sega journal1

http://aph.sagepub.com/Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health

http://aph.sagepub.com/content/22/4/477The online version of this article can be found at:

DOI: 10.1177/1010539510371148

2010 22: 477 originally published online 24 May 2010Asia Pac J Public HealthAparajita Chattopadhyay and Kumar Chiman Sinha

Spatial and Gender Scenario of Literate Life Expectancy at Birth in India

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

On behalf of:

Asia-Pacific Academic Consortium for Public Health

can be found at:Asia-Pacific Journal of Public HealthAdditional services and information for

http://aph.sagepub.com/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts:

http://aph.sagepub.com/subscriptionsSubscriptions:

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.navReprints:

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.navPermissions:

http://aph.sagepub.com/content/22/4/477.refs.htmlCitations:

What is This?

- May 24, 2010 OnlineFirst Version of Record

- Oct 7, 2010Version of Record >>

by guest on June 7, 2012aph.sagepub.comDownloaded from

http://aph.sagepub.com/

http://aph.sagepub.com/content/22/4/477

http://www.sagepublications.com

http://www.apacph.org/site/index.php

http://aph.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts

http://aph.sagepub.com/subscriptions

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav

http://aph.sagepub.com/content/22/4/477.refs.html

http://aph.sagepub.com/content/22/4/477.full.pdf

http://aph.sagepub.com/content/early/2010/05/19/1010539510371148.full.pdf

http://online.sagepub.com/site/sphelp/vorhelp.xhtml


Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health22(4) 477 –491© 2010 APJPH

Reprints and permission: http://www. sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav

DOI: 10.1177/1010539510371148http://aph.sagepub.com

Spatial and Gender Scenario of Literate Life Expectancy at Birth in India

Aparajita Chattopadhyay, MSc, PhD1,and Kumar Chiman Sinha, MPhil1

Abstract

Measuring human quality of life is academically challenging. The human development index (HDI) substantially captures the overall country level status on human welfare. However, this index has some drawbacks. Therefore, Lutz composed a simple index in 1995 combining life expectancy and literacy, called literate life expectancy (LLE). LLE can be calculated for subpopulations depending on availability of data. This article captures the LLE in major states in India and the gender differences in LLE at rural and urban levels. The authors have tried to highlight the social development scenario in India and its major states by using this pure social indicator that intentionally does not use any economic measurement. The state scenario comprehensively depicts gender differentials in social development, and it calls for implementing development measures more seriously in states like Haryana, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh to reduce the gender gap. Being highly correlated with the HDI, the LLE index proves to be a very clear and simple comprehensive measure of social development for different subpopulations.

Keywords

literate life expectancy, India, gender, human development index

Introduction

Human skills are important factors of production. Skill can be measured in many different ways, but for a global comparative analysis, literacy skills and years of completed formal education are by far the most frequently used indicators. Nevertheless, it also has some limitations. Sometimes, it is very complicated to summarize and analyze. So to overcome these complications, we take a simplified single indicator of human capital, and even more broadly of human development, which is more appropriate for direct intercountry or interstate (in general, interclass) comparisons. This indicator called literate life expectancy (LLE) gives the average number of years a man or a woman lives in the literate state by combining the basic social development aspects of life

1International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, India

Corresponding Author:Aparajita Chattopadhyay, Department of Development Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, 400088, IndiaEmail: [email protected]



478 Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health 22(4)

expectancy and literacy into 1 number. This indicator has been widely used to compare subgroups within one population, such as men and women or urban and rural residents. It is based on readily available data and can even be projected into the future, based on the population and education projection. LLE is an absolute number that has a clear interpretation and, there-fore, does not have the problems of abstract indices on a relative scale. Measured over time, it allows us to make statements about the rate of change and not just static differences. What is important is that this index could be used to calculate future social development by adopting dif-ferent mortality and educational scenarios, which can be associated with specific policy assumptions.1

