seismic properties and processes along the subduction plate interface: the februrary 2010 mw 8.8...

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SEISMIC PROPERTIES AND

PROCESSES ALONG THESUBDUCTION PLATE INTERFACE:

THE FEBRUARY 2010 MW 8.8MAULE, CHILE EARTHQUAKE

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ABSTRACT

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$(!' &*$(!' * %he "#&")%!*' *'e ('& ?'& ( h!3h /e*)!%('*$( *)(%e& (*'3 %he (%e !'%e+()e, h!)h e !'!%!(!'%e++e% ( ( "#&")%e& %**3+(h!) h!3h. <e %he' &e/e* (e)*'&, $*+e ())"+(%e /e*)!% $*&e %h(% "e (' !$+*/e& (++!/(%!$e &(%(e% %*3e%he+ !%h *#e+/(%!*' +*$ *)e('>#*%%*$e!$*$e%e+. Th! +e?'e& $*&e 3!/e ( h(+e+ /!e * #*%h %he(%e !'%e+()e )*e %* %he %+e')h, ('& %he $(+!'e *+e(+). <eh* %h(% (')!e'% #*)6 * &e'e $('%e !' %he *e+ *+e(+) $(h(/e &e)ee+(%e& ! &"+!'3 %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e ('& )*'%+!#"%e&%* !% '")e(%!*'. F"+%he+$*+e, e !'e+ %h(% @"!& (%"+(%e&e&!$e'% !'h!#!%e& !3'!?)('% ! )*e %* %he %+e')h.<e %"& *"+)e +*)ee * ( (+3e (%e+h*)6 * %he M("ee-"e')e, %he 2011 Mw .1 A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e, # !'/e+%!'3 *)(e!$!) (/e*+$ *+ ( $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e ("%!'3 *"%!*'. <e?'& %h! e(+%h-"(6e )*'%!%"%e& +"%"+e *' %he (%e !'%e+()e**e& # ($*% !'%('%('e*" ! (*'3 ( '*+$( ("% !' %he*/e++!&!'3 (%e: %he ?+% *#e+/(%!*' * !% 6!'&. The e)*'&+"%"+e * %h! )*e>()e& &*"#e% ( h!&&e' +*$ %eee!$!)("%!'3 *"%!*', ('& $( h(/e #ee' &'($!)( %+!33e+e& # S>(/e +*$ %he ?+% e/e'%.O/e+(, *"+ *+6 h!3h!3h% %he +*e (e& # %he "e+ (%e !'

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1



2



DECLARATION

I &e)(+e %h(% %he *+6 +ee'%e& !' %h! %he! ! %he +e"% * $*' *+6. The $(%e+!( )*'%(!'e& !' %he %he! h( '*% #ee'+ee'%e&, '*+ ! )"++e'% #e!'3 +ee'%e&, e!%he+ h* *+ !' (+%,*+ (' *%he+ &e3+ee *+ -"(!?)(%!*'.

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S)!e')e h( (e' !'%* $(' e++*+ e++*+

h!)h h(/e #ee' "'*+%"'(%e ('& "e"+(%he+ %h(' *%he+!e, *+ %he h(/e #ee'

%he %e!'3%*'e %* %+"%h

– Jules Ver gne

Journey to the Center of the Earth

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A#%+()%.........................................................................................=

De)(+(%!*'....................................................................................7

T(#e * C*'%e'%...........................................................................

L!% * F!3"+e..............................................................................1=

L!% * T(#e................................................................................27

L!% * E')*"+e........................................................................2

7



L!% * A##+e/!(%!*'....................................................................2

A)6'*e&3e$e'%.....................................................................=1

P+e()e........................................................................................==

1. Introduction...........................................................35

1.1 Me3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e =7

1.2 The 2010 Mw 8.8 M("e, Ch!e e(+%h-"(6e 0

1.= A!$ ('& *#e)%!/e * %h! %he!

1. The! *+3('!(%!*' ('& "#!)(%!*' %(%" * )h(%e+

2. Upper Plate Versus Lower Plate: Physical Controls onMegathrust Earthquae !upture Processes..............5"

2.1 S%+")%"+( &*$(!' (#*/e ('& #e* %he $e3(%h+"%

722.2 S%+")%"+( ('& )*$*!%!*'( !'@"e')e *' $e3(%h+"%

e!$*3e'!) #eh(/!*"+ 2

2.= L!$!%(%!*' ('& +e$(!'!'3 -"e%!*'

2. S"$$(+ =

=. #eis$ic I$aging o% #u&duction 'one #tructure usingLocal Earthquae (o$ography.................................)5

=.1 F"'&($e'%( * e!$!) %*$*3+(h 7

=.2 Se!$!) +( %+()!'3 =.= The )*"e& h*)e'%+e>/e*)!% +*#e$ 8

=. I'/e+!*' *+ 1>D /e*)!% %+")%"+e 81

=.7 =>D %*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*' 8=

=. I"$!'(%!'3 %he "#&")%!*' $e3(%h+"% "!'3 *)(e(+%h-"(6e %*$*3+(h: (% (!)(%!*' 88

=. S"$$(+ 0

. (he *+"+ Mw ,., Maule- Chile Earthquae: ucleation

and !upture Propagation Controlled &y a #u&ducted(opographic /igh....................................................03

P"#!he& (e+ (#%+()%

.1 I'%+*&")%!*'

.2 T*$*3+(h!) I'/e+!*' S)he$e

.= Re"% * =>D T*$*3+(h!) I'/e+!*'

. D!)"!*' 100

.7 C*')"!*' 10=

7. 1nato$y o% a Megathrust: (he *+"+ M,., Maule- ChileEarthquae !upture 'one I$aged using #eis$ic



(o$ography........................................................."+)

P"#!he& (e+ (#%+()% 108

7.1 I'%+*&")%!*' 108

7.2 Ch(+()%e+!%!) * %he )e'%+( Ch!e "#&")%!*' *'e

1107.= The 2010 M("e e(+%h-"(6e 112

7. Se!$!) &(%( 11=

7.7 e*)!% !'/e+!*' %+(%e3 117

7. I'/e+!*' +e*"%!*' 11

7. Re"% ('& &!)"!*' 127

7.8 De%h>/(+!'3 +"%"+e +*e+%!e ('& ("% %+")%"+e1=

7. C*')"!*' 10

. #eis$ic #ource I$aging using 2ull4ae%or$ 1nalysis..........................................................................."63

.1 M*$e'% %e'*+ %he*+ 1

.2 De)*$*!%!*' * %he $*$e'% %e'*+ 17

.= M*$e'% %e'*+ !'/e+!*' 18

. T!$e>&*$(!' ">(/e*+$ $*$e'% %e'*+ !'/e+!*'1

.7 =>D (/e*+$ !$"(%!*' 17

. S"$$(+ 12

. #eis$ic #lip on an Upper Plate or$al 2ault 7uring aLarge #u&duction Megathrust !upture..................."85

M('")+!% (#%+()% 1

.1 I'%+*&")%!*' 1

.2 M(!'h*)6 h*)e'%+e +e*)(%!*'1

.= S'%he%!) %e% 12. M"%!e *!'%>*"+)e *"%!*' 1

.7 C*$(+!*' !%h (%e+h*)6 *)(%!*' ('& $e)h('!$18=

. =>D (/e*+$ +*(3(%!*' eJe)% 187

. D!)"!*' ('& )*')"!*'188

8. #ynthesis: I$plications %or the Interplay 9etweenMegathrust Physical /eterogeneity and #eis$ic #ourceCharacteristics....................................................."0)

8.1 I'@"e')e * *)(!e& "e+ (%e he%e+*3e'e!% *'e!$*3e'e! 18



8.2 Ph!)( +*e+%!e * %he e!$*3e'!) *'e: +e)*')!!'33*#( *#e+/(%!*' 20

8.= F"%"+e *"%**6: A!)(%!*' * %+")%"+( he%e+*3e'e!% %* =>D e!$!) (/e +*(3(%!*' !$"(%!*' 210

. Conclusions and 2uture 4or................................*"5.1 Re*'e %* +*e)% (!$ 217

.2 L!$!%(%!*' * %h! %"& ('& !&e( *+ "%"+e +ee(+)h21

Ree+e')e................................................................................22=

E')*"+e.................................................................................27=

LIST OF FIGURESF!3"+e 1.1: M( * %he (+3e% 3*#( e(+%h-"(6e %h(% h(/e

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F!3"+e 2.2: D!%+!#"%!*' * )!+)"$>P()!?) e+*!*'( ('& ())+e%!*'(+$(+3!' #(e& *' C!% ('& (''"))h! 42005 ('& K* 42005 )*$(+e& !%h e(+%h-"(6e )h(+()%e+!%!). L(+3e e(+%h-"(6e*)(%!*' (+e #(e& *' B!e6 420105, #"% !%h (' "&(%e&)(%(*3"e. T"'($! e(+%h-"(6e *)(%!*' (+e +*$ E H(+!+! e% (.4201=5.......................................................................................7

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(%e+ M%*! e% (. 420125. E!e 3!/e %he +"%"+e (+e( * e()he(+%h-"(6e. The '($e * e()h e3$e'% ('& e3$e'%#*"'&(+!e 4&(he& !'e5 (+e h*'. The #*; &e'*%e %he*)(%!*' * %he $( !' 4#5. #5 L*)( $( !%h#(%h$e%+%**3+(h 4)**"+e& )(e #(+5. The +e& %(+ ! %heNEIC e!)e'%+e. B"e )*'%*"+ !'e h* %he )*e!$!) !&!%+!#"%!*' * Moreno et al. 420125. Re& )!+)e ('& h!%e%+!('3e (+e %he (%e+h*)6 ('& %(%!*', +ee)%!/e, "e& !'*"+ %*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*'. B()6 )+*e &e'*%e %he '*&e !'*"+ =>D !'/e+!*'. The 3+e &(he& !'e h* %he 3e*$e%+ *%he "#&")%!'3 N()( (#, #(e& *' %he S(#1.0 $*&e 4H(e('& <(&, 2005.......................................................................7

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F!3"+e .=: Re*"%!*' e%!$(%e * *"+ #e%>?%%!'3 =>D 4e%5 v p ('&4+!3h%5 v pv s $*&e #(e& *' ('(! * %he $*&e +e*"%!*'$(%+!;. Sh(&!'3 &e'*%e +e(& "')%!*' /("e ('& #()6 !'eh* %he 0 )*'%*"+ * %he +e*"%!*' 6e+'e The +e*"%!*'!$!% 4h!%e !'e5 (+e #(e& *' +e(& "')%!*' /("e * 2 ('& *+ %he v p ('& v pv s $*&e, +ee)%!/e.................................8

F!3"+e .: (5 C+*>e)%!*' %h+*"3h %he =>D v p $*&e. The *)(%!*'('& *+!e'%(%!*' * e()h +*?e ! h*' !' F!3"+e .1#. The)*(%!'e ! 3!/e' # #()6 %+!('3e. Fe(%"+e * %he $*&e (+e!'%e++e%e& ( **: 4a5 )*'%!'e'%( )+"%, 4b5 *+e(+) #(!',4c5 )e'%+( #(!', 4d5 )*'%!'e'%( $('%e, ('& 4e5 "#&")%!'3*)e('!) )+"%. The #"e &(he& !'e ! %he "'e+%"+#e& %h+"%!'%e+()e. I' e)%!*' C>C′, 4f 5 ! ( h!3h /e*)!% ('*$( *)(%e&(#*/e %he (%e !'%e+()e, ('& 4g5 ! ( $(e+ h!3h /e*)!%('*$( !' %he P!)h!e$" +e3!*' 4e)%!*' A>A′5. #5 C+*>e)%!*'h*!'3 v pv s (*'3 e)%!*' C>C′. B()6 &*% (+e +e*)(%e&(%e+h*)6 !%h Ml =.0, !%h ( $!'!$"$ * 20 P> ('& 20 S>

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F!3"+e .7: (5 C*$(+!*' * v p (*'3 %he (%e !'%e+()e 4)**"+e&!$(3e, #()6 )*'%*"+5 !%h %he )*e!$!) ! &!%+!#"%!*' *M*+e'* e% (. 420125 4#"e )*'%*"+5. The *)(%!*' * %he h!3h/e*)!% ('*$( #e'e(%h %he )*(%!'e )*++e(%e !%h ( +e3!*'* +e(%!/e * )*e!$!) !. The %* $(!' ! (%)he)*++e(%e %* *e+ v p (*'3 %he (%e !'%e+()e. L*)(%!*' *(%e+h*)6 43+e )!+)e5 %h(% !e (*'3 *+ )*e %* %he %h+"%!'%e+()e (+e h*', h!3h!3h%!'3 %he (+e e!$!)!%

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F!3"+e .: (5 Re)*'%+")%!*' * %he N()( ('& P()!?) (%e (%

20M( !"%+(%!'3 %h(% %he )e'%+( Ch!e(' $(+3!' 43+ee' #*;e&(+e(5 $( h(/e *+$e& (% ( !$!(+ %!$e %* (' (+e( *#(%h$e%+!) he%e+*3e'e!% 4+e& #*;e& (+e(5 *' %he P()!?) (%e,'* *)(%e& (% =7S 4#5.......................................................10=

F!3"+e .: S)he$(%!) !'%e++e%(%!*' #(e& *' *"+ %*$*3+(h!)$*&e. O"+ =>D $*&e ! )"% (*'3 %* e)%!*': =.7S %* h*%he /e*)!% %+")%"+e * %he *)e('!) !%h*he+e, ('& =S %*h* %he %+")%"+e * %he *+e(+). The 3e*$e%+ * %he +"%"+e('e ! !"%+(%e& #e%ee' %hee %* e)%!*'. The "#&")%e&%**3+(h!) ('*$( h!)h !e #e'e(%h %he )*(%( +('3e (%(+*"'& =S &!+"% %he +e3"(+ $e3(%h+"% !'%e+()eh*e/e+, e )(''*% %e he%he+ !% ! %! " )*"e& %* %he&*'3*!'3 (%e. The +e& %(+ &e'*%e %he h*)e'%+( *)(%!*'* %he $(!'h*)6. <h!%e !'e (*'3 %he !'%e+()e h* %he)*e!$!) ! &!%+!#"%!*' 4M*+e'* e% (., 20125....................107

F!3"+e 7.1: Ge*%e)%*'!) )h(+()%e+!%!) ('& !$!?e& 3e**3!)($( * %he )e'%+( Ch!e(' $(+3!'. M*+h*%e)%*'!) "'!% (+e+*$ G*&' e% (. 42005 ('& %he 3e**3!)( ! $( +e&+('(%e+ Se+'(3e*$!' 4200=5, Me'!)6 ('& E)h%e+ 4200(5 ('&-"e e% (. 420115. The +e& #*; !' %he !'e% $( 3!/e %he*)(%!*' * %he %"& (+e(. L(#e h* %he '($e * %he

*)(%!*' +ee++e& %* !' %h! )h(%e+........................................111F!3"+e 7.2: M( * %he M("e e3$e'% (*'3 %he S*"%h Ce'%+( Ch!e$(+3!' )**"+e& # #(%h$e%+%**3+(h. The $(!' +"%"+e)h(+()%e+!%!) * %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e (+e h*'. The "+e%(+ h* %he e!)e'%+e * %he $(!'h*)6 4H(e e% (., 201=5 ('& %he #"e )*'%*"+ +e+ee'% )*e!$!) ! &!%+!#"%!*' 4 $5 !' 2 $ !'%e+/( 4M*+e'* e% (., 20125. T+!('3e )*++e*'&%* e!$!) %(%!*' "e& !' %he /e*)!% !'/e+!*'. B()6)+*e !'&!)(%e %he h*+!*'%( 3+!& '*&e "e& !' %he =>D!'/e+!*' ('& +e& )!+)e h* %he +e!$!'(+ *)(%!*' * e(+%h-"(6e "e& !' %he /e*)!% !'/e+!*'. Th!)6 #()6 !'e

h* %he *)(%!*' * )+*>e)%!*' %h(% (+e h*' !' %h!)h(%e+...................................................................................11

F!3"+e 7.=: Re"% * %he 1>D /e*)!% $*&e !'/e+!*'. (5 1>D/e*)!% $*&e h*!'3 %he +('3e * %(+%!'3 $*&e, +('3e *!'/e+%e& $*&e 43+e h(&!'35, ('& %he +ee++e& /e*)!%$*&e 4+e& !'e5. #5 M( * 1>D %(%!*' &e( %e+$. The+ee+e')e %(%!*' ! !'&!)(%e& # %he #()6 %+!('3e...............11

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10



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)+"%( +($e*+6 PA P!)h!e$" ('*$( OC *)e('!))+"% OM *)e('!) $('%e...................................................20

F!3"+e 8.=: C*$(+!*' * %he +e(%!*'h! #e%ee' (%e !'%e+()e%+")%"+e 4e%: v p, )e'%+e: v pv s ('& $e3(%h+"% ! *+ %heM("e, Ch!e ('& T*h*6", Z((' e(+%h-"(6e. The M("e +*?e(+e &+(' !' ( !$!(+ ( %* F!3"+e 7.12, "!'3 %he )*e!$!)! $*&e * M*+e'* e% (. 420125. Se!$!) /e*)!%!e *+ %he

T*h*6" $e3(%h+"% )*$e +*$ Y($($*%* e% (. 42015 ('&)*e!$!) ! ! +*$ G"$(' e% (. 420125. The (++* !'&!)(%e%he &e%h *Je% !' $(;!$"$ v pv s ('& )*e!$!) ! #e%ee'

#*%h +"%"+e *'e.................................................................208F!3"+e 8.: L*)(%!*' ('& ("%!'3 $e)h('!$ * %he e/e'% &e)+!#e&!' T(#e 8.1 %h(% h( #ee' "e& %* !$"(%e e!$!) (/e

17



+*(3(%!*' %he )e'%+( Ch!e "#&")%!*' *'e. Re& %+!('3e&e'*%e %(%!*' !%h h!3h>-"(!% #+*(&#('& +e)*+&!'3 * %h!e/e'% 4F!3"+e 8.5...................................................................211

F!3"+e 8.7: =>D !$(3e * %he $eh 4( /!ee& +*$ %he *"%h5 %h(%! "e& %* 3e'e+(%e %he h!3h +e-"e') =>D (/e*+$

!$"(%!*' !'!&e %he e'%!+e +"%"+e *'e * %he M("ee(+%h-"(6e.............................................................................212F!3"+e 8.: Re+ee'%(%!/e /e*)!% (/e*+$ ?% )*$(+!'3 =>D

'%he%!) !%h *#e+/e& (/e*+$ *+ %he !$"(%e& %e%e/e'%. <(/e*+$ (+e #('&( ?%e+e& (% 0.070.7 H.L*)(%!*' * %hee %(%!*' (+e h*' !' F!3"+e 8.. O+('3e!'e !'&!)(%e P>(/e *'e% %!$e..........................................21=

F!3"+e 8.: U'?%e+e& !*%+*!) e'!%!/!% 6e+'e * he(+ $*&""4'*+$(!e&5, ( /!ee& +*$ %he *"%h, !%h ( /e+%!)( !)e%h+*"3h %he h*)e'%+( +e3!*' * %he %"&!e& e/e'%. Ee/(%!*'e;(33e+(%!*' 2:1................................................................21

1



LIST OF TABLES

T(#e 1.1: H*)e'%+e e%!$(%e * %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e.............2 T(#e 2.1: E%!$(%e * %he !'%e+e)%!*' &e%h #e%ee' %he)*'%!'e'%( M*h* ('& (%e !'%e+()e *+ &!Je+e'% "#&")%!*'*'e. ST )(%%e+!'3 %*$*3+(h RF +e)e!/e+ "')%!*'LET *)( e(+%h-"(6e %*$*3+(h RE +e@e)%e& h(e RR +e+()%!*' e!$**3............................................................7

T(#e 2.2: E%!$(%e * "#&")%!*' )h(''e %h!)6'e *+ &!Je+e'%"#&")%!*' *'e.....................................................................2

T(#e 2.=: S"$$(+ * 6e *#e+/(%!*' *+ &!Je+e'% h!)(+*e+%!e (Je)%!'3 $e3(%h+"% e!$*3e'e!.......................

