seeking success through strategic management development

Seeking success through strategic managementdevelopment

Paul BrownNorthampton Business School University College Northampton Northampton UK

Introduction

While strategic management development

(SMD) has been discussed in the literature

since about 1990 (eg Temporal 1990

Osbaldeston and Barham 1992 McClelland

1994 Seibert et al 1995 Hussey 1996 Burach

et al 1997) it has lacked a strong conceptual

framework Most studies have concentrated

on consultant or practitioner accounts of

` best practicersquorsquo This paper considers the

suitability of existing theoretical frameworks

for management development (MD) when

applied to SMD examines the inter-

relationships with strategic human resource

management (SHRM) and surveys the

literature on SMD Some new conceptual

frameworks are then synthesised which

should assist in analysing and understanding

this topic

Definitions of MD vary in the degree to

which a strategic emphasis is present Some

do not have an explicit strategic dimension

for exampleAn attempt to improve managerial

effectiveness through a learning process

(Mumford 1997 p 6)

Others link MD more clearly to the

achievement of organisational goals and are

thus more strategic in nature for exampleMD is a conscious and systematic process to

control the development of managerial

resources in the organisation for the

achievement of the organisational goals and

strategies (Molander 1987 p 109)

This definition comes close to the concept of

SMD stressing the contribution towards

realising organisational goals and strategies

but does not emphasise the development of

strategic capabilities

For the purposes of this paper SMD is

defined asManagement development interventions

which are intended to enhance the strategic

capability and corporate performance of an

organisation

This definition infers a collective approach to

MD since it refers to the organisationrsquos

capability and performance rather than those

of individual managers The use of the word

intervention implies a conscious process

which has probably been initiated or

stimulated at corporate level but can

encompass both formal and informal

activities SMD is usually a corporate

initiative and therefore it is liable to be

influenced by the attitudes and values of top

management Such political reinforcement

assumes that top managers are correct in

their diagnosis and prescription of what is

needed from MD (Lees 1992)

The tensions between organisational and

individual objectives in MD were recognised

by Woodall and Winstanley (1998) in their

model of the integration and differentiation

which they said needed to be balanced (see

Table I)

Existing conceptual frameworks for SMDPatching (1998) provided a model which

combined the purpose of MD either success

through change or success through

alignment (with current systems culture and

job roles) and different levels of specificity to

the organisation (see Figure 1)

Transformational MD will probably aim to

gain competitive advantage and is driven by

the management vision and corporate

strategy It is thus a form of SMD and may

focus on critical success factors and the

development of a new culture Exploratory

MD often aims to achieve innovation and

learning through experimentation It may be

driven by entrepreneurial thinking and

could help develop strategic management

capabilities Generic activities develop the

knowledge skills and attitudes which seem

necessary for managers in almost any kind of

organisation Arguably because they are not

unique they do not contribute to strategic

advantage Specific capabilities are those

which are required in one particular

organisation and are not the same from one

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httpwwwem eraldinsightcom 0309-0590htm

[ 292]

Journal of European IndustrialTraining276 [2003] 292-303

MCB UP Limited[ISSN 0309-0590][DOI 10110803090590310479929]

KeywordsManagement developmentStrategic management

Human resource management

AbstractStrategic managementdevelopment (SMD) uses

corporate objectives andstrategies as drivers formanagement development and

aims to achieve multipleoutcomes Most studies of SMDhave concentrated on consultant-

or practitioner-based accounts of` best practicersquorsquo There has beenlittle development of conceptual

frameworks to inform a morerigorous understanding andevaluation of SMD Considers the

usefulness of some existingframeworks and then based on

literature review and synthesisproposes new conceptualframeworks for SMD The first of

these new frameworks exploresthe relationships betweenindividual and organisational

objectives in the SMD processesMany management developmentinterventions have both types of

objective and other interventionsmay be more polarised in purpose

These tensions have to beresolved at the level of theindividual manager Because of

environmental change accountwill need to be taken of emergentneeds and opportunities The

second framework reflects thisshowing how a dynamicenvironment will lead to more

organic forms of managementdevelopment The third frameworkconsiders the barriers and drivers

influencing SMD and proposes thekey requirements for success

organisation to another and help to defend

the competitive position As such they may

have strategic value Different MD methods

will be employed for each of the four boxes

Patching advocates that any one intervention

should be focused on one box to avoid

confusion and compromises

Talbot (1997) suggested that different types

of MD could be mapped against stages in the

experimental learning cycle (Kolb 1984) (see

Figure 2) and linked these types to different

assumptions about the nature of

management and of the developmental

process Both the management education and

competence approaches share the view that

there is a generic model of management with

known skills knowledge attitudes

behaviours or competencies which can be

acquired by some combination of education

training development and experience

Whereas the action learning and reflective

practicum approaches assume a more

contingent and situation specific nature of

management that could not easily be

captured in ` programmed knowledgersquorsquo

In the other dimension the developmental

process could be seen as either focused on

individual development in a broad

educational sense or narrowly focused on

achieving proficiency in specific managerial

tasks The management education and the

reflective practicum approaches share a

broader conception of development one

educational and the other professional both

seeing the personal development of the

individual as key The competence and action

learning approaches on the other hand

assume that development is linked to the

practical achievement of specific

management objectives one through generic

competencies and the other through

contingent solving of managerial problems

The contingency and task aspects of action

learning appear to be especially appropriate

for SMD though other quadrants may make

a contribution

Action learning theory was also evident in

Mumfordrsquos (1997) three type model of MD (see

Table II) Mumford believed that the kind of

informal learning which occurred naturally

as managers did their jobs (his Type 1) was

effective because it was drawn directly from

managerial performance but it was

inefficient because of its accidental nature

and the fact that it relied on the ` having an

experiencersquorsquo part of the learning cycle and

usually lacked any conscious reflection or

review of learning Formal learning (Type 3)

was often too reliant on theory or on

experience without reflection This led to

Mumfordrsquos preference for integrated

managerial development (Type 2) which

married planned development to real

managerial work utilising real management

tasks that are to be (or have been) faced by

the manager Mumfordrsquos view that planned

and informal approaches must be integrated

is the strength of his model His type 2

suggests that development activities will be

contingent on individual needs and

organisational reality and seems likely to be

applicable to SMD

Strategic human resourcesmanagement (SHRM)

