seed growing tips

8/11/2019 Seed Growing Tips

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1. KEEP RECORDS TO ALLOW FOR BETTER PLANNING

An often overlooked aspect of plant propagation is the art of record keeping. Whether you are producing a few

plants for your home flower and vegetable gardens or working at a larger-scale nursery, developing a

propagation journal will prove indispensable. Here at the Center for Historic Plants, we record when seeds are

sown, the germination date and success rate, and when seedlings are ready for transplanting each year. At theend of the year we evaluate the timing of our production schedule, noting what went right and what went wrong.

These observations help us make adjustments for next year to ensure that we are growing our plants under

optimum conditions. We also keep track of where we purchase seeds, as their quality and reliability may vary

by source.

2. STORE SEED PROPERLY TO MAINTAIN VIABILITY

Seeds are a fragile commodity, and if not treated properly, their viability will sharply decline. While some seeds

may survive for thousands of years under the proper conditions, others will lose viability quickly, even when

properly stored. To maintain dormancy, keep seeds in a cool, dark location with low humidity, like a refri

3. USE WIDE, FLAT CONTAINERS TO AVOID OVERCROWDING


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Plastic pots are best for starting seeds.

Good drainage is essential.

Plastic pots or containers are preferable to clay pots when starting seeds, as they retain moisture more

consistently. Wide, shallow containers prevent both overcrowding of seedlings and excessive moisture around

fragile, young roots. Plants that resent root disturbance when transplanted are best sown into small, individual


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containers like cell packs or plug trays. Recycled plastic containers, like empty yogurt or margarine tubs, work

well, too, provided you've poked holes in the bottom for drainage. No matter what type of container you use, it

must be clean and free of pathogens. To sanitize a container, soak it in a 10 percent bleach solution for 15

minutes and let it air dry.

4. TAMP SEEDS DOWN TO MAKE DIRECT CONTACT WITH THE SOIL

After planting, cover seeds with sieved potting mix.


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Lightly tamp to ensure firm contact between seeds and mix.

Use a kitchen sieve to spread soilless seed-starting mix evenly over the top of the seeds to the depth of two

times the seed diameter. Very small seeds and those that require light to germinate should lie directly on the

surface. Whether covered with planting medium or not, each seed must be in firm contact with the moist

surface to begin germinating. Use a pestle or even the bottom of a glass to gently tamp down the surface.

5. PREVENT DISEASE BY PROVIDING AIR FLOW AND DRAINAGE


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A sprinkling of sphagnum moss and chicken grit helps keep the surface dry, preventing the growth of

pathogens.

A fan circulates air.

The fungal infection often referred to as damping-off is usually caused by excessive moisture and poor air

circulation. However, there are a few cultural techniques that will help to keep fungal agents at bay. After


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covering the seeds with planting mix and tamping them down, spread a thin layer of 50 percent milled

sphagnum and 50 percent starter chicken grit (finely ground stone) over the surface to keep the soil around the

emerging shoots dry and provide an inhospitable environment for pathogens. To promote good air circulation,

place a small fan near your seedlings. Keep the fan on low and direct it to blow across the containers at the soil

level where air may become trapped and stagnant.

6. COVER TRAYS WITH PLASTIC WRAP TO KEEP THE MOISTURE LEVEL CONSTANT

Plastic wrap ensures a constant moisture level.


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A heat mat speeds germination.

Most seeds require temperatures of 65 to 75F to germinate. Placing seed containers near an existing heater

or using a space heater with the proper precautions can raise the ambient temperature as needed. In addition,

a heating pad designed for plant use placed directly under the seed containers will warm the planting mix and

encourage germination. When using any additional heat source, be sure to check for moisture often, since the

seed containers may dry out more quickly.

8. TURN SEEDLINGS DAILY TO KEEP STEMS STRONG


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A sunny windowsill is a good place to put sprouted seedlings.

Lightly brushing the seedlings encourages the growth of strong stems.

