb lowreliefs that characterize the Mayan and Aztec cultures. Inthe Andean region, sculptures were typically small, butoften show superb skill.

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6.8.1 Pre-Columbian

• Olmec Baby Figure 1200-900 BCE

• Olmec Jadeite Mask 1000–600 BCE

• Olmec Colossal Head No. 3 1200–900 BCE

• La Mojarra Stela 1 2nd century CE

• Chalchiuhtlicue from Teotihuacán 200–500 CE

• Teotihuacan mask 200–600 CE

• Teotihuacan- Detail of the Temple of the FeatheredSerpent 200–250 CE

• A funerary urn in the shape of a “bat god” or ajaguar, Oaxaca, 300–650 CE

• Moche portrait vessel with stirrup spout, Peru, 100BCE-700 CE

• K'inich Janaab Pakal I of Palenque, Maya, 603–683

• Ahkal Mo' Naab III Of Palenque, 8th century

• Upakal K'inich 8th century AD, Palenque

• Jaina Island type figure (Mayan) 650–800

• Classic Veracruz culture face 600–900

• Atlante from Tollan-Xicocotitlan also known asTula 1000

• Double-headed serpent, Turquoise, red and whitemosaic on wood, Aztec (possibly) Mixtec, c. 1400–1521,

6.9 Moving toward modern art

6.9.1 North America

In North America, wood was sculpted for totem poles,masks, utensils, War canoes and a variety of other uses,with distinct variation between different cultures and re-gions. The most developed styles are those of the PacificNorthwest Coast, where a group of elaborate and highlystylized formal styles developed forming the basis of atradition that continues today. In addition to the famoustotem poles, painted and carved house fronts were com-plemented by carved posts inside and out, as well as mor-tuary figures and other items. Among the Inuit of the farnorth, traditional carving styles in ivory and soapstone arestill continued.[113]

The arrival of European Catholic culture readily adaptedlocal skills to the prevailing Baroque style, producingenormously elaborate retablos and other mostly churchsculptures in a variety of hybrid styles.[114] The most fa-mous of such examples in Canada is the altar area ofthe Notre Dame Basilica in Montreal, Quebec, which

St. James panel, from reredos in Cristo Rey Church, Santa Fe,New Mexico, c. 1760

was carved by peasant habitant labourers. Later, artiststrained in the Western academic tradition followed Eu-ropean styles until in the late 19th century they began todraw again on indigenous influences, notably in the Mex-ican baroque grotesque style known as Churrigueresque.Aboriginal peoples also adapted church sculpture in vari-ations on Carpenter Gothic; one famous example is theChurch of the Holy Cross in Skookumchuck Hot Springs,British Columbia.The history of sculpture in the United States after Eu-ropeans’ arrival reflects the country’s 18th-century foun-dation in Roman republican civic values and ProtestantChristianity. Compared to areas colonized by the Span-ish, sculpture got off to an extremely slow start in theBritish colonies, with next to no place in churches, andwas only given impetus by the need to assert national-ity after independence. American sculpture of the mid-to late-19th century was often classical, often romantic,but showed a bent for a dramatic, narrative, almost jour-nalistic realism. Public buildings during the last quarterof the 19th century and the first half of the 20th centuryoften provided an architectural setting for sculpture, es-pecially in relief. By the 1930s the International Styleof architecture and design and art deco characterized bythe work of Paul Manship and Lee Lawrie and others be-came popular. By the 1950s, traditional sculpture educa-tion would almost be completely replaced by a Bauhaus-influenced concern for abstract design. Minimalist sculp-ture replaced the figure in public settings and architectsalmost completely stopped using sculpture in or on their

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designs. Modern sculptors (21st century) use both classi-cal and abstract inspired designs. Beginning in the 1980s,there was a swing back toward figurative public sculpture;by 2000, many of the new public pieces in the UnitedStates were figurative in design.

• Gutzon Borglum and his son, Lincoln Borglum,Mount Rushmore, 1927–1941. L-R, George Wash-ington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, andAbraham Lincoln.

• Robert Gould Shaw Memorial by Augustus Saint-Gaudens, 1884–1897, plaster version

• Lee Lawrie, The Sower, 1928 Art Deco relief onBeaumont Tower, Michigan State University

• Daniel Chester French, Abraham Lincoln (1920) inthe Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C.

• The K'alyaan Totem Pole of the Tlingit Kiks.ádiClan, erected at Sitka National Historical Park tocommemorate the lives lost in the 1804 Battle ofSitka

• Frederic Remington, The Bronco Buster, limitededition #17 of 20, 1909.

• Paul Manship, Dancer and Gazelles, 1916,Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington,D.C.

• Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, The Scout, 1924,commemorating Buffalo Bill in Cody, Wyoming

6.10 19th–early 20th century, early Mod-ernism and continuing realism

• François Rude, a Romantic Jeanne d' Arc, 1852,Louvre

• Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, Ugolino and His Sons,1857–1860, Metropolitan Museum of Art

• Edgar Degas, Little Dancer of Fourteen Years, castin 1922 from a mixed-media sculpture modeled ca.1879–80, Bronze, partly tinted, with cotton

• Auguste Rodin The Burghers of Calais 1889, Calais,France

• Alfred Gilbert, the so-called Eros, 1893, the world’sfirst aluminium statue, Piccadilly Circus, London

• Detail of the grave of Cyprian Kamil Norwid inWawel Cathedral, Kraków by Czesław Dźwigaj

• Sculpture on the Discoveries Age and Portuguesenavigators in Lisbon, Portugal

• Antoine Bourdelle, Day and Night, marble, 1903,Musée Bourdelle, Paris

Auguste Rodin, The Thinker, 1902, Musée Rodin, Paris

• Jan Štursa, Before the Bath, 1906, National Galleryin Prague

• Constantin Brâncuși, Portrait of MademoisellePogany 1912, White marble; limestone block,Philadelphia Museum of Art. Exhibited at the 1913Armory Show

• Amedeo Modigliani, Female Head, 1911/1912,Tate

• Aristide Maillol, The Night, 1920, Stuttgart

Modern classicism contrasted in many ways with the clas-sical sculpture of the 19th century which was charac-terized by commitments to naturalism (Antoine-LouisBarye)—the melodramatic (François Rude) sentimen-tality (Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux)-- or a kind of statelygrandiosity (Lord Leighton). Several different directionsin the classical tradition were taken as the century turned,but the study of the live model and the post-Renaissancetradition was still fundamental to them. Auguste Rodinwas the most renowned European sculptor of the early20th century.[115][116] He is often considered a sculp-tural Impressionist, as are his students including CamilleClaudel, and Hugo Rheinhold, attempting to model ofa fleeting moment of ordinary life. Modern classicismshowed a lesser interest in naturalism and a greater inter-est in formal stylization. Greater attention was paid to therhythms of volumes and spaces—as well as greater atten-tion to the contrasting qualities of surface (open, closed,planar, broken etc.) while less attention was paid to story-telling and convincing details of anatomy or costume.

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Paul Gauguin, 1894, Oviri (Sauvage), partially glazedstoneware, 75 x 19 x 27 cm, Musée d'Orsay, Paris

Greater attention was given to psychological effect than tophysical realism, and influences from earlier styles world-wide were used.Early masters of modern classicism included: AristideMaillol, Alexander Matveyev, Joseph Bernard, AntoineBourdelle, Georg Kolbe, Libero Andreotti, Gustav Vige-land, Jan Stursa, Constantin Brâncuși. As the centuryprogressed, modern classicism was adopted as the na-tional style of the two great European totalitarian em-pires: Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia, who co-opted thework of earlier artists such as Kolbe and Wilhelm Lehm-bruck in Germany[117] and Matveyev in Russia. Overthe 70 years of the USSR, new generations of sculptorswere trained and chosen within their system, and a dis-tinct style, socialist realism, developed, that returned tothe 19th century’s emphasis on melodrama and natural-ism.Classical training was rooted out of art education inWest-ern Europe (and the Americas) by 1970 and the classi-cal variants of the 20th century were marginalized in thehistory of modernism. But classicism continued as thefoundation of art education in the Soviet academies until1990, providing a foundation for expressive figurative art

throughout eastern Europe and parts of the Middle East.By the year 2000, the European classical tradition retainsa wide appeal to the public but awaits an educational tra-dition to revive its contemporary development.Some of the modern classical became either more dec-orative/art deco (Paul Manship, Jose de Creeft, CarlMilles) or more abstractly stylized or more expressive(and Gothic) (Anton Hanak, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, ErnstBarlach, Arturo Martini)—or turned more to the Renais-sance (Giacomo Manzù, Venanzo Crocetti) or stayed thesame (Charles Despiau, Marcel Gimond).

7 Modernism

Gaston Lachaise, Floating Figure 1927, bronze, no. 5 from anedition of 7, National Gallery of Australia

Main article: Modern sculpture

Modernist sculpture movements include Cubism,Geometric abstraction, De Stijl, Suprematism,Constructivism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism,Formalism Abstract expressionism, Pop-Art,Minimalism, Land art, and Installation art amongothers.

Henry Moore, Reclining Figure, 1951, Fitzwilliam Museum,Cambridge

In the early days of the 20th century, Pablo Picasso rev-olutionized the art of sculpture when he began creatinghis constructions fashioned by combining disparate ob-jects and materials into one constructed piece of sculp-

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28 7 MODERNISM

David Smith, CUBI VI, (1963), Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

ture; the sculptural equivalent of the collage in two-dimensional art. The advent of Surrealism led to thingsoccasionally being described as “sculpture” that wouldnot have been so previously, such as “involuntary sculp-ture” in several senses, including coulage. In later yearsPicasso became a prolific potter, leading, with interestin historic pottery from around the world, to a revival ofceramic art, with figures such as George E. Ohr and sub-sequently Peter Voulkos, Kenneth Price, and Robert Ar-neson. Marcel Duchamp originated the use of the "foundobject" (French: objet trouvé) or readymade with piecessuch as Fountain (1917).Similarly, the work of Constantin Brâncuși at the begin-ning of the century paved the way for later abstract sculp-ture. In revolt against the naturalism of Rodin and hislate-19th-century contemporaries, Brâncuși distilled sub-jects down to their essences as illustrated by the elegantlyrefined forms of his Bird in Space series (1924).[118]