T(#e 7.1: S"$$(+ * !'/e+!*' (+($e%e+ "e& (% e()h %e. GAP

$!'!$"$ (!$"%h( 3(.....................................................11 T(#e .1: Ee$e'%(+ $*$e'% %e'*+ "e& !' %he !'/e+!*'

$e%h*& * K!6")h! ('& K('($*+! 4115................................17 T(#e .1: H*)e'%+( e%!$(%e *+ %he A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e..1 T(#e .2: S!'3e *!'%>*"+)e CMT *"%!*' *+ %he A+(")('!(

e(+%h-"(6e. N*&( ('e (+e &e)+!#e& # %+!6e&!+(6e 45................................................................................................1

T(#e .=: Re"% +*$ %he '%he%!) e'!%!/!% %e% &e)+!#e& !'Se)%!*' .=.1 ('& +ee'%e& !' F!3"+e .. P*. *"+)e*!%!*' Me)h. *)( $e)h('!$ R*%. ('3e +*%(%!*' ('3e!%h +ee)% %* !'"% *"+)e $e)h('!$................................17

T(#e .: Re(%!/e "')e+%(!'% e%!$(%e * &!Je+e'% ("%!'3 %e*+ ( !'3e *!'%>*"+)e *Jh*+e 4*"+)e *!%!*' 15.U')e+%(!'%!e (+e )()"(%e& *+ #*%h *"+ ()%"( %(%!*'&!%+!#"%!*' 4F!3"+e .15 ('& ( 'e%*+6 * !&e( &!%+!#"%e&%(%!*'...................................................................................1

T(#e .7: S*"+)e %(#!!% * %he $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e *"%!*'#(e& *' %he +e"% * +e$*/!'3 *'e %(%!*' (% ( %!$e +*$ %he!'/e+!*' 4()66'!?'35. Thee ()66'!?'3 +e"% (+e )*$(+e&!%h %he #e%>?%%!'3 *"%!*' *#%(!'e& "!'3 ( (/(!(#e%(%!*'. S*"+)e *)(%!*' +ee+ %* %he 3+!& *!%!*' !"%+(%e& !'

F!3"+e .#. S%(%!*' (+e *+&e+e& !' e!)e'%+( &!%(')e. Thee+e"% h* %he +e$(+6(# )*'!%e'% $e)h('!$ *+ #*%h"#>e/e'%, !'&!)(%!'3 !'&ee'&e')e +*$ %he e;()% e%%(%!*' "e& !' %he !'/e+!*'................................................18

T(#e .: Dee'&e')e * E/e'% II *"%!*' *' %he *!%!*' ('&$e)h('!$ * E/e'% I.............................................................18

T(#e 8.1: S*"+)e (+($e%e+ * %he %e% e/e'% "e& *+ %he =>D(/e*+$ !$"(%!*' &e)+!#e& !' %h! e)%!*'......................211

1



LIST OF ENCLOSURES

E')*"+e 1: WS"#>(# $('%e ('!*%+* #e'e(%h *"%h>)e'%+(Ch!e9. P(e+ "#!he& !' Earth and Planetary Science etters # S%ehe' H!)6, S%"(+% N!+e ('& A'&+e( R!e%#+*)6 !'De)e$#e+ 2012.

E')*"+e 2: WThe 2010 Mw 8.8 M("e, Ch!e e(+%h-"(6e: '")e(%!*'('& +"%"+e )*'%+*e& # ( "#&")%e& %**3+(h!) h!3h. P(e+"#!he& !' !eophysical "esearch etters # S%ehe' H!)6,A'&+e( R!e%#+*)6, Ch+!%!(' H(#e+('&, I(#ee R&e+, M(+6S!$*' ('& A'&+ T((+( !' De)e$#e+ 2012.

E')*"+e =: WA'(%*$ * ( $e3(%h+"%: The 2010 M8.8 M("e,Ch!e e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+e *'e !$(3e& "!'3 e!$!)

%*$*3+(h9. P(e+ "#!he& !' Earth and Planetary Scienceetters # S%ehe' H!)6, A'&+e( R!e%#+*)6, I(#ee R&e+,Ch(*>Sh!'3 Lee ('& M(%%he M!e+ !' A"3"% 201.

E')*"+e : WSe!$!) See& #"$ *"'& !' Ch!e9 e(+%h-"(6e*'e9. Ne (+%!)e (#*"% %he $(!' +e"% +*$ Ch(%e+ F!/e+!%%e' # Be)6 O6!' ('& "#!he& # livescience.co# $%ahoo &ews *' N*/e$#e+ , 201.

18



LIST OF ABBREIATIONS

DC D*"#e>)*"e e+)e'%(3e2>D T*>&!$e'!*'(=>D Th+ee>&!$e'!*'(BDT B+!%%e>&")%!e %+('!%!*'CLD C*$e'(%e& !'e(+ /e)%*+ &!*eCMT Ce'%+*!& $*$e'% %e'*+CSD C*e>()e& &*"#e%CSN Ce'%+* S!$*X3!)* N()!*'(DC D*"#e>)*"eD<S De+!/(%!/e e!3h% "$FD F!'!%e>&!Je+e')e $e%h*&

f c C*+'e+ +e-"e')FE F!'!%e>ee$e'% $e%h*&GAP M!'!$"$ (!$"%h( 3(3CMT G*#( Ce'%+*!& M*$e'% Te'*+ P+*e)%GF G+ee'9 "')%!*'ID I%e+(%!/e &e)*'/*"%!*'IMAD I'%e+'(%!*'( M("e A%e+h*)6 De*$e'%LET L*)( e(+%h-"(6e %*$*3+(hOBS O)e('>#*%%*$ e!$*$e%e+MFV M*)h( F+()%"+e V*'eMRM M*&e +e*"%!*' $(%+!;Ml L*)( $(3'!%"&eMT M*$e'% %e'*+Mw M*$e'% $(3'!%"&eNNLS N*'>'e3(%!/e e(% -"(+e' A%%e'"(%!*' -"(!% ()%*+SEM Se)%+(>ee$e'% $e%h*&SF S+e(& "')%!*'SNR S!3'(>%*>'*!e +(%!*USGS U'!%e& S%(%e Ge**3!)( S"+/eR (+!(')e +e&")%!*'

v p P>(/e /e*)!%v s S>(/e /e*)!%v pv s v pv s +(%!*

ACKNO<LEDGEMENTS

I ($ /e+ 3+(%e" %* $ "e+/!*+ P+*. A'&+e( R!e%#+*)6 ('& D+.I(#ee R&e+ *+ %he!+ (!%(')e, (%!e')e ('& e')*"+(3e$e'%%h+*"3h*"% %h! +*e)%. I *"& (* !6e %* %h('6 S%"(+% N!+e

('& R()he C*!'3 *+ "e" &!)"!*' e(+ !' %he +*e)%. Th('6 %* D+. [!(* <('3 *+ h! !'/("(#e IT "*+%. I ($ (*

1



3+(%e" %* )*>("%h*+ Ch+!%!(' H(#e+('&, M(+6 S!$*', A'&+ T((+(, M(%% M!e+ ('& Ch(*>Sh!'3 Lee *+ he!'3 %* !$+*/e %he$('")+!%. I *"& (* !6e %* $e'%!*' %he N(%"+( E'/!+*'$e'%Ree(+)h C*"')!, h* "'&e& $ PhD.I (* !h %* ()6'*e&3e ( ?e& )+e %h(% %**6 (+% !' %he

&e/e*$e'%, $(!'%e'(')e ('& +e)*/e+ * e!$!) !'%+"$e'% !'%he I'%e+'(%!*'( M("e A%e+h*)6 De*$e'%. The **!'3!'%!%"%!*' +*/!&e& e!$!) !'%+"$e'% ('& ?e& )+e:IRISPASSCAL, CNRS>INSU, GFV ('& GEFSEIS>UK. I ($ h"3e3+(%e" %* #*%h %he U'!/e+!&(& &e Ch!e ('& U'!/e+!&(& &eC*')e)!X' *+ *Je+!'3 /("(#e "*+% !' %he ?e&. I %h('6 %he('&*'e+ * Ce'%+( Ch!e *+ %he!+ )**e+(%!*' &"+!'3 ( %*"3he+!*& * %!$e !' %he (%e+$(%h * %he 2010 e(+%h-"(6e. I ($(+e)!(%!/e * %he N(%!*'( T(!(' O)e(' U'!/e+!% ('& UK O)e('B*%%*$ I'%+"$e'% C*'*+%!"$ 4OBIC5F()!!% *+ "!'3 OBS!'%+"$e'%. D+. !)%*+ A+!e G((+&*, C(%(!' Z"(' !)he ('&F+e&& E)he/e++!( 3(/e /!%( "*+% *+ %he *Jh*+e &e*$e'%. I($ 3+(%e" %* %he A+$(&( &e Ch!e *+ +*/!&!'3 /ee. I *"&(* !6e %* %h('6 $ ?e& (!%('% !' Ch!e, B+#(+( B(')* A++"e,h*9e e;)ee'% E'3!h ('& 3+e(% )*$(' e+e h"3e /("(#e*' %he *'3 &+!/e. I (* !h %* %h('6 M(%% M!e+ ('& K("B(%(!e *+ 3!/!'3 e;)ee'% *3!%!)( he &"+!'3 $ %!$e !' Ch!e.I ($ !'&e#%e& %* $ )*e(3"e +*$ %he E(+%h-"(6e Se!$**3+ee(+)h 3+*" (% %he U'!/e+!% * L!/e+**: L!&*'3 B!e, T*$G(+%h, A$(( F"e'(!&(, Ch+!%!'( Ke ('& H(' A3"+%* De%e. I*"& (* !6e %* %h('6 $ +!e'&, H( R*#e+%, Z*h'' S)h*?e&,

S($ C**6e ('& T*$ A&($ *+ e'"+!'3 %h(% I ( (#e %*")!e'% !%)h *J +*$ PhD *+6 '* ('& (3(!'. I *"& !6e %*%h('6 A!)e G"!*+& *+ he+ "'(/e+!'3 "*+%. F!'(, I %h('6 $($! *+ %he!+ e')*"+(3e$e'% %h+*"3h*"% $ %"&!e, e/e'%h*"3h %he+e e+e *$e &!)"% %!$e.

PREFACE

S%ehe' P. H!)6 3+(&"(%e& !%h ( F!+% C( M(%e+ * E(+%h

S)!e')e De3+ee 4MES)!5 !' Ge**3 ('& Ge*h!) +*$ %heU'!/e+!% * L!/e+** !' 2011. I' %h! &e3+ee, he )(++!e& *"% %*&!e+%(%!*': ( 3e**3 ?e& $(!'3 +*e)% !' S*"%h A+!)( ('& (3e*h!) +ee(+)h +*e)% *' e!$!) ('!*%+*. D"+!'3 h!"'&e+3+(&"(%e &e3+ee, S%ehe' "'&e+%**6 ( %h+ee>$*'%h!'%e+'h! (% %he N(%!*'( E(+%h-"(6e I'*+$(%!*' Ce'%e+ 4NEIC5 *%he U'!%e& S%(%e Ge**3!)( S"+/e !' G*&e', C**+(&*. I' O)%*#e+2011, S%ehe' %(+%e& h! PhD +*e)% (% %he U'!/e+!% *L!/e+**, "'&e+ %he *!'% "e+/!!*' * P+*. A'&+e( R!e%#+*)6 ('&D+. I(#ee R&e+.D"+!'3 h! PhD, S%ehe' "'&e+%**6 ?e&*+6 !' )e'%+( Ch!e *+

*"+ ee6 %* &e)*$$!!*' e!$!) %(%!*' ('& +e)*/e+ &(%( +*$%he I'%e+'(%!*'( M("e A%e+h*)6 De*$e'% 4IMAD5. S%ehe'

20



h( +ee'%e& *+6 (% e/e+( !'%e+'(%!*'( )*'e+e')e !')"&!'3%he A$e+!)(' Ge*h!)( U'!*' F( Mee%!'3 4%h+ee *%e+ ('&*'e *+( +ee'%(%!*'5 ('& E"+*e(' Ge*)!e')e U'!*' 4*'e*%e+, *'e *+( ('& )*>)*'/e'e& ( e!*'5. He h( (* +ee'%e&(% e)!(!% *+6h* *' %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e !' Ch!e ('&

Ge+$('. I' Se%e$#e+ 201, S%ehe' %**6 (+% !' ( )+"!e %*&e* *)e('>#*%%*$ e!$*$e%e+ *Jh*+e * <(h!'3%*' ('&O+e3*' !' %he U'!%e& S%(%e ( (+% * %he C()(&!( I'!%!(%!/e+*e)%.I' (&&!%!*' %* %he (e+ +ee'%e& ( (+% * %h! %he!, S%ehe'?+%>("%h*+e& (' (+%!)e e'%!%e& WS"#>(# $('%e ('!*%+*#e'e(%h *"%h>)e'%+( Ch!e9 %h(% ( "#!he& !' E(+%h ('&P('e%(+ S)!e')e Le%%e+ !' De)e$#e+ 2012 4E')*"+e 15. Th!*+6 *+$e& (+% * h! MES)! &!e+%(%!*', ('& ( +!%%e' " ((e+ &"+!'3 h! PhD %"&!e.

21



Ch(%e+ 1

INTRODUCTION

He+e, e e%(#!h %he #+*(& )!e'%!?) #()63+*"'& ('& $*%!/(%!*'* %h! %he!. O')e %hee *"'&(%!*' (+e (!&, e +ee'% %he $(!'(!$ * %he +ee(+)h, (*'3 !%h %he )*++e*'&!'3 +(%!*'(e ('&*#e)%!/e *+ e()h. S"#e-"e'%, e &e)+!#e %he *+$(% * %he%he! ('& %he )*e * e()h )h(%e+. <he+e (+*+!(%e, e

*"%!'e %he )"++e'% %(%" * $('")+!% ('& %he )*'%+!#"%!*' $(&e# )*>("%h*+.

1.1Me3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6eF*+ e(+%h-"(6e e!$**3!%, %he &e)(&e )*$$e')!'3 !%h %he 200 B*;!'3 D( e(+%h-"(6e !' S"$(%+( ! #e +e$e$#e+e& *+%he e-"e')e * (+3e +"%"+e ()+* E(+%h. The %+!6!'3 !$(3e !'3*#( $e&!( * #"!&!'3 +(e& %* %he 3+*"'& ('& $(!/e %"'($!(/e h(/e (* ('%e& e(+%h-"(6e h((+& ?+$ !' %he $!'& *%he "#!) ('& *!)$(6e+. Se/e+( * %hee &($(3!'3

e(+%h-"(6e *))"++e& (*'3 )*'%!'e'%( ("% *'e, ")h ( %he200 Mw .= L9A-"!(, I%(, 2010 Mw .0 H(!%!, ('& 2017 Mw .8Ne( e(+%h-"(6e. H*e/e+, %he %+*'3e% e(+%h-"(6e *))"+(+*"'& )!+)"$>P()!?)!' "#&")%!*' *'e 4e.3. R"J ('& K('($*+!,18=5 4F!3"+e 1.15, ())*"'%!'3 *+ */e+ 7 * 3*#( e!$!)$*$e'% +ee(e 4P()he)* ('& S6e, 125. S"#&")%!*' *'e*))"+ he+e *)e('!) (%e "'&e+%h+"% ('*%he+ (%e 4e.3.Oe6e/!)h e% (., 15. A*'3 %he h(*e% (+% * "#&")%!*'(%e #*"'&(+!e 4%he seis#ogenic (one *+ #egathrust 5, #*%h (%e)(' #e *)6e& %*3e%he+ *+ h"'&+e& * e(+. The ())"$"(%e&%+(!' */e+ %h! %!$e )(' #e +ee(e& !%h!' ( $(%%e+ * $!'"%e

&"+!'3 (' Mw 8.0 $e3(%h+"% +"%"+e. S")h $e3(%h+"%e(+%h-"(6e h(/e %he *%e'%!( %* )("e e'*+$*" &($(3e &"e %*%+*'3 h(6!'3 (% %he "+()e. E/e' *, ( h*' # %he 200S"$(%+( ('& 2011 Z((' e(+%h-"(6e, %"'($! )(' #e e-"(, !'*% $*+e, &($(3!'3. S"#&")%!*' *'e e(+%h-"(6e )("e& */e+=00,000 &e(%h !' %he e+!*& 200201 4U'!%e& S%(%e Ge**3!)(S"+/e, 20175. <!%h %hee h((+&, $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e (+e *e'*+$*" )!e'%!?) !'%e+e%.

22



Figure 1.1: Map of the largest global earthquakes that have occurred since 1900,based on the USGS NEIC and ISC-GEM historic catalogues. The year and

magnitude of M w 8.5+ earthquakes are labelled. The focus of this thesis is on the

2010 M w 8.8 Maule, Chile earthquake.

G+e(% %+!&e h(/e #ee' $(&e !' +"%"+e !$(3!'3 $e%h*&, ( e( *#e+/(%!*' * (%e !'%e+()e *)6!'3 (%%e+' #e*+e, ('&&e*+$(%!*' (%e+, (+3e e(+%h-"(6e. H*e/e+, *e' -"e%!*' %!+e$(!' *' %he e;()% h!)( ()%*+ &+!/!'3 e!$*3e'!) +*)ee

%h+*"3h*"% %he e(+%h-"(6e ))e. Ph!)( he%e+*3e'e!% $( #e!$(3e& "!'3 ( !&e +('3e * e!$!) %**, ")h ( (!/e%*$*3+(h ('& %"&!e * e(+%h-"(6e *"+)e $e)h('!$. A "+e/!e *' %he )"++e'% "'&e+%('&!'3 * %hee 3*/e+'!'3 h!)(+*e+%!e ! '*% !%h!' %he )*e * %h! I'%+*&")%!*', #"% !&!)"e& !' Ch(%e+ T*. Ye% #Be*+e !'%e++e%!'3 h* &!Je+e'%h!)( e(%"+e $( &+!/e $e3(%h+"% e!$*3e'e!, e ?+%'ee& %* "'&e+%('& h* ")h +*)ee (+e *#e+/e& ('&(+($e%e+!e& ()+* %he e(+%h-"(6e ))e, h!)h &e)+!#e %he*'3>%e+$ e/*"%!*' * %+e 4*+ %+(!'5 (*'3 %he (%e !'%e+()e4F!3"+e 1.25.