Most seeds will not germinate without sunlight and will perform best with 12 to 16 hours each day. Indoors,

place seed containers in a sunny, south-facing window and give the container a quarter turn each day to


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prevent the seedlings from overreaching toward the light and developing weak, elongated stems. Also, gently

brush the palm of your hand against the tops of the seedlings to encourage strong stem growth.

. FEED THEM WELL

After true leaves develop, it's time for a little fertilizer.

Proper nutrition at a consistent rate will keep your seedlings growing strong. When the embryo inside a seed is

developing, it relies on food stored in the endosperm to fuel its growth. As the shoot emerges from the soil and

the true leaves develop, the initial nutrients supplied by the endosperm will be depleted and supplemental

fertilization is then required. Most seed-starting mixes contain a small nutrient charge to help make this

transition while not burning the developing roots. However, once the true leaves emerge, it is time to begin a

half-strength liquid fertilizer regimen on a weekly basis.

10. ACCLIMATE SEEDLINGS TO DIRECT SUNLIGHT


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Hardening off in a cold frame acclimates the seedlings to conditions outdoors.

Photo/Illustration:

Gary Junken

Before seedlings can be planted outdoors, they need to be hardened off, or acclimated to direct sunlight and

fluctuating temperatures. It is best to do this over a three-day period by placing them in direct sunlight during

the morning only of the first day, then increasing their time outside by a few hours each day until they are

vigorous enough to be transplanted.

Process of Seed Germination

Requirements for Germination

Water:

The role of water in germination is of paramount importance .The seed remains in a

dormant condition and the initiation of the process of germination takes place by the

influx of water molecules. The seed has a tiny pore in the covering (testa which is

called micropyle and water enters into the seed initially by imbibation adsorption of

water by substances present inside the seed. These include proteins, starch and cell


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wall materials suach as hemicellulose and pectic substances.

The swelling of tese substances ca lesd tot he strong imbiational forces which are great

enough to cause rupturing of the seed.

Optimum temperature :

There is a characteristic temperature range needed for proper germination of seeds in

a given soil type. It is about 5 to 400 C.

Oxygen :


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This is required for aerobic respiration which can be assisted with anaerobic

respiration if needed

Plant growthis well explained with an example of germination of Bambarra Bean seed below.

Germination of Voandzeia (Bambarra Bean)

Plant growthis well explained with an example of germination of Bambarra Bean seed below.

Physiology of Germination:

A typical seed stores carbohydrates, lipids and proteins for germination.


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As a result of imbibation and osmosis the embryo bercomes hydrated which activates

the enzymes for respiration.

basically the storage centre (food) and the growth centre(embryo) are the main regioons

of activity.

Digestion of food on storage centre osccurs by hydrolysis and amino acids, sugars anf

fatty acids anf glygerol arte produced

Soluble products are translocaterd to thegrowing regions of the embryo

The majority of glucose is used for cellulose synthesis and other cell wall

materials.amino acids are used for enzymes and structural components.

The net loss of mass of the seed occurs due to change of sugars to Co2 and water

where C02is lost as gas than O2 taken up by aerobic respiration.

Within the embryo growth occurs by cell division and amounts of proteins,

cellulose,nucleic acids steadily increase in the growing regions of the seed.

Thev first visible sign of growth is the radicle, that emerges fromthe micropyle andis

positively geotropic in nature.It forms the rooyt system of the plant

The next structure that emerges is the plumule, that is positively phototropic and forms

the shoot system of the plant.

Stages of Seed Germination

There are basically three steps of seed germination:

Step 1-Water imbibation results in rupture of seed coat, uniform imbibation is important

and approximately optimum temperatures are required

Step 2-The imbibition of the seed coat results in emergence of the radicle and the

plumule,the cotyledons get unfolded.It is important that the temperature and photo

period are required in optimum amounts

Step 3-This marks the final step in the germination of the seed where the cotyledons

are expanded which are the true leaves.

For the growth and development of seeds ,different kinds of food like carbohydrates, fat

and proteins are required in stored form.Besides the growth promoting substances like


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auxins, heteroauxins are also formed at the time of germination which controls the

growth and development of seedlings during germination.

