sea tenure

SENRI ETHNOLOGICAL STUDIEs 42 1996

Sea Tenure and Its Transformation in the Sangihe Islands of

North Sulawesi, Indonesia: The Seke Purse-Seine Fishery

EDDy MANTJORO Sam Raturangi Uhiversity

TOMOYA AKIMICHINational imseum of Ethnology

INTRODUCTION Purse-seine is conducted widely in many parts of the world. It makes it

possible to catch a large amount of fish per haul using a driving technique into anet. Modern bottom trawling is also known to b- e effective in yielding a big catch

per haul. Despite the high productivity, these fisheries have two negative aspects.

One is resource depletion due to overfishing and the second is a conflict between

purse-seiner/trawlers and artisanal fishermen over the use of fishing grounds

[MATsuDA and KANEDA 1984; JoMo 1991].

Purse-seine has not only an ill image. In Sangihe Islands of easternIndonesia, a small-scale purse-seine has been conducted over hundred of years.

However, it is now being replaced by modern purse-seine method. What makes

the traditional purse-seine ethcient and why is it disappearipg? Did it have any

merits in resource management and social stability? These questions may lead to

assess factors involved for the sustainable use of purse-seining in the future.

In Sangihe-Talaud Islands of eastern Indonesia, the Sangiherese haveconducted a traditional purse-seine over four hundred years since the Raja period

[WAHyoNo et al. 1991]. It is a communal net fishing technique that employs a

unique fish-aggregating device or seke. , Seke itself is a long fence some 30-40 m

long, and made of finely-split bamboo sticks tied by ropes so as to make shadows

underwater to escaping fish school. Seke also designates the fishing technique

employed, as well as a group of fishermen that engage in the fishing activity under

the auspecies of a fishing leader or tonaseng who is usually an owner of seke and

an expert of conducting fishing magic.

This fishing technique seems to have been undertaken exclusively by the

Sangiherese inhabiting Sangihe Islands group and has been absent in other parts of

Indonesia [SuBANi and BARus 1988/89].

It can however be, found only on two islands of Para and Batunderang at the

present time while on other islands it has already been replaced by a modern purse-

seine technique or soma lingkar without using seke fence. Use pattern of the

121

122 E. MANTJoRo and T. AKiMicHifishing grounds and entrepreneurship, distribution of the catch are also different

between the two.

In order to scrutinize factors bearing such a change and underlyingEl,O,d,.e,r"&S/",Oi2,SrCli,ehSSI,ig,e,.P,',eS,e."1,P,a,P,ei,gAIs,!oanaiysethesekepurse-seine

' '

1. ISLANDSANDPEOPLE 'Sangihe Islands, together with the neighboring Talaud Islands which lie to the

east, form a chain between the northern tip of Sulawesi of Indonesia, and

Mindanao of the Philippines (Figure 1). It faces the Pacific Ocean to the east, the

Maluku Sea to the south, and the Sulawesi Sea to the west. Most of high islands

' l/i M:'ndanao

P, . Davao PacWic Ocean " s, . 0 4}7d..M ;et -e , N sui5wesi sea (ss i? i'ai""d

- ･; Sangihe

Manado el' e

1

ere-)

e.Su1awesi

Figure 1.

Maluku Sea

0tss'

･<sSl

'i9,giii.e.･.,･

e..

Sangihe Islands in Eastern Indonesia

;.

.e

tee"-tp

･es･ d

N'

Sea Tenure in the Sangihe Islands 123

are volcanic and rugged, others are low coral islands. The highest peak of the

group is on the Sangihe Besar and it reaches 1700 m above sea level.

Fieldwork was conducted by the authors in 1991 and 1992 and four islands

selected for the present study are Para, Kahakitang, Bebalang and Batunderang

which are located at the south of the Sangihe Besar. Administratively, Para and

Kahakitang and nearby islands such as Mahengetang and Kalama belong to the

Tamako district whereas Bebalang and Batunderang to the Manganitu district

(Figure2). Also, supplementary information of the seke on Bukide Islands,

located at the northeast off the Sangihe Besar, a major Island of the Sangihe

Islands was collected on Tahuna, a capital town on Sangihe Besar during the

survey in 1991.

Geographical features of these four islands differ island by island. Land mass

of Batunderang is about 3.0 km2 and that of Para and Kahakitang being about

half of it. Bebalang is a tiny islet and land mass is about one tenth of

Batunderang. Para is composed of several small islets but only two of them are

inhabited.

Population on each island is fairly large, and it is 1692 (Para), 1935

(Kahakitang), 602 (Bebalang), and 1059 (Batunderang) in 1990 (Table 1). The

Sangiherese-speaking inhabitants on these islands live separately at hamlets or

dusun, and each hamlet forms a practical unit of daily economic activity.

Islanders obtain fish as a source of daily protein food as well as for sales.

Although the degree of dependence on agriculture differS island by island, major

subsistence crops for cultivation are generally the same. These are starchy food

such as sago, cassava and sweet potato while coconut, nutmeg and clove are

cultivated as important cash crops. The latter two crops were introduced, in case

of Para, around 1950s and 1975, respectively.

2. FISHERIES IN THE SANGIHE ISLANDS

Due to the islands' location in tropical waters ,and yet the absence of extensive

lagoons, fisheries in Sang'ihe Islands are characterized by net fishing for surface-

swimmers and line fishing for demersal species. Of net fishing, purse-seine and

drift net are major entries. ' These net fishing are done communally on an annual

basis. Target species are such schooling fish as mackerel scad (Decapterus spp.),

fusilier (Caesio spp.) and garfish (Lfemiramphus spp.) [MAsuDA et al. 1975].

Line fishing is, on' the other hand, basically an individual-oriented activity.

Troll line, drop line, and long line are practiced. Major catch includes shark,

mackerel tuna, trevally, grouper, and other reef fish. ' ' ' Other than these, several small-scale fishing techniques are employed. Traps

(igi or bubu in Indonesian), made of bamboos and rattan are used in shallow

waters. Generally, these traps are small in size and are round, pentagonal orconical in shape. Reef fish are a major target and sea-algae is often used as bait for

attracting fish into the trap. Trapping activity is yearly-based and individualistic

124 E. MANTJoRo and T. AKiMIcHi

Bukide . apn r･

. San>gihe Besar

Tahuna .S se.