2=



Figure 1.2: Simplified overview of the seismic cycle and the parameters that areused in this thesis to describe seismic sources and megathrust dynamics at each

stage.

1.1.1I'%e+e!$!) #eh(/!*"+: #"!&!'3 " %he 'e;% 3+e(%e(+%h-"(6e

The *'3e% h(e * %he e!$!) ))e *))"+ #e%ee' (+3ee(+%h-"(6e ('& ())"$"(%!'3 he(+ %+e. Th! e+!*& ! 6'*'

( %he interseis#ic %(3e 4F!3"+e 1.25. The $(!' (!$ * %"&!'3!'%e+e!$!) &e*+$(%!*' ! %* (e "%"+e h((+& *%e'%!( *e&# (+3e e(+%h-"(6e. The seis#ic gap $*&e, ?+% &e/e*e& #S6e 4115, (* ( #(!) "'&e+%('&!'3 * h!)h "#&")%!*'(%e #*"'&(+!e (+e %+*'3 *)6e&. !% ! '*% "e& *+ +*#(#!!%!)h((+& (e$e'%. A e!$!) 3( ! ( +e3!*' he+e ( (+3ee(+%h-"(6e *))"++e& !' %he (%, #"% h( #ee' -"!e% *+ &e)(&e%hee +e3!*' (+e %he+e*+e )*'!&e+e& !6e !%e *+ "%"+e (+3ee(+%h-"(6e. H*e/e+, %he ()6 * &e%(!e& 6'*e&3e *' !h!%*+!e, ( e ( %he 200 S"$(%+( ('& 2011 T*h*6"e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+!'3 $"%!e ("% e3$e'%, h( e& %*

"33e%!*' %h(% %he e!$!) 3( $*&e ! */e+!$!?e& 4Gee+,2011 K(3(' ('& Z()6*', 17 K(3(' e% (., 2012 < ('&<!e$e+, 15.D"+!'3 %he !'%e+e!$!) e+!*&, e(%!) %+(!' ! %*+e& !' %he *+e(+)4e.3. K. <('3 ('& H", 2005, (*!'3 ( $e("+e(#e (e$e'% * (%e )*"!'3 +*$ *#e+/(%!*' * "e+ (%e &e*+$(%!*'.D(%(e% %h(% (+e "e& %* !'e+ )*"!'3 &!%+!#"%!*' !')"&e GPS$e("+e$e'% 4e.3. M*+e'* ('& R*e'(", 20105, ((e*3e*&e%!)$e("+e$e'%, ")h ( )*+( 4e.3. S!$*e e% (., 2005, %!&($e("+e$e'% 4e.3. Z. C. S(/(3e, 175, ('& (%e!%e 3e*&e 4e.3.

Ch!eh e% (., 20115. T+e')h>(+(e *)6!'3 (%%e+' (+e ""(+e!(#e, #"% *)6!'3 (% %he ">&! e'& * %he *Jh*+e (%e !'%e+()e

2



! **+ +e*/e& 4e.3. M%*! e% (., 20125. T* 'e3(%e %h! +*#e$,e(@**+ 3e*&e%!) *#e+/(%!*' )(' +*/!&e #e%%e+ )*'%+(!'% *'*Jh*+e )*"!'3 4G(3'*' e% (., 2007 M(%"$*%* e% (., 20085.

1.1.2C*e!$!) +"%"+e e3$e'%(%!*'

The )*')e%"( "#&")%!*' *'e (e+!% $*&e 4L( ('& K('($*+!,1815 ( &e/e*e& %* &e)+!#e (*'3>%+!6e he%e+*3e'e!% !' %he$*$e'% +ee(e * (+3e $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e. )sperities (+e+e3!*' * %he (%e !'%e+()e %h(% ! $*% %+*'3 &"+!'3 ( (+3ee(+%h-"(6e barriers !'h!#!% +"%"+e. L*'3>!/e& #(++!e+ (+e )(e&seg#ent boundaries. N*(&(, (+3e e(+%h-"(6e (+e)h(+()%e+!e& # %he!+ &!%+!#"%!*' * ! *' ( +e>&e?'e& ("%('e. C*$(+e& %* !'%e+e!$!) *)6!'3, )*e!$!) ! )(' #e)()"(%e& # !')"&!'3 $*+e &!/e+e &(%(e%, ")h ( %eee!$!)(/e*+$ ('& %"'($! &(%(. S! !'/e+!*' ("$e $e)h('!)(

+*e+%!e * %he "#"+()e, ")h ( P*!*'9 +(%!* ('& Y*"'39$*&"". S"#"+()e +*e+%!e )(' #e (+($e%e+!e& "!'3 (+('3e * )he$e, !')"&!'3, h*$*3e'e*" h(>()e 4e.3. T*'3e% (., 20105, 1>D (e+e& $*&e 4e.3. P*!% e% (., 20115, *+ #(!3'!'3 +*e+%!e %* !'&!/!&"( &*$(!' * %he "#&")%!*' *'e4e.3. M*+e'* ('& R*e'(", 20105. The +e(%!*'h! #e%ee'!'%e+e!$!) *)6!'3 ('& )*e!$!) ! &!%+!#"%!*' 4e.3. M*+e'*('& R*e'(", 2010 O(( e% (., 2011 P+*%%! e% (., 2015 ! *%e'"e& %* !'e+ %he %(#!!% * +!)%!*'( +*e+%!e (*'3 %he (%e!'%e+()e.

A'*%he+ *"+)e (+($e%e+ *%e' "e& *+ $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e! +"%"+e &"+(%!*'. S* ('& h(* +"%"+e %h(% +(&!(%e %+*'3*'3 e+!*& e'e+3 4'*+$(!e& %* %he!+ $(3'!%"&e5 $( #e)(!?e& ( %"'($!3e'!) e(+%h-"(6e 4K('($*+!, 125. R"%"+e&"+(%!*' h( ( !'e(+ +e(%!*'h! !%h #*%h e(+%h-"(6e %+e &+*('& $(%e+!( +!3!&!% * %he ("% 4B!e6 ('& L(, 15. A% %he h!3h+e-"e') e'& * e!$!) +(&!(%!*' e)%+"$, #()6 +*e)%!*'$e%h*& %+()6 )*he+e'% e'e+3 *' ( ("% ('e */e+ %!$e 4e.3. Ih!!e% (., 20075. B()6 +*e)%!*' * e>+e)*+&e& $e3(%h+"%e(+%h-"(6e +e/e( %h(% h!3h +e-"e') +(&!(%!*' &e)*"e +*$h!3h ! (e+!%!e !'e++e& !' )*e!$!) ! &!%+!#"%!*' 4Ih!! e%

(., 2007 K!e+ ('& Ih!!, 2011 K*e+ e% (., 2012 Me'3 e% (.,20115. H!3h +e-"e') &e)*"!'3 $( +e"% +*$ 3e*$e%+!)( *+$e)h('!)( he%e+*3e'e!%!e 4P(* e% (., 2015, (%h*"3h '* &!+e)%e/!&e')e h( #ee' *"'& *+ h!)( +*e+%!e e;e+%!'3 ( )*'%+**' %h! %he &e%h &ee'&e')e * e!$!) +(&!(%!*'.

The (*'3>%+!6e 4%+e')h>(+(e5 e3$e'%(%!*' (%%e+' *"#&")%!*' *'e +"%"+e ! )e(+ ee' !')(' #e !'e++e& +*$ %he!+ )*e!$!) ! &!%+!#"%!*' e ((+e'% ! %he e3$e'%(%!*'(%%e+' !' %he &*'>&! &!+e)%!*'. Ne/e+%hee, #(e& *' *"+)e)h(+()%e+!%!) * (+3e "#&")%!*' e(+%h-"(6e, L( e% (. 420125 &e/e*e& ( "'!?e& $*&e %h(% &e)+!#e %he &e%h e3$e'%(%!*'* %he "#&")%!'3 (%e !'%e+()e 4F!3"+e 1.=5. D*$(!' A !3'!?e%he h(*e% *+%!*' * %he $e3(%h+"%, +*$ %he %+e')h %*

27



(+*;!$(%e 17 6$ &e%h. A%h*"3h %h! h(* +e3!*' ! %h*"3h%%* #e $*% (e!$!), !% )(' h*% $*&e+(%e>!e& %"'($!3e'!) +"%"+e 4Mw 5, ")h ( %he 1 Mw . Z(/( e(+%h-"(6e 4B!e6('& L(, 15. D*$(!' B ('& C &e'*%e %he (+% * %he$e3(%h+"% (% 17=7 6$ &e%h, ('& =777 6$ &e%h, +ee)%!/e

$*% $*$e'% +ee(e *))"+ !' %hee )e'%+( +e3!*'. D*$(!' Ce(+%h-"(6e )*'!%e'% &!( %he &e%h &ee'&e')e * e!$!)+(&!(%!*' &!)"e& (#*/e. The &eee% +e3!*', D*$(!' D !)h(+()%e+!e& # * !, * +e-"e') e(+%h-"(6e ('& e!$!)%+e$*+ h*e/e+, %hee he'*$e'( (+e '*% e+/(!/e (*'3 ("#&")%!*' *'e.

Figure 1.3: Depth segmentation of megathrust earthquake source characteristics

based on Lay et al. (2012). Each domain is denoted by the letters A–D, which are

discussed in the text.

E(+%h-"(6e doublets )(' +e/e( %+e %+('e+ #e%ee' ("% !'"#&")%!*' *'e. A &*"#e% ! ( (+3e e(+%h-"(6e **!'3 ('e(+!e+ e(+%h-"(6e !%h )*$(+(#e $*$e'% +ee(e, e!%he+ *' ('(&()e'% (%)h * %he ("%, *+ *' ( e(+(%e ("%. A' e;($e * (&*"#e% ! %he !'%e+(%e %h+"% ('& !'%+((# '*+$( ("%!'3 e/e'%!' %he K"+! "#&")%!*' *'e !' 200 4A$$*' e% (., 20085.S!$!(+, %he 200 S($*( e(+%h-"(6e )*'%!%"%e& ( '*+$( ("%!'3e/e'% #e'e(%h %he *"%e+ +!e %h(% %+!33e+e& %h+"%!'3 *' %he (%e!'%e+()e 4L( e% (., 2010#5. I' %h! !'%(')e, %he !'!%!( +"%"+e%+!33e+e& e!$!) ! *' %he h(* *+%!*' * %he (%e !'%e+()e.

1.1.=P*%e!$!) +e(;(%!*': (%e+h*)6 ('& (%e+! T* )*$e%e %he e!$!) ))e, (+3e $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e )("e!'%e'e &e*+$(%!*' !' %he 'e(+ ?e& %h(% )(' (% *+ $*'%h %*e(+ 4F!3"+e 1.25. P*%e!$!) +*)ee (+e (+3e %!$e&ee'&e'% ('& &e)( !' ( !$!(+ ( %* +he**3!)( ( #(e& *'h!)( +*e+%!e * %he )+"% *+ $('%e 4L('3e e% (., 2015. L!6e)*e!$!) ! $*&e, (%e+h*)6 &!%+!#"%!*' )(' +e/e( %hee!$*3e'!) )h(+()%e+ * %he $e3(%h+"%, #"% )(' (* +e/e( *%he+()%!/e ("% %h(% !e 'e(+ %* %he (%e !'%e+()e. O'e * %he%+*'3e% *%e!$!) &e*+$(%!*' +*)ee !' %he 'e(+ ?e& !

afterslip, h!)h *))"+ &"e %* %he +!)%!*'( +e*'e * %he ("%('e **!'3 ( (+3e +"%"+e 4e.3. M(+*'e, 185. Ge*&e%!)

2



*#e+/(%!*' )(' #e "e& %* &e%e+$!'e %he (%!( (%%e+' *(%e+! 4Be&*+& e% (., 201= Y. N. L!' e% (., 201= O(( e% (.,20115. The ($!%"&e * (%e+! +('3e +*$ %e' * )e'%!$e%+e %*e/e+( $e%+e, &ee'&e'% *' !e * %he $(!'h*)6, %!$e, ('&("$%!*' $(&e 4Y. N. L!' e% (., 201=5. S%+*'3 (%e+!

)*$e$e'% )*e!$!) ! (e+!%!e 4O(( e% (., 2011Pe+e%%!'! e% (., 20105. F"+%he+$*+e, (%!( ('& %e$*+()*++e(%!*' #e%ee' (%e+h*)6 ('& (%e+! "33e% %h(% %he*+$e+ $( #e %+!33e+e& # @"!&>&+!/e' (%e+! 4H" e% (., 2005.

1.2The 2010 Mw 8.8 M("e, Ch!e e(+%h-"(6e

I e )(' !&e'%! %he h!)( ()%*+ %h(% &+!/e $e3(%h+"% ("%+*)ee (% &!Je+e'% %(3e * %he e!$!) ))e, e $( #e (#e%* *+e)(% "%"+e +"%"+e *%e'%!( !' "#&")%!*' *'e. T* &* %h!,e 'ee& %* 3(!' (' "'&e+%('&!'3 * %he +e(%!*'h! #e%ee'h!)( +*e+%!e ('& +"%"+e #eh(/!*"+ *+ (% (+3ee(+%h-"(6e, h!)h h(/e #ee' +e)*+&e& !' 3+e(% &e%(!. A +e3!*'!%h ( (+3e h!%*+ * $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e ! %he Ch!e"#&")%!*' *'e: *'e * %he $*% e!$!)( ()%!/e ('& %+*'3)*"e& (%e #*"'&(+!e *' E(+%h 4F!3"+e 1.15. O' (/e+(3e, ($(*+ e(+%h-"(6e !%h Mw 8 *))"+ e/e+ %e' e(+ !' Ch!e4R"e33 e% (., 2005. I' (+%!)"(+, "'&e+%('&!'3 e!$!) h((+& !')e'%+( Ch!e ! /!%( #e)("e 'e(+ 80 * %he )*"'%+9*"(%!*' +e!&e he+e 4Be)6 e% (., 185. D"e %* %he e;)ee'%+e)*+& * h!%*+!)( (+3e e(+%h-"(6e, %he +e3!*' ! (' !&e( '(%"+(

(#*+(%*+ %* %"& %he $e3(%h+"% e!$!) ))e. O'e ")h e/e'%( %he 10 Mw .7 (&!/!( e(+%h-"(6e > %he (+3e% e(+%h-"(6ee/e+ +e)*+&e& 4e.3. C!"e'%e, 185. H*e/e+, %* %he '*+%h * %he(&!/!( +"%"+e, %he M("e +e3!*' h(& '*% e;e+!e')e& ( (+3ee!$!) e/e'% !')e %he M 8.7 C*')e)!X' e(+%h-"(6e !' 18=7,h!)h ( +e)*+&e& # Ch(+e D(+!' &"+!'3 h! /*(3e *' %heHMS Be(3e 4D(+!', 18715. Th! *'3 ("e e& *+6e+ %* !&e'%!%h! +e3!*' ( ( $(%"+e e!$!) 3( 4B(++!e'%*, 18 Be)6 e% (.,18 C($* e% (., 2002 R"e33 e% (., 2005. Thee e(+ %"&!ee& %* (' e;*!*' * 3e*h!)( &e*$e'% &"+!'3 %he 2000,h!)h *)"e& *' #()63+*"'& e!$!)!% 4e.3. C($* e% (., 2002

H(#e+('& e% (., 2005, "#"+()e %+")%"+e 4e.3. H(#e+('& e% (.,2005, (%e !'%e+()e )*"!'3 4R"e33 e% (., 2005 ('&$*+h*%e)%*'!) e3$e'%(%!*' * %he $(+3!' 4Me'!)6 e% (., 2005.O' Fe#+"(+ 2, 2010, %h! e3$e'% * %he "#&")%!*' ("% ?'(#+*6e &"+!'3 (' Mw 8.8 +"%"+e: %he !;%h (+3e% e(+%h-"(6e e/e++e)*+&e& 4F!3"+e 1.15.I'!%!( h*)e'%+e *)(%!*' "33e%e& %h(% %he M("e +"%"+e'")e(%e& !%h!' %he h!3h>*)6e& +e3!*' *Jh*+e * %he )*(%!'e#e%ee' C*')e)!X' ('& C*'%!%")!X'. The+e ! *$e &!(3+ee$e'%#e%ee' %he h*)e'%+e *)(%!*' * +e*+%!'3 (3e')!e 4T(#e 1.1,F!3"+e 1.5. U!'3 h!3h +(%e GPS *#e+/(%!*', !3' e% (. 420115 +e*)(%e& %he * +e-"e') '")e(%!*' *!'% 0 6$ %* %he *"%h>e% * %he * %he USGS e%!$(%e, h!)h ! )*e+ %* %he CSN

2



4Ce'%+* S!$*X3!)* N()!*'(, Ch!e5 e%!$(%e. U!'3 +e3!*'(e!$!) +e)*+&!'3, H(e e% (. 4201=5 +e*)(%e& %he h*)e'%+e %*20 6$ '*+%h>e(% * %he !3' e% (. 420115 e%!$(%e. B(e& *'+"%"+e $*&e 4e.3. L( e% (., 2010( Y. N. L!' e% (., 201= M*+e'*e% (., 2012 T*'3 e% (., 20105 ('& (%e+h*)6 &!%+!#"%!*' 4L('3e

e% (., 2012 R!e%#+*)6 e% (., 20125, %he e(+%h-"(6e e'% *' %*+"%"+e ( 700 6$ *+%!*' * %he "#&")%!*' *'e. Thee ! $*&eh* ( #!(%e+( &!%+!#"%!*' !%h $(;!$"$ ! * 172 $*))"++!'3 120 6$ %* %he '*+%h * %he h*)e'%+e 4F!3"+e 1.5 !' (+e3!*' %h(% ( %+*'3 *)6e& #e*+e %he e(+%h-"(6e 4M*+e'* ('&R*e'(", 20105. F"+%he+$*+e, %he+e ! '* e/!&e')e * e;%e'!/e+"%"+e %* %he %+e')h ('& %he %+*'3e% ! ( !$!%e& %* %he)*(%!'e. L!6e *%he+ e>+e)*+&e& (+3e $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e,%he M("e +"%"+e h( ( !$!(+ &e%h>&ee'&e')e * h!3h+e-"e') +(&!(%!*' 4K!e+ ('& Ih!!, 201= P(* e% (., 201 D.<('3 ('& M*+!, 20115, #"% !%h (' e/e' $*+e &!%!')%!/e &e%he3$e'%(%!*' (%%e+' ()+* %he +"%"+e *'e 4F!3"+e 1.5. F+*$%he &!%+!#"%!*' * (%e+h*)6 ('& (%e+!, %he+e ! (* ( )e(+3( !' *%e!$!) &e*+$(%!*' !'('& * %he )*(%!'e 4F!3"+e 1.5.F*+ 1 $*'%h **!'3 %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e, GPS *#e+/(%!*'+e)*+&e& (+*"'& 1.2 $ * )"$"(%!/e (%e+!, h!)h ( $(!'*)(%e& #e'e(%h %he )*(%!'e 4Be&*+& e% (., 201= Y. N. L!' e% (.,201=5. A%e+! ('& (%e+h*)6 h(/e ( +(%he+ (%)h &!%+!#"%!*',(+%!)"(+ !'('& * %he )*(%!'e 4F!3"+e 1.5.!eporting agency pu&lished

studyLatitude

Longitude

7epth;$<

P r e l i $ i n a r y h y p o c e n t r e s USGS NEIC =7.1=S 2.==< =7

Se+/!)!* S!$*X3!)*N()!*'( 4CSN5 =.2=S =.2=< =0

GFV>GEOFON =.07=S 2.7=< 2

! e l o c a t e d h y p o c e n t r e s !3' e% (. 420115 =.1=S =.18=< >

H(e e% (. 4201=5 =.22=S =.11=< =7

28



Figure 1.4: Location of the Maule earthquake showing the characteristics of the

coseismic rupture and postseismic stage. HF = high frequency. Inset: the location

of the large map is given by the black box.