It might be argued that for SMD to be

effective it should be one component of a

bigger embedded SHRM philosophy This

would provide vertical linkages (Grattan

et al 1999) connecting MD to SHRM and

business strategy It would also provide

horizontal linkages to coherently connect

SMD to other HR policies and systems such

Table IStrategic MD plusmn integration and differentiation

Integ ra tion D ifferentiat ion

C om patib ility w ith O D C om patib ility w ith self-developm e ntC om patib ility w ith the aim s a nd obje ctives of bus iness

strate gyC om patib ility w ith peop lersquos futu re c areers

P roactive plusmn fo rw ard looking and forw ard planning from top Left to in d iv idual in itiative in term s of w hat and ho wU niform ity of o b je ctives E nabling choice to suit caree r ind ivid ualrsquos person ality

and o w n situa tion a nd learn ing sty leT op -dow n B ottom -up

Figure 1Patchingrsquos management development grid

[ 293 ]

Paul BrownSeeking success throughstrategic managementdevelopment


as appraisal and reward Such links would be

mutually reinforcing Hence there is some

value in reviewing the SHRM literature

paying particular attention to any

implications for SMD

Tyson (1995) found more evidence that HR

strategies provided support to corporate

plans than earlier surveys (eg Purcell 1992

Storey 1992 Brewster and Hegewisch 1994)

HR strategies were framed to interpret

organisational business and corporate

strategies into people management

objectives with the implications for policies

and practice The best documented aspects

were succession planning and MD Tysonrsquos

survey found that all companies ranked MD

high on their strategic agenda and many

adopted it and organisation development as

strategic policy levers

Further evidence that during the 1990s

organisations paid increasing attention to

SHRM and probably made some progress

towards the normative ideal of fit between

business and HR strategies was provided by

Grattan et al (1999) in their studies of eight

large UK high-performing companies This

research showed that linkages between HRM

and business strategy were strongest for

short-term people processes plusmn such as

objective setting (cascaded from the business

strategy) performance measurement

rewards (related to the achievement of

business goals) and short term training

(based on competencies needed to deliver the

business objectives) Employee development

was seen as a long-term process (as was

organisation development) Here the linkage

with business strategy was weaker except

for leadership development which was found

to be strongly linked plusmn concentrating mainly

on the development of future leadership

cadres which was a well-established process

in the companies studied Such development

was based on a future needs analysis derived

from very broad strategic drivers such as

operating in a multinational context The

emphasis was on high-flyer development in

other areas of MD it might be that the lack of

strategic direction generally found in

employee development also applied These

weaker long term linkages were attributed to

the complexity of longer term processes

(which required a lot of embedding) and the

financially driven short term view of

companies

Stiles (1999) another member of the

Grattan team looked at how

transformational change was managed in the

eight companies Of interest to this review

was the importance attached to new

competency frameworks which particularly

emphasised leadership leadership

development teamwork and customer

satisfaction and were introduced to reflect

new values and strategic focus Also the

objectives of individuals and strategic

objectives (and how they would be measured

and rewarded) needed to become very

familiar to all concerned To achieve this

managers received extensive training in the

key performance management activities and

undertook a lot of informal performance

management activity eg coaching feedback

and counselling Middle managers were

involved plusmn in cross-functional teams

providing informal networks of managers to

give feedback to senior management and

using the ` winnersrsquorsquo in new structures to act

as champions for change The competency

that managers had in handling the change

process meant that change was seen as

` normalrsquorsquo and incremental and the new roles

and responsibilities of employees were

clearly defined and understood This

contrasted with a more usual change

Figure 2Talbotrsquos classification of MD

Table IIMumfordrsquos types of management development

Type D escrip tio n

Type 1 In form al m a nageria l plusmn a ccid enta l pro cessType 2 Integ rate d m anage ria l plusmn opportu n istic

pro cessType 3 Fo rm al m ana gem en t deve lopm e nt plusmn

planned proce ss

[ 294]



situation where there is confusion about the

required new behaviours

Stiles highlighted that in a dynamic

environment the MD processes should not be

bureaucratic or rigid If competency

frameworks and the associated training

programmes were too narrowly defined they

would be less appropriate than broader

developmental approaches Competencies

had to be generic enough to be stretched to

suit changing conditions emphasising

teamwork creativity flexibility and

leadership While still giving some structure

to the fast changing nature of the work

setting Training and development

programmes become less formal with more

emphasis on personal development and

learning development centres creativity

workshops teamwork coaching and

counselling

Hamel and Prahalad (1993) asserted that it

is a firmrsquos ability to learn faster and apply its

learning more effectively than its rivals

which gives it competitive advantage This

implies that managers or other key staff

might themselves be a source of competitive

advantage as many writers have argued (eg

Wright et al 1994) Amit and Schoemaker

(1993) identified two types of human

advantage that might be gained

1 Human capital advantage plusmn recruiting and

retaining outstanding people

2 Human process advantage plusmn learning

co-operation and innovation

Boxall and Steeneveld (1999) sought to

validate this theory in their longitudinal

study of engineering consultancies in

New Zealand The findings gave support for

HR practice which was necessary to allow

survival and credible membership in the

industry In particular firms had to employ

HR practices and policies which helped

attract develop and retain top talent in their

industry particularly contract-winning staff

They also had to have the ability to construct

and renew suitable leadership teams

especially when faced with major

environmental change However when it

came to demonstrating that HR strategy

could contribute to industry leadership

(competitive advantage) the findings were

inconclusive It was difficult to demonstrate

that a firm had enviable human assets and if

it did that they produced competitive

advantage The study though qualitatively

rich was of a small sample plusmn only three case

studies plusmn and produced no new evidence in

support of the competitive advantage

through people argument

Dunphy et al (1997) argued that individual

and team learning as emphasised in the

learning organisation model is reductionist

and ignores the importance of corporate

competencies which could be captured in an

organisationrsquos systems and structures and

used by others over an extended period of

time Their study focused on engagement

defined as the competence to involve the

members of the firm actively and coherently

in the new chosen directions Based on

empirical findings they suggested this and

other ` reshapingrsquorsquo competencies were central

to the process of organisational learning

allowing the organisation to change over

time and are thus necessary for continuing

corporate success They also recognised the

importance of the operational competencies

(business technology market responsiveness

and performance management) which

(unlike the reshaping competencies) were

positively correlated with business

performance

The empirical evidence to support the

competitive advantage through human

resource advantage hypothesis is at best

weak Little evidence exists to support the

view that SMD can create core competencies

which directly affect business performance

However it seems that competencies can be

developed which significantly influence the

ability of an organisation to handle the

change process and so perhaps indirectly

influence business performance If this is so

then SMD might be employed to develop such

competencies

Consultantpractitioner approachesto SMD

Thinking on SMD has been heavily

influenced by consultant and practitioner

accounts of ` best practicersquorsquo frequently case

study based typical of this is Hussey (1996)