Brâncuși’s impact, with his vocabulary of reduction andabstraction, is seen throughout the 1930s and 1940s, andexemplified by artists such as Gaston Lachaise, Sir JacobEpstein, Henry Moore, Alberto Giacometti, Joan Miró,Julio González, Pablo Serrano, Jacques Lipchitz[119] andby the 1940s abstract sculpture was impacted and ex-panded by Alexander Calder, Len Lye, Jean Tinguely,and Frederick Kiesler who were pioneers of Kinetic art.Modernist sculptors largely missed out on the huge boomin public art resulting from the demand for war memori-als for the two World Wars, but from the 1950s the pub-lic and commissioning bodies became more comfortable

with Modernist sculpture and large public commissionsboth abstract and figurative became common. Picassowas commissioned to make a maquette for a huge 50-foot (15 m)-high public sculpture, the so-called ChicagoPicasso (1967). His design was ambiguous and somewhatcontroversial, and what the figure represents is not clear;it could be a bird, a horse, a woman or a totally abstractshape.During the late 1950s and the 1960s abstract sculptorsbegan experimenting with a wide array of new materialsand different approaches to creating their work. Surre-alist imagery, anthropomorphic abstraction, new mate-rials and combinations of new energy sources and var-ied surfaces and objects became characteristic of muchnew modernist sculpture. Collaborative projects withlandscape designers, architects, and landscape architectsexpanded the outdoor site and contextual integration.Artists such as Isamu Noguchi, David Smith, AlexanderCalder, Jean Tinguely, Richard Lippold, George Rickey,Louise Bourgeois, and Louise Nevelson came to charac-terize the look of modern sculpture.By the 1960s Abstract expressionism, Geometric abstrac-tion and Minimalism, which reduces sculpture to its mostessential and fundamental features, predominated. Someworks of the period are: the Cubi works of David Smith,and thewelded steel works of Sir AnthonyCaro, as well aswelded sculpture by a large variety of sculptors, the large-scale work of John Chamberlain, and environmental in-stallation scale works by Mark di Suvero. Other Min-imalists include Tony Smith, Donald Judd, Robert Mor-ris, Anne Truitt, Giacomo Benevelli, Arnaldo Pomodoro,Richard Serra, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, and John Saferwho added motion and monumentality to the theme ofpurity of line.[120]

During the 1960s and 1970s figurative sculpture by mod-ernist artists in stylized forms was made by artists suchas Leonard Baskin, Ernest Trova, George Segal, MarisolEscobar, Paul Thek, Robert Graham in a classic articu-lated style, and Fernando Botero bringing his painting’s'oversized figures’ into monumental sculptures.

7.1 Gallery of modernist sculpture

• Henri Matisse, The Back Series, bronze, left to right:The Back I, 1908–09, The Back II, 1913, The BackIII 1916, The Back IV, c. 1931, allMuseum ofMod-ern Art, New York City

• Otto Gutfreund, Cellist, 1912–13

• Alexander Archipenko, La Vie Familiale (FamilyLife), 1912

• Joseph Csaky, Tête, ca.1920 (front and side view),limestone, 60 cm, Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo,Holland

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7.3 Minimalism 29

• Jacob Epstein, Day and Night, carved for theLondon Underground's headquarters, 1928.

• Käthe Kollwitz, The Grieving Parents, 1932, WorldWar I memorial (for her son Peter), Vladslo Germanwar cemetery

• Jacques Lipchitz, Birth of the Muses, (1944–1950)

• Barbara Hepworth, Monolith-Empyrean, 1953

• John Chamberlain, S, 1959, HirshhornMuseum andSculpture Garden, Washington, DC.

• Henry Moore, Three Piece Reclining figure No.1,1961, Yorkshire

• Marcel Duchamp, Fountain 1917; 1964 artist-authorized replicamade by the artist’s dealer, ArturoSchwarz, based on a photograph by Alfred Stieglitz.Porcelain, Tate Modern, London

• Pablo Picasso, Public Sculpture, 1967, Chicago, Illi-nois

• Isamu Noguchi, Heimar, 1968, at the Billy RoseSculpture Garden, Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel

• George Rickey, Four Squares in Geviert, 1969, ter-race of the New National Gallery, Berlin, Germany,Rickey is considered a Kinetic sculptor

• Alexander Calder, Crinkly avec disc rouge, 1973,Schlossplatz, Stuttgart

• Louise Nevelson, Atmosphere and Environment XII,1970–1973, Philadelphia Museum of Art

• Sir Anthony Caro, Black Cover Flat, 1974, steel, TelAviv Museum of Art

• Joan Miró, Woman and Bird, 1982, Barcelona,Spain

• George Segal, Street Crossing, 1992, permanently in-stalled on a public sidewalk at Montclair State Uni-versity, in Montclair, New Jersey

• Mark di Suvero, Aurora, 1992–1993

• Louise Bourgeois, Maman, 1999, outside MuseoGuggenheim

7.2 Contemporary movements

Site specific and environmental art works are representedby artists: Andy Goldsworthy, Walter De Maria,[122]Richard Long, Richard Serra, Robert Irwin,[123] GeorgeRickey and Christo and Jeanne-Claude led contempo-rary abstract sculpture in new directions. Artists createdenvironmental sculpture on expansive sites in the 'landart in the American West' group of projects. These land

Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Umbrellas 1991, Japan [121]

art or 'earth art' environmental scale sculpture works ex-emplified by artists such as Robert Smithson, MichaelHeizer, James Turrell (Roden Crater). Eva Hesse, SolLeWitt, Jackie Winsor, Keith Sonnier, and Bruce Nau-man, among others were pioneers of Postminimalistsculpture.Also during the 1960s and 1970s artists as diverse asEduardo Paolozzi, Chryssa, Claes Oldenburg, George Se-gal, Edward Kienholz, Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell,Duane Hanson, and John DeAndrea explored abstraction,imagery and figuration through video art, environment,light sculpture, and installation art in new ways.Conceptual art is art in which the concept(s) or idea(s)involved in the work take precedence over traditionalaesthetic and material concerns. Works include Oneand Three Chairs, 1965, is by Joseph Kosuth, and AnOak Tree by Michael Craig-Martin, and those of JosephBeuys, James Turrell and Jacek Tylicki.

7.3 Minimalism

• Tony Smith, Free Ride, 1962, 6'8 x 6'8 x 6'8 (theheight of a standard US door opening), Museum ofModern Art, New York

• Larry Bell,Untitled 1964, bismuth, chromium, gold,and rhodium on gold-plated brass; Hirshhorn Mu-seum and Sculpture Garden

• Richard Serra, Fulcrum 1987, 55 ft high free stand-ing sculpture of Cor-ten steel near Liverpool Streetstation, London

• Donald Judd, Untitled, 1991, Israel Museum ArtGarden, Jerusalem

7.3.1 Postminimalism

• Bruce Nauman, Human/Need/Desire, 1983, Neonsculpture

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30 10 NOTES

• Richard Long, South Bank Circle, 1991 Tate Liver-pool, England

• Jean-Yves Lechevallier, Fettered wing. 1991

• Anish Kapoor, Turning the World Upside Down,Israel Museum, 2010

• Damien Hirst, The Physical Impossibility of Death inthe Mind of Someone Living. 1991

• Rachel Whiteread, Holocaust Monument 2000Judenplatz, Vienna

• Guardians of Time, light sculpture by ManfredKielnhofer at the Light Art Biennale Austria 2010

• The Spire of Dublin officially titled the Monumentof Light, stainless steel, 121.2 metres (398 feet), theworld’s tallest sculpture

7.3.2 Contemporary genres

Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson, in 2005

Some modern sculpture forms are now practiced out-doors, as environmental art and environmental sculpture,often in full view of spectators. Light sculpture, streetart sculpture and site-specific art also often make use ofthe environment. Ice sculpture is a form of ephemeralsculpture that uses ice as the raw material. It is popularin China, Japan, Canada, Sweden, and Russia. Ice sculp-tures feature decoratively in some cuisines, especially inAsia. Kinetic sculptures are sculptures that are designedto move, which include mobiles. Snow sculptures areusually carved out of a single block of snow about 6 to15 feet (1.8 to 4.6 m) on each side and weighing about20–30 tons. The snow is densely packed into a form af-ter having been produced by artificial means or collectedfrom the ground after a snowfall. Sound sculptures takethe form of indoor sound installations, outdoor installa-tions such as aeolian harps, automatons, or bemore or lessnear conventional musical instruments. Sound sculptureis often site-specific. Art toys have become another for-mat for contemporary artists since the late 1990s, such asthose produced by TakashiMurakami andKid Robot, de-signed by Michael Lau, or hand-made by Michael Leavitt(artist).[124]

8 Conservation

Visible damage due to acid rain on a sculpture

Sculptures are sensitive to environmental conditions suchas temperature, humidity and exposure to light andultraviolet light. Acid rain can also cause damage to cer-tain building materials and historical monuments. Thisresults when sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reactswith the calcium compounds in the stones (limestone,sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, whichthen flakes off.At any time many contemporary sculptures have usuallybeen on display in public places; theft was not a problemas pieces were instantly recognisable. In the early 21stcentury the value of metal rose to such an extent that theftof massive bronze sculpture for the value of the metalbecame a problem; sculpture worth millions being stolenand melted down for the relatively low value of the metal,a tiny fraction of the value of the artwork.[125]

9 See also

10 Notes[1]

[2] “Gods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity”September 2007 to January 2008, The Arthur M. SacklerMuseum

[3] See for example Martin Robertson, A shorter history ofGreek art, p. 9, Cambridge University Press, 1981, ISBN978-0-521-28084-6

[4] NGA, Washington feature on exhibition.

[5] The Ptolemies began the Hellenistic tradition of ruler-portraits on coins, and the Romans began to show deadpoliticians in the 1st century BC, with Julius Caesar thefirst living figure to be portrayed; under the emperors por-traits of the Imperial family became standard. See Bur-nett, 34-35; Howgego, 63-70

[6] Article by Morris Cox

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[7] Cook, 147; he notes that ancient Greek copyists seem tohave used many fewer points than some later ones, andcopies often vary considerably in the composition as wellas the finish.

[8] “Flash animation of the lost-wax casting process”. JamesPeniston Sculpture. Retrieved 2008-11-30.

[9] Ravi, B. (2004). “Metal Casting – Overview” (PDF). Bu-reau of Energy Efficiency, India.