=0



1.=A!$ ('& *#e)%!/e * %h! %he! The */e+(+)h!'3 (!$ * %h! %he! ! %* %+ %* !&e'%! +e(%!*'h!#e%ee' h!)( he%e+*3e'e!% ('& (%e !'%e+()e +"%"+e)h(+()%e+!%!) # %"&!'3 %he +"%"+e *'e * %he 2010 M("e,Ch!e e(+%h-"(6e. O"+ ?+% (!$ ! %* !&e'%! h!)( he%e+*3e'e!%('& %* +e(%e %h! !%h +e)*+&e& #eh(/!*"+ (% &!Je+e'% %(3e * %hee!$!) ))e. <e %he' %"+' *"+ (%%e'%!*' %* %he &e3+ee * !)*$e;!% (*'3 %he $e3(%h+"% ('& h* +"%"+e +e*'& %*%+")%"+( he%e+*3e'e!% !' %he */e++!&!'3 (%e. O"+ "'&($e'%($*%!/(%!*' ! %* %+ %* *+e)(% "%"+e +"%"+e )h(+()%e+!%!) (*'3*%he+ "#&")%!*' (%e #*"'&(+!e %h(% (+e %+*'3 )*"e&, e%h(/e '*% e;e+!e')e& ( (+3e e(+%h-"(6e 4Mw 8.75 *+ )e'%"+!e,")h ( !' '*+%he+' Ch!e ('& C()(&!(. He+e, e &e)+!#e %he"'&e+!'3 )!e'%!?) +(%!*'( * %hee (!$ ('& %he %+(%e3 "e& !'%h! %he! %* !'/e%!3(%e %he$.

1.1.1Ke A!$ 1: I&e'%!?)(%!*' * h!)( he%e+*3e'e!%

I$+*/e$e'% !' GPS !'%+"$e'%(%!*' ('& (%e!%e !$(3!'3 h(/e#ee' (#e %* he& 'e !3h% *' %he )*$e; #eh(/!*"+ *"#&")%!*' (%e #*"'&(+!e ()+* %he e(+%h-"(6e ))e, ")h (%he &!%+!#"%!*' * (e+!%!e ('& #(++!e+. H*e/e+, %he h!)(*"+)e * (e+!%!e ('& #(++!e+ (+e &!"%e&. I% h(& *'3 #ee'+**e& %h(% "#&")%e& e(%"+e *' %he *)e('!) (%e ( ( 6e+*e !' $e3(%h+"% e!$*3e'e! 4e.3. K*&(!+( e% (., 20005. The+*e * %he "e+ (%e, ")h ( )+"%( ("% 4e.3. A"&!' e% (.,

20085 ('& *+e(+) #(!' 4e.3. S*'3 ('& S!$*', 200=5, h(/e (*#ee' +**e& %* e;e+% )*'%+* *' $e3(%h+"% #eh(/!*"+. A e (%he (*'3>%+!6e &!%+!#"%!*' * (e+!%!e ('& #(++!e+ * $e3(%h+"%+"%"+e, %he &e)+!%!/e $e3(%h+"% &e%h e3$e'%(%!*' $*&e *L( e% (. 420125 ()6 "'&e+%('&!'3 *' %he %+")%"+( ('&)*$*!%!*'( +*e+%!e (*)!(%e& !%h e()h &*$(!'. The M("ee(+%h-"(6e +*/!&e (' "'+e)e&e'%e& **+%"'!% %* ('e+%hee "'&($e'%( )!e'%!?) -"e%!*' # (*!'3 (' (e$e'%* $e3(%h+"% #eh(/!*"+ #e*+e, &"+!'3 ('& (%e+ ( (+3ee(+%h-"(6e.E()h (+3e $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e h( "'!-"e )h(+()%e+!%!) ('&%he M("e e(+%h-"(6e ! '* e;)e%!*' 4F!3"+e 1.5. The )*$e;!%!e* %h! +"%"+e +(!e e/e+( !$*+%('% -"e%!*' %h(% $( (&/(')e*"+ "'&e+%('&!'3 * "#&")%!*' *'e e(+%h-"(6e *+&!&e:

1. <h(% !'@"e')e %he *)(!(%!*' * h!3h (%e !'%e+()e)*"!'3 ('& (*)!(%e& (+3e ! (% &e%h * 17=7 6$(*'3 %he "#&")%!*' !'%e+()e\

2. <h(% +e/e'%e& %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e +*$ (!!'3 %*+"%"+e+"%"+!'3 %he $e3(%h+"% )*e %* %he %+e')h\

=. S!$!(+, ! %he &*'>&! !$!% * %he +"%"+e #e'e(%h %he)*(%!'e !3'!?e& # ( )h('3e !' $e3(%h+"% h!)(

+*e+%!e\. C(' e !'e+ (' )h('3e !' +!)%!*'( +*e+%!e (*'3 %he

=1



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he+e $*% e!$!) $*$e'% +ee(e *))"+ ('& he+e%"'($!3e'!) e(+%h-"(6e 4e.3. B!e6 ('& L(, 20025 %!)(+"%"+e. C*$#!'e& *'h*+e ('& *Jh*+e &(%(e% h(/e #ee' "e&!' ( h('&" * LET e;e+!$e'% 4e.3. DeSh*' e% (., 200H(#e+('& e% (., 200 H"e' e% (., 20005. H*e/e+, !' %hee%"&!e, ( +e(%!/e $( '"$#e+ * *)e('>#*%%*$ e!$*$e%e+4OBS5 %(%!*' e+e "e& ('& e e(+%h-"(6e e+e +e)*+&e& (*'3%he h(*e% *+%!*' * %he (%e !'%e+()e, !$!%!'3 !$(3!'3+e*"%!*' )*e %* %he %+e')h. F"+%he+$*+e, "!'3 )*$#!'e& *'> ('&*Jh*+e &(%(e% +e$(!' ( )h(e'3e &"e %* +*#e$ !' *#%(!'!'3+e!(#e e(+%h-"(6e *)(%!*' &"e %* *)( !%e /(+!(%!*' 4%(%!*'

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h!)( he%e+*3e'e!%. <e +e/!e %"&!e * "#&")%!*' *'e%+")%"+e ('& (% $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e %* &e)+!#e %he +('3e* h!)( %+")%"+e %h(% $( (Je)% e!$*3e'!) +*)ee (*'3%he $e3(%h+"%. Be*'& Ch(%e+ T*, %he %he! ! &!/!&e& !'%* %*$(!' (+% %* +e@e)% %he $"%!e h(e * %"& ('& 6e (!$&e?'e& !' %he +e/!*" e)%!*'. The ?+% * %hee ! (!/e e!$!)!$(3!'3 * %he "#&")%!*' *'e "!'3 +(>#(e& $e%h*& %hee)*'& *)"e *' +*#!'3 e(+%h-"(6e *"+)e )*$e;!% "!'3 ">(/e*+$ (+*()he. Thee %*!) e()h #e3!' !%h ( )h(%e+4Ch(%e+ Th+ee ('& S!;5 %h(% *"%!'e %he #()63+*"'& %he*+ ('&(% (!)(%!*' * %he %* $e%h*&, !%h ( (+%!)"(+ *)" *'"#&")%!*' *'e.I' Ch(%e+ F*"+, e &e)+!#e ('& !'%e++e% ( +e!$!'(+ e!$!)/e*)!% $*&e *+ )e'%+( Ch!e #(e& *' ( &(%(e% * ("%*$(%!)(&e%e+$!'e& e!$!) (/e *'e% %!$e. O'e * %he 6e *#e+/(%!*'$(&e !' %h! )h(%e+ ! %he +ee')e * ( (+3e, h!3h e!$!)/e*)!% ('*$( !'3 #e'e(%h %he )*(%!'e !' %he )e'%+e * %he+"%"+e (+e(. <e !'%e++e% %h! %+")%"+( ('*$( ( %* !% )*'%+**' %he '")e(%!*' ('& +"%"+e +*)e * %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e.

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propagation controlled by a subducted topographic high,!eophysical "esearch etters 67, 27613, doi521.2107$0120!186239. A'&+e( R!e%#+*)6 3(%he+e& %he+e!$!'(+ &(%(e% * P> ('& S>(/e *'e% %!$e ('& 3(/e)*$$e'% *' %he !'%e++e%(%!*' ('& &!)"!*'. Ch+!%!('H(#e+('& (!%e& !%h %he ('(! * %he " $*&e +e*"%!*'$(%+!;. I(#ee R&e+ (!%e& !%h %he )*$(+!*' #e%ee'e!$!) /e*)!% %+")%"+e ('& 3e*&e%!) $*&e * %he M("e

+"%"+e. M(+6 S!$*' (!%e& !%h %he !'%e++e%(%!*'. A'&+ T((+( +*/!&e& %he +( B*"3"e+ 3+(/!% $*&e.B(e& *' $(!' e(%"+e * %he +e!$!'(+ %*$*3+(h!) !$(3e+ee'%e& !' Ch(%e+ F*"+, e &e)+!#e (' "&(%e& e!$!) /e*)!%$*&e !' Ch(%e+ F!/e. Th! $*&e ! #(e& *' ( h!3he+ -"(!%e!$!) %+(/e %!$e &(%(e% ('& !')*+*+(%e *Jh*+e &(%(.C*$(+e& %* %h(% * %he +e/!*" )h(%e+, *"+ 'e /e*)!% $*&eh( h(+e+ !$(3e %h(% (* *+ &e%(!e& +*#!'3 * %he h(*(%e !'%e+()e. Th! !$+*/e$e'% (* *+ ( $*+e !'>&e%h!'%e++e%(%!*' * (#*"%e e!$!) /e*)!%!e. <e $(6e &!+e)%

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2 A"3"% 201 ('& "#!he& *' 1 N*/e$#e+ 201. F" )!%(%!*':Stephen P. *ic+s, )ndreas "ietbroc+, -sabelle M.). "yder, Chao:Shing ee, Matthew Miller, )nato#y of a #egathrust5 /he 0121M3.3 Maule, Chile earth4ua+e rupture (one i#aged using seis#icto#ography, Earth and Planetary Science etters, Volu#e 918, 2

&ove#ber 0129, Pages 290:288, -SS& 1120:302;, doi521.212<$=.epsl.0129.13.103. A'&+e( R!e%#+*)6 hee& %* +e(+e%he e!$!) &(%(, (!%e& !%h %he %*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*' +*)e('& (&&e& "e" )*$$e'% %* %he !'%e++e%(%!*'. I(#ee R&e+( !'/*/e& !' %he e!$!) &e*$e'% ('& hee& %* +e?'e %he)*$(+!*' #e%ee' )*e!$!) ('& (%e+! $*&e !%h e!$!)/e*)!%!e. Ch(*>Sh!'3 Lee ('& M(%%he M!e+ *+6e& *' %he OBS&e*$e'% ('& (!%e& !%h %he ('(! * %h! *Jh*+e &(%(e%.I' Ch(%e+ Se/e', e ( ( $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e $*$e'% %e'*+!'/e+!*' )he$e %* %he Mw .1 A+(")('!( (%e+h*)6 !' *+&e+ %*e;*+e $e3(%h+"% +"%"+e )*$e;!% ('& e(+%h-"(6e %+!33e+!'3$e)h('!$. B !'%e++e%!'3 *"+ +e"% !' %he )*'%e;% * e!$!)/e*)!% %+")%"+e !&e'%!?e& !' %he e(+!e+ )h(%e+, e &e$*'%+(%eh* ! *' %he (%e !'%e+()e !'%('%('e*" %+!33e+e& ("%+"%"+e !' %he */e++!&!'3 (%e. Th! )h(%e+ ! !' +e/!!*' 411A"3"% 20175( ())e%e& *+ "#!)(%!*' !' &ature !eoscience (%e+ *!%!/e +e/!e*' 1= O)%*#e+ 2017. C!%(%!*': Stephen P.*ic+s and )ndreas "ietbroc+5 Seis#ic slip on an upper plate nor#alfault during a large subduction #egathrust rupture, &ature!eoscience, &ove#ber 0128 -n "evision, doi5 21.2163$ngeo0838.A'&+e( R!e%#+*)6 +(' %he =>D ">(/e*+$ !$"(%!*' *' %he h!3h

e+*+$(')e )*$"%!'3 )"%e+ ('& hee& %* !'%e++e% %he +e"%.I' Ch(%e+ E!3h%, e '%he!e !'%e++e%(%!*' $(&e !' %he+e)e&!'3 )h(%e+ %* &!)" %he h!)( ()%*+ %h(% !'@"e')e&%he M("e +"%"+e ('& %he!+ +e(%!*'h! !%h %e)%*'!) %+")%"+e(*'3 %he S*"%h A$e+!)(' "#&")%!*' $(+3!'. <e e)"(%e h(%*"+ ?'&!'3 $( $e(' *+ "%"+e e(+%h-"(6e h((+& !' )e'%+(Ch!e. <e (* )*$(+e *"+ +e"% +*$ %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e !%h!$!(+ %"&!e +*$ %he 2011 T*h*6" e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+e *'e. Th!)*$(+!*' he& !3h% *' *$e * %he 6e )*'%+* *' +"%"+e !e('& ! *)(!(%!*' * (+3e "#&")%!*' e(+%h-"(6e. <e (*&e$*'%+(%e %he eJe)% * =>D %+")%"+( he%e+*3e'e!% *' e!$!)

(/e +*(3(%!*' # +ee'%!'3 *$e +e!$!'(+ +e"% +*$e)%+( ee$e'% (/e*+$ !$"(%!*' * $*&e+(%e !e&(%e+h*)6 * %he M("e e-"e')e.F!'(, !' Ch(%e+ N!'e, e +ee'% %he $(!' )*')"!*' * %he+*e)%, ('e+!'3 %he +ee(+)h -"e%!*' *e& !' %h! !'%+*&")%!*'('& h!3h!3h%!'3 %he !3'!?)('% )*'%+!#"%!*' $(&e %*(+&"'&e+%('&!'3 "#&")%!*' $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e. <e (*+*/!&e +e)*$$e'&(%!*' *+ "%"+e *+6 !' %h! ?e& * +ee(+)h.

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(+*"'& %he (%e !'%e+()e, ('& h* %he )h(+()%e+!%!) * %hee/(+ #e%ee' "#&")%!*' *'e. <e %he' (e %he +*e (e& #e()h * %hee &*$(!' (% %he &!Je+e'% %(3e * %he e!$!) ))e4h!)h ( *"%!'e& !' Se)%!*' 1.15.

2.1S%+")%"+( &*$(!' (#*/e ('& #e* %he$e3(%h+"%

<e &e)+!#e %he $(!' %+")%"+( e(%"+e %h(% &!+e)% !'%e+()% !%h%he "#&")%!'3 (%e !'%e+()e 4F!3"+e 2.15. <e %(+% !%h &*$(!'* %he "e+ (%e, ('& 3+(&"( $*/e +*$ %he %+e')h %h+*"3h %*

%he )e'%+( *+e(+). The '(%"+e * %he $e3(%h+"% )*'%()% !%e, (e ( %he )*$*!%!*' ('& %+")%"+( %e * %he "#&")%!'3(%e, (+e )*'!&e+e&. A%h*"3h e/e+ "#&")%!*' *'e h( "'!-"eh!)( )h(+()%e+!%!), %he $*% ee3('%*'e "'!?e& )(!?)(%!*' &!/!&e +e3!*' * "#&")%!*' !'%*! * accretionary ('& erosive $(+3!' e&!$e'%(%!*' %e 4C** ('& Sh+e/e, 188 /*' H"e'e('& S)h*, 11 S)h* e% (., 1805 4F!3"+e 2.25.

Figure 2.1: Schematic view of domains that constitute the shallow part of a typical

subduction zone. Labelled features are referred to in the text. Redrawn and

simplified after Kopp (2013).

A))+e%!*'(+ $(+3!' (+e &*$!'(%e& # 3+*%h * %he +!$ #*J)+(!'3 %+e')h e&!$e'% ('& "#e-"e'% "'&e+(%!'3 %h!$(%e+!( (% %he #(e * %he */e++!&!'3 (%e 4F!3"+e 2.=5. C*'/e+e,e+*!/e $(+3!' (+e )h(+()%e+!e& # %he +(!'3 *+ %*!'3 * +*)6+*$ %he #(e * %he "e+ (%e, h!)h ! &+(33e& %* 3+e(%e+&e%h # %he "#&")%!'3 (%e 4C** ('& Sh+e/e, 1885. I' ()%,e+*!/e $(+3!' )*'%!%"%e (+*"'& 7 * ( 3*#( "#&")%!*'

=



*'e 4/*' H"e'e ('& S)h*, 115 4F!3"+e 2.25. <he%he+ ( $(+3!'! ())+e%!*'(+ *+ e+*!/e &ee'& *' '"$e+*" ()%*+, #"%e&!$e'% " ! !6e (' !$*+%('% ()%*+. S"#&")%!*' ())+e%!*'! $*+e !6e %* *))"+ !' +e3!*' * h!3h e&!$e'% " e+*!*'&*$!'(%e he+e %he+e ! * e&!$e'% !'"% 4C** ('& Sh+e/e,

1885 ('& (% (%e )*'/e+3e')e 4C!% ('& (''"))h!, 2005.A%h*"3h %h! )(!?)(%!*' )he$e )(''*% ())"+(%e +e+ee'% %he?'e>)(e )h(+()%e+!%!) * ( "#&")%!*' *'e 4K*, 201=5 !%+*/!&e ( +($e*+6 %* &e)+!#e %he /(+!(#!!% !' %he $(!'%+")%"+( e(%"+e #e%ee' "#&")%!*' *'e 4F!3"+e 2.=5.

Figure 2.2: Distribution of circum-Pacific erosional and accretionary margins

based on Clift and Vannucchi (2004) and Kopp (2006) compared with earthquake

characteristics. Large earthquake locations are based on Bilek (2010), but with an

updated catalogue. Tsunami earthquake locations are from El Hariri et al. (2013).

2.1.1M(+!'e *+e(+)

I'%e+'( &!/!!*' * %he $(+!'e *+e(+) (+e %!)( #(e& *' *e#+e(6 (*'3 %he e(@**+ 4K!$"+( e% (., 200 K. <('3 ('& H",2005. The $*% e((+& &*$(!' * %he "e+ (%e ! &e'*%e& #!% e&3e>h(e& 3e*$e%+ %h(% %h!' %*(+& %he %+e')h 4e.3. D(/!e% (., 18=5. The outer wedge 4+*'%( +!$5 !e (&()e'% %* %he&e*+$(%!*' +*'% 4%+e')h5 ('& ! " %* =080 6$ !&e 4e.3.C*'%+e+( Ree e% (., 2008 /*' H"e'e e% (., 2005 %he innerwedge ! !%"(%e& "+%he+ ('&(+&. M*% 6'*e&3e *' %he

=8



%+")%"+e * %he *+e(+) e&3e )*$e +*$ ()%!/e>*"+)e e!$!)+e@e)%!*' ('& +e+()%!*' %"&!e 4e.3. /*' H"e'e e% (. 2005. Thee!$(3e h* %h(% %he 3e*$e%+ ('& h!)( )h(+()%e+!%!) * %he*"%e+ ('& !''e+ e&3e 3+e(% &ee'& *' he%he+ %he $(+3!' !())+e%!*'(+ *+ e+*!/e.