First the organisational needs are analysed

with an emphasis on the strategic drivers

(eg expansion into Europe) This indicates

competencies or skills for which there is a

new or expanded need (eg market planning)

and the current levels of these competencies

are audited Thus the MD ` gaprsquorsquo is identified

and the current MD activities are audited to

examine what is being done to close the gap

Finally new MD plans can be drawn up to

meet the identified needs

Cannon (1995) used a case study to

illustrate a very similar consultancy

approach stressing the need for senior

management commitment to SMD and the

identification of business driven

competencies plusmn which he said plusmn ` should

define in crystal clear terms the behaviours

required by everyone in the conduct of their

[ 295 ]



jobsrsquorsquo This sentiment plusmn which must be very

difficult to fulfil plusmn vividly illustrates the

prescriptive and static nature of some

consultant led approaches

Temporal (1990) provided a more dynamic

view of MD a continuous process of many activities

events and experiences that never actually

ceases [it] is an integral part of

management work [which] necessitates

constant readjustment in accordance with the

changing needs of the business [and]

involves people working together to identify

problems and developing means of solving

them

Temporal saw MD complementing rigid

formal structures by adding informal flexible

interactions which lead to greater

organisational learning and placed emphasis

on strategic projects entrepreneurship

opportunities and other real work activities

These could be linked to the key management

competencies for the next decade which the

chief executive would be challenged to

define

Temporal mainly saw strategy as the

context for MD Bolt (1993) however saw the

executive development programme as having

a more strategic role plusmn many CEOs in the

USA had recognised it as an important tool

for helping achieve their strategic agenda

Often the programme sprang directly from

their own vision and it was important that

they participated in the entire programme

(which was aimed at the higher levels of

management) to demonstrate their

commitment It also helped them refine their

ideas on the companyrsquos strategic direction

Involving executives in formulating and

shaping the vision and strategy increased

quality understanding commitment and

ownership

The use of project teams to tackle strategic

problems associated with business

improvement was described by Boshyk (2000)

under the title ` business-driven action

learningrsquorsquo The main objective was the

development of participants rather than

acting as a task force Recommendations

would be presented to the project sponsors

but might not be implemented The key

elements in this approach were

active involvement and support of senior

executives

work on real business issues and the

exploration of new strategic business

opportunities

action research and learning focused on

internal and external company

experiences that can help resolve

business issues

leadership development through

teamwork and coaching and

possible involvement in the

implementation and review of projects

The team members were frequently

multinational and multifunctional There

was often training in group working and

problem solving skills as well as more

functional business topics An example was

the General Electric programme (Mercer

2000) which covered four weeks of which

around 25 weeks were spent on the project

work report writing and presentation There

were also sessions for reflection and analysis

of the team process This format seems

typical but in some cases plusmn especially where

the team is responsible for implementation plusmn

the duration can be much longer For

example at Motorola (Hansen 2000) projects

have lasted from four months to five years

Each project was selected and defined by the

president and CEO in collaboration with the

Motorola management board and

represented a major corporate issue that

crossed all Motorola businesses and

functions The project team was large

normally 20-25 executives representing a

wide cross-section of the business and

functions of the corporation Learning

interventions were scheduled as the teamrsquos

needs dictated The team was empowered to

take many actions with perhaps only

20 per cent plusmn the high level ones plusmn requiring

approval by the corporate management

board Members carried out the work in

addition to their normal job responsibilities

with the project work taking up no more than

25 per cent of their time The projects

undertaken did not in themselves result in

major change in the organisation since other

organisational development activity would

be necessary including (sometimes)

cascading the project approach to middle and

first line management levels

In the case of Philips (Freedman 2000) the

team worked together for about 20 per cent of

the time over three months However the

business relevance of the approach was seen

as relatively low because although the issue

dealt with is always a live company

challenge few participants are working on

their own business areas most are

` strangersrsquo when they come together and

they go their separate ways after three

months The collective learning cannot easily

be translated into collective action Their

roles were closer to consultants than to

managers as far as the implementation of

real change is concerned Alternative

approaches have been devised by Philips in

an attempt to move towards greater emphasis

[ 296]



on business and corporate implementation

For example using a strategic improvement

action programme which appeared to have

rather less emphasis on learning

concentrating instead on the business

improvement objectives

The Motorola programme apparently

overcame some of these objections to the way

business-driven action learning can operate

by enlarging the teams and making them

responsible for implementation while at the

same time maintaining a strong emphasis on

learning Such approaches to SMD have

clearly involved a major commitment by the

organisation and have usually been

sustained and developed over a long period

They seem to be particularly suitable to

companies operating in dynamic

environments

Academic and survey findings onSMD

Burach et al (1997) provided an overview of

SMD based on both consulting experience

and research literature synthesising a best

practice model with the following features

MD is linked to business plans and

strategies eg through core competencies

(Prahalad and Hamel 1990) Personal and

general competency development is still

necessary but not sufficient

The leadership and development needs of

managers in delayered organisations are

dealt with in ways that are designed to

increase confidence Commitment is

needed from senior management to fully

support MD initiatives

Development activities are

internationally focused because of global

competition and challenging

communication and cross-cultural issues

Individual learning is focused within the

context of organisational learning

Organisations try to create a learning

environment though typically this is slow

to evolve

Corporate culture plusmn a shared set of

expectations and values plusmn is transmitted

and also helps shape individual learning

priorities and preferred practices

A career development focus is needed to

build individual trust and commitment

Central authority and command are de-

emphasised while trust and partnership

are encouraged

Michael (1993) took an empirical approach

surveying HR managers in 11 large US

high-tech firms which operated in turbulent

environments and needed to promote

strategic change He found that four common

elements helped link strategy with executive

development programmes

1 Belief that training and development acts

as a vehicle of change and recognition of

the need to develop executives who were

capable of dealing with change

2 A supportive training and development

climate that empowered executives to

move forwards on unstructured issues

and problems There was active

participation of the CEO and other senior

managers (as faculty discussants or

participants)