Germination of Voandzeia (Bambarra Bean)

Seed germination is an irreversible process. Germination includes the changes that take place from the time the dry seed is

provided with suitable conditions to when the seedling becomes established as an independent plant. Various changes take place

during germination.

They are as follows:

Sub Topics

1. Imbibition

2. Respiration

Imbibition

The first step in the process of seed germination is imbibition or absorption of water. The seed takes in water through the micropyle

which results in swelling of the seed. This is due to the cellular constituents being dehydrated. The swelling causes the seed coat to

rupture and enables the radicle to come out in the form of a primary root.

Respiration

When the seed imbibes water, it causes the metabolic activities to resume. In the beginning the respiration is anaerobic and later it

becomes aerobic.

Germination in a Dicot

Theprimary rootemerges through the seed coats while the seed is still buried

in the soil.

The hypocotyl("below the cotyledons") emerges from the seed coats and

pushes its way up through the soil. It is bent in a hairpin shape

the hypocotyl archas it grows up. The two cotyledonsprotect
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the plumulethe epicotyl("above the cotyledons") and first leavesfrom

mechanical damage.

Once the hypocotyl arch emerges from the soil, it straightens out. This

response is triggered by light. Both

ored light, absorbed byphytochromeand

o blue light, absorbed bycryptochromecan do the job.

The cotyledons spread apart exposing the epicotylwith theapical meristemat

its tip, and

two primary leaves

In many dicots, the cotyledons not only transfer their food stores to the

developing plant but also turn green and make more food

byphotosynthesisuntil they drop off.

The image (courtesy of the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.) is a time-lapse photograph

showing three stages in the germination of a beanseed.

Germination in Monocots

When grass seedslike corn (maize) or oats

(shown here)germinate,

the primary rootpierces the seed (and fruit)

coverings and grows down;

the primary leafof the plant grows up. It isprotected as it pushes up through t

importance of sowing seeds:

1. Seeds are God's creation to provide wealth and blessing in the earth. Seed is the propagative structure of

anything. IF you want to have something, identify its seed an sow it.

2. Sowing seeds gives you a legal right to a harvest.

3. Good things are seeds. Gal 6:6-8. The seed is part of the fruit. The good thing that we want is what we must sow.

That is what the seed is.

4. Spiritual virtues are seeds that can be sown. Matt 5:7 - Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. Matt

18:32-35 The man was given a fruit of mercy but did not sow any of it, so he had no more right to continue to enjoy

the harvest of mercy.

5. Good deeds are seeds that can be sown.
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6. The word of God is seed that can be sown. Mark 4:14. The sower soweth the word.

7. Money is a seed that can be sown. 2 Cor 9:6-7

8. The tithe is a special seed that can be sown. Malachi 3:10

9. A seed to the poor is a special seed that gives a harvest of preservation, long life and health to the sower. Psalm

41:1-310. The seed of money mixed with prayer. Cornelias of Acts 10; his prayers and alms came up for a memorial before

God Acts 10:4

IrrigationFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about irrigation in agriculture. For other uses, seeIrrigation (disambiguation).

Irrigation canal nearChannagiri,Davangere District,India
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Irrigation in a field in New Jersey, United States

Anirrigation sprinklerwatering a lawn

Irrigation canal inOsmaniye, Turkey

Irrigationis the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growingofagricultural crops,maintenance oflandscapes,andrevegetationof disturbed soils in dry areasand during periods of inadequate rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in cropproduction, which include protecting plants against frost,

[1]suppressing weed growth in grain

fields[2]

and preventingsoil consolidation.[3]

In contrast,agriculturethat relies only on direct rainfall isreferred to as rain-fed ordryland farming.

Irrigation systems are also used fordust suppression,disposal ofsewage,and inmining.Irrigation isoften studied together withdrainage,which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.

Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5000 years, and was the basis of theeconomy and society of numerous societies, ranging from Asia to Arizona.