The LLE has been used to measure a country’s social development in many studies, includ-ing that of Khan and Asaduzzaman in Bangladesh,2 Huang and Nanjo in China,3 and Medina in Mexico.1

The LLE was first developed by Wolfgang Lutz in 1995 as an indicator of social develop-ment and quality of life.4 The aim of this indicator is to look at a person’s years of life but in a literate state. It can be interpreted as the “average number of years a man or woman lives in the literate state” based on age-specific mortality rates (ASMRs) and age-specific proportions liter-ate (ASPLs) computed using the life table method. This indicator has several advantages com-pared with other social and human development indicators, such as the human development index (HDI). Moreover, LLE is probably the only social development indicator that can be projected into the future on the basis of other already accepted forecasts and thus illustrates both the path dependence and realistic prospects of development. LLE has several advantages com-pared with other indicators of social development. The LLE is purely based on individual characteristics—literacy and mortality—and not on national accounts of gross domestic prod-uct (GDP). Unlike GDP per capita, LLE can be readily measured for men and women sepa-rately, which makes it very appropriate for gender-specific analysis. LLE can stand alone in terms of its absolute value and does not require the more or less arbitrary assumption of an upper limit that changes over time. It is entirely based on clear, observable individual charac-teristics. The application of this indicator at the national level can reveal the concealed inequali-ties at the regional level. Thus, based on LLE estimates, there is great potential for improving human development by better distributing social services and by accurately restructuring bud-get priorities.

Education and Life Expectancy: Indian ScenarioEducation is generally assumed to have far-reaching benefits. At the individual level, better education is associated with better health, more economic opportunities, and greater autonomy, especially for women, as stated by Jejeeboy.5 At the aggregate level, the educational composi-tion of the population has long been considered a key factor of economic, institutional, and social development.6,7 Efforts must be made to educate women and enhance their economic status so that many of the morbidities associated with illiteracy can be reduced substantially.8 Imparting health education is also the need of the hour. Because education has been recognized as the centerpiece of human resource development, it is realized at the highest levels that educa-tion will play a key role in balanced socioeconomic development. As per the 2001 census of India, 76% of male and 54% of the female population are literate (aged 7 and above).9 The national level literacy rate for persons aged 7 years and above conceals more than what it reveals because there are great statewide disparities. For example, Kerala with a literacy rate of 90.9% is in the first place, closely followed by Mizoram. Among the other 6 states/union terri-tories with a more than 80% literacy rate, 5 are union territories, and Goa is the only state in this category. At the zonal level, in 2001, it was the west zone that reported the highest literacy rates



Chattopadhyay and Sinha 479

well above the south zone. This is because both Gujarat and Maharashtra have registered higher literacy rates than Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, which fall in the south zone. The central zone is constituted by erstwhile Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, both regarded as low literacy states; it is the east zone, however, that has the lowest literacy rate, primarily because of very low literacy rates in Bihar and Orissa. At the national level, the male–female difference in the literacy rate has declined from 25% in 1991 to 22% in 2001 because of a faster increase in the female literacy rate as compared with the male literacy rate during the 1990s. Consequently, the male–female gap in literacy rates has declined in almost all the states and union territories during this period. The gains in literacy rates have been quite good during the 1990s. Moreover, there has been a substantial reduction in the absolute number of illiterates in the country for the first time. But still, a lot of effort has to be made to bring the country’s overall literacy rate to above 90% and that of the women to above 80% during the present decade. For population control, it is necessary to intensify our efforts, particularly in raising the level of girls’ education. The National Population Policy has emphasized this aspect in very clear terms. Though male–female disparities at the macro level have reduced, the literacy situation of the female popula-tion still has to be given priority. The state level situation indicates very significant improvement in both male and female literacy rates, especially in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. It would be important for Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Orissa to review their own literacy programs and take necessary steps in this regard.