3 Emphasis on organisational development

needs not individual needs using the

strategic plan as the starting point

4 Use of approaches such as action learning

experiential learning team problem

solving (presenting findings to senior

management) and behavioural

simulation programmes

Michael found that the programmes tended

to tap into deliberate aspects of strategy plusmn

more needed to be done to explore ways of

tapping into the emergent components of

strategy formulation and implementation He

advocated that portions of the executive

development programme should be pushed

down the hierarchy to help with succession

and create a critical mass of people who

possess a similar vocabulary and culture

Michaelrsquos findings based on companies in

turbulent environments have been

supported by the work of Stiles (1999) and

Osbaldeston and Barham (1992)

Cairns (1998) highlighted a weak link in

executive development plusmn the implementation

of learning plans following formal learning

The intentions are usually good but they are

often overtaken by the demands of the

business Organisations needed to provide

support arrangements to help address this

A consistent picture emerges of some of the

features of successful SMD especially in

dynamic situations The value of strategic

projects facilitated through networking and

action learning and of broad competencies

(which contribute to strategic advantage) is

seen The involvement of middle managers

the potential contribution by SMD to strategy

formulation and the need for a driving vision

and commitment from the most senior

management are also important

Some problems with SMD

There has been little attempt to

systematically evaluate SMD either

theoretically or empirically However the

literature does reveal some problems and

[ 297 ]



issues which provide a starting point for

such evaluation

Seibert et al (1995) surveyed 22 US

companies and found evidence of weak links

between business strategy and MD strategy

This they attributed to three factors First

the HRD functions had been inwardly

focused rather than outwardly focused on

the ` customerrsquo (ie senior line management)

and the business environment Second the

HRD function devised rigid systematic plans

which were not responsive to the rapidly

changing business strategies and

environment Third there was a false

dichotomy between developing individuals

and conducting business which were seen as

respectively the work of HRD and line

management This did not facilitate natural

connections between business strategy and

executive development To overcome this

real strategic assignments and action

learning teams could be employed and

deliberate mechanisms were needed to

support managersrsquo learning These

assignment management oriented systems

were seen as fostering the growth of meta-

skills ie skills for developing and deploying

situation specific skills The relevance of

meta-skills was also highlighted by

Osbaldeston (1997) as a way of dealing with

the pace and unpredictability of change

which in some organisations had made

planned continuous MD activity impossible

McClelland (1994) reported that the biggest

obstacle to SMD was that the mindset of

managers was linked to improving

individual effectiveness rather than

organisational effectiveness For example

they might focus on their functional or task

needs Instead individual growth had to be

refocused to complement organisational

growth plusmn for example when a manager

returned from an external course

Some of the problems of integrating SMD

with formal planning systems were

highlighted by Hirsh and Reilly (1998 1999)

who looked at skills planning over an

18-month period in IBM NatWest and the

Post Office They found that the biggest

changes affecting skills needs were not in the

formal (documented) corporate plan and

sometimes the big changes came and went

within the planning cycle In practice needs

were generated by specific change projects or

high level messages from senior managers

(about big issues or vision and values)

Alternatively they were identified through

local operating issues or job-based

competency frameworks (though these

tended to be focused on the current job and

never caught up with developments) The

problem with the formal corporate (or

business) plans was that they often did not

say very much about people Even when

organisational capabilities (or core

competencies) were identified it was difficult

to link them directly with skills though

easier at management level than other levels

Like others before them they found that it

was hard to identify how skills at an

individual level could be summed up at

corporate level and to demonstrate that

capability was making a difference to

business performance

The effectiveness of SMD will depend in

part on the intervention methods chosen

Meldrum and Atkinson (1998a) inadvertently

demonstrated this in their survey of

delegates attending open general MD

programmes at Cranfield School of

Management The delegates cited weak links

between their organisationsrsquo business needs

and MD activities lack of support or

evaluation from their company and

75 per cent felt that the quality of their

organisationrsquos MD was at best average or

below Arguably this is related to the choice

of open programmes which are divorced from

the context and culture of the employing

organisation and likely to have at best a

weak strategic role

Such inadequate responses to SMD needs

were also detected by Tovey (1991) and Mason

(1993) They found that significant numbers

of companies had taken no MD action in

response to a strategic force even though

they thought that it was relevant to the

company For example only 28 per cent of

large companies had taken any action in

response to global competition and

11 per cent to information technology

Further only a minority of those who had

taken action appeared to have done so on a

co-ordinated and regular basis Others relied

on an odd workshop or the fact that the topic

would be included on a business school

programme on which a minority of managers

were sent Hussey (1996) concluded that

organisations were deluding themselves over

the extent to which MD was reinforcing

corporate strategy This might be because no-

one had thought through the issues in

implementing their corporate strategies and

what new competencies managers should

possess

Evidence that to be effective SMD must be

complemented by a commitment to strategic

planning activities was provided by

Newkirk-Moore and Bracker (1998) In one of

the few studies attempting to quantify the

link between business performance and

SMD they examined the financial returns

made by 152 small US banks and correlated

this with the levels of both commitment to

[ 298]



the strategic planning process and frequency

of strategic planning training The banks

which had embedded the concepts of

strategic planning into their culture were

described as having a strategic commitment

to the planning process They had continuous

monitoring communication and evaluation

activities which kept strategic planning on

the agenda for the whole organisation In

contrast other banks either had no

recognisable planning activity or had a short

term and prescriptive commitment to it plusmn

often failing to manage the implementation

process for example The study found that

there was a significantly higher return on

equity for those banks which had both a

strategic commitment to planning and

provided regular strategic management

training

In the UK many organisations have

developed their own MD competency

frameworks (Stiles 1999) sometimes

starting with a generic model which is

modified to suit their own circumstances

Such frameworks seem most likely to be

behavioural models defined in fairly simple

terms rather than mimicking the complex

task based approach of the Management

Charter Initiative They are usually

expressed in language which is familiar to

managers in the organisation and reflect the

organisationrsquos strategic orientation This

approach was outlined by Boam and Sparrow

(1992) who related competencies to business

life cycles and business environments The

relevance of any competence to a career

stream will rise and fall as the organisation

moves into new strategic phases Emerging

competencies may for example be

associated with a move towards more

entrepreneurial market driven approaches

While professional and technical skills might

at the same time be maturing Other

competencies may be transitional relevant

for a short time to a new situation or core plusmn

enduring in importance whatever the

strategy

In these ways the otherwise static or

retrospective nature of competencies might

be avoided Similarly the reductionist

nature of competencies can be overcome by

identifying meta-skills as suggested by

Osbaldeston (1997) Brown (1993) and

Meldrum and Atkinson (1998b)