Bebalang･'･ O Batunderang b

.' e Kahakitang

eo Para :.

- --

Siaue,

eo<l>

pt +

Figure 2. Study Areas in the Sangihe Islands

rather than communal. A kite made of wild Polypodium Ieaf baited with a spider

web or shark skin is specifically prepared for catching needlefish. Stupifying fish

used to be practiced with crushed roots of Derris and unidentified stalks of

plants. The use of fish poison is now banned.

HarVest of sea-cucumber, trochus shells, and sea algae are exclusively for

commercial purposes. Fish aggregating devices known as bagan and rumpon in


Tab]e 1. Population and Household Number.of Four Study Islands

Island Population

M F TotalArea(km2)

Popu.Density

No. ofDusun'

No. ofHousehold

Para

Kahakitang

Bebalang

Batunderang

859

902

329

553

833

1033

273

506

1692

1935

602

1059

1.4

1.6

O.34

3.0

1208.6

1209.4

1770.6

353.0

3

6

3

3

357

404

228

325

Indonesia as well'as a stationary bamboo weir or sero have never been employed in

the area, excepts in Tahuna.of Sangihe Besar where inhabitants of kampung

Tidore (the former migrants' settlement from Tidore Island) use rumpon fishery in

the coastal waters.

In most of the fishing activities, small double-outrigger canoes or londe are

used. These have 'a long projection extending from the bottom of the bow

[SHiBATA and MAsENGi 1991: 44-55]. It is about 4 to 7 meters long. For loading a

purse-seine and a big amount of fish catch, medium-sized canoes (pelang and

pamo) are employed. Some peiang is modified so as to have a stern transom for

being equipped with outboard engine [SHtBATA and MAsENGi 1991: 50-51].

For the Sangiherese who inhabit･ an isolated island environment, fish is a

major source of daily food. ' During our stay on these four islands, mackerel scad

and fusilier taken by seke or mackerel tuna caught by trolling were served for

almost every meal as a side-dish of sago and cassava. Fish is also an important

source of income for the islanders. A large amount of raw or smoked mackerel

scad fish is transported to neighboring islands or markets along the coast of

Sangihe Besar.

Sometimes salted or smoked fish are transported as far as Manado by a small

passenger ship which connects between Tahuna and Manado. Mackerel scad is an

important fish in such a dealing. A price of smoked mackerel scad fish per tail is

50-100 Rupiah (1000 Rupiah is about 50-60 Japanese yen) on the island ofproduction whereas it rises 100-250 Rp. in Tahuna. Shark fins are also important

as these are sold at high price to the Chinese in Manado.

3. ETHNOGRAPHY OF PURSE-SEINE FISHERY (SIEKE)

1) Seke Equipment and Catch

Seke is a kind of fish-threatening device made of bamboo fence attached with

long coconut-leaf ropes on both sides. In the purse-seine fishing it is supported by

several men who hold long bamboo poles individually at some distances so as to

make the seke stood upright underwater and hence to block a fish school to flee

(Figure 3).

A set of seke fishing device is composed ofpandihe elise', and usu. Pandihe'

126 E. MANTJoRo and T. AKiMicm

pa-

liiiew

Figure 3. Seke Equipment in Para Island

One tonaseng is repairing the seke,

is a main part of seke. It is a long bamboo fence, which is about 25 fathoms or

45 m long and 80-90 cm high. Splitted bamboo stick of O.8 to 1.0cm wide are

sewn by rattan ropes to make along fence. Pieces of coconut leaves of 70-80 cm

long are attached to the upper and the lower parts of bamboo stick at about 10 cm

distance.

Both ends of the fence are connected by a hard wooden stick, from which are

tied by a long rope made of palm fibres about 100 to 150m long, respectively.

This rope is elise'. It is rolled by young coconut leaves or tuwo as a means to


threat fish. Tuwo is renewed every two months as it becomes old and torn.

Those who contribute for preparing tuwo are privileged to receive about 200 fish

from tonaseng. This present is called kakenduge. In the seke fishing tuwo is

alternatively called elise'.

C(Su is a long bamboo pole of 7-12 m, and one end is inserted by a fork:

shaped hard wood. This pole is held by swimmers in the water in order to make

the seke upright. For supporting seke in the water, about seven to ten usu poles

are employed (e.g., seven to ten men).

Major catch of seke fishing is mackerel scad. Malalungis is a common name

for this fish species, but locally in the Sangihe Islands, it is termed as talang. It is

generally composed of tWo species; Decapterus maruadsi (talang biasa) and D.

russellii (talang mahamu). The latter tends to be caught by longline technique,

and thus called anguru malalungis (lit., anguru; wire). In addition, fusilier

(CZxesio spp.) and unicornfish (Ntzso spp.) are mixed catch.

A school of mackerel scad fish is generally called bawatang, and it is further

classified according to size and condition of the school. A small school of fish is

called siupalang while a big one as swenehe. A sparse aggregate of fish is called

kina kaese, and fish in a chaotic condition is termed kina magila. Kina denotes

fish in the Sangiherese.

2) Fishing Organization and Operation

Fishing operation is held twice a day when mackerel scad may rise and

aggregate around reef areas. It cor,responds to feeding time of this fish. Thus,

the fishing time is focussed upon the natural cycle of fish behavior. A fishing

party departs the village around 04:OO in the morning and around 16:30 in the

evening of the same day. Fishing starts about 05:OO and 17:30 in the evening that

ends one and half hour later when a fish school is finally hauled. It is not clear if

lunar cycle may affect an amount of catch. However, it should be noted lamp and

illuminating apparatus are banned in seke fishing, and it suggests that the moon

light may not be a primary factor in the fishing. The major function of seke is to

block fish to flee as the seke underwater may be seen as a barrier or shadow for the

fish.

･No less than eight or ten fishing canoes take part in the seke fishing in which

40 to 50 participants work altogether. Two canoes that load pandihe' and elise' are

calledpondole. A boat carrying a purse-seine net is called pamo and several small

double-outrigger canoes (londe) which IQad divers and workers, and especially one

for a fishing leader (tonaseng).