Life expectancy refers to the average number of years a newborn is expected to live if current mortality rates continue to apply. The concept of life expectancy involves the average length of life of a person, which is influenced by social and, to a small degree, biological factors. The biological elements tend to show up quite early after birth; therefore, mortality tends to be higher during the first year of life. But what is most important is that life expectancy is driven by social positive factors, such as shelter, health care, working conditions, intellectual stimula-tion, and so on,10 and by negative aspects, such as malnutrition, poverty, armed conflict, stress, and depression. Both the positive and negative factors determine a person’s quality of life. When analyzing the life expectancy of a society, one studies its economic and social infra-structure. The infrastructure of a society refers to the production and distribution of wealth and the degree of access to food, medical assistance, and shelter. Life expectancy is also influenced by technological progress, working conditions, education, and emotional health. The option of lifestyle “choice” is clearly undercut in societies where there is little or no alternative at all for a better life. Life expectancy portrays the social, economic, and even the environmental condi-tions of a society. Life expectancy at birth has increased for male and female babies in India. It was 64.1 years for male and 65.8 years for female babies in 2005. This reveals the decrease in death rate and the improvement in quantity and quality of health services in India. However, there are interstate, interdistrict, and rural–urban differences in life expectancy at birth resulting from low literacy, differential income levels, and socioeconomic conditions and beliefs. In Kerala, a person at birth is expected to live for 73 years, whereas in states like Bihar, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and so on, the expectancy is in the range of 55 to 60 years.11

As stated by Medina in 1996, the increase in life span has a symbiotic relationship with schooling; a longer life fosters the incentives to acquire more education. The productive life expands, and as a result, the quality of the labor force increases. When life is short, there are fewer incentives to attend school, illiteracy is rampant, and the quality of life is low. When life is longer, there are more incentives to invest in education both privately and publicly. Thus, it results in the increase of human capital. Again, becoming educated is the basic tool for indi-vidual and national development. It enables people to improve their living conditions by empow-ering them to protect and claim fully their social, economic, political, environmental, and other entitlements. Education is the engine for development because it aids in the defeat of many




adverse constraints, such as gender discrimination, and it empowers people to reduce their geographical disadvantages.

ObjectivesIn the above context, this article aims to understand the level of and gender differences in the LLE of India and its major states. The specific objectives are to assess the LLE of India and its variation across major states, to understand the gender differentials in the LLE by place of stay, and to compare the HDI and the LLE.

MethodologyThe LLE is a numerical sum of social development. The systematic approach of LLE combines 2 basic aspects of human development: (1) the number of years a person lives and (2) the level of education. The LLE evaluates the Age Specific Mortality Rates (ASMRs) and the Age Specific Population Literates (ASPLs). The aim of this indicator is to look at a person’s years of life but in a literate state. The estimation of LLE follows the ordinary life table method.12-14 The calculation of the LLE requires empirical data of the ASMRs and the ASPLs. The estimation of the LLE has been calculated without any complex mathematical operation in a life table, which is used for summarizing the mortality experience of a population. The only new element is the weighted number of person-years at each age by the ASPLs.

The data required for the analysis have been obtained from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3; 2005-2006)15 and the Sample Registration System report (SRS). From NFHS-3, we obtained the proportion literate in the different age groups, and the proportion of death was taken from the SRS of 2005. SRS provides information by sex and place of residence. NFHS is a nation-wide health survey equivalent to the Demographic Health Survey in India, and it covers an ade-quate sample for estimates of sociodemographic parameters at the national and state levels. The estimation of LLE is described below.

If PLx is the age-specific population literate, then the literate person years lived in LLx is LLx × PLx. The LLE (denoted by Lex in the following equation) is then obtained by dividing the cumulative literate person years (LTx) by the lx column (Table A1). That is,

LTx = ∑ LLx,

then,

LTx Lex = –––– 1x

Abbreviations: LLx, person years lived at age x; Plx, population literate at age x; lx, number of persons surviving at exact age x.