New conceptual frameworks for MD

Individual and organisational developmentIt has been seen (eg from Woodall and

Winstanley 1998 Patching 1998 Cannon

1995 Burach et al 1997 McClelland 1994)

that a key issue in MD is the balance between

individual and organisational development

It seems likely that many MD interventions

lie at this interface combining elements of

both in some sort of equilibrium These can

be termed holistic (or hybrid) programmes

Other interventions may be more polarised

in purpose being either strategic (associated

with organisation development) or functional

(intended to meet operational or individual

needs) Ultimately these tensions have to be

resolved at the level of the individual

manager the result being the actual

development activities (formal or informal)

that the manager engages with In a rational

and predictable world these would be

pre-planned and documented in a personal

development plan In reality this plan would

probably need constant updating to take

account of emergent needs and opportunities

and to include learning recognised

retrospectively through reflection Figure 3

illustrates these inter-relationships

It is not assumed that a holistic MD

programme is somehow superior to strategic

or functional programmes Patching (1998) for

example contended that it is better to keep MD

programmes focused on one particular

purpose (ie one of the four quadrants in his

MD grid) while Woodall and Winstanley (1998)

advocated a balanced approach

Effect of the business environmentA further framework which could help as a

guide to the types of MD intervention that

may be most appropriate is proposed as a

matrix (Figure 4) combining organisation

and individual development with the nature

of the business environment The latter is

classified as either staticslow to change or

dynamicdiscontinuous change

The work of Grattan (1999) and Stiles (1999)

highlighted the implications of dynamic

change This included the role of high level

broad competencies performance

management systems ` informalrsquorsquo approaches

to MD involvement of middle managers and

teamwork Michael (1993) and Boshyk (2000)

also pointed to the need to involve middle

managers in SMD in dynamic change

situations Dunphy (1997) and Boxall and

Steeneveld (1999) highlighted the relevance of

integrating MD into the change process The

role of project based learning was stressed by

Temporal (1990) Michael (1993) Boshyk

(2000) and Osbaldeston and Barham (1992)

particularly when change was rapid The

need to define competencies broadly at a

meta-competence level was apparent from

Burach et al (1997) Osbaldeston (1997) and

Seibert et al (1995) among others This meant

that at the organisational level the routine

[ 299 ]



processual competencies had to be de-

emphasised (eg Burach et al 1997 Swailes

and Brown 1999) while remaining important

for the individual Hirsh and Reilly (1998

1999) and others found that linkage between

SMD and formal planning processes was

difficult plusmn though less so if change is not

rapid The problems of competencies

(eg Burgoyne 1989) especially their

retrospective orientation processual nature

and the difficulty of dealing with the

complexity of strategic management and

collective competence meant that their

application to SMD was limited depending

on the degree of dynamism in the

environment and whether the MD objective

was at the organisational or individual level

The matrix proposes that in more dynamic

and complex conditions there is greater

emphasis on the process aspects of SMD

because of a need for greater teamworking and

networking Learning at the individual level

will often be a collaborative activity involving

small teams and action learning

Meta-competencies will be required to give

individuals adaptability and flexibility There

is also a requirement for new technical

professional knowledge which may be met

through self-development since it is not

possible for all such learning to be

pre-planned at the organisational level

(because of the complexity of the business and

or the speed of change) At the organisational

level the steering is based on broad concepts of

vision values and core competencies and

driven by organisation-wide change initiatives

and systems Competency frameworks will be

broad and dynamic emphasising teamwork

creativity flexibility leadership and change

management

In more simplestatic conditions a greater

degree of centralised planning is possible

and learning can be planned in a more

detailed way There will probably be greater

reliance on formal methods as these can be

planned to suit needs The organisation is

likely to be more bureaucratic and place less

recognition on informal learning Whole

person development may be encouraged

through organisation led initiatives such as

outdoor MD SMD will be more concerned

with strategy implementation than

formation and middle managers are less

likely to have an active part

Drivers and barriers for SMDThe factors identified as drivers of successful

SMD can be contrasted with factors acting as

barriers to produce a third conceptual

framework see Table III This framework

accommodates elements of ` best practicersquorsquo

and though normative provides a reference

point for organisers of SMD

Formal (or deliberate) statements of

strategy arising from a planning process

provide a starting point for SMD In such

cases the organisation must have a high

commitment to strategic planning so that it is

embedded and not just a ritual Even when

there is a high commitment to strategic

planning at the corporate or business level it

Figure 4How the business environment influences MD

Figure 3Categories and drivers of management development

[ 300]



may be detached from a consideration of HR

strategy Where strategy is largely emergent

and not formally documented it may be more

difficult to provide direction to SMD

SMD should be coherent with strategy and

objectives in a comprehensive way rather

than a fragmented collection of individual

(often small scale) initiatives SMD can act as

a key lever for transformational change

within a long term perspective of

organisational development This may be

difficult to achieve if the strategic

management is short-termist in nature

SMD requires a high involvement from

senior line managers thus HR departments

cannot be inward looking Similarly the

championship of the CEO and the

communication of hisher vision is often

stressed This places MD and HR high on the

organisationrsquos strategic agenda

While MD needs should be derived from

strategies it may prove difficult to translate

the strategic issues into MD interventions It

helps to identify specific core-competencies

or meta-competencies which should be

developed and SMD should arguably

emphasise collective competence Narrowly

defined competencies associated with the

task effectiveness of individuals are of less

importance Any competency framework

needs to be flexible enough to deal with the

dynamic nature of strategy so the associated

MD programmes should not be derived from

rigid systems of HR planning

The MD methods used will be job-related

and can include project and action learning

approaches Where possible project work

should encompass implementation rather

than stopping at the recommendation stage

These methods should be complemented by a

supportive learning environment plusmn though

the evidence is that this is difficult to

achieve

This framework can be used as a diagnostic

instrument when evaluating an SMD

programme It also provides guidance on good

practice when designing a new programme

The framework can be synthesised into a

more simplified presentation of the key

requirements for successful SMD

emphasising how each requirement builds

on the others (see Figure 5)

Table IIIDrivers and barriers for SMD

D river B arrier

P lanne d (or de lib erate) stra tegy (Grundy 1998 H ussey 199 6 B olt 19 93)

E m ergent strategy (G rundy 199 8 M ic hael 199 3)

H igh co m m itm e nt to strate g ic p la nning (N ew k irk -M o orean d B ra cker 19 98)

Low c om m itm ent to H R strateg ic p lan ning (Hu ssey199 6 B rew ster and H egew isch 1994 G rattan 1999 )