Contents

[hide]

1History

o 1.1China
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o 1.2Korea

o 1.3North America

2Present extent

3Types

o 3.1Surface

o

3.2Localized 3.2.1Subsurface textile irrigation

3.2.2Drip

o 3.3Sprinkler System

3.3.1Center pivot

3.3.2Lateral move (side roll, wheel line)

o 3.4Sub-irrigation

o 3.5Automatic, non-electric using buckets and ropes

o 3.6Using water condensed from humid air

o 3.7In-ground irrigation

4Water sources

5

Efficiency

6Technical challenges

7See also

8References

9Further reading

o 9.1Journals

10External links

History[edit]

Animal-powered irrigation, Upper Egypt, ca. 184960
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An example of an irrigation system common on theIndian subcontinent.Artistic impression on the banks ofDal Lake, Kashmir,India

Inside akareztunnel at Turpan, Uyghurstan

Archaeological investigation has identified evidence of irrigation where the natural rainfall wasinsufficient to support crops.

Perennial irrigationwas practiced in theMesopotamian plainwhereby crops were regularly wateredthroughout thegrowing seasonby coaxing water through a matrix of small channels formed in the

field.[4]

Ancient Egyptianspracticed Basin irrigationusing theflooding of the Nileto inundate land plotswhich had been surrounded by dykes. The flood water was held until the fertile sediment had settledbefore the surplus was returned to thewatercourse.

[5]There is evidence of the ancient

EgyptianpharaohAmenemhet IIIin thetwelfth dynasty(about 1800BCE)using the natural lake oftheFaiyum Oasisas a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons, the lakeswelled annually from flooding of theNile.

[6]

TheAncient Nubiansdeveloped a form of irrigation by using awaterwheel-like device called asakia.Irrigation began in Nubia some time between the third and second millennium BCE.

[7]It largely

depended upon the flood waters that would flow through theNile Riverand other rivers in what isnow the Sudan.

[8]

Insub-Saharan Africairrigation reached theNiger Riverregion cultures and civilizations by the firstor second millennium BCE and was based on wet season flooding and water harvesting .

[9][10]

Terrace irrigationis evidenced in pre-Columbian America, early Syria, India, and China.[5]

In theZana Valley of theAndes MountainsinPeru,archaeologists found remains of threeirrigationcanalsradiocarbon datedfrom the4th millennium BCE,the3rd millennium BCEand the 9thcenturyCE.These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in theNew World.Traces of a canalpossibly dating from the5th millennium BCEwere found under the 4th millenniumcanal.

[11]Sophisticated irrigation and storage systems were developed by theIndus Valley
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Civilizationin present-day Pakistan andNorth India,including the reservoirs atGirnarin 3000 BCEand an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE.

[12][13]Large scale agriculture was practiced

and an extensive network of canals was used for the purpose of irrigation.

Ancient Persia(modern dayIran)as far back as the6th millennium BCE,where barley was grown inareas where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support such a crop.

[14]TheQanats,developed in

ancientPersiain about 800 BCE, are among the oldest known irrigation methods still in use today.

They are now found in Asia, the Middle East and North Africa. The system comprises a network ofvertical wells and gently sloping tunnels driven into the sides of cliffs and steep hills to tapgroundwater.[15]Thenoria,a water wheel with clay pots around the rim powered by the flow of thestream (or by animals where the water source was still), was first brought into use at about this time,byRomansettlers in North Africa. By 150 BCE the pots were fitted with valves to allow smootherfilling as they were forced into the water.[16]

The irrigation works of ancientSri Lanka,the earliest dating from about 300 BCE, in the reign ofKingPandukabhayaand under continuous development for the next thousand years, were one ofthe most complex irrigation systems of the ancient world. In addition to underground canals,theSinhalesewere the first to build completely artificial reservoirs to store water. Due to theirengineering superiority in this sector, they were often called 'masters of irrigation'. Most of theseirrigation systems still exist undamaged up to now, inAnuradhapuraandPolonnaruwa,because of

the advanced and precise engineering. The system was extensively restored and further extendedduring the reign of KingParakrama Bahu(11531186CE).