[10] British Museum - The Lycurgus Cup

[11] V&A Museum, Sculpture techniques: modelling in clay,accessed August 31, 2012

[12] Rawson, 140–144; Frankfort 112–113; Henig, 179–180

[13] Rawson, 134–135

[14] Burford, Alison, “Greece, ancient, §IV, 1: Monumentalsculpture: Overview, 5 c)" in Oxford Art Online, accessedAugust 24th, 2012

[15] Olsen, 150–151; Blunt

[16] Jewish virtual library, History of Jewish sculpture

[17] P.Mellars, Archeology and the Dispersal of Modern Hu-mans in Europe: Deconstructing the Aurignacian, Evolu-tionary Anthropology, vol. 15 (2006), pp. 167–182.

[18] de Laet, Sigfried J. (1994). History of Humanity: Prehis-tory and the beginnings of civilization. UNESCO. p. 211.

[19] Cook, J. (2013) Ice Age art: arrival of the modern mind,The British Museum, ISBN 978-0714123332

[20] Sandars, 8−16, 29−31

[21] Hahn, Joachim, “Prehistoric Europe, §II: Palaeolithic 3.Portable art” in Oxford Art Online, accessed August 24,2012; Sandars, 37−40

[22] Kleiner, Fred (2009). Gardner’s Art through the Ages: TheWestern Perspective, Volume 1. p. 36.

[23] Sandars, 75–80

[24] Sandars, 253−257, 183−185

[25] Frankfort, 24–37

[26] Frankfort, 45–59

[27] Frankfort, 61–66

[28] Frankfort, Chapters 2–5

[29] Frankfort, 110–112

[30] Frankfort, 66–74

[31] Frankfort, 71–73

[32] Frankfort, 66–74; 167

[33] Frankfort, 141–193

[34] Smith, 33

[35] Smith, 12–13 and note 17

[36] Smith, 21–24

[37] Smith, 170–178; 192–194

[38] Smith, 102–103; 133–134

[39] Smith, 4–5; 208–209

[40] Smith, 89–90

[41] images of Getty Villa 85.AA.103

[42] Cook, 72, 85–109; Boardman, 47–59

[43] Cook, 109–119; Boardman, 87–95

[44] Lapatin, Kenneth D. S., Phidias, Oxford Art Online, ac-cessed August 24, 2012

[45] Cook, 119–131

[46] Cook, 131–141

[47] Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. xiii.Green P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9

[48] Cook, 142–156

[49] Cook, 142–154

[50] Cook, 155–158

[51] Strong, 58–63; Hennig, 66-69

[52] Hennig, 24

[53] Henig, 66–69; Strong, 36–39, 48; At the trial of Verres,former governor of Sicily, Cicero's prosecution details hisdepredations of art collections at great length.

[54] Henig, 23–24

[55] Henig, 66–71

[56] Henig, 73–82;Strong, 48–52, 80–83, 108–117, 128–132,141–159, 177–182, 197–211

[57] Henig, Chapter 6; Strong, 303–315

[58] Henig, Chapter 8

[59] Strong, 171–176, 211–214

[60] Kitzinger, 9 (both quotes), more generally his Ch 1;Strong, 250–257, 264–266, 272–280

[61] Strong, 287–291, 305–308, 315–318; Henig, 234–240

[62] Robinson, 12, 15

[63] Dodwell, Chapter 2

[64] Calkins, 79–80; 90–102

[65] Calkins, 107–114

[66] Calkins, 115–132

[67] Honour and Fleming, 297–300; Henderson, 55, 82-84

[68] Olson, 11–24; Honour and Fleming, 304; Henderson, 41

[69] Snyder, 65-69

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[70] Snyder, 305-311

[71] V&A Museum feature on the Nottingham alabasterSwansea Altarpiece

[72] Calkins, 193-198

[73] Cherry, 25-48; Henderson, 134-141

[74] Olson, 41–46, 62–63

[75] Olson, 45–52, and see index

[76] Olson, 114–118, 149–150

[77] Olson, 149–150

[78] Olson, 103–110, 131–132

[79] Olson, Chapter 8, 179–181

[80] Olson, 179–182

[81] Olson, 183–187

[82] Olson, 182–183

[83] Olson, 194–202

[84] Boucher, 134-142 on the Cornaro chapel; see index forBernini generally

[85] Boucher, 16–18

[86] Honour and Fleming, 450

[87] Honour and Fleming, 460-467

[88] Boardman, 370–378; Harle, 71–84

[89] Boardman, 370–378; Sickman, 85–90; Paine, 29–30

[90] Rawson, Chapter 1, 135–136

[91] Rawson, 138-138

[92] Rawson, 135–145; 145–163

[93] Rawson, 163–165

[94] Rawson, Chapters 4 and 6

[95] Rawson, 135

[96] Middle Jomon Sub-Period, Niigata Prefectural Museumof History, accessed August 15, 2012

[97] Paine & Soper, 30–31

[98] Paine & Soper, 121

[99] Harle, 17–20

[100] Harle, 22–24

[101] Harle, 26–38

[102] Harle, 87; his Part 2 covers the period

[103] Harle, 124

[104] Harle, 301-310, 325-327

[105] Harle, 276–284

[106] Honour & Fleming, 196–200

[107] Piotrovsky and Rogers, 23, 26-27, 33-37

[108] Piotrovsky and Rogers, 23, 33-37

[109] Honour & Fleming, 557

[110] Honour & Fleming, 559–561

[111] Honour & Fleming, 556–561

[112] Castedo, Leopoldo, A History of Latin American Art andarchitecture, Frederick A. Praeger, Publisher, New York,1969

[113] Honour & Fleming, 553–556

[114] Neumeyer, Alfred, The Indian Contribution to Architec-tural Decoration in Spanish Colonial America. The ArtBulletin, June 1948, Volume XXX, Number two

[115] Elsen, Albert E. (2003). Rodin’s Art: The Rodin Col-lection of the Iris & Gerald B. Cantor Center for the Vi-sual Arts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513381-1.