I' ())+e%!*'(+ $(+3!', %he *"%e+ e&3e ! *%e' )(e& %he frontal accretionary pris# 4FAP5, h!)h )*'!% * &e*+$e& e&!$e'%%h(% ())"$"(%e (% %he e(&!'3 e&3e * %he */e++!&!'3 (%e 4C**('& Sh+e/e, 1885 4F!3"+e 2.=5. The ('&(+& !''e+ e&3e !)*$*e& * *&e+ ())+e%e& e&!$e'% ('& +($e*+6 +*)6 * %he)e'%+( *+e(+). Th! &*$(!' ! )*$$*' &e?'e& ( %he palaeo:accretionary co#ple> 4PAC5 4C*'%+e+( Ree e% (., 2008 M*)**e% (., 20115. F*+e(+) #(!' */e+!'3 %he *"%e+ e&3e (+e %!)(#*"'&e& # #()6%h+"% ("% 4S!'3h e% (., 20105. The #*"'&(+#e%ee' %he *"%e+ ('& !''e+ e&3e, he+e ())+e%e& e&!$e'%%e+$!'(%e (3(!'% $*+e )*'*!&(%e& e&!$e'% *+ %he )+%(!'ee(&!'3 e&3e * %he */e++!&!'3 (%e, ! 6'*' ( %he bac+stop 4C** ('& Sh+e/e, 1885 4F!3"+e 2.=5.

=



Figure 2.3: Illustration of the main structural variations between erosive and

accretionary margins, based on Clift and Vannucchi (2004), von Huene and Ranero

(2003), and, and von Huene et al. (2004; 2009).

0



I' )*'%+(%, *+ e+*!/e $(+3!', %he $*% e((+& (+% * %he *"%e+e&3e !')"&e ( $( frontal pris# 4e.3. K. <('3 ('& H", 2005,h!)h )*'!% * $( %+('*+% &e*!% ('& ( $( +**+%!*' *())+e%e& e&!$e'%. The *"%e+ ('& !''e+ e&3e (+e )*$*e& *)+%(!'e +*)6 #e*'3!'3 %* %he *+e(+) )+"% +($e*+6 %h(% (+e

(%e+e& ('& +()%"+e& 4/*' H"e'e e% (., 2005. Th! h(+)*$*!%!*'( #*"'&(+ #()6%* $e(' %h(% e+*!/e $(+3!'%!)( e;h!#!% ( %eee+ #+e(6 !' *e (#*/e %he *"%e+ e&3e.A)%!/e>*"+)e +e@e)%!*' +*?e h(/e !"$!'(%e& ( !&e +('3e *("%!'3 %e !%h!' %he $(+!'e *+e(+). T!)(, !' ())+e%!*'(+$(+3!', %he *"%e+ e&3e 3+* ('& %h!)6e' (*'3 !$#+!)(%e,('&(+&>&!!'3 %h+"% ("% %h(% $e+3e (% &e%h %*(+& %he *('3e (%e !'%e+()e 4F!3"+e 2.=5. Thee !$#+!)(%e ("% (+e"#!-"!%*" e(%"+e !' e!$!) !$(3e +*$ ())+e%!*'(+ $(+3!'4e.3. K*, 201= K. <('3 ('& H", 2005. L(+3e, *"%>*>e-"e')e,('&(+&>&!!'3 %h+"% ("% )"%%!'3 %h+*"3h %he $(+!'e *+e(+)(+e 6'*' ( #egasplay ("% 4S%+(e+ e% (., 2005. E/!&e')e *+$e3(( $(!' )*$e +*$ ())+e%!*'(+ $(+3!' 4S(Je+ ('&

T*#!', 20115, ")h ( N('6(! 4P(+6 e% (., 20025 ('& )e'%+( Ch!e4L!ee+ e% (., 2015, #"% (* e;!% !' e+*!*'( $(+3!', ")h (E)"(&*+ 4C**% e% (., 20085. A'*%he+ %e * +e/e+e ("% ! (bac+thrust , h!)h, !' )*'%+(% %* (' !$#+!)(%e ('& ( ("%, h((' **!%e /e+3e')e %* %he $(!' e&3e 4!.e. %+e')h(+& &!!'35.

The+e ! e/!&e')e * $(*+ #()6%h+"%!'3 !' %he !''e+ e&3e 4Ch("h(' e% (., 200 He'%*)6 e% (., 200 S!'3h e% (., 20102011#5 ('& ( e ( $(e+>)(e #()6%h+"% !' %he *"%e+ e&3e

4De(' e% (., 2010 He'%*)6 e% (., 2005 * %he S"$(%+(' $(+3!'.Me'!)6 e% (. 420125 !'e+ ( ( ("% !' %he *"%h>)e'%+( Ch!e"#&")%!*' *'e, (%h*"3h %h! ("% ! %+e')h(+&>&!!'3%he+e*+e, e &e?'e %h! ("% ( ( #()6%h+"%. I' %he C()(&!("#&")%!*' *'e, ( e+!e * &ee>e'e%+(%!'3 %+!6e>! ("% (+e+e(%e& %* *#!-"e )*'/e+3e')e * %he "#&")%!'3 Z"(' &e F")((%e 4G*&?'3e+ e% (., 1 M)C(J+e ('& G*&?'3e+, 175.

T* )*$e%e %he e)%+"$ * ("%!'3 %e, %"&!e h(/e !$(3e&'*+$( ("%, (+%!)"(+ !' e+*!/e $(+3!' 4F!3"+e 2.=5.L('&(+&>&!!'3 '*+$( ("% (+e )("e& # e&!$e'%"'&e+(%!'3 4O6($"+( e% (., 2008 R('e+* ('& /*' H"e'e, 2000

T"! e% (., 20115 ('& $(%e+!( %+('e+ #e%ee' %he "e+ ('&*e+ (%e. Thee '*+$( ("% (+e $*+e !6e %* *+$ ! %hee&3e ! e;%e'!*'( )+!%!)(, &"e %* ( * #(( +!)%!*' )*e)!e'%('& (' */e++e"+e& (%e !'%e+()e 4K. <('3 ('& H", 2005.S!$!(+, e((+&>&!!'3 '*+$( ("% !' %he !''e+ e&3e * %he'*+%he+' Ch!e $(+3!' (+e (*)!(%e& !%h 3+(/!%(%!*'( )*(e *%he *+e(+) 4C*'%+e+( Ree e% (., 201 /*' H"e'e ('& R('e+*,200=5. H*e/e+, %he &e%h e;%e'% * "e+ (%e ("% ('& %he'(%"+e * %he!+ )*'%()% !%h %he (%e !'%e+()e (+e **+ +e*/e&.

The $e)h('!) * ())+e%!*'(+ e&3e h(/e #ee' !'/e%!3(%e&

"!'3 %* $(!' &'($!) $*&e: %he C*"*$# e&3e %he*+4D(he' e% (., 18 D(/! e% (., 18=5 ('& !% $*&!?e& &'($!)/e+!*' 4K. <('3 ('& H", 2005. F*+ %he !'%e+'( )*$*!%!*' * %he

1



$(+!'e *+e(+), %hee ('(e +e&!)% %h(% ())+e%!*'(+ e&3e('& %he!+ #(( &)*e$e'% h*"& h(/e 'e(+>!%h*%(%!) *+e+e"+e %* e;(!' ! *' %he "'&e+!'3 $e3(%h+"% ('& %he%(e+e& 3e*$e%+ * %he e&3e 4D(/! e% (., 18=5. H*e/e+,%hee @"!& +e"+e !6e /(+ %h+*"3h*"% %he e!$!) ))e 4K.

<('3 ('& H", 2005. O/e++e"+e )*'&!%!*' (+e !'e++e& +*$%+*'3 'e3(%!/e>*(+!% e!$!) +e@e)%!*' (*'3 ("% !%h!' %hee&3e 4e.3. B('3 e% (., 2005, ('& * P>(/e /e*)!% 4v p5 !'+e+()%!*' %*$*3+(h !$(3e 4C*'%+e+( Ree e% (., 2008S((+], 20075. Ne/e+%hee, &!+e)% e/!&e')e *!'e++!'3 *+e+e"+e /("e !' %he *e+ *+e(+) ! &!)"% %* *#%(!' +*$ ()%!/e*"+)e e!$!) +*?e &"e %* %he ()6 * )*'%+(!'% *' S>(/e/e*)!% 4v s5, ('& he')e P*!*'9 +(%!*.

2.1.2Ce'%+( *+e(+) )+"%

M*/!'3 *'h*+e, %he +*)6 +($e*+6 * %he "e+ (%e )*'!% *!3'e*" *+ $e%($*+h!) #(e$e'% ('& !%h!?e& e&!$e'%(+ +*)6.C*$(+e& %* %he $(+!'e *+e(+), %he )e'%+( *+e(+) ! %+*'3e+ ('&e !'%e'e &e*+$e& 4/*' H"e'e e% (., 2005. The )*$*!%!*'* %he "e+ )+"% $( #e !'e++e& +*$ *"%)+* e;*"+e (*'3)*(%!'e ('& )*(%( h! +('3e %h*"3h, !% ! "')e+%(!' * h*+e+ee'%(%!/e %h! 3e**3 ! * *e+ )+"%( +*e+%!e.F"+%he+$*+e, ()%!/e *"+)e e!$!) $e%h*& h(/e !$!%e& +e*"%!*'(% %hee &e%h 4 =0 6$5, h!3h!3h%!'3 %he /("e * (!/e3e*h!)( $e%h*&, ")h ( (!/e e!$!) %*$*3+(h ('&

3+(/!% !'/e+!*'.C*$*!%!*'( he%e+*3e'e!% * %he "e+ (%e $( +e"% +*$ %he(')!e'% 3e**3!)( e/*"%!*' * %he *+e(+). F*+ e;($e, %he "e+(%e !' %he H!6"+('3! "#&")%!*' *'e * Ne Ve(('& )*'%(!'e/e+( %e++('e, e()h * h!)h )*$+!e $e%($*+h*e&())+e%!*'(+ e&3e 4e.3. E#e+h(+%>Ph!! ('& Re'e+, 20125.S!$!(+, %he *e+ )+"% !' %he C()(&!( "#&")%!*' *'e ! h!3hhe%e+*3e'e*" ('& )*$+!e %e++('e )*$*e& *$e%(e&!$e'%(+ ('& /*)('!) +*)6 4R($()h('&+(' e% (., 2005.A*'3 %he Ch!e "#&")%!*' $(+3!', %he "e+ )*'%!'e'%( *+e(+) !&!/!&e& !'%* e/e+( &!%!')% %+e')h>(+(e $*+h*%e)%*'!) "'!%

!')"&!'3 %he C*(%( C*+&!e+(, h!)h +e+ee'% %he +e$'('% * ($(3$(%!) (+) *+$e& !' Z"+(!)>C+e%()e*" %!$e, ('& %he*'3!%"&!'( /(e 4e.3. H"e' e% (., 20005.C+"%(>)(e ("% )(' (* )"% %h+*"3h %he )e'%+( )+"% 4F!3"+e2.=5, %h*"3h %hee (+e $*+e &e!'e(%e& ('& $(%"+e %h(' ("% !'%he *Jh*+e (+% * %he "e+ (%e. I' $(' "#&")%!*' *'e, %he)e'%+( *+e(+) )*$+!e %+!6e>! ("% %h(% ())*$$*&(%e*#!-"e (%e )*'/e+3e')e, %he #e% e;($e * h!)h ! %he 17006$ S"$(%+( ("% 4S!eh ('& N(%(!&((, 20005 !' I'&*'e!(. O%he+e;($e !')"&e %he N*+%h I('& &e;%+( #e% !' %he H!6"+('3!"#&")%!*' *'e 4<(()e, 2005 ('& %he L('(h"e ("% !' *"%h>)e'%+( Ch!e 4e.3. G*&' e% (., 20085.

2



2.1.=F*+e(+) $('%e e&3e

A+)(+& * %he )*(%!'e ('& #e'e(%h %he )e'%+( *+e(+) )+"% (%(+*"'& =70 6$ &e%h, %he $('%e e&3e ! ( "#!-"!%*" e(%"+e!' $(' "#&")%!*' *'e. The )*'%!'e'%( M*h* &e!'e(%e %he

#*"'&(+ #e%ee' %he $('%e e&3e ('& )e'%+( *+e(+) )+"%.H*e/e+, %he+e ! *$e /(+!(#!!% !' %he &e%h * %h! !'%e+e)%!*'#e%ee' &!Je+e'% "#&")%!*' *'e, ('& %he e%!$(%e &ee'& *'h* !% ! !$(3e& 4T(#e 2.15.Se!$!) !$(3e "33e% %h(% %he $('%e e&3e ! )*$*e& *e+!&*%!%e %h(% ! e+e'%!'!e& # (+*;!$(%e 20. Th!(%e+(%!*' +e"% +*$ @"!& 3e'e+(%e& # &eh&+(%!*' +e()%!*' !'%he &*'3*!'3 )+"% ('& !' "#&")%e& e&!$e'% 4H'&$(' ('&Pe()*)6, 200=5. The &e3+ee * e+e'%!'!(%!*' &ee'& *'(/(!(#e @"!& #"&3e% 4B*%*)6, 201=5. C*$(+e& %* "'(%e+e&

$('%e, %he +e&")e& e!$!) /e*)!%!e * e+e'%!'!e& e+!&*%!%e+e"% !' +e&")e& /e*)!% )*'%+(% ()+* %he )*'%!'e'%( M*h*. The#"++e& 3+(&(%!*'( '(%"+e * %h! #*"'&(+ ! *'e e;('(%!*' *+%he ()6 * )*'!%e') !' $e("+e$e'% * %he !'%e+e)%!*' &e%h#e%ee' %he )*'%!'e'%( M*h* ('& (%e !'%e+()e !' !'&!/!&"("#&")%!*' *'e 4T(#e 2.15. H!3h &e3+ee * $('%ee+e'%!'!(%!*' 4" %* 7005 e;!% !' %he "#&")%!*' *'e *C()(&!( 4B*%*)6 e% (., 20025, C*%( R!)( 4DeSh*' ('& S)h(+%,2005 ('& '*+%he+' Ch!e 4G+(e#e+ ('& A)h, 15.

Subduction

zone

Continental Moho –

plate interface

intersection depth

Method Reference

Cascadia 35 km STBostock et al. (2002)

Fuis (1998)

Chile

(north)

50 km RF Yuan et al. (2000)

40–50 km RR Wigger et al. (1994)

Chile

(south)

32 km RF Dzierma et al. (2012b)

50 km LET Haberland et al. (2009)

Costa Rica 36 km RF DeShon and Schwartz(2004)

Hikurangi 40 km REStern and Davey

(1990)

Japan

(north-east)27–29 km RE Nakajima et al. (2002)

Nankai 30 km RF Ueno et al. (2008)

=



Sumatra 20 km RE

Singh et al.

(2011a)Klingelhoefer

et al. (2010)

Table 2.1: Estimates of the intersection depth between the continental Moho and

plate interface for different subduction zones. ST = scattering tomography; RF =

receiver functions; LET = local earthquake tomography; RE = reflected phases;

RR = refraction seismology.

2.1.S"#&")%!'3 *)e('!) )+"%

D"e %* !% &e%h !' %he "#&")%!*' *'e, $*% 6'*e&3e *' %he%+")%"+e ('& )*$*!%!*' * %he *e+ (%e )*$e +*$ %"&!e *%he )+"% #e*+e !% e'%e+ %he "#&")%!*' *'e, ")h ( *)e('&+!!'3 ('& e!$!) +e+()%!*' e;e+!$e'%. C(!) %"&!e **h!*!%e e-"e')e h* %h(% *)e('!) )+"% ! )*$*e& * %*$(!' (e+: !* #((% ('& hee%e& &6e !' %he "e+ )+"%, ('& 3(##+* !' %he *e+ )+"%, +ee)%!/e. Thee &!%!')% (e+ &*'*% "'&e+3* $(*+ $e%($*+h!) h(e )h('3e "'%! e)*3!%!(%!*'(% (+*"'& 7 6$ &e%h 4e.3. B*%*)6, 201= H()6e+ ('& A#e+,2005. B(e& *' *#e+/(%!*' * )*'/e+%e& %eee!$!) (/e,A"&e% e% (. 42005 *"'& %h(% *+e +e"+e !' "#&")%e& *)e('!))+"% (*'3 %he C()(&!( $e3(%h+"% (+e !%h*%(%!). H!3h *+e+e"+e !$ %h(% %he "e+ "+()e * %he "#&")%e& )+"% !!$e+$e(#e h*e/e+, %h! %"& ( '*% (#e %* " +e*/e %he+*e+%!e * %he *Jh*+e (%e !'%e+()e &"e %* ( ()6 * *)e('>

#*%%*$ !'%+"$e'%(%!*'.A!&e +*$ %he !'%e+'( )*$*!%!*' * %he *)e('!) (%e, ( !&e#+e(&%h * *+6 h( *)"e& *' %+")%"+( )*$e;!% (% %he %* *%he "#&")%!'3 *)e('!) )+"%. Ch(!' * e($*"'% !%%e+ %he *)e('@**+, h!)h !'&!/!&"(, $( h(/e +e!e * " %* e/e+( %h*"('&* $e%+e. B(e& *' $(>(%!'3 e(%"+e ")h ( he(&>)(+,"$ ('& !&e (% %he *"%e+ e&3e 4e.3. <(%% e% (., 20105,e($*"'% (e(+ %* e'%e+ !'%* %he "#&")%!*' *'e. A )+")!(-"e%!*' %* ('e+ !: &* e($*"'% +e$(!' !'%()% ( %he #e3!' %*"#&")%\ D"e %* %he +e"%!'3 !$()% *' (%e !'%e+()e 3e*$e%+,"#&")%e& e($*"'% h(/e #ee' !$(3e& (% $(' &e%h !'

"#&")%!*' *'e, +*$ #e'e(%h %he *"%e+ *+e(+) 4Be e% (., 2015%* &ee #e'e(%h %he *+e(+) $('%e e&3e 4S!'3h e% (., 2011(5.F"+%he+$*+e, e($*"'% h(/e ( &e'e, $(?) )*$*!%!*', $(6!'3%he$ !&e'%!?(#e +*$ e!$!), 3+(/!% ('& $(3'e%!)$e("+e$e'% 4e.3. T+eh" e% (., 20125.