In eaCh fishing group, there are some division of role and work. Most

important is tonaseng who is an expert not only in the operational skills and

knowledge in fishing but also as a mastery of "fish calling magic". Usually, the

elder experienced men are elected as tonaseng. 7-bnaseng is always supported by

young fishermen who are good divers and usually work as pilots to search for a fish

school before the seke and net are cast in the water. Such pilot fishermen are

,

128 E. MANTJoRo and T. AKIMIcHI

called mararui and a few members in each group are allocated for the'job.

When a school of fish is found by the mararui, shouting by mararui signals

members on two pondole canoes to start casting seke. About seven to ten men

and women who dive in the water and hold usu bamboo poles and make the seke

upright position are called tetelide. While apamo boat spreads a net and stands-

by for hauling an aggregating fish, several men dive and try to chase fish into a

encircling net. These men are called matobo. There are about five matobo in

each group, and they are selected in the meeting under the direction of tonaseng.

If the wife of a'matobo is pregnant, he cannot attend as a matobo diver until his

wife delivers a baby. Otherwise, the fish are said to fiee. As the fish is driven into

a net, tonaseng delivers a direction to members on a pamo boat to haul the net.

On this occasjon, the pressure lamp is used for lighting when hauling fish into the

boat.

3) Seke and Social Organization

Members in seke fishing are usually fixed and those who belong to a particular

group of seke fishing are also termed seke. For instance, in Para, there are six

groups of seke fishing; Balaba,' Lumairo, Ramenusa, Lembo, Lembe, andKampium. An individual group consists of 40 to 58 households as shown in

Table2. Household is an important socio-economic unit in rural Indonesia.

Here, households are used as a term almost synonymous with nuclear family

[MANus et al. 1992]. It should be noted that all men and women, young and old,

of these households ar'e potential members of seke fishing. Members in each

group are also aMliated with another social organization.

Generally, members of six groups reside near the coastal hut where seke

equipment and canoes are stored (See Figure 3.). However, it does not mean that

seke groups are resident-oriented. On the other hand, a residential group itself is

called mmpaluse by which cooperative labors such as gardening, roof thatching,

and church activity are organized.

For instance, one group of seke fishing, Ramenusa is composed of members

belonging to 48 households. However, members of Ramenusa, can also bedivided into six residential groups or mapaluse; Lele satu, Lele dua, Lele tiga, Lesa

satu, Lesa dua, and Hego tiga, among which Lele satu has the greatest number.

Table 2. Seke Group and Number of Household included

Name of Group No. of Household No. of Seke Owned

Balaba

Lumairo

Ramunusa

LemboLembe

Kampium

50

58

48

40･

40

45

1

1

1

1

1

1


4-aA==OT

* =o.il

..O i"MA

=o

Ramenusa

4-b

a-¢Ramenusa T

o== ==o --oMA

=A =A MA

MI=o

Ramenusa

Lembo Ramenusa Kampium Ramenusa

Figure 4. Exarnples of Seke Group Formatiop

T: Tbnaseng (fishing leader), MA: Manobo (diver), MI: Mindoreng (distributor)

Lembo, Ramenusa and Kampium designate names of seke groups.*: staying in Manado, and this man does not get share of fish.

O shows the name and range of seke group membership.

Satu, dua and tiga means 1, 2, and 3.

The same kin group members do not always belong to the same seke group

nor residential group. Figure 4 shows how members of the households belong to

both seke group and residential group. Members included in Figure 4-a belong to

Ramenusa seke group and all members are also aMliated to the same residential

group; Lele satu. On the contrary, Figure4-b shows that there are members

belonging to different seke group'(e.g., Ramenusa, Lembo and Kampium) anddifferent residential groups despite the same kin,aMliation. Only one family live in

130 E. MANTJoRo and T. AKIMicHi'

Lele satu, the others living in other residential areas. These suggest that seke

group organization is unique as it is distinct from both kin and residential

aMljation.

4) Fish Distribution

Most conspicuously, fish catch in the seke fishery is shared, based on equity

principle. For instance, membership of fish share is accounted regardless of' age

and sex. Also, shares are' given to some important community members as well as

the unprivileged such as village head, school teacher, midwife, nurse, priest,

widower, and orphan.

Practical distributibn of the catch is made by the mindoreng or secretary of

the seke group in three steps. First, from the total catch those for village head,

school teachers, midwife, nurse, widower, priest, and orphan are deducted. This

portion is termed tonggole. Second, certain amount of the catch is distributed to

group leaders of seke; tonaseng, secretary and tresurer. Generally, the secretary

receives his ' own share after all the other members have taken theirs. For this

reason, he often does not receive any profit when the catch is small. At the third

step, group members receive their own shares. Table 3 shows one example of the

catch distribution when one group consisting of 40 household members caught

about 4,OOO fish in August, 1991.

According to the information, the amount of catch in Singgaluhang seems

constant during the last decade. Its price, however, fluctuates year by year

between 15 Rp. and 35 Rp. per tail. One fish is about 60 to 80 g, and in each haul

a large amount of catch between 3.3tons and 5.2tons of fish is gajned. Annual

landing may be 165-250 tons and it corresponds to 185-280 millions Rp. In other

fishing grounds near Para Island, catch trend seems more or less the same.

4. SEA TENURE IN SIEKE FISHERY

How individual or group of fishermen decide to choose particular fishjng

grounds may be associated with various factors. Not only physical factors such as

winds, tida,1 rhythms, and fish migration, but also such socio-economic conditions

as the number of fishermen engaged in the fishing, the price of fish and the

technolpgy employed may considerably affect the use pattern and frequency of the

fishing ground [RuDDLE and AKiMicHi 1989; CoRDELL 1989].

Hitherto, it has been demonstrated that there exist a variety of institutions and

practices to limit access tg particular marine resources [JoHANNEs 1978; CHRisTy

1982]. These sea tenuring practices are considered as a means to avoid social

conflict over the use of fishing grounds, and/or to serve for the sustainable use of

.marme resources [AcHEsoN 1975; CARRIER 1980, 1987; RuDDLE and AKIMICHI1984; RuDDLE and JoHANNEs 1985].