[17]

China[edit]

The oldest knownhydraulicengineers ofChinawereSunshu Ao(6th century BCE) of theSpring andAutumn PeriodandXimen Bao(5th century BCE) of theWarring Statesperiod, both of whomworked on large irrigation projects. In theSzechwanregion belonging to theState of Qinof ancientChina, theDujiangyan Irrigation Systemwas built in 256 BCE to irrigate an enormous area offarmland that today still supplies water.

[18]By the 2nd century AD, during theHan Dynasty,the

Chinese also usedchain pumpsthat lifted water from lower elevation to higher elevation.[19]

Thesewere powered by manual foot pedal, hydraulicwaterwheels,or rotating mechanical wheels pulledbyoxen.[20]The water was used forpublic worksof providing water for urban residential quarters and

palace gardens, but mostly for irrigation offarmlandcanals and channels in the fields.

[21]

Korea[edit]

In 15th centuryKorea,the world's first rain gauge, uryanggye(Korean:), was invented in

1441. The inventor wasJang Yeong-sil,a Korean engineer of theJoseon Dynasty,under the activedirection of the king,Sejong the Great.It was installed in irrigation tanks as part of a nationwidesystem to measure and collect rainfall for agricultural applications. With this instrument, plannersand farmers could make better use of the information gathered in the survey.

[22]

North America[edit]Main article:Hohokam

In North America, the Hohokam were the only culture to rely on irrigation canals to water their crops,

and their irrigation systems supported the largest population in the Southwest by AD 1300. TheHohokam constructed an assortment of simple canals combined withweirsin their variousagricultural pursuits. Between the 7th and 14th centuries, they also built and maintained extensiveirrigation networks along the lower Salt and middle Gila rivers that rivaled the complexity of thoseused in the ancient Near East, Egypt, and China. These were constructed using relatively simpleexcavation tools, without the benefit of advanced engineering technologies, and achieved drops of afew feet per mile, balancing erosion and siltation. The Hohokam cultivated varieties of cotton,tobacco, maize, beans and squash, as well as harvested an assortment of wild plants. Late in theHohokam Chronological Sequence, they also used extensive dry-farming systems, primarily to
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growagavefor food and fiber. Their reliance on agricultural strategies based on canal irrigation, vitalin their less than hospitable desert environment and arid climate, provided the basis for theaggregation of rural populations into stable urban centers.

[23]

Present extent[edit]

In the mid 20th century, the advent of diesel and electric motors led to systems that couldpumpgroundwaterout of majoraquifersfaster thandrainage basinscould refill them. This can leadto permanent loss of aquifer capacity, decreased water quality, ground subsidence, and otherproblems. The future of food production in such areas as theNorth China Plain,thePunjab,andtheGreat Plainsof the US is threatened by this phenomenon.

[24][25]

At the global scale, 2,788,000 km (689 million acres) of fertile land was equipped with irrigationinfrastructure around the year 2000. About 68% of the area equipped for irrigation is located in Asia,17% in the Americas, 9% in Europe, 5% in Africa and 1% in Oceania. The largest contiguous areasof high irrigation density are found:

In Northern India and Pakistan along the Ganges and Indus rivers

In the Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze basins in China

Along the Nile river in Egypt and Sudan

In the Mississippi-Missouri river basin and in parts of California

Smaller irrigation areas are spread across almost all populated parts of the world.[26]

Only 8 years later in 2008, the scale of irrigated land increased to an estimated total of3,245,566 km, what is nearly the size of India.

[27]

Types[edit]

Basin flood irrigation of wheat
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Irrigation of land inPunjab, Pakistan

Various types of irrigation techniques differ in how the water obtained from the source is distributedwithin the field. In general, the goal is to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so that each

plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little.