Results and DiscussionsLLE at Birth in India and in Major States

Table 1 shows that the LLE at birth in India is 42.4 years, which means that on average a person in India will survive up to the age of 42.4 years in a literate state. The LLEs of India and its major states are shown in Figures 1 to 6, and it clearly shows the varied social development levels in India. (Literacy in India is considered only for those aged 7 and above. However, the proportion literate can be obtained for those aged below 7 from NFHS data.)




Table 1. Literate Life Expectancy (LLE) at Birth, India, 2005

Age Group (years) LLE

0-1 42.41-5 45.05-10 42.310-15 38.015-20 33.820-25 29.825-30 26.130-35 22.635-40 19.540-45 16.345-50 13.350-55 10.255-60 8.060-65 6.065-70 4.6

Figure 1. Literate life expectancies at birth: India and major states (Kerala, Bihar)

Figures 1 to 6 indicate the LLEs of different regions of India, and in every figure, Kerala’s LLE is indicated, mainly to indicate an ideal situation that can be achieved by all the states. The group-ing of states is done by their geographical location. Figure 1 indicates the Indian average LLE and the performance of the best and the worst states. Figure 2 shows the performance of the northern states. Figure 3 incorporates Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh—the 2 poorly developed central states of India. Figure 4 shows the LLE of the southern states—a group of better-performing states in India. Figure 5 includes western states, and the eastern states are represented in Figure 6.

Kerala (63.4 years) has the highest and Bihar (26.4 years) the lowest LLE in India (Figure 1). At the all-India level (42.4 years), LLE is not that appreciable compared with Kerala (63.4 years)




Figure 2. Literate life expectancies at birth: India and major states (Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala)

Figure 3. Literate life expectancies at birth: India and major states (Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala)




Figure 4. Literate life expectancies at birth: India and major states (Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala)

Figure 5. Literate life expectancies at birth: India and major states (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kerala)




because most of the larger states perform poorly in terms of the LLE. Whereas Kerala’s LLE at birth is 63.4 years, Bihar’s is 26.4 years, with a substantial gap in female LLE. Uttar Pradesh (29.9 years) and Madhya Pradesh (30.0 years) are also lagging behind in this regard. Both the states have low LLEs for all ages. Rajasthan (28.2 years) and Bihar are very poorly performing states, with a score of below 30 in LLE. Of the northern states (Figure 2), Himachal Pradesh performs the best followed by Punjab and Haryana. Among the southern states (Figure 4), after Kerala (63.4 years), Tamil Nadu stands second with an LLE of 45.0 years. The poorest LLE of all southern states is exhibited by Andhra Pradesh (33 years).

Gender Differentials in LLEFigure 7 shows the LLE values at birth in the major states of India by sex. In Kerala, for men, the LLE is 62.0 years, and for women, it is 61.3 years. The lowest LLE is observed in Bihar (26.4 years) with a large male–female variation (male 35.4 and female 16.8). Maharashtra and Himachal Pradesh have more or less the same LLE at birth for both the genders (51.3 and 50.3 years). Nine states fit into the ranges of 40 to 50 years of LLE. However, in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Assam, and Rajasthan both the survival conditions and the literacy levels are poor, and hence, the LLE at birth is also very low for both males and females.

Figure 7 shows that the gender gap is highest in Rajasthan and in Haryana (19.0 years). Bihar also shows a high level of gender variation. Only Kerala’s performance is exceptionally good in this regard.

Rural–Urban Difference in LLEFigure 8 shows the gender difference between LLEs in rural and urban India. The urban LLE is much higher than the rural LLE: it is 52.8 years among urban men, with the corresponding rural

Figure 6. Literate life expectancies at birth: India and major states (Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Kerala)




Figure 7. Gender gap in literate life expectancy at birth across states

Figure 8. Male and female literate life expectancy in rural and urban areas in India




LLE being 38.3 years. The urban–rural gap in LLE is shown in Table 2. The urban female LLE is about 2 times more than the rural LLE: it is 42.7 years for urban women and only 22.9 years for their rural counterparts.