Here, we will see specific tenuring practices that have been claimed by local

fishermen who engage in purse-seine fishing in the Sangihe Islands. The case of


Table 3. Share System among the Group Members of Seke Fishermen in Para Island

Households Members

Share Quantity (tail)

I. COMMUNITY'S LEADERS 1. Village Head

2. Village Secretary

3. Priest

4. School Teachers

5. Nurse 6. Midwife

7. Church Charity

II. GROUP LEADERS 1. Head of Group

2. Secretary

3. Tresurer

III. GROUP MEMBERS

1. 2. 3. 4.,

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

40.

1

1

1

6

1

1

3

6

5

7

5

4

7

10

2

4

3

2

5

6

5

9

9

9

54

9

9

27

108

90

126

90

72

126

180

36

72

54

36

90

108

90

Total 229 3996

Source: Survey data, August 1991.

Note: No.11-39ofgroupmembersomitted.

five islands were compared regarding sea tenuring behavior in the purse-seine

' Fishing grounds used by purse-seine are located at inshore waters of the

individual islands. These are generally claimed as the village ownership. By

village, it is defined desa as a unit of the administrative organization where village

head (kepala desa or opolao) works as a leader of the village. Within a village,

there are several hamlets or dusun in which a head of the hamlets (kepala dusun)

administers general affairs of the hamlets. Individual fishing site for purse-seine is not used freely, but subject to certain

rules. Customary sea tenure to regulate the access.to fishing grounds may be

132 E. MANTJoRo and T. AKiMicHi

Table 4; Name of Seke Fishing Grounds in Four Selected Islands

Island Unit in Use( ): No. of Group

Name of Fishing Ground( ): No. of FG

Batunderang

Para

Bukide

Kahakitang

Dusun(3)

Kelompok(6)

Dusun(8)

Dusun(6)

Anpulanging, Bunaking, Benteluhang, Beoe, Kalea,

.Lahiaka, Mala, Punguwatu, Ehe, Dolosang (10)

Bintobago, Binuwu, Mangareng, Lanteke, Singgaluhang (5)

Baturila, Sasarane, Tuhong, Talahahe, Kawa, Lernbuta,

Kelumang, Nipa Geghuwa, Nipa Rio, Talahamu, Salise,

Sesihang, Laengbira, Melahuwo, Poa, Liang, Tatengkelang,

Limbalo, Bukide (19)

Tapurung, Siha, Hiwu, Linggoan, Salehe, Batulohang,

Torengikan, Taleko, Areng karnbing, Sowang (10)

analysed in line with factors such as ecology of fishing (fish behavior, marine

environments, and technology employed), cultural and social conditions(ownership of the fishing gears, distribution of the catch, use of magic) [CoRDELL

1989], but here special attention is paid to the use pattern of fishing grounds in

purse-seine fishery.

In seke fishing, any fishing ground is used communally, either by dusun or

kelompok, a particular group within the dusun. In Table 4, names of the fishing

grounds used in seke fishing of four islands of Para, Kahakitang, Batunderang and

Bukide are illustrated.

As shown in the Table, basic unit of Seke fishing operation is either a dusun or

a kelompok. The number of units also varies island by island and the details will

be described below.

In Batunderang, three existing dusun have their own seke.and each dusun has

claims for specific fishing grounds; i.e., Dusun-1 (Soa) has three, Dusun-2 (Mala)

three and Dusun-3 (Metengihe) four, respectively. How to choose the fishing

ground of the day then depends on temporary abundance of fish in either of

dusun-owned fishing grounds. Indeed, the leader of a group decides the spot of

the day, based on a prior inspection by a fellow fisherman. Location of each seke

fishing grounds is shown in Figure 5.

In'Bukide, on the other hand, fishing grounds are similarly divided by eight

dusun, but these are not exclusively used by a particular group. Five of the

nineteen fishing grounds are allowed to use communally by more than two groups

(fishing grounds number 4, 5, 14, 15, and 16 in Figure 6.). Three of such fishing

grounds are located around uninhabited small islets of Liang and Poa while the

other two being nearby the village (4 and 5). Also, number of fishing grounds

retained by dusun differ widely as shown in Table5.

In Kahakitang, there used to be ten seke fishing grounds around the island.

Five of the six dusun on the island had each their own fishing grounds that could

be used exclusively (Figure 7). Only one dusun (Behongang), located at the center


Sangihe Besar

N 3o

Figure

c)

2

4

C"o

e

5

1

N

xK

"

o

x.Vss

ve

v"-+-".N ".t.t-"

Batunderang

8

". -. r

7

lsland

scaie 1: 25rOOO 9 6 10

5. Location of Seke Fishing Grounds in Batunderang Island

1. Anpulanging (D-1) 6. Lahikia (D-2)

2. Bunaking (D-1) 7. Mala (D-2) 3. Benteluhang (D-3) 8. Punguwatu (D-3)

4. Beoe (D-1) 9. Ehe (D-3) 5. Kalea (D-2) 10. Dolosang (D-3)

D-1, D-2, and D-3 indicate names of Dusun.

of the island could get access to five fishing grounds (fishing ground number 1, 2,

3, 4, and 5 in Figure7), using three sets of seke equipmentl No particular

arrangement was required, however, as three seke were connected together as a

longer unit. In the other fishing spots, a･ particular dusun is owned and used

exclusively. In other words, fishing .ground number 6 by Dusun Daleko, 7 by

Dusun Bembanehe, 8 by Dusun Taleko, 9 by Dusun Batusaiki, and 10 by Dusun

Sowang. Kahakitang's case falls into a general pattern of communal use as found

in Batundqrang.

In Para, the basic unit of fishing operation is not dusun but particular group

or seke. Para has a long history regarding the use of fishing grounds in seke

fishing. Since･the early 18th century when Rajas of Siau Island governed the area,

six fishing grounds ipurihel have been exclusively exploited using seke as is shown

134 E. MANTJoRo and T. AKIMicHi

<>7 uang lsland

16

15 g 14

Poa lstande

4

3

2

5'

t"te e-

1

13

'6

.p "

:s.

12

.