Surface[edit]Main article:Surface irrigation

In surface(furrow, flood, or level basin) irrigation systems, water moves across the surface ofagricultural lands, in order to wet it and infiltrate into the soil. Surface irrigation can be subdividedinto furrow, borderstrip or basin irrigation. It is often called flood irrigationwhen the irrigation resultsin flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land. Historically, this has been the most commonmethod of irrigating agricultural land and still is in most parts of the world.

Where water levels from the irrigation source permit, the levels are controlled by dikes, usuallyplugged by soil. This is often seen in terraced rice fields (rice paddies), where the method is used to

flood or control the level of water in each distinct field. In some cases, the water is pumped, or liftedby human or animal power to the level of the land. The field water efficiency of surface irrigation istypically lower than other forms of irrigation but has the potential for efficiencies in the range of 70% -90% under appropriate management.

Localized[edit]

Brass Impact type sprinkler head

Localized irrigationis a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a pipednetwork, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent toit. Drip irrigation, spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation and bubbler irrigation belong to this category ofirrigation methods.

[28]

Subsurface textile irrigation[edit]
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Diagram showing the structure of an example SSTI installation

Main article:Subsurface textile irrigation

Subsurface Textile Irrigation (SSTI) is a technology designed specifically for subsurface irrigation inall soil textures from desert sands to heavy clays. A typical subsurface textile irrigation system has

an impermeable base layer (usuallypolyethyleneorpolypropylene), a drip line running along thatbase, a layer ofgeotextileon top of the drip line and, finally, a narrow impermeable layer on top ofthe geotextile (see diagram). Unlike standard drip irrigation, the spacing of emitters in the drip pipe isnot critical as the geotextile moves the water along the fabric up to 2m from the dripper.

Drip[edit]

Drip irrigation layout and its parts

Drip irrigation - a dripper in action
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Grapes inPetrolina,only made possible in thissemi aridarea bydrip irrigation

Main article:Drip irrigation

Drip (or micro) irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests. In thissystem water falls drop by drop just at the position of roots. Water is delivered at or near

therootzone of plants, drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient method ofirrigation,

[29]if managed properly, since evaporation and runoff are minimized. The field water

efficiency of drip irrigation is typically in the range of 80 to 90 percent when managed correctly.

In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined withplastic mulch,further reducingevaporation, and is also the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known asfertigation.

Deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip system is operated fortoo long or if the delivery rate is too high. Drip irrigation methods range from very high-tech andcomputerized to low-tech and labor-intensive. Lower water pressures are usually needed than formost other types of systems, with the exception of low energy center pivot systems and surfaceirrigation systems, and the system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or for precisewater delivery to individual plants in a landscape containing a mix of plant species. Although it isdifficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes, pressure compensatingemittersare available, so the

field does not have to be level. High-tech solutions involve precisely calibrated emitters locatedalong lines of tubing that extend from a computerized set ofvalves.

Sprinkler System[edit]

Sprinkler irrigation ofblueberriesinPlainville, New York,United States

A traveling sprinkler at Millets Farm Centre,Oxfordshire,United Kingdom
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Further information:Irrigation sprinkler

In sprinkleror overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field anddistributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system utilizing sprinklers, sprays, orguns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-setirrigationsystem. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotorsand are driven by a ball drive, gear

drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle. Guns aresimilar to rotors, except that they generally operate at very high pressures of 40 to 130 lbf/in (275 to900 kPa) and flows of 50 to 1200 US gal/min (3 to 76 L/s), usually with nozzle diameters in the rangeof 0.5 to 1.9 inches (10 to 50 mm). Guns are used not only for irrigation, but also for industrialapplications such as dust suppression andlogging.

Sprinklers can also be mounted on moving platforms connected to the water source by a hose.Automatically moving wheeled systems known as traveling sprinklersmay irrigate areas such assmall farms, sports fields, parks, pastures, and cemeteries unattended. Most of these utilize a lengthof polyethylene tubing wound on a steel drum. As the tubing is wound on the drum powered by theirrigation water or a small gas engine, the sprinkler is pulled across the field. When the sprinklerarrives back at the reel the system shuts off. This type of system is known to most people as a"waterreel" traveling irrigation sprinkler and they are used extensively for dust suppression, irrigation,and land application of waste water.