Th+*"3h*"% %h! &e)+!%!*' * "#&")%!*' &*$(!', ( )*$$*'%he$e h( #ee' %he +ee')e * ("% %h(% 'e!3h#*"+ %he$e3(%h+"% !'%e+()e. The *e+ (%e ! '* e;)e%!*'. A*'3 %heS"$(%+( $(+3!', "#&")%!*' * ee/(%e& +()%"+e *'e !' %he*)e('!) (%e ! !'%e++e%e& +*$ #(%h$e%+ 4R*#!'*' e% (.,

2005 ('& e!$!)!% (%%e+' 4L('3e e% (., 20105. I' (&&!%!*' %*+()%"+e *'e, e;%e'!*'( %+")%"+e !' %he *e+ (%e &e/e* (



%he (%e #e'& (% %he *"%e+ +!e. Be'&!'3>+e(%e& %+")%"+e ")h( h*+% ('& 3+(#e', h!)h )(' h(/e +e!e " %* 800 $ 4e.3. /*'H"e'e ('& R('e+*, 200=5, (+e !'e++e& +*$ *)e(' #(%h$e%+ ('&e!$!) +e@e)%!*' +*?e 4e.3. C*'%+e+(>Ree e% (., 20085. Thee("% $( ()% ( ( )*'&"!% *+ @"!&, h&+(%!'3 %he *)e('!) )+"%

4e.3. G(+%h ('& R!e%#+*)6, 201 Pe()*)6, 20015.

2.1.7S"#&")%e& e&!$e'%

S* (+, e h(/e ("$e& %h(% %he "#&")%!'3 (%e !'%e+()e ! (h(+ )*'%()% #e%ee' %he "e+ ('& *e+ (%e. H*e/e+, %he(%e #*"'&(+ )(' #e /!ee& ( ( $*+e &!J"e +e3!*' %h(% $()*'%(!' ( '(++* 4^ 2 6$ %h!)65 (e+ * e&!$e'%(+ $(%e+!(.Dee>e( &+!!'3 +*e)% h(/e +e/e(e& %h(% (+*;!$(%e2.=;1017 3 * e&!$e'%(+ $(%e+!( ! %+('*+%e& !'%* "#&")%!*'%e$ e/e+ e(+ 4Re( ('& R"J, 15. Pe(3!) e&!$e'% *' %*

* %he !')*$!'3 (%e )(' #e )()(+e*" *+ !!)e*" &ee'&!'3 *'&e*!%!*'( &e%h. A %he *)e('!) (%e 'e(+ %he %+e')h,%e++!3e'*" $(%e+!(, ")h ( )( ('& (h>( %"J, ! (&&e& 4C**('& Sh+e/e, 1885. O)e('!) ('& )*'%!'e'%( e&!$e'% )*$#!'e %*+*&")e ( %+e')h %h!)6'e * (+*"'& 1 6$ !' $*% "#&")%!*'*'e 4C!% ('& (''"))h!, 2005.E(+ e(@**+ &+!!'3 %"&!e h* %h(% (% *$e "#&")%!*'$(+3!', ")h ( %he Lee+ A'%!e, %+e')h e&!$e'% ! ())+e%e&*'%* ('& "'&e+ %he e(&!'3 e&3e * %he "e+ (%e. F*+ *%he+$(+3!', ")h ( %he M(+!('(, e&!$e'% $( #e &+!/e' &*' %*

&e%h ( 3+e(% ( 100 6$ 4C** ('& Sh+e/e, 1885. Th! (e+ *&e)e'&!'3 e&!$e'% ! 6'*' ( %he subduction channel, h!)h !&e?'e& # C** ('& Sh+e/e 41885 (, W( %h!' (e+ * +(!&he(+!'3, **+ )*'*!&(%e& e&!$e'% %h(% ! &+(33e& # %he&e)e'&!'3 (%e #e'e(%h %he */e++!&!'3 (%e, ('& !% ())+e%!*'(++!$, he+e +ee'%9. The "#&")%!*' )h(''e )(' h(/e ( #"6&e'!% * 2200 63$= ('& ( *+*!% * 2027 4C** ('& Sh+e/e,1885. D"e %* %hee +*e+%!e, e&!$e'% )(' ()% ( ( %+*'3+he**3!)( ('*$( ('& $( h(/e (' !$*+%('% !'@"e')e *'&'($!) * %he (%e !'%e+()e.S"#&")%!*' )h(''e %h!)6'e e%!$(%e $( &e/!(%e +*$

$e("+e * %+e')h ? #e)("e e&!$e'% $( ())+e%e *'%* %he+*'%( e&3e, *+ %e)%*'!) e+*!*' $( %+('e+ *$e * %h!$(%e+!( %* %he "#&")%!*' )h(''e 4He"+e% e% (., 20125.F"+%he+$*+e, e/e+( &!Je+e'% ()%*+ )*'%+* %he ($*"'% *e&!$e'% %h(% ! "#&")%e& 4C** ('& Sh+e/e, 1885, ")h (!%h**3 * %he *+e(+), )*'/e+3e')e +(%e, %**3+(h ('& &! *%he &*'3*!'3 (%e. D!+e)% $e("+e$e'% e%!$(%e %h(% %he"#&")%!*' )h(''e ! 1_0.7 6$ %h!)6 4K*, 201=5. H*e/e+, %h!/("e &ee'& *' %he &e%h (% h!)h %he )h(''e ! $e("+e&, ('&%he !$(3!'3 $e%h*& "e& 4T(#e 2.25. Th!)6'e )*'%+(!'% )('(* #e *#%(!'e& +*$ e;h"$e& "#&")%!*' he(+ *'e. F*+e;($e, (''"))h! e% (. 420085 +e*+% ( "#&")%!*' )h(''e%h!)6'e * 700 $, !%h !3'!?)('% (*'3>%+!6e /(+!(%!*', +*$ ('

7



(')!e'% e+*!/e $(+3!' e;*e& !' %he N*+%he+' Ae''!'e * I%(.<he+e (+3e /*"$e * e&!$e'% (+e "#&")%e&, %he e&3e * %he)h(''e (+e h(+. I' )*'%+(%, %he )h(''e !'e% $( h(/e ( $*+e3+(&(%!*'( *+$ !' ())+e%!*'(+ $(+3!'.

#u&duction>one

(hicness o%

su&ductedsedi$ent

!e%erence

H!6"+('3!, NeVe(('&

1 2 6$E#e+h(+%>Ph!! ('&

Re'e+ 415

NE H*'h", Z(('

1.01.7 6$ /*' H"e'e e% (. 415

E)"(&*+ 17000 $ S(3e e% (. 42005

N('6(! 2 6$ P(+6 e% (. 420105

N*+%he+' Ch!e 0.2 6$/*' H"e'e ('& R('e+*

4200=5

Ce'%+( Ch!e4M("e5

0.71 6$G+e/e$ee+ e% (. 4200=5

C*'%+e+(>Ree e% (.420085

S*"%h>Ce'%+(Ch!e 4(&!/!(5 1.21.8 6$

G+e/e$ee+ e% (. 4200=5

C*'%+e+(Ree e% (.420105

Table 2.2: Estimates of subduction channel thickness for different subduction

zones.

2.2S%+")%"+( ('& )*$*!%!*'( !'@"e')e *'$e3(%h+"% e!$*3e'!) #eh(/!*"+

The '(%"+e * h!)( +*e+%!e ('& %+")%"+e %h(% )*'%+*$e3(%h+"% e!$*3e'e! ! (' *'>3*!'3 &e#(%e !' e(+%h-"(6e)!e')e. I' %he )(!) %"& * R"J ('& K('($*+! 41805, !% (+**e& %h(% %he !e * e(+%h-"(6e (e+!%!e ! +e(%e& %* #*%h%he (3e * %he "#&")%!'3 (%e ('& !% )*'/e+3e')e /e*)!%.H*e/e+, #(e& *' %h! $*&e, %he '*+%h>e(% Z((' "#&")%!*'*'e *"& '*% h(/e #ee' (#e %* 3e'e+(%e ( +"%"+e %h(% ( %he!e * %he 2011 Mw .0 T*h*6" e(+%h-"(6e. The+e*+e, !% ! ("!#e%h(% $(' &!Je+e'% h!)( +*e+%!e !'@"e')e %he e!$*3e'!)#eh(/!*"+ * "#&")%!*' *'e. I' %he e(+ 10, *+6e+ #e3('%* )*'!&e+ "e+ (%e +he**3 ( ( %+*'3 !'@"e')e *'

$e3(%h+"% +*)ee 4e.3. M)C(J+e, 1=5. A% %he +e3!*'( )(e,)*'%!'e'%( "e+ (%e %h(% (+e h!3h )*$+e!*'( +*&")e,



+e"%!'3 !' ( $*+e %+*'3e+ )*"e& (*'3 %he "#&")%!*' (%e !'%e+()e %h(', )*$(+e& %h*e !%h *)e('!) ('& e;%e'!*'( "e+(%e 4He"+e% e% (., 20115. F"'&($e'%(, he%he+ *+ '*% ( (+3e+"%"+e )(' #e h*%e& *' %he !'%e+()e ! 3*/e+'e& # !% eJe)%!/ehe(+ %+e'3%h, h!)h ! !' %"+' &e%e+$!'e& # $(' +*e+%!e,

")h ( '*+$( %+e, *+e @"!& +e"+e, e+$e(#!!%, +!3!&!%,%e$e+(%"+e, ('& )*e)!e'% * +!)%!*'. Thee (+($e%e+ $( /(+*/e+ $")h $(e+ )(e %h(' %he !%h*he+!)>)(e /(+!(%!*'&e)+!#e& (#*/e. F+!)%!*'( +e*'e $( (* #e &'($!),(+%!)"(+ !' +e*'e %* (+3e !, !%h $(%e+!( +e*'&!'3 !'e!%he+ /e*)!%>e(6e'!'3 *+ /e*)!%>%+e'3%he'!'3 $*&e 4S)h*,185. The+e*+e, $e3(%h+"% e!$*3e'!) +*)ee )(''*% #ee;(!'e& # ( !'3e +*e+% %he (+e $*+e !6e +e(%e& %* ()*$e; !'%e+( #e%ee' %he %+")%"+e ('& )*$*!%!*' * %he$(!' "#&")%!*' *'e &*$(!', ( &!)"e& #e*.

2.2.1The ">&! +"%"+e !$!%: "#&")%e& e&!$e'% ('&@"!&

F**!'3 %he e(+ $*&e * R"J ('& K('($*+! 41805 %h(% h*e&( +e(%!*'h! #e%ee' e(+%h-"(6e !e, (%e (3e ('& )*'/e+3e')e+(%e, R"J 4185 +**e& %h(% %he %h!)6'e * %+e')h ? (*!'@"e')e 3*#( e(+%h-"(6e (%%e+'. I% ( *"'& %h(% $(+3!')*'%(!'!'3 (' e;)e * %+e')h e&!$e'%, ")h ( %he *"%he+'Ch!e ('& A(6( $(+3!', %e'& %* +*&")e %he (+3e% e(+%h-"(6e.H*e/e+, %hee )(!) %"&!e e+e #(e& *' ( !$!%e& e(+%h-"(6e

+e)*+&, )*$(+e& %* %h(% ! (/(!(#e %*&(. T* h!3h!3h% %h!&+(#()6, %he %+e')h !' %he +"%"+e (+e( * %he 2011 Mw .0 T*h*6", Z((' e(+%h-"(6e )*'%(!' *' =70 $ * e&!$e'% ? 4K*&(!+( e%(., 2012 N(6($"+( e% (., 201=5. Ne/e+%hee, %he +ee')e *)( (% %he $(;!$"$ (e+!% * %h! e(+%h-"(6e 4Che%e+ e% (.,201=5 &*e !'&!)(%e ( !'6 #e%ee' "#&")%!*' )h(''e +*e+%!e('& +"%"+e $e)h('!). F"+%he+$*+e, (*'3>%+!6e /(+!(%!*' !' %he%h!)6'e ('& @"!& )*'%e'% * %he "#&")%!*' )h(''e #e'e(%hS"$(%+( $( h(/e )*'%+*e& %he +"%"+e !$!% * %he 200 Mw .1('& 2007 Mw 8. e(+%h-"(6e 4De(' e% (., 20105, *!# &"e %*%he !'"(%!'3 eJe)% * e&!$e'% 4Gee+e' e% (., 201=5.

O'e e(%"+e )*$$*' %* $(' "#&")%!*' $(+3!' ! +e&")e&e!$!)!% (% 717 6$ &e%h. The e((+& e;%e'% * 3+e(%e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+e )*!')!&e !%h ( )+!%!)( %e$e+(%"+e * 100170C 4H'&$(' e% (., 17 Oe6e/!)h e% (., 15. Th!!*%he+$ %!)( *))"+ !%h!' %he +*'%( +!$, h*!'3 %h(%e&!$e'% !'@"e')e %he+$( +*e+%!e * $e3(%h+"%, h!)h (Je)%e!$*3e'!) )h(+()%e+. The h!)( $e)h('!$ #eh!'& %h!%he+$( )*'%+* +e$(!' 3+e(% &e#(%e&, !%h (+3"$e'% *)"!'3*' %he )*$*!%!*' ('& %he +!)%!*'( +*e+%!e * e&!$e'%. E(+%"&!e "33e% %h(% %he &eh&+(%!*' * )(, ('& ())*$('!e&

h(e )h('3e +*$ $e)%!%e %* !!%e ('& )h*+!%e, ( (' !$*+%('%+*e !' %he ">&! !$!% * e!$*3e'e! 4+*!6, 105. H*e/e+,



%he ()6 * e/!&e')e *+ $e)%!%e !' %he %+e')h ? * *$e"#&")%!*' *'e, ")h ( C()(&!( 4H'&$(' e% (., 15, $(6e%h! %he*+ +*#e$(%!). A *+ %he +!)%!*'( +*e+%!e * )(h(e, (#*+(%*+ %"&!e h* %h(% !!%e ! +!)%!*'( %+*'3e+%h(' $e)%!%e 4e.3. M*++* e% (., 1825, !$!%!'3 %he ">&! +"%"+e

!$!%. A (%e+ %"& # S(Je+ ('& M(+*'e 4200=5 h* %h(% !!%e&!( /e*)!%>%+e'3%he'!'3 #eh(/!*"+ "'&e+ ( !&e +('3e *)*'&!%!*', !'&!)(%!'3 %h(% %h! h(e )h('3e ! '*% %he $(!' )*'%+**' %he ">&! !$!% * e!$*3e'e!. E/e' ! %hee h(e %+('!%!*'&* e;e+% ( )*'%+* *' $!'!$"$ +"%"+e &e%h, %he %! &* '*%e;(!' h e/e'% ")h ( %he 2011 T*h*6" e(+%h-"(6e (+e (#e %*+e()h %he %+e')h. F("6'e+ e% (. 420115 "33e% %h(% )( e&!$e'%(+e /e*)!%>e(6e'!'3 (% h!3h ! +(%e &"e %* +(!& %he+$(+e"+!(%!*'. F"+%he+$*+e, e h(/e * (+ ("$e& %h(% %he ">&! !$!% ! ( h(+ #*"'&(+ !' +e(!%, %h! #*"'&(+ ! !6e3+(&(%!*'( #e)("e !% ! )*'%+*e& # ( +('3e * h&+**3!)(,%he+$( ('& )*$*!%!*'( ()%*+ 4K. <('3 ('& H", 2005.<he%he+ ( $(+3!' ! e+*!*'( *+ ())+e%!*'(+ (Je)% e&!$e'% @";!'%* %he "#&")%!*' *'e. B $*&e!'3 %he %he+$( %+")%"+e *)*'/e+3e'% $(+3!', H(++! e% (. 42015 *"'& %h(% %he $e3(%h+"%!' ())+e%!*'(+ $(+3!' ! (+$e+ %h(' !' e+*!/e $(+3!' &"e %*%he !'"(%!'3 eJe)% * %h!)6 &e*!%. I %he ">&! !$!% *e!$*3e'e! ! %he+$( )*'%+*e& 4e.3. S(Je+ ('& M(+*'e,200=5, ())+e%!*'(+ $(+3!' h*"& h(/e ( !&e+ e!$*3e'!) (%e!'%e+()e, )*'!%e'% !%h %he ?'&!'3 * S$!%h e% (. 4201=5 *+ %heM(6+(' "#&")%!*' *'e. A %(%!%!)( ('(!A' ('(! *

e(+%h-"(6e )h(+()%e+!%!) ('& $(+3!' %e h* %h(% *'3>&"+(%!*' %"'($! e(+%h-"(6e %e'& %* $(%e+!(!e (% e+*!/e$(+3!', he+e( %he (+3e% e(+%h-"(6e 4Mw 8.75 *))"+ (%())+e%!*'(+ $(+3!' 4F!3"+e 2.25 4B!e6, 20105. L*'3 *"+)e&"+(%!*' * h(* +"%"+e !'&!)(%e %he +ee')e * *>+!3!&!%$(%e+!( 4B!e6 ('& L(, 15, )*'!%e'% !%h @"!& (%"+(%e&e&!$e'% #e'e(%h %he *"%e+ e&3e. F"!& e;ee& +*$ e&!$e'%+e&")e eJe)%!/e '*+$( %+e ()%!'3 *' %he (%e !'%e+()e,*e+!'3 +!)%!*'( %(#!!% 4R('e+* e% (., 2008 S)h*, 18<(()e e% (., 2005. I' $(' "#&")%!*' *'e, %he ">&! !$!% %*e!$*3e'e! )*++e(%e !%h ( "&&e' +e&")%!*' !' (%e

+e@e)%!/!%, !'&!)(%!'3 &!$!'!he& @"!& )*'%e'% !' %he e!$*3e'!)*'e 4R('e+* e% (., 20085.