The LLE for rural men and women in Kerala is the highest compared with other states (62.3 years for men and 59.5 years for women), as shown in Table 2. In rural areas of every state, except Kerala, male LLE at birth is lower compared with the urban areas. The gender gap in LLE for rural areas is the highest in Rajasthan (20.1 years), followed by Haryana (19.8 years), Bihar (18.9 years), and Uttar Pradesh. In urban areas, the LLE is highest in Kerala, where the female LLE surpasses the male LLE: it is 61.3 years for men and 62.9 years for women. In urban areas of Assam, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Karnataka, the gender gap is less than 10 points. As a whole, the gap is less in urban than in rural areas, with a substantial rural-urban difference in Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

The difference between urban and rural LLEs is more acute in the less-developed states in India. For instance, in Rajasthan, the urban female LLE is about 3 times higher than the rural female LLE, which is just 12.2 years. In Kerala, only 3.5 years of rural to urban difference is observed among women, whereas it is 19 years for Maharashtra, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh; 15 years for West Bengal; and 14 years for Punjab, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh. A similar trend is observed among urban and rural males, though the difference is lesser in extent. The maximum male LLE is observed in Kerala—62.2 years in rural areas and 61.3 years in urban areas.

The HDI and LLE at Birth in IndiaHDI of India 2005 highlights the very large gaps in well-being and life chances that continue to divide our increasingly interconnected world (Table A2). By looking at some of the most funda-mental aspects of people’s lives and opportunities, it provides a much more complete picture of

Table 2. Literate Life Expectancy at Birth in Rural and Urban Areas Across Major States, India, 2005-2006

Urban–Rural Rural Urban Difference

States Male Female Male Female Male Female

Orissa 38.2 24.3 52.4 42.2 14.2 17.9Maharashtra 45.9 30 59.1 49.1 13.2 19.1Madhya Pradesh 32 16.7 49.5 36 17.5 19.3Kerala 62.2 59.5 61.3 62.9 -0.9 3.4Rajasthan 32.3 12.2 51.9 34.4 19.6 22.2Karnataka 38.2 25.4 53.9 44 15.7 18.6Gujarat 41 27 53.8 44.9 12.8 17.9Uttar Pradesh 36 17.4 44.2 31.3 8.2 13.9West Bengal 40.4 27.4 55.3 45.1 14.9 17.7Tamil Nadu 46.1 32.5 55 47.9 8.9 15.4Punjab 41.7 30.6 53.9 44 12.2 13.4Haryana 41.4 21.7 51.4 40.7 10.0 19.0Himachal Pradesh 49.7 35.5 57.2 51 7.5 15.5Andhra Pradesh 36.3 22.3 49.1 40.3 12.8 18.0Assam 43.2 30.2 56.6 49.5 13.4 19.3Bihar 33.4 14.5 44.2 28.6 10.8 14.1India 38.3 22.9 52.8 42.7 14.5 19.8




a country’s development than other indicators, such as GDP per capita. Of the components of the HDI, only income and gross enrolment are somewhat responsive to short-term policy changes. For that reason, it is important to examine changes in the HDI over time. The gender-related development index (GDI), introduced in the Human Development Report 1995, measures achievements in the same dimensions using the same indicators as the HDI but captures inequali-ties in achievement between women and men. It is simply the HDI adjusted downward for gen-der inequality. The greater the gender disparity in basic human development, the lower is a country’s GDI relative to its HDI. India’s GDI value of 0.600 should be compared with its HDI value of 0.619. Its GDI value is 96.9% of its HDI value. Out of the 156 countries with both HDI and GDI values, 137 countries have a better ratio than India’s.