[116] Rodin to Now: Modern Sculpture, Palm Springs DesertMuseum

[117] Curtis, Penelpoe, Taking Positions: Figurative Sculptureand the Third Reich, Henry Moore Institute, London,2002

[118] Visual arts in the 20th century, Author Edward Lucie-Smith, Edition illustrated, Publisher Harry N. Abrams,1997,Original from the University of Michigan, ISBN978-0-8109-3934-9

[119] The Oxford dictionary of American art and artists, Au-thor Ann LeeMorgan, Publisher Oxford University Press,2007,Original from the University of Michigan,ISBN 0-19-512878-8, ISBN 978-0-19-512878-9

[120] National Air and Space Museum Receives “Ascent”Sculpture for display at Udvar-Hazy Center

[121] NY Times, Umbrella Crushes Woman

[122] Guggenheim museum

[123] Dia Foundation

[124] “Art Army byMichael Leavitt”, hypediss.com, December13, 2006.

[125] BBC: Barbara Hepworth sculpture stolen from DulwichPark, 20 December 2011. Example of theft of largebronze sculpture for the value of the metal.

11 References

• Boucher, Bruce, Italian Baroque Sculpture,1998, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), ISBN0500203075

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• Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450–1660,1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0198810504

• Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classi-cal Art, 1993, OUP, ISBN 0198143869

• Burnett, Andrew, Coins; Interpreting the Past, Uni-versity of California/British Museum, 1991, ISBN0520076281

• Calkins, Robert G.; Monuments of Medieval Art,Dutton, 1979, ISBN 0525475613

• Cherry, John. The Holy Thorn Reliquary, 2010,British Museum Press (British Museum objects infocus), ISBN 0-7141-2820-1

• Cook, R.M., Greek Art, Penguin, 1986 (reprint of1972), ISBN 0140218661

• Dodwell, C. R., Anglo-Saxon Art, A New Perspec-tive, 1982, Manchester UP, ISBN 0-7190-0926-X

• Frankfort, Henri, The Art and Architecture of theAncient Orient, Pelican History of Art, 4th ed1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), ISBN0140561072

• Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the IndianSubcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University PressPelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176

• Henderson, George. Gothic, 1967, Penguin, ISBN0-14-020806-2

• Henig, Martin (ed), A Handbook of Roman Art,Phaidon, 1983, ISBN 0714822140

• Paine, Robert Treat, in: Paine, R. T. & Soper A,The Art and Architecture of Japan, 3rd ed 1981,Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN0140561080

• Hugh Honour and John Fleming, AWorld History ofArt, 1st edn. 1982 (many later editions), Macmillan,London, page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. pa-perback. ISBN 0333371852

• Howgego, Christopher, Ancient History from Coins,Routledge, 1995, ISBN 041508993X

• Kitzinger, Ernst, Byzantine art in the making: mainlines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art,3rd–7th century, 1977, Faber & Faber, ISBN0571111548 (US: Cambridge UP, 1977)

• Olson, Roberta J.M., Italian Renaissance Sculpture,1992, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), ISBN978-0-500-20253-1

• Rawson, Jessica (ed). The British Museum Book ofChinese Art, 2007 (2nd edn), British Museum Press,ISBN 9780714124469

• Piotrovsky M.B. and Rogers, J.M. (eds), Heaven onEarth: Art from Islamic Lands, 2004, Prestel, ISBN3791330551

• Robinson, James, Masterpieces of Medieval Art,2008, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-7141-2815-3

• Sandars, Nancy K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Pen-guin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), 1968 (nb1st edn.; early datings now superseded)

• Scholten, Frits (2011). European sculpture andmet-alwork. New York: The Metropolitan Museum ofArt. ISBN 9781588394415.

• Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L&Soper A, “TheArt and Architecture of China”, Pelican History ofArt, 3rd ed 1971, Penguin (now Yale History ofArt), LOC 70-125675

• Smith, W. Stevenson, and Simpson, William Kelly.The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt, 3rd edn.1998, Yale University Press (Penguin/Yale Historyof Art), ISBN 0300077475

• Snyder, James. Northern Renaissance Art, 1985,Harry N. Abrams, ISBN 0136235964

• Strong, Donald, et al., Roman Art, 1995 (2nd edn.),YaleUniversity Press (Penguin/YaleHistory ofArt),ISBN 0300052936

• Williams, Dyfri. Masterpieces of Classi-cal Art, 2009, British Museum Press, ISBN9780714122540

12 External links• Sculpture “hub” at the Victoria and Albert Museum

• Essays on sculpture from Sweet Briar College, De-partment of Art History

• International Sculpture Center

• Stone Carvers Guild of America (official website).