2.2.2The &*'>&! !$!% * e!$*3e'e!: %he $('%ee&3e

The &*'>&! !$!% &e%e+$!'e %he ('&(+& e;%e'% * %hee!$*3e'!) *'e. S!$!(+ %* %he ">&! !$!% * e!$*3e'e!, (%he+$( )*'%+*e& brittle:ductile transition 4BDT5 h( #ee'+**e& ( %he $(!' )*'%+*. B(e& *' (#*+(%*+ $e("+e$e'%,

-"(+%*>e&(%h!) +*)6 #e)*$e /e*)!%>%+e'3%he'!'3 (%%e$e+(%"+e * =7070C 4e.3. B('!e& e% (., 175. Thee

8



!*%he+$ )*++e*'& %* %he &*'>&! !$!% * (%e+h*)6 **!'3%he 200 S"$(%+( e(+%h-"(6e 4K!'3eh*ee+ e% (., 20105.Oe6e/!)h e% (. 415 "33e% %he )*'&!%!*'(>%(#e #eh(/!*"+* e+e'%!'!%e +e"% !' ( *'e * %+('!%!*'( e!$*3e'!))h(+()%e+ (% %hee %e$e+(%"+e. H*e/e+, R"J ('& T!)he((+

415 *"'& %h(% %hee !*%he+$ *))"+ $")h &eee+ %h(' %he&*'>&! !$!% * $(' (% +"%"+e 4070 6$5. I% ! (+3"e& %h(% (BDT #(e& h* *' )+"%( !%h**3!e $( '*% #e (+*+!(%e *+&e%h * =0 6$ #e)("e !%h**3!e (+e !6e he%e+*3e'e*" ('&$( !')"&e ( $!;%"+e * #((% +*$ %he &*'3*!'3 (%e ('&"#&")%!*' )h(''e e&!$e'%.<!%h %he ()6 * e/!&e')e "*+%!'3 ( %he+$( )*'%+*e& BDT,(%e+'(%!/e e;('(%!*' e+e !'/e%!3(%e&. R"J ('& T!)he((+415 *"'& ( )*++e(%!*' !%h %he )*(%!'e ('& &*'>&! !$!% *%he e!$*3e'!) *'e *+ $(' )!+)"$>P()!?) $(+3!'. Th! ?'&!'3"33e% %h(% %he !'%e+e)%!*' * %he (%e !'%e+()e !%h %he)*'%!'e'%( M*h* * %he */e+!'3 (%e ! ( )*'%+* *' %he &*'>&!!$!% * e!$*3e'e!. Th*"3h, ( &e)+!#e& (#*/e, %h! #*"'&(+! '*% )e(+ &e?'e& ('& $( /(+ !3'!?)('% *+ &!Je+e'%+e3!*'. F"+%he+$*+e, %he )*++e(%!*' ! )*$!)(%e& #*#e+/(%!*' * $e3(%h+"% +"%"+e e;%e'&!'3 !'%* %he *+e(+)$('%e 4He"+e% e% (., 20115. A &ee e!$*3e'!) *'e e;!% !' %heS"$(%+( "#&")%!*' *'e. He+e, *)6!'3 ( "+*+%e& %* #e h!3h !'%he $('%e 4S!$*e e% (., 2005, he+e %he 200 Mw .1 S"$(%+(e(+%h-"(6e '")e(%e& ('& !e& 4De( e% (., 2005. The+$*>$e)h('!)( !$"(%!*' !'&!)(%e %h(% +"%"+e !'%* %he $('%e *))"+

&"e %* h!3h &e/!(%*+!) %+ee 4D!'%he+ e% (., 201=5. Thee +e"%!'&!)(%e %h(% %he &*'>&! !$!% ! %he+$(>3*/e+'e& 4D!'%he+ e%(., 201=5, ('& %he /e*)!%>%+e'3%he'!'3 #eh(/!*"+ * e+e'%!'!%e( ( $!'*+ +*e. Th! ?'&!'3 )*"& e;(!' +"%"+e %h(% &* '*%e;%e'& !'%* %he $('%e e/e' %h*"3h %he+e ! !%%e e/!&e')e *+!3'!?)('% e+e'%!'!(%!*', ")h ( %he 10 Mw .7 (&!/!(, Ch!ee(+%h-"(6e 4H(#e+('& e% (., 2005.

2.2.=The S"#&")%!'3 P(%e: Ge*$e%+, %**3+(h ('&+()%"+e *'e

A)%!/e *"+)e e!$!) %"&!e +e/e( h(+ #e'& !' $e3(%h+"%3e*$e%+ (% *$e $(+3!' %h(% h(/e #ee' +**e& %* )*'%+* %he"> ('& &*'>&! !$!% * +"%"+e 4C*'%+e+(>Ree e% (., 2012 I%*e% (., 20075. The !'%"!%!/e !$()% * "#&")%e& e($*"'% *'"e+ (%e &e*+$(%!*' )*$#!'e& !%h e;%e'!/e *#e+/(%!*' *"#&")%e& %**3+(h h( e& $(' %"&!e %* )*++e(%e +*"3h'e*' %he &*'3*!'3 (%e !%h $e3(%h+"% e!$*3e'!) )h(+()%e+.L!'6 #e%ee' e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+e *'e ('& %**3+(h!) e(%"+e*' %he *)e('!) (%e e+e *+!3!'( $(&e # M*3! 415 ('&Keehe+ ('& M)C('' 415. <!%h !$+*/e& e!$!) !$(3!'3, %he+e

( ( 3+*%h !' %"&!e &"+!'3 %he 10 ('& e(+ 2000 +*/!&!'3$*"'%!'3 e/!&e')e *+ "#&")%e& %**3+(h!) e(%"+e %+*'3



!'@"e')!'3 e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+e. H*e/e+, %he $(''e+ !' h!)he($*"'% (Je)% e!$*3e'e! +e$(!' %+*'3 &e#(%e&.O+!3!'(, e($*"'% e+e %h*"3h% %* )("e (+3e e(+%h-"(6e#e)("e %he ()% ( ( *!'% * %+*'3 +e!%(')e, %he+e# ()%!'3 ((' (e+!% 4C**, 12 S)h* ('& S$(, 15. The+e (+e

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71



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72



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Figure 2.4: Schematic view of the main structural features of the central Ecuador

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+e)e'%, e>+e)*+&e& $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e, %he+e h( #ee' !%%ee/!&e')e %* "*+% %he +ee')e * "#&")%e& %**3+(h!)he%e+*3e'e!% !%h!' h!3h ! +e3!*'. F*+ !'%(')e, !' %he$(;!$"$ ! (+e( * %he 2011 T*h*6", Z((' e(+%h-"(6e, %he+e !!%%e e/!&e')e %* "33e% %h(% %he +ee')e * e($*"'% 4K. <('3('& B!e6, 2015.

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%he */e++!&!'3 (%e.

77



2.S"$$(+E;%e'!/e *+6 h( #ee' "'&e+%(6e' %* "'&e+%('& %he &!%+!#"%!*'* ! ('& e!$!) +(&!(%!*' &"+!'3 (+3e e(+%h-"(6e. L(+3ee(+%h-"(6e !' %he (% &e)(&e h(/e h!3h!3h%e& %he )*$e;!% *$e3(%h+"% +"%"+e ('& %he!+ /(+!e& +e*'e %* 3e**3!)(%+")%"+e 4T(#e 2.=5. S%"&!e * !'&!/!&"( e(+%h-"(6e h(/e+e/e(e& (+3e %+")%"+e %h(% !'@"e')e e(+%h-"(6e h*e/e+,%he+e ! '* "'!!'3 +e(%!*'h! %h(% 3*/e+' %he $e)h('!)(#eh(/!*"+ * ( "#&")%!*' *'e. F"+%he+$*+e, %he ()6 *())"+(%e e(+%h-"(6e (+($e%e+, )*"!'3 ('& )*e!$!) !&!%+!#"%!*' $( #"+ %he )*++e(%!*' !%h )e+%(!' %+")%"+e.A%h*"3h ( e(%h * e!$!) +e@e)%!*' !$(3e +*/!&e /("(#e!'*+$(%!*' *' *Jh*+e %+")%"+( 3e*$e%+!e, +e*"%!*' * %hee!$*3e'!) (%e !'%e+()e +e$(!' **+, (+%!)"(+ !'&e%e+$!'(%!*' * h!)( (+($e%e+ ")h ( P*!*'9 +(%!*.

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)*'%(!' +e(!%!) =>D &!%+!#"%!*' * "#&")%!*' *'e h!)(%+")%"+e %he 'e;% )h(%e+ &e)+!#e *'e $e%h*& * ()h!e/!'3 %h!3*(.

7



T h e o r y / e x a m p l e s

U p p

e r p l a t e f e a t u r e s

P e r u : 2 0 0 1 M

w 8 . 4 P e r u e a r t h q u a k e ( A u d i n e t a l . , 2 0 0 8 )

N . C h i l e : 1 9 9 5 M w 8 . 0 A n t o f a g a s t a e a r t h q u a k e ( S o b i e s i a k e t a l . , 2 0 0 7 ) ;

( f r o m a f t e r s h o c k b - v a l u e )

K i i p e n i n s u l a , N a n k a i ( K o d a i r a e t a l . , 2 0 0 6 ) ; h i g h s h e a r s t r e n g t h

c o n s t r a i n t s ( T a s s a r a , 2 0 1 0 )

A n d e a n

m a r g i n , S . A m e r i c a ( T a s s a r a , 2 0 1 0 )

M e j i l l o n e s p e n i n s u l a , N . C h i l e ( M é t o i s e t a l . , 2 0 1 3 ; V i c t o r e t a l . , 2 0 1 1 )

L o w

e r p l a t e f e a t u r e s S e a m o u n t d e c a p i t a t i o n ( C l o o s , 1 9 9 2 ) ; 1 9 9 4 M 7 . 2 J a v a e a r t h q u a k e

( A b e r c r o m b i e e t a l . , 2

0 0 1 ) ; 1 9 9 0 M w 7 . 0 C o s t a R i c a e a

r t h q u a k e ( H u s e n

e t a l . , 2 0 0 2 ) ; 1 9 4 7 H i k u r a n g i e a r t h q u a k e ( B e l l e t

a l . , 2 0 1 4 )

S u b d u c t e d s e a m o u n t s a r e f r a c t u r e d ( K . W a n g a n d B i l e

k , 2 0 1 1 ) ; 1 9 4 6

N a n k a i d o e a r t h q u a k e ( K o d a i r a e t a l . , 2 0 0

0 )

C o c o s r i d g e : 1 9 8 3 C o s t a R i c a e a r t h q u a k e ( B i l e k e t a l . , 2 0 0 3 ) ; J u a n

F e r n a n d e z r i d g e : C h i l e a n e a r t h q u a k e s ( S p a r k e s e t a l . , 2 0 1 0 ) ; 2 0 1 1 M w

9 . 0 T o h o k u , J a

p a n e a r t h q u a k e ( K . W a n g a n d B i l e k , 2 0 1 4 )

2 0 0 1 M w 8 . 4

P e r u e a r t h q u a k e ( R o b i n s o n e t a l . , 2 0 0 6 )

2 0 0 7 M w 8 . 1 S o l o m o n i s l a n d s e a r t h q u a k e ( F u r l o n g

e t a l . , 2 0 0 9 )

S u b

d u c t i o n c h a n n e l

S e d i m e n t s m o o t h e n s p l a t e i n t e r f a c e c o n t a c t ( R u f f , 1 9 8 9 )

F l u i d s a t u r a t e d s e d i m e n t s i n S u m a t r a s u b d u c t i o n z o n e ( D e a n e t a l . ,

2 0 1 0 ) E c u a

d o r s u b d u c t i o n z o n e ( S a g e e t a l . , 2 0 0 6 )

O t h e r

G l o b a l c o m p i l a t i o n

( L l e n o s a n d M c G u i r e , 2 0 0 7 ; S o n g a n d S i m o n s ,

2 0 0 3 ; W e l l s e t a l . , 2 0 0 3 )

G l o b a l c o m p i l a t i o n

( L l e n o s a n d M c G u i r e , 2 0 0 7 ; S o n g a n d S i m o n s ,

2 0 0 3 ; W e l l s e t a l . , 2 0 0 3 )

T a b l e 2 . 3 : S u m m a r y o f k e y o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a f f e c t i n g m e g a t h r u s t s

e i s m o g e n e s i s .

S e i s m o g e n i c c h a r a c t e r

H i g h p l a t e i n t e r f a c e c o u p l i n g , s e g m e n t b a r r i e r

H i g h s l i p a s p e r i t y

S t r o n g p l a t e i n t e r f a c e , r u p t u r e b a r r i e r ; i n h i b

i t l a r g e

r u p t u r e s

R u p t u r e n u c l e a t i o n p o i n t f o r l a r g e m e g a t h r u s t r u p t u r e s

L o n g - l i v e d s e

g m e n t b a r r i e r s , w e a k p l a t e i n t e r f a

c e c o u p l i n g

R u p t u r e a s p e r i t y

R u p t u r e b a r r i e r

R u p t u r e / s e g m e n t b a r r i e r

S e g m e n t b a r r i e r

P a r t i a l s e g m e n t b a r r i e r ( r u p t u r e j u m p

)

A l l o w s l a r g e a r e a s t o r u p t u r e a t o n c e

A l l o w s s h a l

l o w r u p t u r e t o t h e t r e n c h P r o m o t e s s t r o n g e r

c o u p l i n g

H i g h s l i p a s p e r i t i e s

B a r r i e r s t o r u p t u r e

T r e n c h - n o r m a l f a u l t s

P l u t o n s / b a t h o l i t h s

C

o a s t a l p e n i n s u l a s

I n d

i v i d u a l s e a m o u n t s

O c e a n i c r i d g e s

F r a c t u r e z o n e s

T h i c k s e d i m e n t s

T h i n s e d i m e n t s

G r a

v i t y a n o m a l y l o w s

G r a

v i t y a n o m a l y h i g h s

7



Ch(%e+ =SEISMIC IMAGING OF SUBDUCTION VONE S TRUCTURE USING LOCAL EARTHQUAKE TOMOGRAPHY

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(% (!)(%!*' !' %he "#&")%!*' *'e e'/!+*'$e'%.

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78



")h ( /e*)!%, (%%e'"(%!*', ('& ('!*%+*, ( * h!)h )(' #e!'%e++e%e& ( h!)( "#"+()e +*e+%!e. Th! %he! *)"e*' %he $e%h*& * e(+%h-"(6e #*& (/e (% ( *)( %* +e3!*'()(e !' *+&e+ %* +*#e e!$!) /e*)!%!e, )*$$*' )(e& localearth4ua+e to#ography 4he+e(%e+, LET5. The ('&$(+6 *+6 * A6!

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7



−∂2

r

d s❑ =

∇V − d

ds .

d r

ds

V

( 3.1 )

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ij ! 3!/e' #:

t ij=τ i+T ij ( 3.2 )

he+e τ i ! %he e(+%h-"(6e *+!3!' %!$e, ('& T ij ! %he %+(/e%!$e * %he (/e +*$ (' e(+%h-"(6e *"+)e %* ( +e)e!/e+. U!'3 +(%he*+, %he %+(/e %!$e ! 3!/e' # ( (%h !'%e3+( %h+*"3h ( e!$!)/e*)!% $*&e 4Th"+#e+, 125:

T ij= ∫source

receiver

uds ( 3.3 )

he+e u ! %he *'e ?e& ('& ds ! %he (%h ee$e'% 4Th"+#e+,18=5. Thee e-"(%!*' h* %h(% %+(/e %!$e ! ( "')%!*' *%(%!*' *)(%!*', *"+)e *+!3!' ('& *'e ?e&. Re)e!/e+ *)(%!*'('& *#e+/e& %+(/e %!$e (+e 6'*' *"+)e *+!3!' 4%!$e ('&h*)e'%+( )**+&!'(%e5 ('& *'e ?e& (+e "'&e%e+$!'e&.G!/e' ( e% * *#e+/e& %+(/e %!$e, t ij

obs , ('& ("$!'3 (' !'!%!(e%!$(%!*' * %he h*)e'%+( *)(%!*' ('& *'e ?e&, +e&!)%e&%+(/e %!$e )(' #e )()"(%e& "!'3 E-'. =.2 ('& =.=.

0



The $!?% #e%ee' *#e+/e& ('& +e&!)%e& %+(/e %!$e, r ij !3!/e' #:

r ij=t ijobs−t ij

cal ( 3.4 )

U!'3 ( T(*+ e+!e e;('!*', %+(/e %!$e +e!&"( )(' #ee;+ee& ( ( !'e(+ (+*;!$(%!*' #e%ee' h*)e'%+e ('&/e*)!% (+($e%e+ 4Th"+#e+, 125:

rij=∑k =1

3 ∂ T ij

∂ xk

∆ xk +∆ τ i+ ∫source

receiver

δuds ( 3.5 )

he+e∂T ij

∂ xk

! %he h*)e'%+e (+%!( &e+!/(%!/e, ('& +e+ee'%

%he h*)e'%+e *)(%!*'. I e (+($e%e+!e /e*)!% %+")%"+e !'%*& (+($e%e+ * #n, %he' E-'. =.7 )(' #e +e+!%%e' (:

rij=∑k =1

3 ∂ T ij

∂ xk

∆ xk +∆ τ i+∑n=1

N ∂ T ij

∂mn

∆ mn( 3.6 )

he+e %he h*)e'%+e &e+!/(%!/e ! +e(%e& %* +( /e)%*+)*$*'e'% $"%!!e& # *'e 4Th"+#e+, 185:

∂T ij

∂ xk

=−1

v (d xk

ds )source

( 3.7 )

('& he+e∂ T ij

∂mn

! ( (+%!( &e+!/(%!/e * %he /e*)!% $*&e

(+($e%e+. Thee (+%!( &e+!/(%!/e (+e !'e !'%e3+(+e+ee'%!'3 %he +e(%!/e e!3h%!'3 * e()h $*&e (+($e%e+ *' (3!/e' (++!/( %!$e. The *#e)%!/e * LET ! %* e+%"+# ('& !$+*/e%he $*&e 4e!$!) /e*)!%!e ('& h*)e'%+e5 %* $!'!$!e r ij .E-'. =.7 h* %h(% %+(/e %!$e +e!&"( (+e +e(%e& %* #*%hh*)e'%+( *)(%!*' ('& %he /e*)!% %+")%"+e h*e/e+, %he '*'>!'e(+ +e(%!*'h! #e%ee' %hee %* /(+!(#e ! (' !'he+e'% !"e!' e!$!) %+(/e %!$e !'/e+!*'. T* &e$*'%+(%e %h! )*"!'3,

Th"+#e+ 4125 h*e& %h(% 6ee!'3 h*)e'%+( (+($e%e+)*'%('% %h+*"3h*"% (' !'/e+!*' *+ e!$!) /e*)!% )(' +*&")e!3'!?)('% (+%e()% !' %he ?'( $*&e.

1



A ( +e"% * %h! )*"e& h*)e'%+e>/e*)!% +*#e$, (' !%e+(%!/e!'/e+!*' )he$e ! +e-"!+e& %h(% !$"%('e*" */e *+ #*%h(+($e%e+:

r= H ∆ h+ M ∆ m ( 3.8 )

!' h!)h r ! ( /e)%*+ * %+(/e %!$e +e!&"(. H ('& ∆ h (+e %he$(%+!; ('& /e)%*+ * h*)e'%+e (+%!( &e+!/(%!/e ('&e+%"+#(%!*', +ee)%!/e. S!$!(+, M ('& ∆ m )*++e*'& %*(+%!( &e+!/(%!/e ('& e+%"+#(%!*' * /e*)!%, +ee)%!/e. S")h(' e-"(%!*' )('$"% #e */e& "!'3 $(%+!; !'/e+!*'.

