Segregation in Prisons:

Running head: segregation in prisons

Segregation in Prisons:An Analysis using Functionalist and Conflict PerspectivesLeigh-Ann ForsytheUniversity of South Carolina

Introduction

While segregation has been a widely acknowledged and studied social issue in the United States, there is little literature on segregation practices and dynamics within prisons. This essay aims to discuss segregation in prisons using the functionalist and conflict perspectives. Both internal power struggles and external system influences will be examined, and the social work profession’s values and ethics will be applied to consider what roles social workers can play to create and implement solutions on both an individual level as well as an organizational and institutional level.

What is the Problem and Why does it Occur?

Functionalist perspective. Functionalism as a theory highlights the specific roles and purposes of systems, organizations, and individuals in society. Most functionalists look at the corrections system as a mechanism for removing socially deviant persons from society. However, within prisons themselves there are norms and routines that each uphold functions of their own. The racial segregation of inmates can serve the function of maintaining a balance of power for the prison guards and administration, as well as supposedly reducing the amount of violent disturbances guards have to deal with. In 2004, the Supreme Court dealt with a case in which California prisons were outright segregating inmates based on race “in the name of keeping prisons safe” (U.S. Supreme Court debates use of racial segregation in prisons, p. 20). The prison system in question maintained a policy that required inmates to be separated by race for two months or more upon entering the system, as well as for any length of time if there were any race-related violent incidents in the prison. However, segregating inmates would further incite racially charged conflicts, possibly extending sentences and reducing the success of individuals convicted of crimes after they are released. Correll’s 2002 study shows that African American and Hispanic individuals are more likely to be viewed as violent than whites. If the function of the system of incarceration is to produce citizens who are no longer socially deviant, but contribute to society, then segregating inmates is counter-productive, and in fact disrupts the function of the system as a whole.

Conflict perspective. The conflict perspective provides insight into the power dynamics both in and outside prisons that influence and perpetuate racial segregation within prisons. The corrective system contributes to the oppression of African American and Hispanic populations by criminalizing them, and sustaining power over them through harsher sentencing and punishments. Schlanger (2013) writes about the disparities in number of Black and Hispanic demographics in prisons in New York. Figure 1 below shows her findings. Blacks and Hispanics comprise almost 75 percent of the prison population, where Whites only comprise a little more than 20 percent. Inmates being divided by race can only further the tension between racial groups in the already hostile environment of a prison. Correll (2002) discusses the nature of the bias police officers face when exposed to a potentially violent situation with members of different races. His study provided evidence that the association of violence to African Americans and Hispanics was experienced not only by whites, but by African Americans and Hispanics themselves. When racial conflicts erupt, African Americans and Hispanics are much more likely to be associated with the violence, and therefore punished for it, than members of other races. This bias contributes to the uneven balance of power and the maintenance of discrimination practices in disciplinary actions for inmates in prison, as well as the disproportionate ratios of African American and Hispanic inmates to white.

Figure 1

2

What Institutions are Involved?

Functionalist perspective. The criminal justice system is perhaps the most obvious institution involved in segregation of incarcerated persons. The system holds a function of removing “deviants” – in this case, criminals – from society. As Correll discussed, members of diverse races are much more likely to be criminalized by individuals in the criminal justice system and in society, leading to a disproportionate population of these races in prisons.

Other institutions that are involved in segregation within prisons are education and economic-status. One of the functions of the education system, as stated by Johnson and Rhodes, is to act as a “gatekeeper” for different positions in society. This gatekeeping function often relegates children in poverty-stricken areas to training for low-skilled jobs – maintaining their poverty-status. Education’s function in this sense, then, is to maintain the separation of less-privileged citizens from those with more privilege, which often encourages and continues practices of segregation within the economy as well – filtering lower-income children into lower-income adult populations that are more prone to criminal activity.

Conflict perspective. Using both Correll (2002) and Schlanger’s (2013) articles, a conflict perspective can be applied to the criminal justice system’s role in preserving segregation in prisons. Both articles denote the cause and effect of the association of violence to African Americans and Hispanics and the result of that criminalization in the populations of prisons. Continuing prejudiced actions towards members of diverse races maintains the power structure of oppression within prisons.

The public health system can also be attributed to segregation in prisons. Bullard (2004) discusses environmental racism, meaning the harmful environmental consequences that disproportionately fall on members of the African American race, and those of low socioeconomic status. The impacts these environmentally harmful industries have on populations that are already at a social and economic disadvantage increase the challenges faced by members of oppressed races. Coming from communities that are built on racially segregated populations contribute to further racial division in prisons.

The education system also contributes to segregation in prisons from a conflict perspective. Johnson and Rhodes suggest two current trends in the education system that have an impact on the criminal justice system. One is the re-segregation of schools. Jonathan Kozol’s Shame of the Nation discusses at length the practice of re-segregating schools. He compares the amount of funding given to schools in lower economic-status areas that are predominately populated by African Americans and Hispanics to the amount given to schools in more economically privileged areas. Below, Figure 2 from Equity News and Information (2012) illustrates the concentration of African American and Hispanic students in the majority of schools in New York, U.S.