The key advantages of the LLE compared with other indicators of social development—mainly the HDI—are as follows. It has a clear interpretation in terms of the individual life cycle. It is not an abstract index on a relative scale but rather is expressed in terms of indi-vidual years of life. Unlike GDP per capita, LLE can be readily measured for men and women separately, which makes it very appropriate for gender-specific analysis. It can also be mea-sured for other subgroups of the population. It can stand alone in its absolute value and does not require the more or less arbitrary assumption of an upper limit that changes over time (as HDI does).This is important because it enables comparisons to be made over longer time horizons that include periods of major structural changes. Finally, LLE is based entirely on observable individual characteristics. In this respect, it can be seen as a benefit in terms of purity, rather than a deficiency. However, HDI is a widely used indicator for measuring social development. So is there a situation when the LLE and HDI give similar results? In what fol-lows, we have tried to understand the correlation between the 2 indices in the Indian context.

To compare the LLE and HDI, we assume that HDI does not change over the period 2001 to 2005 (Table 3). According to the HDI and LLE rankings, Kerala, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu get the same place. Rajasthan ranked 9 in terms of the HDI index but ranked 14 with the LLE. Haryana also lost its position with the LLE. Assam gained 7 points and

Table 3. LLE at Birth and HDI in Major States in Indiaa

States LLE (2005-2006) LLE (Ranking) HDI (Ranking 2001) HDI - LLE

Kerala 63.4 1 1 0Maharashtra 46.2 2 4 -2Tamil Nadu 45.3 3 3 0Punjab 41.4 4 2 2Gujarat 41.0 5 6 -1West Bengal 40.5 6 8 -2Assam 39.8 7 14 -7Karnataka 39.0 8 7 1Haryana 36.6 9 5 4Orissa 34.4 10 11 -1Andhra Pradesh 33.4 11 10 1Madhya Pradesh 30.0 12 12 0Uttar Pradesh 29.9 13 13 0Rajasthan 28.2 14 9 5Bihar 26.4 15 15 0

Abbreviations: LLE, literate life expectancy; HDI, human development index.aSource: HDI—Planning Commission, 2002; LLE—calculated. Correlation coefficient = .775.




ranked seventh in terms of the LLE. To see the correlation between the LLE and HDI rankings, we carry out Spearman’s rank correlation, and the coefficient is 0.775, which indicates a signifi-cant positive relation between them. A minor variation arises between the LLE and HDI because the LLE is free from the economic parameter. It strictly shows the social development, and there-fore, those states that perform relatively poorly in the economic dimension have a lower HDI ranking. In this regard, we must mention that the GDP per capita is a debatable indicator for a comprehensive measure of quality of life and development because it fails to capture the distri-bution of income and wealth, and it does not represent the other nonmaterial aspects of well-being, such as education and health.

ConclusionEducation holds the key to economic growth and social transformation. Though the major indi-cators of socioeconomic development—namely, the growth rate of the economy, birth rate, death rate, infant mortality rate, and literacy rate—are all interconnected, the literacy rate has been the major determinant of the rise or fall in the other indicators. There is enough evidence in India to show that a high literacy rate, especially in the case of women, correlates with a low birth rate, low infant mortality rate, and increase in the rate of life expectancy. The recognition of this fact has created awareness on the need to focus on literacy and elementary education programs, not simply as a matter of social justice but more to foster economic growth, social well-being, and social stability. Gender discrimination has been an ongoing feature of economic and social processes. It is much less apparent in health indicators, such as longevity and infant mortality, and most evident in economic variables and in literacy. The life expectancy data indicate the improving health position of women relative to men. Yet the literacy level of women is appalling, especially in rural India.

Measuring people’s quality of life emphasizes human well-being and particularly issues of equity, poverty, and gender.16 In this context, this article uses the latest indicator of social devel-opment, LLE, which was introduced by Lutz in 1995. The only article found in this context in India is by Nair et al.17 We have tried to highlight the social development scenario in India and its major states by using a pure social indicator that intentionally does not use any economic measurement but rather combines life expectancy and literacy into a single number. The state scenario comprehensively depicts the areas in which gender differentials are high. Research and intervention is the need of the hour for improving the abysmal conditions in Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh as regards social development. Gender development requires special attention in Haryana, Rajasthan, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh, whereas it is the urban rural gap in male and female LLE in the states of Rajasthan (for both sexes) and espe-cially for women in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and West Bengal. It calls for development measures to be taken more seriously in states like Haryana, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh to reduce the gender gap. The LLE index proved to be a very clear and simple comprehensive measure of social development at the urban or rural level of spatial aggregation. The analysis of social development at the state level is perhaps the most relevant. Measuring the LLE at the state level not only highlights the social conditions of each state within the region, but it also allows us to disentangle many social differences that are more difficult to find with the national and regional analyses. Local social initiatives are more effec-tive than national programs insofar as the local governments have more possibilities to direct and supervise the policies.