M D coherent w ith strate gy and obje ctives (Te m pora l19 90 B olt 199 3 B urac h et a l 1997 W o odall andW instan ley 199 8)

Fra gm ented M D re sponse s to strateg ic issue s (To vey 199 1 M ason 19 93)

M D seen as leve r for transform atio nal ch ange (Tys on19 95 H uss ey 19 96 M ic hael 199 3)

Sho rt-term ism of bu s iness fa ilu re to invest in long termdevelo pm en t (G rattan 1999 P urce ll 1992 )

G oo d lin ka ge b etw een lin e and H R D m an agem e nt(B oshyk 200 0 H orw itz 1999 )

Inw ard -look ing H R depa rtm ents (Seib ert et a l 1995 )

C ha m pio nship o f C EO v is ion for M D com m unicated(C ann on 1995 B olt 1 993 M ichae l 19 93 H irs han d R eilly 1 998 Bu ra ch et a l 19 97)

Lac k of em pha sis on HR in co rporate strategy (H irshand R eilly 199 8 G rund y 1 998 S eib ert e t a l 19 95H orw itz 1 999 )

A nalys is o f M D ne eds derived fro m stra te g ies(O sbaldeston an d Ba rh am 1992 C ann on 19 95)

D ifficu lty tra ns lating strate g ic issues into M Din te rventions (Tove y 19 91 M aso n 19 93 H uss ey199 6)

Iden tify ing organisation spe cific c ore c om pe tenciesan d m eta -com p etenc ies (C anno n 19 95 S tiles 19 99 S eib ert et a l 19 95 Osba lde sto n 1997 M eldrum and Atk in son 199 8)

M inds et o f m ana gers em p hasising ind ivid uale ffe ctiveness Na rro w ly d efined co m pete ncyfram ew orks (M c Cle lland 1994 Sw ailes a nd B ro w n199 9)

R espo ns ive M D and flex ib le c om pe te ncies to m ee tdynam ics of strategy (Stiles 19 99 B oa m a ndSp arrow 199 2)

R ig id p lans of H R stat ic or re tros pective natu re o fcom peten cie s (Seibert et a l 199 5 Iles 1 993B urgoyne 1 989)

M D through pro jects o n -the -job m ethods integ ratedw ith m ana gem ent w ork (B os hyk 20 00 T em po ra l19 90 M ic hae l 199 3 S eiber t et a l 19 95O sbaldeston a nd B arham 19 92)

M D d ivo rc ed fro m rea l issues and im plem enta tion(B oshyk 2000 Fre edm an 200 0 Se ibert et a l199 5)

S uppo rtive lea rn ing env iron m ent (M icha el 1993B urac h et a l 199 7 C airns 1998 O sbald eston andB arha m 19 92)

Lea rn ing organis ation id eals d iffic u lt to a chieve inpra ctice (D ovey 19 97 Stacey 2000 )

[ 301 ]



Conclusions

The three models synthesised in this paper

build on the consensus that emerges from

practitioner and academic findings in SMD

They help provide a better conceptual

understanding of the subject and are an aid

to programme design There is however a

need for further structured empirical

research to test these models and help

develop a better understanding of the

contingency based relationships which may

exist Because of the complexity of the

subject such research might best be

case-study based

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assets and organisational rentrsquorsquo Strategic

Management Journal Vol 14 pp 33-46

Boam R and Sparrow P (Eds) (1992) Focusing

on Human Resources A Competency Based

Approach McGraw-Hill London

Bolt J (1993) ` Achieving the CEOrsquos agenda

education for executivesrsquorsquo Management

Review May pp 44-9

Boshyk Y (2000) Business Driven Action

Learning Macmillan Basingstoke

Boxall P and Steeneveld M (1999) ` Human

resource strategy and competitive advantage

a longitudinal study of engineering

consultanciesrsquorsquo Journal of Management

Studies Vol 36 No 4 pp 443-61

Brewster C and Hegewisch A (1994) Policy and

Practice in European Human Resource

Management Routledge London

Brown R (1993) ` Meta-competence a recipe for

re-framing the competence debatersquorsquo Personnel

Review Vol 22 No 6 pp 25-36

Burach EH Hochwater W and Mathys NJ

(1997) ` The new management development

paradigmrsquorsquo Human Resource Planning Vol 20

No 1 pp 14-21

Burgoyne J (1989) ` Creating the managerial

portfolio building on competence approaches

to management developmentrsquorsquo Management

Education and Development Vol 20 No 1

pp 56-61

Cairns H (1998) ` Global trends in executive

developmentrsquorsquo Journal of Workplace

Learning Vol 10 No 1

Cannon F (1995) ` Business-driven management

developmentrsquorsquo Journal of European

Industrial Training Vol 19 No 2 pp 26-31

Dovey K (1997) ` The learning organisation and

the organisation of learning plusmn power

transformation and the search for form in

learning organisationsrsquorsquo Management

Learning Vol 28 No 3 pp 331-49

Dunphy D Turner D and Crawford M (1997)

` Organisational learning as the creation of

corporate competenciesrsquorsquo Journal of

Management Development Vol 16 No 4

Freedman NJ (2000) ` Philips and action

learning from training to transformationrsquorsquo in

Boshyk Y (Ed) Business Driven Action


Grattan L Hope HV Stiles P and Truss C

(Eds) (1999) Strategic Human Resource

Management Oxford University Press

Oxford

Grundy T (1998) ` How are corporate strategy

and human resource strategy linkedrsquorsquo

Journal of General Management Vol 23

No 3 pp 49-72

Hamel G and Prahalad C (1993) ` Strategy as

stretch and leveragersquorsquo Harvard Business


Hansen KH (2000) ` Motorola combining

business projects with learning projectsrsquorsquo in



Hirsh W and Reilly P (1998) ` Skills planningrsquorsquo

People Management 9 July pp 38-41

Hirsh W and Reilly P (1999) ` Planning for

skillsrsquorsquo paper presented at the Strategic

Planning Society Seminar London 18 March

Horwitz F (1999) ` The emergence of strategic

training and development the current state of

playrsquorsquo Journal of European Industrial

Training Vol 23 No 45 pp 180-90

Hussey D (1996) Business-driven Human

Resource Management John Wiley amp Sons

Chichester

Iles P (1993) ` Achieving strategic coherence in

HRD through competence-based management

and organisation developmentrsquorsquo Personnel


Kolb D (1984) Experiential Learning

Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ

Lees S (1992) ` Ten faces of management

developmentrsquorsquo Management Education and

Development Vol 17 No 2

McClelland (1994) ` Gaining competitive

advantage through strategic management

development (SMD)rsquorsquo Journal of Management

Development Vol 13 No 15 pp 4-13

Mason A (1993) Management Training in

Medium Sized UK Business Organisations

Harbridge Consulting Group London

Figure 5Key requirements for successful SMD

[ 302]