• Sculpture artists listings from the-artists.org

• Corning Museum of Glass

• Weird, Wonderful Modern Sculptures, a slideshowby Life magazine

• Cass Sculpture Foundation, a charity dedicated tocommissioning monumental sculpture.

• Public sculpture in Perth Australia

• Archive.org The Encyclopædia Britannica EleventhEdition, Sculpture, pp. 488 to 517

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34 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

• Sculpture Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture?oldid=747391620 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Magnus Manske, Kpjas,MichaelTinkler, Zundark, Koyaanis Qatsi, 0, Andre Engels, XJaM, Rmhermen, William Avery, SimonP, Merphant, Daniel C. Boyer,Heron, Montrealais, Sfdan, Branko, Olivier, Edward, Patrick, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Palnatoke, SGBailey, Theanthrope, Arping-stone, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Ireneshusband, Glenn, AugPi, Kwekubo, Andres, Cimon Avaro, David Stewart, TonyClarke, Lee M, Focusmankind~enwiki, BRG, Denny, Genie, Nikola Smolenski, Norwikian, Hike395, Emperorbma, Guaka, Tpbradbury, Imc, Hyacinth, Rei,Philopp, Warofdreams, Jusjih, Camerong, Jamesday, Adam Carr, UninvitedCompany, Dimadick, Paul W, Robbot, AlainV, Pigsonthewing,Altenmann, Naddy, Modulatum, Rajivshetty, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, Rursus, Sheridan, Hadal, Borislav, Mushroom, Giftlite,DocWatson42, Barbara Shack, Mat-C, Inter, Fudoreaper, Kenny sh, Zigger, Marcika, Wouterhagens, Ssd, Leonard G., Ptk~enwiki, Gad-fium, Andycjp, Quadell, Piotrus, Jossi, Mihoshi, Joe Rodgers, Tail, Rsaum, Zfr, Neutrality, Bbpen, Ukexpat, Kevyn, Karl Dickman, Blue-mask, Ryuu, Alkivar, Moverton, Discospinster, Helohe, Vsmith, Eric Shalov, Notinasnaid, Carptrash, Dbachmann, Bender235, Kaisershat-ner, Furius, El C, Art LaPella, Migozared, Thuresson, Prsephone1674, Bobo192, Iamunknown, Jeffmedkeff, Viriditas, Vortexrealm, Srl,Morenus, Man vyi, Kjkolb, Naturenet, Ranveig, Sherurcij, Rd232, Andrewpmk,Manos, SlimVirgin, Wtmitchell, Rebroad, Dhanak~enwiki,Clubmarx, Evil Monkey, Duff, BDD, Versageek, Mnd, Johntex, Brookie, Postrach, Fontgirl, Feezo, Roylee, Vashti, Woohookitty, Holdspa,Kosher Fan, Pol098, JeremyA, Mandarax, DavidParfitt, Graham87, Sparkit, Jalada, BD2412, Opie, Melesse, Jmahler, Search4Lancer,Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Lockley, Quiddity, Omnieiunium, Vegaswikian, Docether, Mikecron, SchuminWeb, Loggie, Nihiltres, Alhutch,Gurch, Mhking, Bgwhite, Vibeway, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Wavelength, Deeptrivia, Efrarodz, RussBot, Splash, Manop, David Wood-ward, Gaius Cornelius, Pseudomonas, Royalbroil, Veledan, Grafen, Welsh, U1825, Howcheng, Aaron Brenneman, Nucleusboy, Nephron,Vastu, BOT-Superzerocool, CLW, 1717, Deepak~enwiki, Wames, Wknight94, Crisco 1492, Phgao, Closedmouth, Nikitchenko, Leonar-doRob0t, Tyrenius, JLaTondre, RenamedUser jaskldjslak904, Paul D. 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13.2 Images 35

13.2 Images• File:26_colonna_traiana_da_estt_05.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/26_colonna_traiana_da_

estt_05.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:MatthiasKabel• File:Adam_Kraft.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Adam_Kraft.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contribu-

tors: Own work Original artist: PetrusSilesius• File:Angel_Of_The_North.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Angel_Of_The_North.JPG License:

Public domain Contributors: taken by The Halo Original artist: The Halo• File:Ara_Pacis_Relief_Pax.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Ara_Pacis_Relief_Pax.jpg License:

CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Manfred Heyde• File:Braunschweiger_Loewe_Original_Brunswick_Lion.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/

Braunschweiger_Loewe_Original_Brunswick_Lion.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Brunswyk• File:Chihuly_glass_in_boat,_morning,_Palm_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_297500.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/

wikipedia/commons/0/08/Chihuly_glass_in_boat%2C_morning%2C_Palm_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_297500.jpg License: CCBY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Eric Baker

• File:Chiwara_Chicago_sculpture.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Chiwara_Chicago_sculpture.jpgLicense: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Helen Cook

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Detalle_crucificado_Luján_Pérez,_1793.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Detalle_crucificado_Luj%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez%2C_1793.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jafd88

• File:Devries-mercuriocrop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Devries-mercuriocrop.jpg License: CCBY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Ricardo André Frantz (User:Tetraktys), 2006 - crop of File:Devries-mercurio&psique5b.jpg Original artist:Adriaen de Vries (1556-1626)

• File:Dying_gaul.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Dying_gaul.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:[1] Original artist: antmoose