Other travelers use a flat rubber hose that is dragged along behind while the sprinkler platform ispulled by a cable. These cable-type travelers are definitely old technology and their use is limited intoday's modern irrigation projects.

Center pivot[edit]

A small center pivot system from beginning to end
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The hub of a center-pivot irrigation system

Rotator style pivot applicator sprinkler

Center pivot with drop sprinklers

Wheel line irrigation system inIdaho,2001

Main article:Center pivot irrigation

Center pivot irrigation is a form of sprinkler irrigation consisting of several segments of pipe (usuallygalvanized steel or aluminum) joined together and supported bytrusses,mounted on wheeled
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towers with sprinklers positioned along its length.[30]

The system moves in a circular pattern and isfed with water from the pivot point at the center of the arc. These systems are found and used in allparts of the world and allow irrigation of all types of terrain. Newer systems have drop sprinklerheads as shown in the image that follows.

Most center pivot systems now have drops hanging from a u-shaped pipe attached at the top of thepipe with sprinkler head that are positioned a few feet (at most) above the crop, thus limiting

evaporative losses. Drops can also be used with drag hoses or bubblers that deposit the waterdirectly on the ground between crops. Crops are often planted in a circle to conform to the centerpivot. This type of system is known as LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application). Originally, mostcenter pivots were water powered. These were replaced by hydraulic systems (T-L Irrigation)andelectric motor driven systems (Reinke, Valley, Zimmatic). Many modern pivotsfeatureGPSdevices.[citation needed]

Lateral move (side roll, wheel line)[edit]

A series of pipes, each with a wheelof about 1.5 m diameter permanently affixed to its midpoint andsprinklers along its length, are coupled together at one edge of a field. Water is supplied at one endusing a large hose. After sufficient water has been applied, the hose is removed and the remainingassembly rotated either by hand or with a purpose-built mechanism, so that the sprinklers move 10

m across the field. The hose is reconnected. The process is repeated until the opposite edge of thefield is reached.

This system is less expensive to install than a center pivot, but much more labor-intensive tooperate, and it is limited in the amount of water it can carry. Most systems utilize 4 or 5-inch(130 mm) diameter aluminum pipe. One feature of a lateral move system is that it consists ofsections that can be easily disconnected. They are most often used for small or oddly shaped fields,such as those found in hilly or mountainous regions, or in regions where labor is inexpensive.

Sub-irrigation[edit]

Subirrigationhas been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables.It is amethod of artificially raising the water table to allow thesoilto bemoistenedfrom below theplants'rootzone. Often those systems are located on permanent grasslands in lowlands or river

valleys and combined with drainage infrastructure. A system of pumping stations, canals, weirs andgates allows it to increase or decrease the water level in a network of ditches and thereby control thewater table.

Sub-irrigation is also used incommercialgreenhouseproduction, usually forpotted plants.Water isdelivered from below, absorbed upwards, and the excess collected for recycling. Typically, a solutionof water andnutrientsfloods a container or flows through a trough for a short period of time, 1020minutes, and is then pumped back into a holdingtankfor reuse. Sub-irrigation in greenhousesrequires fairly sophisticated, expensive equipment and management. Advantages are water andnutrient conservation, and labor-saving through lowered system maintenance andautomation.It issimilar in principle and action to subsurface basin irrigation.

Automatic, non-electric using buckets and ropes[edit]

Besides the common manual watering by bucket, an automated, natural version of this also exists.Using plain polyester ropes combined with a prepared ground mixture can be used to water plantsfrom a vessel filled with water.[31][32][33]

The ground mixture would need to be made depending on the plant itself, yet would mostly consistof black potting soil, vermiculite and perlite. This system would (with certain crops) allow to saveexpenses as it does not consume any electricity and only little water (unlike sprinklers, water timers,etc.). However, it may only be used with certain crops (probably mostly larger crops that do not needa humid environment; perhaps e.g. paprikas).[citation needed]
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