11 10

,

9

,

,

Nusa lstand

d

7

8

d

'fl

t8

17

`0 19

Bukide lsland

Scale

N

1: 25,OOO

"

Figure 6. Location of Seke Fishing Grounds in Bukide Islands

1. Baturila (D-1)

2. Sasaane (D-1)

3. Tuhong (D-1)

4. Talahahe (D-1, D-3)

5. Kawa (D-3, D-5)

6. Lembuta (D-2)

7. Kelumang (D-6)

8. Nipa Geghuwa (D-6)

9. Nipa Rio (D-5)

10. Talahamu (D-5)

11. Salise (D-5)

12. Sesihang (D-4)

13. Laengbira (D-4)

14. Melahuwo (D-2, D-5)

15. Poa (D-2, D-5)

16. Liang (D-2, D-5, D-7)

17. Tatengkelang (D-7)

.18. Limbalo (D-7)

19. Bukide (D-8)

D-1: Tinakarewa, D-2: Nane (Dakale), D-3: Lue, D-4: Nusa,

D-5: Daleweng, D-6: Nipa, D-7: Tatengkelang, 'D-8: Bukide

(Each indicates names of Dusun).

Table 5. Use of Fishing Grounds by Dusun in Bukide Islands

Use Pattem D-1 D-2 D-3 D-4 D-5 D-6 D-7 DL8

Exclusive

CommunalTotal

3

1

4

1

3

4

o

2

2

2

o

2

3

4

7

2

o

2

2

1

3

1

o

1

D: indicates Dusun.


7

6.

e

d

s

s

12

.

;

"

3

5

4

M.

8

)N

9

Kahakitang･ri

7

lsland

10

Scale 1: 100 OOO '

Figure 7. Location of Seke Fishing Grounds in Kahakitang Island

1. Tapurung 4. Linggoan 7. Torengikan 2. Siha 5. Salehe 8. Taleko 3. Hiwu 6. Batulohang 9. Arengkambing 10. Sowang

in Figure 8. Amongst them all, Singgaluhang, being located ten kilometers south

from Para Island, provides the richest ground for mackerel scad while the other

four fishing grounds are located at near the home island of Para.

In Singgaluhang, fishing has been permitted only for three months (between

around May 20 and August 20) while in the other fishing was to be conducted

yearly-based. According to one tonaseng of about 70 years old, there existed six

seke groups when he was nominated as tonaseng in 1962. Singgaluhang was, at

that time, used together with two groups whereas the other four fishing grounds

were fished by the five groups throughout the fishing season. During the rest of

the year, four fishing grounds were used in daily rotation. However, since 1980

the only one group has been permitted to use the Singgaluhang fishing ground.

This is not because of the fish depletion but due to the population increase of the

island. For example, before 1980 members in each group were between 15 and 20

households but these have reached 40-58. Now, Singgaluhang can be exploited by

only one grQup every year between May 20 and August 20, and rotation is

136

<!i>

'Mahengetang ls･ Scaie

E. MANTJoRo and T. AKIMIcHI

1: loo,oooN

4

2(cli,

1

4

Para lstand

Figure

5, 6 ' ' ' <7 o Singgaluhang ls.

8. Location of Seke Fishing Grounds in Para Island

1.Bintobango 2.Binuwu 3.Mangareng 4. Lanteke 5. and 6. Singgaluhang

Sea Tenure in the Sangihe Islands

Table 6. Rotational Use of Singgaluhang Fishing. Ground (1980--1997) in

Para Island

137

Name of the Seke Group Year

1 Balaba

2 Lembe3 Lumairo

4 Ramenusa

,5 Lembo

6 Karnpium

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

Table 7. Rotation of Fishing Operation in Four Fishing Grounds of Seke by 6 groups in

Paralsland . 'Day of the

Week TantobangoFishing Ground Binuwu Mangareng Lanteke

MonTue

WedThr

Fri

Sat

Ra

Lo

Le

Ka

Ba

Lu

Ba

LuRa'

Lo

Le

Kp

Lo

Le

Ka

Ba

LuRti

Lu

Ra

Lo

Le

KaBa

Ra: Ramenusa, Ba: Balaba, Lo: Lembo, Lu: Lumairo, Le: Lembe, Ka: Kampium.

practiced annually among six existing groups (Table 6). Thus, Singgaluhang is

temporarily occupied by the fishermen's group during the fishing season. As the

fresh water is lacking on the island, a few fishermen return to Para to bring back

fresh water every three or four days.

During the rest of the year (i.e., from September to April) four fishing

grounds in nearshore waters of Para Island, are also used rotationally ･by six

groups. Rotation is practiced on a daily basis except on Sunday. By this, each

group can equally exploit four fishing groundS within a week (Table7).Rotational use (rorose) of the fishing grounds for seke based on annual and daily

cycles charactetizes seke fishing sea tenure in Para.

From four examples mentioned above, it is evident that there exists adifferential tenure system in seke fishing between the exclusive ownership and the

rotational allocation. Whether or not the corresponding tenure system fits the

society may need further inquiries, but it should be noted that the idea oh the

common-pool resources [OsTRoM 1990] is differentiated even among communities

that share the same socio-cultural tradition.

5. SEA TENURE IN SOMA FISHERY

Nowadays, two types of purse-seine are conducted, seke and soma lingka4


and these can be distinguished in technological and socio-economic terms. Soma

and lingkar denote "net" and "to encircle", respectively. Purse-seine net is usually

90-100 m long and the depth of the net is 5-8 m. A bigger type of net has 200 m

length and 6-7m depth. Stone sinker (2-7 kg) is attached with 1.2m rope and

bound with the lower end of the net every 3-4 m interval. Fishing technique of

soma is similar to seke fishing in which a schooling mackerel scad is driven into a

.purse-seme net.

As we have seen, seke has been employed over hundred of years whereas soma

has been introduced quite recently in the 1970s to eastern Indonesia. The latter

does not employ seke equipment in fishing operation. In this section, use pattern

of fishing grounds in soma fishing will be examined.

In Para, there are 24 units of soma purse-seine nets owned and operated by

individual groups, which consist of 15 to 23 male members. As only four fishing

grounds for soma fishery (Mamalokang, Batuleke, Bawondeke and Nenung) are

available, daily rotation is also applied for the equity: Sunday is excluded from

this rotation, and each group can operate as many as four to seven times monthly

(Table 8).