Meldrum M and Atkinson S (1998a) ` Is

management development fulfilling its

organisational rolersquorsquo Management Decision

Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32

Meldrum M and Atkinson S (1998b)

` Meta-abilities and the implementation of

strategyrsquorsquo Journal of Management


Mercer S (2000) ` General Electricrsquos executive

action learning programmesrsquorsquo in Boshyk Y

(Ed) Business Driven Action Learning

Macmillan Basingstoke

Michael J (1993) ` Aligning executive training

with strategyrsquorsquo Executive Development Vol 6

No 1 pp 10-13

Molander C (1987) ` Managerial developmentrsquorsquo

in Molander C (Ed) Personnel Management

A Practical Introduction Chartwell Bratt

London

Mumford A (1997) Management Development

Strategies for Action IPD London

Newkirk-Moore S and Bracker J (1998)

` Strategic management training and

commitment to planning critical partners in

stimulating firm performancersquorsquo International

Journal of Training and Development Vol 2

No 2 pp 82-90

Osbaldeston M (1997) ` From business schools to

learning centresrsquorsquo Re-designing Management

Development in the New Europe European

Training Foundation Office for Official

Publications of the European Communities

Luxembourg

Osbaldeston M and Barham K (1992) ` Using

management development for competitive

advantagersquorsquo Long Range Planning Vol 25

No 6 pp 18-24

Patching K (1998) Management and

Organisation Development Macmillan

London

Prahalad CK and Hamel G (1990) ` The core

competence of the corporationrsquorsquo Harvard

Business Review Vol 68 No 3 pp 79-91

Purcell J (1992) ` The impact of corporate

strategy on HRMrsquorsquo in Salaman G (Ed)

Human Resource Strategies Sage

Publications London

Seibert K Hall DT and Kram KE (1995)

` Strengthening the weak link in strategic

executive development integrating

individual development and global business

strategyrsquorsquo Human Resource Management

Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67

Stacey RD (2000) Strategic Management and

Organisational Dynamics Financial Times

Prentice Hall Harlow

Stiles P (1999) ` Transformation at the leading

edgersquorsquo in Grattan L Hope-Hailey V Stiles

P and Truss C (Eds) Strategic Human

Resource Management Blackwell Oxford

Storey J (1992) ` HRM in action the truth is out

at lastrsquorsquo Personnel Management Vol 24 No 4

pp 28-31

Swailes SR and Brown PJ (1999) ` NVQs in

management some pedagogic and marketing

implicationsrsquorsquo Journal of Management


Talbot C (1997) ` Paradoxes of management

development plusmn trends and tensionsrsquorsquo Career

Development International Vol 2 No 3

Temporal P (1990) ` Linking management

development to the corporate future plusmn the role

of the professionalrsquorsquo Journal of Management


Tovey L (1991) Management Training and

Development in Large UK Business

Organisations Harbridge Consulting Group

London

Tyson S (1995) Strategic Prospects for HRM

Institute of Personnel Development London

Woodhall J and Winstanley D (1998)

Management Development Strategy and

Practice Basil Blackwell Oxford

Wright P McMahan G and McWilliams A

(1994) ` Human resources and sustained

competitive advantage a resource-based

perspectiversquorsquo International Journal of Human

Resource Management Vol 5 No 2 pp 301-26

[ 303 ]



organisation to another and help to defend

the competitive position As such they may

have strategic value Different MD methods

will be employed for each of the four boxes

Patching advocates that any one intervention

should be focused on one box to avoid

confusion and compromises

Talbot (1997) suggested that different types

of MD could be mapped against stages in the

experimental learning cycle (Kolb 1984) (see

Figure 2) and linked these types to different

assumptions about the nature of

management and of the developmental

process Both the management education and

competence approaches share the view that

there is a generic model of management with

known skills knowledge attitudes

behaviours or competencies which can be

acquired by some combination of education

training development and experience

Whereas the action learning and reflective

practicum approaches assume a more

contingent and situation specific nature of

management that could not easily be

captured in ` programmed knowledgersquorsquo

In the other dimension the developmental

process could be seen as either focused on

individual development in a broad

educational sense or narrowly focused on

achieving proficiency in specific managerial

tasks The management education and the

reflective practicum approaches share a

broader conception of development one

educational and the other professional both

seeing the personal development of the

individual as key The competence and action

learning approaches on the other hand

assume that development is linked to the

practical achievement of specific

management objectives one through generic

competencies and the other through

contingent solving of managerial problems

The contingency and task aspects of action

learning appear to be especially appropriate

for SMD though other quadrants may make

a contribution

Action learning theory was also evident in

Mumfordrsquos (1997) three type model of MD (see

Table II) Mumford believed that the kind of

informal learning which occurred naturally

as managers did their jobs (his Type 1) was

effective because it was drawn directly from

managerial performance but it was

inefficient because of its accidental nature

and the fact that it relied on the ` having an

experiencersquorsquo part of the learning cycle and

usually lacked any conscious reflection or

review of learning Formal learning (Type 3)

was often too reliant on theory or on

experience without reflection This led to

Mumfordrsquos preference for integrated

managerial development (Type 2) which

married planned development to real

managerial work utilising real management

tasks that are to be (or have been) faced by

the manager Mumfordrsquos view that planned

and informal approaches must be integrated

is the strength of his model His type 2

suggests that development activities will be

contingent on individual needs and

organisational reality and seems likely to be

applicable to SMD

Strategic human resourcesmanagement (SHRM)