Tabl

e A

1. L

itera

te L

ife E

xpec

tanc

y (L

LE)

at B

irth

, Ind

ia, 2

005a

Age

Gro

up (

year

s)

q(x,

n)

l(x)

d(x,

n)

L(x,

n)

T(x)

e(

x)

PLx

LL

x LT

x LL

E

0-1

0.06

409

100

000

6409

95

044

.3

6 23

4 63

5 62

.3

0 0

4 23

8 63

0 42

.41-

5 0.

0289

4 93

591

27

08.5

24

367

484.

1 6

139

590

65.6

0.

0815

74

29 9

77

4 20

8 65

3 45

.05-

10

0.00

737

90 8

82.4

8 66

9.80

39

452

737.

9 5

772

106

63.5

0.

8003

58

362

352.

5 3

846

301

42.3

10-1

5 0.

0053

4 90

212

.67

481.

7357

44

9 85

9 5

319

368

59.0

0.

9242

93

415

801.

4 3

430

499

38.0

15-2

0 0.

0071

3 89

730

.94

639.

7816

44

7 13

5.2

4 86

9 50

9 54

.3

0.88

9435

39

7 69

7.5

3 03

2 80

2 33

.820

-25

0.00

985

89 0

91.1

6 87

7.54

79

443

360.

4 4

422

374

49.6

0.

8522

8 37

7 86

7.2

2 65

4 93

5 29

.825

-30

0.01

243

88 2

13.6

1 10

96.4

95

438

428.

7 3

979

014

45.1

0.

8059

82

353

365.

8 2

301

569

26.1

30-3

5 0.

0157

3 87

117

.11

1370

.352

43

2 29

2.5

3 54

0 58

5 40

.6

0.76

1085

32

9 01

1.5

1 97

2 55

7 22

.635

-40

0.02

035

85 7

46.7

6 17

44.9

47

424

543.

4 3

108

293

36.2

0.

7171

17

304

447.

4 1

668

110

19.5

40-4

5 0.

0261

7 84

001

.81

2198

.327

41

4 76

1.4

2 68

3 74

9 31

.9

0.71

3305

29

5 85

1.3

1 37

2 25

9 16

.345

-50

0.03

661

81 8

03.4

9 29

94.8

26

401

952.

9 2

268

988

27.7

0.

7067

43

284

077.

4 1

088

181

13.3

50-5

5 0.

0547

5 78

808

.66

4314

.774

38

3 89

2.1

1 86

7 03

5 23

.7

0.75

0904

28

8 26

5.9

799

915.

2 10

.255

-60

0.08

132

74 4

93.8

9 60

57.8

43

35 8

240.

6 1

483

143

19.9

0.

5739

06

205

596.

3 59

4 31

8.9

8.0

60-6

5 0.

1290

4 68

436

.04

8830

.987

32

1 13

8 1

124

902

16.4

0.

5668

25

182

029

412

289.

9 6.

065

-70

0.17

86

59 6

05.0

6 10

645

.46

272

402.

8 80

3 76

4.4

13.5

0.

5156

84

140

473.

8 27

1 81

6 4.