• File:Fregio_della_gigantomachia_02.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Fregio_della_gigantomachia_02.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: sailko

• File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Gaston_lachaise_floating_figure.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Gaston_lachaise_floating_figure.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Creator:Gaston Lachaise upload by Cfitzartat en.wikipedia

• File:Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Originalartist: No machine-readable author provided. Elya assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:HenryMoore_RecliningFigure_1951.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/HenryMoore_RecliningFigure_1951.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Istanbul_-_Museo_archeologico_-_Mostra_sul_colore_nell'antichità_08_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Istanbul_-_Museo_archeologico_-_Mostra_sul_colore_nell%27antichit%C3%A0_08_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Krishna_Killing_the_Horse_Demon_Keshi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Krishna_Killing_the_Horse_Demon_Keshi.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Krishna Killing the HorseDemon Keshi Original artist: Claire H.

• File:Lammasu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Lammasu.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:Trjames (Own work) Original artist: ?

• File:Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_Yin_statue.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_Yin_statue.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Bodhisattva Guanyin Original artist: Rebecca Arnett from Castleton, Vermont, USA

• File:Linteau_Musée_Guimet_1097_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Linteau_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet_1097_01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vassil

• File:Masque_blanc_Punu-Gabon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Masque_blanc_Punu-Gabon.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ji-Elle

• File:Mesopotamia_male_worshiper_2750-2600_B.C.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Mesopotamia_male_worshiper_2750-2600_B.C.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Rosemaniakosfrom Bejing (hometown)

• File:Michelangelo’{}s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Edited version of (cloned object out ofbackground) Image:Michelangelo’{}s Pieta 5450 cropncleaned.jpg) Original artist: Stanislav Traykov

• File:Miyasaka_Hakuryu_II_-_Tigress_with_Two_Cubs_-_Walters_71909.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Miyasaka_Hakuryu_II_-_Tigress_with_Two_Cubs_-_Walters_71909.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola filesystems folder home.svg'src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/

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36 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='128' data-file-height='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/6305' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Miyasaka Hakuryu II (Japanese, active mid 19thcentury)

• File:Moses_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Moses_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Prasenberg (transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by User:Leoboudv usingCommonsHelper). Original artist: Michelangelo

• File:Moáis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Mo%C3%A1is.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: This file was derived from Moai Rano raraku.jpg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg'class='image'><img alt='Moai Rano raraku.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg/50px-Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg' width='50' height='67' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg/75px-Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg/100px-Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg 2x' data-file-width='1944' data-file-height='2592' /></a>Original artist: Aurbina

• File:NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:National_gallery_in_washington_d.c.,_pisanello,_medaglia_di_giovanni_di_bisanzio_recto.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/National_gallery_in_washington_d.c.%2C_pisanello%2C_medaglia_di_giovanni_di_bisanzio_recto.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work (my camera) Original artist: sailko

• File:Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Philip Pikart

• File:Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2006) Original artist: Un-known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'data-file-height='590' /></a>

• File:Paul_Gauguin,_1894,_Oviri_(Sauvage),_partially_glazed_stoneware,_75_x_19_x_27_cm,_Musée_d'Orsay,_Paris.jpgSource: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Paul_Gauguin%2C_1894%2C_Oviri_%28Sauvage%29%2C_partially_glazed_stoneware%2C_75_x_19_x_27_cm%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay%2C_Paris.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:Coldcreation photographed this sculpture by Paul Gauguin at the Musée d'Orsay, Paris, 17 April 2013 Original artist: Paul Gauguin, Oviri,photograph by Alex Mittelmann, aka, Coldcreation

• File:Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nino Barbieri

• File:Psyché.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Psych%C3%A9.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: Eric Pouhier (May 2007) Original artist: Antonio Canova (Italian, 1757–1822)

• File:Refugees_medal_DSCF9937.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Refugees_medal_DSCF9937.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Johnbod

• File:Rome-Basilique_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli-Moise_MichelAnge.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Rome-Basilique_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli-Moise_MichelAnge.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jean-Christophe BENOIST

• File:SMITH_CUBI_VI.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/SMITH_CUBI_VI.JPG License: Publicdomain Contributors: Talmoryair (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Talmoryair' title='User talk:Talmoryair'>talk</a>)Original artist: אמריקני, סמית', דייויד 1965-1906עברית:

• File:South_metope_27_Parthenon_BM.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/South_metope_27_Parthenon_BM.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (User:Jastrow), 2007 Original artist: Phidias

• File:Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Sculpture: Robert Smithson1938-1973

• File:St_James_-Cristo_del_Rey.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/de/St_James_-Cristo_del_Rey.jpg License:CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:I (Carptrash (talk)) aka Einar E. Kvaran created this work entirely by myself. Original artist:Carptrash (talk)

• File:St_Ninian’{}s_Isle_TreasureDSCF6209det.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/St_Ninian%27s_Isle_TreasureDSCF6209det.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Johnbod

• File:Tanagra_o_corinto,_figura_di_donna_seduta,_325-150_ac_ca._11.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Tanagra_o_corinto%2C_figura_di_donna_seduta%2C_325-150_ac_ca._11.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Ownwork Original artist: Sailko

• File:The_Thinker,_Rodin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/The_Thinker%2C_Rodin.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: Own work (Original text: I (AndrewHorne (talk)) created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist:AndrewHorne (talk)

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