It might be argued that for SMD to be

effective it should be one component of a

bigger embedded SHRM philosophy This

would provide vertical linkages (Grattan

et al 1999) connecting MD to SHRM and

business strategy It would also provide

horizontal linkages to coherently connect

SMD to other HR policies and systems such

Table IStrategic MD plusmn integration and differentiation

Integ ra tion D ifferentiat ion

C om patib ility w ith O D C om patib ility w ith self-developm e ntC om patib ility w ith the aim s a nd obje ctives of bus iness

strate gyC om patib ility w ith peop lersquos futu re c areers

P roactive plusmn fo rw ard looking and forw ard planning from top Left to in d iv idual in itiative in term s of w hat and ho wU niform ity of o b je ctives E nabling choice to suit caree r ind ivid ualrsquos person ality

and o w n situa tion a nd learn ing sty leT op -dow n B ottom -up

Figure 1Patchingrsquos management development grid

[ 293 ]

























































companies

































Type D escrip tio n



planned proce ss

[ 294]






















counselling






























































performance













competencies

























[ 295 ]
















them










define

















ownership












executives



opportunities




business issues






























































[ 296]





















environments

























to evolve









are encouraged


















participants)














































[ 297 ]




such evaluation

























































































weak strategic role
























possess










[ 298]





















training




























strategy








































































[ 299 ]










































management
































[ 300]













































achieve











D river B arrier























[ 301 ]



Conclusions













case-study based









Review May pp 44-9

















No 1 pp 14-21





pp 56-61























Oxford




No 3 pp 49-72



















Chichester


















[ 302]






Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32











No 1 pp 10-13




London








No 2 pp 82-90






Luxembourg




No 6 pp 18-24



London







Publications London






Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67










pp 28-31















London











[ 303 ]

























































companies

































Type D escrip tio n



planned proce ss

[ 294]






















counselling






























































performance













competencies

























[ 295 ]
















them










define

















ownership












executives



opportunities




business issues






























































[ 296]





















environments

























to evolve









are encouraged


















participants)














































[ 297 ]




such evaluation

























































































weak strategic role
























possess










[ 298]





















training




























strategy








































































[ 299 ]










































management
































[ 300]













































achieve











D river B arrier























[ 301 ]



Conclusions













case-study based









Review May pp 44-9

















No 1 pp 14-21





pp 56-61























Oxford




No 3 pp 49-72



















Chichester


















[ 302]






Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32











No 1 pp 10-13




London








No 2 pp 82-90






Luxembourg




No 6 pp 18-24



London







Publications London






Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67










pp 28-31















London











[ 303 ]






















counselling






























































performance













competencies

























[ 295 ]
















them










define

















ownership












executives



opportunities




business issues






























































[ 296]





















environments

























to evolve









are encouraged


















participants)














































[ 297 ]




such evaluation

























































































weak strategic role
























possess










[ 298]





















training




























strategy








































































[ 299 ]










































management
































[ 300]













































achieve











D river B arrier























[ 301 ]



Conclusions













case-study based









Review May pp 44-9

















No 1 pp 14-21





pp 56-61























Oxford




No 3 pp 49-72



















Chichester


















[ 302]






Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32











No 1 pp 10-13




London








No 2 pp 82-90






Luxembourg




No 6 pp 18-24



London







Publications London






Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67










pp 28-31















London











[ 303 ]
















them










define

















ownership












executives



opportunities




business issues






























































[ 296]





















environments

























to evolve









are encouraged


















participants)














































[ 297 ]




such evaluation

























































































weak strategic role
























possess










[ 298]





















training




























strategy








































































[ 299 ]










































management
































[ 300]













































achieve











D river B arrier























[ 301 ]



Conclusions













case-study based









Review May pp 44-9

















No 1 pp 14-21





pp 56-61























Oxford




No 3 pp 49-72



















Chichester


















[ 302]






Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32











No 1 pp 10-13




London








No 2 pp 82-90






Luxembourg




No 6 pp 18-24



London







Publications London






Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67










pp 28-31















London











[ 303 ]





















environments

























to evolve









are encouraged


















participants)














































[ 297 ]




such evaluation

























































































weak strategic role
























possess










[ 298]





















training




























strategy








































































[ 299 ]










































management
































[ 300]













































achieve











D river B arrier























[ 301 ]



Conclusions













case-study based









Review May pp 44-9

















No 1 pp 14-21





pp 56-61























Oxford




No 3 pp 49-72



















Chichester


















[ 302]






Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32











No 1 pp 10-13




London








No 2 pp 82-90






Luxembourg




No 6 pp 18-24



London







Publications London






Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67










pp 28-31















London











[ 303 ]




such evaluation

























































































weak strategic role
























possess










[ 298]





















training




























strategy








































































[ 299 ]










































management
































[ 300]













































achieve











D river B arrier























[ 301 ]



Conclusions













case-study based









Review May pp 44-9

















No 1 pp 14-21





pp 56-61























Oxford




No 3 pp 49-72



















Chichester


















[ 302]






Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32











No 1 pp 10-13




London








No 2 pp 82-90






Luxembourg




No 6 pp 18-24



London







Publications London






Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67










pp 28-31















London











[ 303 ]





















training




























strategy








































































[ 299 ]










































management
































[ 300]













































achieve











D river B arrier























[ 301 ]



Conclusions













case-study based









Review May pp 44-9

















No 1 pp 14-21





pp 56-61























Oxford




No 3 pp 49-72



















Chichester


















[ 302]






Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32











No 1 pp 10-13




London








No 2 pp 82-90






Luxembourg




No 6 pp 18-24



London







Publications London






Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67










pp 28-31















London











[ 303 ]










































management
































[ 300]













































achieve











D river B arrier























[ 301 ]



Conclusions













case-study based









Review May pp 44-9

















No 1 pp 14-21





pp 56-61























Oxford




No 3 pp 49-72



















Chichester


















[ 302]






Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32











No 1 pp 10-13




London








No 2 pp 82-90






Luxembourg




No 6 pp 18-24



London







Publications London






Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67










pp 28-31















London











[ 303 ]













































achieve











D river B arrier























[ 301 ]



Conclusions













case-study based









Review May pp 44-9

















No 1 pp 14-21





pp 56-61























Oxford




No 3 pp 49-72



















Chichester


















[ 302]






Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32











No 1 pp 10-13




London








No 2 pp 82-90






Luxembourg




No 6 pp 18-24



London







Publications London






Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67










pp 28-31















London











[ 303 ]



Conclusions













case-study based









Review May pp 44-9

















No 1 pp 14-21





pp 56-61























Oxford




No 3 pp 49-72



















Chichester


















[ 302]






Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32











No 1 pp 10-13




London








No 2 pp 82-90






Luxembourg




No 6 pp 18-24



London







Publications London






Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67










pp 28-31















London











[ 303 ]






Vol 36 No 8 pp 528-32











No 1 pp 10-13




London








No 2 pp 82-90






Luxembourg




No 6 pp 18-24



London







Publications London






Vol 34 No 4 pp 549-67










pp 28-31















London











[ 303 ]