In Kahakitang, there are 31 fishing grounds used for soma fishing. Contrary

to the case of Para, each of these fishing grounds is claimed by 31 individuals who

are the net-owners as well. The number of 'owners both of nets and fishing

grounds, differ dusun by dusun as Table 9 shows. It should be noted here that

fishing ground are not located within the proximity of owners' residential area as

shown in Figure9. It is apparent that in Kahakitang the sea is priVatized by

individual owners of nets. Interestingly, only one of the 32 net-owners does not

have his own fishing ground as he has just purchased a net and started operation

since one month before of our research in 1991. Despite this handicap, he can use

any spot, so long as it is not owned by the others.

Exceptionally, the Tapurung fishing ground, located at north of the island is

appointed as a common property of the village as a whole (kampungtqghuwangel. This fishing ground used to be exploited for seke fishery. As jt

potentially abounds in fish, four or five groups would operate almost daily in

adjacent waters (See Figure7.). t In Bebalang Island, 11 fishing grounds for soma are claimed and divided by

three dusun as shown in Figure 10. As soma fishery on this island develops into

two types, the use of fishing grounds is differentiated into two; one is by a large-

scale net (soma kaum) and the other a small-scale net (bawulus(D. Owners of

soma net differ in number according to dusun; Dusun-1 (one kaum and one

bawulsel, Dusun-2 (three kaum) and Dusun-3 (one kaum and seven bawulsel.About half of the fishing grounds are subject to the exclusive use by dusun, but the

others are permitted for communal use by two or three dusun. If more than two

groups happen to encounter at the same fishing ground, there is no particular rule

to solve the trouble or conflicting situation. In practice, however, even in such a

case, every participating group can operate together in the neighboring waters


.Table 8. Rotation of the Fishing Operation in Four Fishing Grounds of Soma by 24 groups

in Para Island

Date MdmalokangGroup No.

Fishing Grounds Batuleke BawondekeGroup No. Group No.

NlenungGroup No.

L 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

IL12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

･23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

'22

23

24

1

2

3

15

25

20

25

25

25

25

15

20

15

15

15

20

17

17

20

18

23

20

22

17

20

21

21'

15

25

20

24

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

1

2

21

15

25

20

25

25

25.

25

15

20

15

15

15

20

17

17

20

18

23

20

22

17

20

21'

21

15

25

23

24

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

1

17

21

15

25

20

2s

25

25

25

15

20

15

15

15

20

17

17

20

18

23

20

22

17

20

21

21

15

22

23

24

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17･

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

20

17

21

15

25

20

25

25

25

25

15

20

15

15

15

20

17

17

20

18

23

20

22

17

20

21

,21

Source: Survey data, August 1991.

NO.: indicates nuMber of members included in each soma group.

-: Holiday.

(senkasio me'vme'vlo). If five nets are lined-up side by side, nobody knows which

net gains most. The fishermen say that the success depends on the luck.

On the other hand, Dusun-3 has five fishing gtounds for exclusive use. As

there are seven nets in this dusun, prior arrangement to avoid crowding appear to

be made. When a large kaum is anounced to operate at a certain spot, the other


Table ･9. Number of Owner of Soma Net by Dusun･in Kahakitang Island

DusunM

Population

F T.No.Household

No. ofOwner

1

2

'3

4

5

6

201

139

167

.136

137

122

210

162

216

168

153

124

411

301

383

304

29o L

246

79

72

74'

63

55

61

4,

510

'10

1

2

small bawulse' netter refrain from using the spot. And in the same fishing grounds

no more than two nets are usually operated (Table 10).

6. TRANSFORMATION OF SEA TENURE IN PURSE-SEINE IN THE SANGIHE ISLANDS

At the time of the present research in 1991, the seke fishery was not conducted

so widely as it was before, but only on two islands of the Sangihe group; Para and

Batunderang. In the other islands, seke fishery disappeared and was replaced by

soma fishery. This has certainly coincided with the nationwide and global social

change during these few decades [BAiLEy et al. 1987; PoLLNAc et aL 1992]. In

Indonesia, traditional marine practices for conservation have been witnessed

nationwide around that period of time [PoLuNiN 1985].

Even in the local setting, change in fishing technology has also been seen in the

small-scale purse-seine fishery in north Sulqwesi. In Kematiga of Minahasa

Regency, for instance, the old giop fishery for mackerel scad has been replaced by

the new pojeko technique in which more capital investment is required for the

operation but higher jncome is expected than by the giop'[MANus et al. 1992].

It should however be noted that the transformational process that each area

and individual fishing community have experienced is not the same, but there may

exist a differentiation in terms of sea tenure, ownership of fishing grounds, and

distribution of catch. In this section, factors involved in the process from seke to

soma are examined from cases that have already been, described, and thesiginificance of the study as to the change in small-scale fishery will be mentioned

[AKIMIcHI 1992].

In the past, in the Singgaluhang fishing ground used by Para fishermen, two

groups used to operate, but due to the increase of the number of participant, fish

share per capita became smaller than before. Then, the entry to this fishing

ground was restricted to only one group in 1980. Agreement was made through

the joint meeting among tonaseng. Such a customary meeting as above isgenerally termed as gighile (Indonesian as musyawarah). The community-based

negotiation and customary practices over the sustainable use of resources may be


so

11

9

8

:ND

.

e

e

s･

17

31

12

g

13 2 18

.

s,

N..23

)N

,

25

14

24

7

Kahakitang

A:i,,

lsland

5

ls 16

19

20

329

2730

4･28

26

1

6

21 22

Scale 1: 100 r ooo

Figure ,9. Location of Soma Fishing Grounds in Kahakitang Island

1. 0ndole (D-1)