Figure 2

The second trend in education is “tracking”, or “ability grouping based on standardized tests that magnify small differences” (Johnson and Rhodes, 2010, pp.93). This practice leads to children in poor and minority communities being assigned to remedial classes, making it less and less likely that they will ever perform academically on an equal level as children born in higher-income areas. Both re-segregating schools and tracking contribute to further oppression of minority-race students, which allows for more tension and racial division in prisons.

What can be done?

Functionalist perspective. If segregation in prisons is both caused and perpetuated by the functional nature of the segregation for those who benefit from it, then one manner of solving the problem must focus on those ends. For example, one motivation held by administrative powers that is behind maintaining segregation in prisons is to preserve order and peace between inmates. From a functionalist perspective, could be better achieved by creating a culture of dialogue, education, and rehabilitation within the prison, rather than a culture focused rigid routines which aggravates racially divided social groups and individuals. In this respect, social workers could use their values of the inherent dignity and worth of each person as a tool for educating and working with inmates to expand their own understanding of their unique cultural identity. Social workers in prisons could also play an active role in developing programs to celebrate cultural diversity within the prison culture itself. Creating avenues for education and celebration of diversity would be a better approach for creating a peaceful environment than continuing to divide and breed tension between racial groups.

Beyond the prison system itself, social workers can play a role in solving the problem by being involved in other institutions. In the criminal justice system, social workers can advocate for individuals of minority races, and design educational programs for law enforcement officials to reduce racial profiling and race-related assumptions of violence. Correll’s 2002 study showed the frequency and the widespread nature of racially divided violent role assignments in society, and further education and psychological analysis led by social workers with the values of celebrating diversity and the worth of every person could spark change in that respect.

In the education system, the current gatekeeping function of schools’ testing methods should be addressed. Again, education using social work values can be highly effective here in creating a more open path for children of low-income minority families to further expanded educational opportunities. Along with educating teachers and school administrators not only on diversity appreciation and understanding, social workers can effect change on a policy level in the education system. Currently, the policies and procedures that saturate school systems in low-income communities promote standardized tests which allow children performing at a lower level early on to be designated to classes that offer little academic challenges or opportunities for growth. In this way, the gatekeeping function prevents upward mobility, and discourages the critical thinking needed for crossing culturally and racially divided social norms.

Conflict perspective. Using a conflict perspective to reduce segregation in prisons is more difficult because of the internalized nature of oppressive attitudes as and the well-hidden structures within the institutions of education, criminal justice, and public health that maintain the power dynamics that currently allow segregation to take place. On a system and organizational level, social workers can work to advocate for minority races to ensure they are included in proceedings that have implications for their futures, such as, again, the policies concerning sorting in the education system. On an individual level, however, social workers’ main roles should be not only empowerment of minority races to fight the oppression that already occurs, but education on diversity and encouragement of culturally diverse dialogue and acceptance. On an individual level, working with prisoners within the prison system again to educate and empower them to take a part in the legal and organizational decisions that lead to further segregation. Along with advocating for minority races and empowering them to advocate for themselves, social workers can educate individuals on effective conflict resolution. Planning and carrying out education about celebrating diversity in relationships and effective problem solving and conflict resolution could reduce the violent incidences that often end up further criminalizing especially African American and Hispanic prisoners.

Conclusion

Both the functionalist and conflict perspectives provide clear explanations and insight into the causes of segregation in prisons and the institutions and systems that maintain the current power structures. The education, health, economic, and criminal justice systems all play roles in perpetuating racial division and conflict between racial groups that end up culminating in severely segregated prisons and less progress for individuals of a minority race, particularly African American or Hispanic. Social workers, using their core values, can help achieve more effective rehabilitation of inmates and more successful communication and prison management with education, empowerment, and advocacy on both the individual and system levels.

References

Bullard, R. D. (2004). Environmental racism. In J. H. Skolnick & E. Currie (Eds.), Crisis in American institutions (pp. 237-244). Boston: Pearson.

Equity News and Information. (2012). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from http://diversityteam.blogspot.com/2012/05/segregation-in-new-york-citys-public.html

Johnson, M. & Rhodes, R. (2014). Human Behavior and the Larger Social Environment: A New

Synthesis. (3rd Edition) Chicago, Illinois: Lyceum Books, Inc.

Kozol, Jonathan. (2005) The shame of the nation :the restoration of apartheid schooling in America New York : Crown Publishers

Schlanger, Margo. (2013). Prison Segregation and Racial Disparities. Retrieved November 20, 2014, from http://solitarywatch.com/2013/11/02/prison-segregation-racial-disparities/

U.S. Supreme Court Debates use of Racial Segregation in Prisons. (2004). Black Issue in Higher Education, 21(21). 20-21.