6

Abb

revi

atio

ns: q

(x, n

), pr

obab

ility

of d

ying

from

age

x t

o x+

n; l(

x), n

umbe

r of

per

sons

sur

vivi

ng a

t ex

act

age

x; d

(x, n

), nu

mbe

r of

dea

ths

in a

ge x

to

x+n;

L(x

, n),

pers

on y

ears

live

d fr

om

age

x to

x+

n; T

(x),

pers

on y

ears

live

d af

ter

exac

t ag

e x;

e(x

), av

erag

e nu

mbe

r of

yea

rs li

ved

afte

r ex

act

age

x; P

Lx, p

opul

atio

n lit

erat

e at

age

x; L

Lx, l

itera

te p

erso

n ye

ars

lived

at

age

x;

LTx,

lite

rate

per

son

year

s liv

ed a

fter

exa

ct a

ge x

.a C

olum

ns 1

to

7 sh

ow t

he n

orm

al li

fe t

able

, and

col

umns

8 t

o 11

sho

w t

he li

tera

te li

fe t

able

.

489




Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.

References

1. Medina S. Implementing a New Indicator of Social Development in Mexico: Literate Life Expectancy (LLE). Laxenburg, Austria: International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis [IIASA]; 1996. IIASA Working Paper 96-103.

2. Rahaman KMH, Asaduzzaman M. Literate life expectancy in Bangladesh: a new approach of social indicator. J Data Sci. 2007;5:131-142.

3. Huang R, Nanjo Z. Measurement of social development in China using the literate life expectancy [in Japanese]. Jinkogaku Kenkyu. 1998;(22):25-30.

4. Lutz W. Literate Life Expectancy. Laxenburg, Austria: International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis; 1994/1995. POPNET, No. 26 (Winter).

5. Jejeeboy SJ. Women’s Education, Autonomy and Reproductive Behaviour. Oxford, UK: Springer Verlag; 1995.

6. Benavot A. Education, gender and economic development: a cross-national study. Sociol Educ. 1989;62:14-32.

7. Hadden K, Lodon B. Educating girls in the third world: the demographic basis needs and economic benefits. Int J Comp Sociol. 1996;37:31-47.

8. Premananda B, Som S, Chakrabarty S, Bharati S, Pal M. Prevalence of anemia and its determinants among nonpregnant and pregnant women in India. Asia Pac J Public Health. 2008;20:347-359.

9. Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Census of India 2001, Series 1, India, Provisional Population Totals, Paper 1 of 2001. Delhi, India: Controller of Publications, Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India; 2001.

10. Malhotra R, Lal P, Prakash SK, Daga MK, Kishore J. Evaluation of a health education intervention on knowledge and attitudes of food handlers working in a medical college in Delhi, India. Asia Pac J Public Health. 2008;20:277-286.

11. World Health Organization. Country health system profile: India. http://www.searo.who.int/EN/Section313/Section1519_10855.htm. Accessed April 19, 2010.

12. Ramakumar R. Technical Demography. Mumbai, India: Wiley Eastern; 1986.

Table A2. India’s Human Development Index 2005

Rank/HDI Value

Rank/Life

Expectancy at Birth (years)

Rank/Adult Literacy Rate

(Percentage Aged 15 and Older)

Rank/Combined Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary

Gross Enrolment Ratio (%)

Rank/GDP Per Capita (PPP US$)

1. Iceland (0.968)

1. Japan (82.3) 1. Georgia (100.0) 1. Australia (113.0) 1. Luxembourg (60 228)

128. India (0.619)

125. India (63.7) 114. India (61.0) 122. India (63.8) 117. India (3452)

Abbreviations: HDI, human development index; GDP, gross domestic product.




13. Namboodri NK, Suchindran CM. Life Table Techniques and their Applications. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1987.

14. Srinivasan K. Basic Demographic Techniques and Applications. New Delhi, India: SAGE; 1998.15. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, with the International Institute for Popu-

lation Sciences, Mumbai. National Family Health Survey (2005-06). Calverton, MD: ORC Macro.16. Government of India. Planning Commission, National Human Development Report. New Delhi, India:

Oxford University Press; 2002.17. Nair PM, Chandran AA, Aliyar A. Literate life expectancy in India. Demogr India. 2000;29:117-128.



sega journal1

Documents