2. Mami (D-1)

3. Lingoang (D-1)

4. Bintuaheng (D-2)

5. Salehe (D-2)

6. Kanalung (D-2)

7. Hiwu (D-2)

8. Batulohang (D-3),

9. Tolengikan Kadio (D-3)

10. Tolengikan Labo (D-3)

11. Lesue (D-p3)

12. Salanbeang (D!3)

13. Dalako Kadio (D-3)

14. Lempung (D-3)

15. Tuhong (D-3)

16. Banahung (D-4)

17. Tengonbangong (D-4)

18. Dinkaleng (D-4)

19. Nielese (D-4)

20. Walisung (D-4)

21. Sowang (D-4)

22. Nameng (D-4)

23. Taleko (D-4)

24. Batudarua (D-4)

25. Arengkambing (D-5)

26. Parara (D-6)

27. Mandiala (D-6)

28. Lumaeng (D-1)

29. Lahope-1 (D-3)

30. Lahope-2 (D-4)'

31. Lesue (D-3)

D-1, D-2, D-3, D-4, D-5, and D-6 indicate names of Dusun.

effective in the resource management as well as avoiding social conflicts and it is

also.reported from other parts of Indonesia [BAiLEy and ZERNER 1992; AKiMicHi

1995]. Here, it should be noted that the fishing leader not the village head is the

man who works as decision-maker. In Maluku, similar type of resource manager,

kopala adat is said to have controlled resource use in the sasi practices [BAiLEy and


6

5

s2

4 Dusun-1 Dusun-2 3

Dusun-3

11 (Bebalang lsland7

,

"･to

o9

8

Figure 10. Location of Seke and Soma Fishing Grounds in Bebalang Island

1. Beba 5. Napo Lumain . 9. Kahe Ngura2. Lanise 6. Dakupang 10. Nenanga3. Napo Rakel 7. Liang Bala 11. Liang Tatibase4. Napo Tatapang 8. Baloto

ZERNER 1992]. In Kahakitang, seke fishery disappered around 1960s. Of the six seke groups

five disappeared in 1958, but the last group persisted as late as 1960. According to

the secretary of the village, the reason for this change is said to be associated with

organizational malfunctioning of seke fishery. Seke fishery is communal in nature

but the leadership of tonaseng as a fishing expert as well as an esoteric fish-caller is

also vital to integrate the group as one unity. The management of seke fishery is

characterized by communal labor participation not only for the fishing operation


Table 10. Use of Fishing Grounds by Two Types of Soma in Bebalang

Island

Fishing Ground Type of Soma Entry of Dusun

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

KK and B

B

B

K and B

K and B

K and B

K and B

K and B

K and B

K and B

Dl

Dl+D2Dl+D2+D3D1+D2+D3Dl+D2+D3Dl+D2+D3D3

D3

D3

D3

D3

K: Kbum (1arge-scale net), B: Bawulsti (small-scale net), D: Dusun (ltv3)

See Figure 10.

but also for the repair and maintenance of fishing devices, supply of raw materials

in exchange with an equal shqre of the catch. Failures in financial entrepreneur-

ship and the maintenance of fishing device by some of the leaders brought about

the degrading of the leaderships.

On the other hand, the method of participation in soma fishery as crews does

not demand such social imperative as net repair and supply of materials required in

seke fishery. All the operational cost in soma fishery was paid by a single person,

the owner both of the net and the engine-boat. Catch by soma was distributed

equally among only those who participated in the operation, ･and not for the

community members nor the widows and handicapped･. Unlike the method ofdistribution in seke fishery, even the tonaseng, usually a net owner, does not

obtain extra shares but the same as other crews do, although both net and boat

account for shares to equivalent to two people.

Therefore, it is evident that the seke is community-based fishery that is sharply

different from the soma which is based on a capitalistic principle in terms of

participation in the fishing operation and distribution of catch.

Nevertheless, the change from seke to soma might occur without any serious

conflicts. For understanding the smooth change from seke fishery to soma fishery,

organizational differences between the two should be examined. In seke fishery, as

we have seen, each group organization is socially fixed and embedded in the social

system. Although day-to-day participants vary in composition, the right to obtain

shares is guaranteed.

In contrast, in soma fishery group organization is relatively fluid. However,

it does not mean members are optinally called for by the owne. r. There are two

types of participants; the fixed members and those who wotk temporarily without

long-term engagement. The former core members or masanae tatape (Crew)

144 E. MANTJoRo and T. AKiMicHiinclude tonaseng (net-owner), two fish-sharers (mandore), about five watchers

(antoho). The latter temporary members or masanae lora include about ten crews

who work on a daily basis. It is pointed out that such a hierarchical labor

organization is also found in the seke fishery. Difference may lie however, in how

the catch is optimally shared and satisfy participants. In such a group

organization, comprised of a few Qwners with nets and boats and skilled fishermen

and a majority of workers without capital, inter-personal network's su'rel-y bear a

certain significance in the group formation.

Similarly, on Bebalang Island, the reason for the decline of seke fishery is, as

Singgaluhang's case suggests, said to be the less shares due to the increase of

members within a group. It is also said that the tonaseng considered a new

technology as a better thing. In,Dusun-3 of the island, seke fishery persisted until

1959, and in Dusun-1 it had already disappeared around that time. Seke once

recovered in Dusun-1 in 1969, but on the following year it ceased, and then soma

fishery started. It finally disappeared in early 1970.

In Batunderang seke fishery is still practiced. However, the future of seke

fishery does not appear to be promising. According to the opolao, one reason is

that the younger generations prefer line fishing to communal seke fisherys which

makes it dithcult tQ.organize the fishing. The second reason is the aging of the

tonaseng and lack of the successors. He insisted on the role of opolao to have therespon'sibility to promote seke fishery despite the diMcult situation. He also

insisted on the low cost of seke fishing gear as･the seke is composed of bamboo,

coconut leaves and rattan which are available on the island. It is much cheaper

than the imported materials.

In Bukide Islands, seke has already disappeared. According to one man, who

was born in 1933 and whose father used to be tonaseng, the year when seke

disappeared varies considerably. In some vi!lages, seke finished around early

1940s while in the others it lasted as late as the mid 1960s. In Nusa village it

persisted until the year 1970. The major reason for the decline is said to be the

increase of the crews and the decline of profit.

From the above examples, it becomes apparent that the decline of seke fishery

is related to various factors; technological, socio-economic, and cultural.

An individualistic attitude towards fishing labor is associated with the

decline. The tonaseng bears an important role in the collapse or persistence of

seke fishery organization. Increase in the number of fishermen is, howev.er, the

critical factor to make the seke fishery less profitable; ,malfunctioning of equal

share system.

In a process from the seke to the soma, an increase in the number of fishing

groups as well as fishing grounds is apparently found. Although there is no sign

of overfishing at the moment, intensification of fishing efforts may bring about

resource depletion and conflict over the fishing grounds. Unfortunately, there has

already occurred blood fighting over the territoriality of Singgaluhang between

fishermen of Para and Mahengetang in February 1987, which resulted in the death


of four victims.

Observation of the transformation 'processes in small-scale fishery thus

provides us with many important implications. Despite a strong claim for a

commtinity-based resource management scheme [BAiLEy and ZERNER 1992], it is

now rapidly disappearing. The future of seke fishery should then be carefully

exaMined for another ten years or so, focussing on how the people think and

choose their own way of living.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AcHEsoN, J. M. 1975 The Lobster Fiefs: Economic and Ecological Effects of Territoriality in the

Maine Lobster Industry. H}tman Ecology 3 (3): 183-207.

AKIMIcHI, T.

1992 Sea Tenure and Its Transformation in the'Lau of North Malaita, Solomon Islands. South Pacpac Stu(ly 12 (1): 7-22.

199S Indigenous Resource Management and Sustainable Development: Case Studies from Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. Anthropological Scien.ce 103 (4): 321-

327.BAiLEy, C., A. DwipoNGGo, and F. MARAHuDiN (edsL) 1987 Indonesian Marine Capture Flrtsheries. Manila: International Center for Living

Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), Jakarta: Directorate General of Fisheries (DGF), and Marine Fisheries Research Institute (MFRI), Ministry of

Agriculture.

BAiLEy C. and ZERNER C. 1992 Community-Based Fisheries Management Institutions in Indonesia. Mbiritime

Anthropological Studies.5 (1):, 1-17.

CARRIER, J. G.

1980 Ownership of Productive .Resources on Ponam Island, Ma.nus,Province. JOurnal de la Socigt6･ des Octinnistes 37: 205-217. ･

1987 Marine Tenure and Cpnservation in Papua New Guinea: Problems in Interpretation, In B.J. McCay and J.M. Acheson (eds.) 71he euestion of the

Commons, Tuscon: The University of Arizona Press, pp. 142-167.

CHRslTy, F.T. Jr.

1982 7lerritorial USe Rights in Marine Fisheries: Dofnitions and Conditions. FAO

Technical Papers No. 227, Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization.

CoRDELL, J. 1989 A Sea ofSmatt Boats. Cambridge:-Cultural Survival, Inc.

JoHANNEs, R. E.

1978 Traditional Marine Conservation Methods in Oceania and Their Demise. Annual Reyiew of Ecology and 5[ystematics 9: 349-364,

JoMo, K. S.

1991 "FZshing for .Tirouble: Malavsian ,FZsheries, Sustainable Development and

inequality. Kuala Lumpur: Institut Pengajian Tinggi, Universiti Malaya.

MANus, O.A., E. MANmoRo, Y. JiNNoucHi, and Y; SmGE]yu 1992 Fishing Household Economy in Rural Indoensia: A Case of Kematiga Fishing ' Village, North Sulawesi. 77opics 2 (1): 35-48.

146 E. MANTJoRo and T. AKIMIcHI

MssuDA, H., C. ARAGA, and T. .YosHiNo

1975 CoastalFishes ofSouthern lapan. Tokyo: Tokai University Press.

MATsuDA, Y. and Y. Kaneda . 1984 The Seven Greatest Fisheries Incidents in Japan. In K. Ruddle and T. Akimichi

(eds.) Maritime institutions in the va;estern Pacij7c, Osaka: National Museum of

' Ethnology, pp. 159-181. 'OsTRoM-E. ' ' ' 1990 Governing the Commons. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.PoLLNAc, R. B., C. BAiLEy and A. PoERNoMo (eds.)

1992, Contribution to "Fishei:y Development Policy in indonesia. Jakarta: Central

Institute for Fisheries Agency for Agricultural Research and Development,

Ministry ofAgriculture, Indonesia.

PoLuNIN, N.V.C..

1985 Traditional Marine Practices in Indonesia and Their Bearing on Conservation.

In J.A. McNeeley and D. Pitt (eds.) Cutture and Conservation: 7Zhe Htzman

Dimension in Environmental Planning, London: Croon Helm, pp. 155-179.

RuDDLE, K. and T. AKiMicm (eds.)

1984 Maritime institutions in the PVestern Pticifc. Senri Ethnological Studies 17.

Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology. 1989 Sea Tenure in Japan and the Southwestern Ryukyus. In J. Cordell (ed.) A Sea

of SmaU Boa4 Cambridge: Cultural Survival, Inc., pp. 337-370.

RuDDLE K. and R.EJoHANNEs (eds.) ' ' 1985 71he 77aditional K)iowledge and Management of Coastal Elystems in Asia and

the Pacij7c. Jakarta: UNESCO Regional OMce for Science an.d Technology for

Southeast Asia.

SmBATA, K.,and K. W. A. MAsENGi 1991 Traditional Fishing Boats in Southeast Asia. In K. Shibata (ed.) Comparative

Studies on indigenous lqZshing Boats and Geans around the Nbrthwestern Coasts

of Pacij7c-Co(zstal Ftshing Boats of Southeast Asia and lapan. Nagasaki:

Working Group of Fishing Boats in Southeast Asia, pp. 28-259.

SuBANi, W. and H. R. BARus

1988/89 Alat Penangkupan lkan den Udang Laut di indonesia. Jurnal Penelitian Perikanan Laut 50. Jakarta: Balai Penelitian Perikanan Laut, Badan Penelitian

dan Pengembangan Pertanian, Departemen Pertanian.

WAHyoNo, A. D. WARDLAT, and T. Ju-LAN

1991 Bebalang: Memudarnya Eungsi Seke. Jakarta: Pgsat Penelitian dan Pengebangan Kemasyarakatan dan Kebudayaan Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (PMB/LIPI).

sea tenure

Documents