The e-"(%!*' +e+ee'%!'3 %he (#*/e )*"e& h*)e'%+e>/e*)!%+*#e$ 4E-'. =.85 )(' #e */e& "!'3 ( e(% -"(+e (+*()h. I'+e(!%, LET ! ( $!;e&>&e%e+$!'e& +*#e$ &"e %* %he !++e3"(+&!%+!#"%!*' * +( (%h !' %he E(+%h9 "#"+()e, $e('!'3 %h(%*$e /e*)!% (+($e%e+ (+e */e+>&e%e+$!'e&, he+e( *%he+ (+e

"'&e+>&e%e+$!'e&. The+e*+e, da#ped e(% -"(+e !'/e+!*' !+e-"!+e&:

G

(¿¿T G+∈2 I )

−1G

T d

m=¿

( 3.9 )

he+e m ! ( /e)%*+ )*'%(!'!'3 $*&e 4h*)e'%+e ('& /e*)!%5e+%"+#(%!*', G ! ( $(%+!; * (+%!( %+(/e %!$e (+%!( &e+!/(%!/e!%h +ee)% %* $*&e (+($e%e+ 4Z()*#! $(%+!;5, ∈ ! %he&($!'3 (+($e%e+, I ! %he !&e'%!% $(%+!;, ('& d ! %he /e)%*+

)*'%(!'!'3 %+(/e %!$e +e!&"(. I' *'e %+(%e3, E#e+h(+%>Ph!!4185 "33e% %he "e * %+(&e>*J )"+/e %h(% h* &(%( /(+!(')e4( $e("+e * */e+( %+(/e %!$e +e!&"(5 /e+" $*&e /(+!(')e 4($e("+e * $*&e e+%"+#(%!*'5 %* ee)% %he &($!'3 (+($e%e+h!)h $!'!$!e #*%h. T* 3e'e+(%e %+(&e>*J )"+/e, e/e+( *'e>%e !'/e+!*' (+e e+*+$e&, e()h !%h ( /(+!'3 &($!'3(+($e%e+.I' %he )*"e& h*)e'%+e>/e*)!% +*#e$, $*&e e+%"+#(%!*'$"% #e )()"(%e& !%e+(%!/e %* e'"+e !'e(+!(%!*'. A%e+ e()h!'/e+!*' %e, d ('& G (+e +e)()"(%e& ('& E-'. =. ! +e>*/e&.I' %h! %he!, 1>D ('& =>D /e*)!% $*&e (+e )()"(%e& "!'3!%e+(%!/e &($e& e(% -"(+e !'/e+!*'. T* */e+)*$e %he '*'>!'e(+!% * %he +*#e$, K!!'3 41885 +**e ( %(33e+e&!'/e+!*', he+e# ( $!'!$"$ 1>D $*&e ! )+e(%e&, h!)h ! %he'"e& ( ( %(+%!'3 *!'% *+ ( "#e-"e'% 2>D ('& =>D %*$*3+(h!)!'/e+!*'. S*"+)e>+e)e!/e+ )*'?3"+(%!*' (+e 6e% +e(%!/e)*'!%e'% (% e()h %e 4K!!'3 e% (., 15. Th! %(33e+e&(+*()h ! '* "e& !' $(' LET %"&!e 4e.3. C*!'3 e% (.,2012 H(#e+('& e% (., 200 K!!'3 e% (., 15 %he )he$e"e& !' %h! %he! ! !"%+(%e& !' F!3"+e =.1.

=.I'/e+!*' *+ 1>D /e*)!% %+")%"+eA &e)+!#e& !' %he +e/!*" e)%!*', LET ! h!3h '*'>!'e(+, * (

2



%(33e+e& (+*()h ! +e-"!+e& %* !$+*/e %he +e!(#!!% * %he ?'(/e*)!% %+")%"+e ('& h*)e'%+e. The ?+% %e ! %he 3e'e+(%!*'* $!'!$"$ 1>D /e*)!% $*&e 4F!3"+e =.15. The (+($e%e+ (% %h!%(3e (+e h*)e'%+( *)(%!*', (e+ /e*)!%!e ('& %(%!*')*++e)%!*' 4K!!'3 e% (., 15. A%h*"3h 1>D /e*)!% $*&e

+*/!&e $!'!$( !'*+$(%!*' *' )+"%( %+")%"+e, (+%!)"(+ !' ("#&")%!*' *'e, he+e &!!'3 %+")%"+e (+e !6e +ee'%4E#e+h(+%>Ph!!, 1=5, %he (+e ( )+")!( %(3e #e*+e *#%(!'!'3 (=>D %*$*3+(h!) $*&e 4E#e+h(+%>Ph!!, 105. E++*+ !' %he 1>D+ee+e')e $*&e )(' +e"% !' !3'!?)('% (+%e()% !' %he ?'( =>D%*$*3+(h!) $*&e, &"e %* %he %e'&e') * %he !'/e+!*' %*)*'/e+3e (% *)( $!?% $!'!$( 4K!!'3 e% (., 15.S%(%!*' )*++e)%!*' (+e ( /!%( (+% * %he $!'!$"$ 1>D /e*)!%$*&e. F*+ %(%!*' !' %he $!&&e * %he 'e%*+6, h!)h h(/e ('e/e' (!$"%h( +( &!%+!#"%!*', S%(%!*' &e( +e+ee'% (%e+(/(+!(%!*' !' %he h(* "#"+()e. 4*+ *)(%!*' !' %he $!&&e *%he 'e%*+65 I' )*'%+(%, ('& +e3!*'(, &eee+ he%e+*3e'e!% %h(%)(''*% #e e;(!'e& # ( !'3e (e+e& /e*)!% $*&e. F*+!'%(')e, %(%!*' )*++e)%!*'%(%!*' (+e (% %he e+!he+ * !&e>(e+%"+e e!$!)(+3e 'e%*+6 (+e !$!%e& %* *'3 +( (%h !%h!$!%e& (!$"%h( )*/e+(3e %he+e*+e, %(%!*' )*++e)%!*' (+e ("')%!*' * /e*)!% %+")%"+e !' #*%h %he h(* ('& &ee"#"+()e 4H"e' e% (., 15. S%(%!*' %e+$ (+e (* !$*+%('%*+ "#&")%!*' *'e %"&!e, he+e %+*'3 (%e+( /(+!(%!*' !'"#"+()e %+")%"+e (+e e;e)%e&. The )*$#!'(%!*' * ( 1>D/e*)!% $*&e !%h %(%!*' )*++e)%!*' h( #ee' h*' %* +*&")e

())"+(%e h*)e'%+( *)(%!*' e/e' he+e %he "#"+()e ! h!3hhe%e+*3e'e*", ")h ( &!!'3 %+")%"+e 4K!!'3, 1885.

=



Figure 3.1: Staggered inversion workflow used in this thesis to calculate 3-D v p

and v p / vs models using local earthquake tomography.



K!!'3 e% (. 415 &e)+!#e *'e %+(%e3 %* *#%(!' ())"+(%e 1>D/e*)!% $*&e. De%e+$!'!'3 %he +e!$!'(+ $*&e +*$ a priori !'*+$(%!*' ! ( %+!( ('& e++*+ +*)e. A +ee+e')e %(%!*' h*"&#e ee)%e& %h(% h( %he $*% *'e% %!$e *#e+/(%!*' ('& !*)(%e& )*e %* %he )e'%+e * %he 'e%*+6. A' (+*+!(%e '"$#e+

* &!)+e%e (e+ h*"& #e )h*e', ")h %h(% %+*'3 /e*)!%3+(&!e'% )(' #e +e+ee'%e&. I' 1>D /e*)!% $*&e, (e+/e*)!%!e e-"( %he (/e+(3e (%e+( /e*)!%, e!3h%e& # %he %*%(+( e'3%h !' e()h ee$e'%. L* /e*)!% (e+ h*"& #e (/*!&e&,!')e %hee )(' &!%*+% +( (%h, h!)h !')+e(e %he '*'>!'e(+!%* %he +*#e$ ('& !'%+*&")e h*)e'%+( !'%(#!!%!e 4K!!'3 e%(., 175.I' Ch(%e+ F*"+ ('& F!/e * %h! %he!, e 3e'e+(%e $!'!$"$ 1>D/e*)!% $*&e ('& e+*+$ 1>D e(+%h-"(6e +e*)(%!*' "!'3 %heELEST *%(+e 4K!!'3 e% (., 175. ELEST ( ?+% &e/e*e&# E*+%h 415 ('& R*e)6e+ 41815. S!')e %he', %he (3*+!%h$h( #ee' !$+*/e& ('& (&(%e& **!'3 %he +!')!e * $!'!$"$1>D $*&e, ( &e)+!#e& # K!!'3 e% (. 415.

=.7=>D %*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*'I' 3e'e+(, e!$!) /e*)!% %*$*3+(h !'/*/e %h+ee $(!' %e:415 $*&e (+($e%e+!(%!*' 425 */!'3 %he *+(+& +*#e$ #)()"(%!'3 +( (%h * e!$!) (/e 4=5 !'/e+!*' 4!.e. */!'3%he %e$ * e-"(%!*' 3!/e' !' E-'. =.8 ('& =.5 ('& 45(e!'3 %he +e*"%!*' ('& e++*+ (*)!(%e& !%h %he ?'(%*$*3+(h!) !$(3e 4F!3"+e =.15. <e &!)" e()h * %hee *"+

%(3e, !%h (+%!)"(+ *)" *' %he !'/e+!*' (3*+!%h$ "e& !' %h!%he!, S-M?0111 4Th"+#e+ ('& E#e+h(+%>Ph!!, 15. The SIMULe% * %*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*' )*&e, *+!3!'( &e/e*e& # Th"+#e+418=5, ! ( e>e%(#!he& LET (3*+!%h$. The !'/e+!*' (3*+!%h$** %h(% * A6! ('& Lee 415, #"% !')"&e &e/e*$e'% !'$*&e (+($e%e+!(%!*' ('& +( %+()!'3.

=.7.1M*&e (+($e%e+!(%!*'

<!%h!' %he E(+%h9 !'%e+!*+, %+")%"+( ('& )*$*!%!*'(he%e+*3e'e!% e;!% (% ( e'3%h )(e. F"+%he+$*+e, %he

"#"+()e !6e )*'%(!' h(+ /e*)!% &!)*'%!'"!%!e %h(% ! #e!'he+e'% $**%he& *"% # %*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*'. The+e*+e, %he)h*!)e * $*&e (+($e%e+!(%!*' &ee'& *' %he )h(+()%e+!%!)e'3%h )(e * he%e+*3e'e!% %h(% e !h %* +e*/e ('& %he!$(3!'3 )((#!!% * %he !'/e+!*'. The )h*!)e * (+($e%e+!(%!*'(* (Je)% %he (3*+!%h$ %h(% (+e (/(!(#e *+ *+(+& ('&!'/e+e )()"(%!*' 4R(!'*' e% (., 20105. S!')e %he (&/e'% * e!$!) %*$*3+(h, &!Je+e'% $e%h*& h(/e#ee' +**e& *+ e;+e!'3 "#"+()e %+")%"+e !' ( =>D $*&e.Re3"(+ (+($e%e+!(%!*' )he$e, h!)h (!3' )*'%('%

/e*)!%!e %* e()h '*&e, (+e +e-"e'% "e& ( %he (+e e( %**+$"(%e. U'!*+$ 3+!& $(6e !'!%!( +( %+()!'3 )*$"%(%!*'(!'e;e'!/e, !')e (%h e3$e'% !' e()h #*)6 (+e %+(!3h% !'e

7



4R(!'*' e% (., 20105. C*'/e+e, 3+!&&!'3 )(' )+e(%e (+%!?)!(/e*)!% &!)*'%!'"!%!e, +e-"!+!'3 %he "e * $**%h!'3 )*'%+(!'%.O%he+ $*+e *h!%!)(%e& )he$e, ")h ( %+!('3"(+ ('&%e%+(he&+( )e, h(/e (* #ee' &e/e*e& 4<h!%e, 185. A'(%e+'(%!/e (+($e%e+!(%!*' ! %* &e?'e e!$!) /e*)!%!e (% %he

/e+%!)e *' ( +e3"(+ 3+!& * '*&e 4Th"+#e+, 18=5. Th! 3+!&)he$e ! !$e$e'%e& !' SIMUL2000. L!'e(+ B>!'e !'%e+*(%!*'e'"+e ( $**%h ('& )*'%!'"*" /(+!'3 /e*)!% ?e&. The (%e%&e/e*$e'% * SIMUL2000 4Th"+#e+ ('& E#e+h(+%>Ph!!, 15 (* !')*+*+(%e ( @e;!#e 3+!&&!'3 )he$e, !' h!)h #*)6 * 3+!&'*&e )(' #e (!3'e& ( !'3e /e*)!% (+($e%e+. Th! @e;!#!!%he %* +e/e'% /e*)!% (+%e()% +*$ (e(+!'3 !' (+e( * **++( )*/e+(3e.S*$e%!$e, %+")%"+( !'%e+()e )(' #e e;!)!% (+($e%e+!e& %*e'"+e %h(% +( (%h (+e ())"+(%e $*&ee& (% %+*'3 /e*)!%&!)*'%!'"!%!e. Th! (+*()h ! (++('%e& ! ")!e'% a priori !'*+$(%!*' ! (/(!(#e. F*+ e;($e, Vh(* e% (. 4125 (&/(')e&%he Th"+#e+ 418=5 3+!&&!'3 $e%h*& # !')*+*+(%!'3 #*"'&(+>3+!& %h(% ())"+(%e e;+e /e*)!% %+")%"+e (*'3 h(+&!)*'%!'"!%!e. Th! %"& *"'& %h(% (+($e%e+!!'3 %hee&!)*'%!'"!%!e )(' !$+*/e %he ())"+() * %+(/e %!$e )()"(%!*'# +*/!&!'3 ( #e%%e+ %(+%!'3 $*&e, "+%he+ !'e(+!!'3 %he%*$*3+(h!) +*#e$ 4Vh(*, 20175. I' %he #*"'&(+>3+!& $e%h*&,Vh(* e% (. 4125 e% 3+!&>'*&e $ehe *+ e()h &!%!')% (e+,!'&ee'&e'% %he 3e*$e%+!e * %he &!)*'%!'"!%!e +e$(!' ?;e&%h+*"3h*"% %he e'%!+e !'/e+!*'. I' %h! %he!, h*e/e+, e &* '*%

(+($e%e+!e %+")%"+( !'%e+()e &"e %* %he ()6 * ())"+(%e a priori !'*+$(%!*' *' (%e !'%e+()e 3e*$e%+ ('& *%he+&!)*'%!'"!%!e !' %he %"& (+e( * )e'%+( Ch!e.

=.7.2e*)!% !'/e+!*'

D($e& e(% -"(+e !'/e+!*' 4E-'. =.5 )*$#!'e& !%h(+($e%e+ e%!$(%!*' 4G. L. P(/! ('& B**6e+, 180 Se')e+ ('&G"##!', 1805 ! "e& # SIMUL2000. The &($!'3 (+($e%e+ !ee)%e& +*$ ( %+(&e>*J )"+/e * &(%( /e+" $*&e /(+!(')e. A' @ %e% )+!%e+!*' ! "e& %* %* !%e+(%!'3 he' %(%!%!)( !3'!?)('%

)*'/e+3e')e ! +e()he&. I% ! !$*+%('% %* #e (#e %* */e *+ v pv s #e)("e * !% &!+e)% +e(%!*'h! !%h P*!*'9 +(%!*, , :

=1

2

(v !

vs

)2

−2

(v !

vs

)2

−1

( 3.10 )

('& !% ! %he+e*+e (' !$*+%('% !'&!)(%*+ * !%h**3 ('& @"!&)*'%e'%. S>(/e *'e% ('& ( v s $*&e )(' (* +*/!&e $*+e

())"+(%e h*)e'%+( &e%h 4Th"+#e+, 1=5, "+%he+ !'e(+!!'3 %he%*$*3+(h!) +*#e$. O'e !$e ( * )()"(%!'3 v pv s ! %*



!$ %(6e %he +(%!* (%e+ !'/e+%!'3 v p ('& v s !'&!/!&"(. H*e/e+,!3'!?)('% (+%e()% $( *))"+ he+e v p ! e +e*/e& ('& v s !e>e !$(3e& 4Vh('3 e% (., 2005. T* (/*!& %h! +*#e$,SIMUL2000 "e S $!'" P %!$e %* !'/e+% *+ v pv s 4E#e+h(+%>Ph!!, 10 185. Th! (+*()h (* *+ %he +e&")e& '"$#e+

* S>(/e *'e% %!$e, ( e ( %he!+ 3+e(%e+ *'e% %!$e"')e+%(!'%, &"e %* P>(/e )*&( ('& *!#e S>(/e ('!*%+*. S>P %!$e (+e +e(%e& %* e+%"+#(%!*' !' v pv s (*'3 %he S>(/e +((%h # %he **!'3 +e(%!*'h! 4Th"+#e+, 1=5:

T s−T !=∫ !ath

❑

( v !

vs

−1)ds

v !

( 3.11 )

T*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*' $"% '*% #e +e3(+&e& ( ( !$e #()6 #*;%e)h'!-"e 4E#e+h(+%>Ph!!, 1=5. A !%h $(' %*$*3+(h!)!'/e+!*' )*&e, SIMUL2000 !')"&e $(' W!%)he9 %h(% $((Je)% %he ?'( +e"%, * +e-"!+e )(+e" )*'!&e+(%!*'. T* +e$*/e(' *%e'%!( (+%e()% )("e& # %he 3+!& ()!'3 "e&, $"%!e!'/e+!*' !%h h*+!*'%( h!%e& 3+!& (+e )(++!e& *"%, h!)h (+e%he' (/e+(3e& 4F!3"+e =.15. Th! (/e+(3!'3 (* +e"% !' !$+*/e&!$(3!'3 * &!!'3 %+")%"+e, ")h ( "#&")%!'3 (# 4C*!'3 e%(., 2012 H(#e+('& e% (., 2005. M*+e*/e+, (% e()h !'/e+!*'%(3e, e &* '*% !'/e+% *+ %(%!*' )*++e)%!*' ('& 6eeh*)e'%+e ?;e& *+ %he ?+% %h+ee !%e+(%!*' &"e %* %he("$%!*' * +e!(#e 1>D *)(%!*'. I'!%!( ?;!'3 h*)e'%+e (*e'"+e %h(% +e"%!'3 %+(/e %!$e +e!&"( 3e'e+(%e %he */e+( 2>D

"#"+()e %+")%"+e !'!&e %he $*&e.=.7.=Ae$e'% * $*&e +e*"%!*' ('& e++*+

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Be&*+& e% (., 201 M*+e'* e% (., 20125. F"+%he+$*+e, &e'e+e)*+&!'3 * %he (%e+h*)6 e-"e')e +*$ #*%h *'> ('& *Jh*+e'e%*+6 (* )h(')e %* !$(3e %he $e3(%h+"% )*e %* %he%+e')h. I' (&&!%!*', %he *'3>%e+$ e3$e'%(%!*' ('& %+")%"+e * %he)e'%+( Ch!e *+e(+) ! e "'&e+%**& +*$ ( +('3e * 3e**3!)(('& 3e*h!)( %"&!e.

Ch(%e+

THE 2010 M< 8.8 MAULE, CHILE EARTHQUAKE: NUCLEATION AND RUPTURE PROPAGATION

CONTROLLED BY A SUBDUCTED TOPOGRAPHIC HIGH

Th! )h(%e+ ! +*$ ( (e+ "#!he& !' !eophysical "esearchetters 4E')*"+e 25. The (e+ ( ())e%e& *+ "#!)(%!*' *'Se%e$#e+ 1, 2012 ('& "#!he& *' O)%*#e+ 1, 2012. A"%h*+ * %he $('")+!% (+e S%ehe' H!)6 4$(!' ("%h*+5, A'&+e( R!e%#+*)64U'!/e+!% * L!/e+**5, Ch+!%!(' H(#e+('& 4GFV, P*%&($5,I(#ee R&e+ 4U'!/e+!% * L!/e+**5, M(+6 S!$*' 4C(!*+'!(

I'%!%"%e * Te)h'**35 ('& A'&+ T((+( 4U'!/e+!&(& &eC*')e)!X'5. The S"e$e'%(+ I'*+$(%!*' * %he (e+ !!')*+*+(%e& !'%* %he $(!' #*& * %h! )h(%e+. Th! +ee(+)h (%he +!$(+ *)" * $ %he! +*$ O)%*#e+ 2011 Z" 2012. The(!$ * %h! %"& ( %* !$(3e %he ?+%>*+&e+ %+")%"+e * %he$e3(%h+"% +e3!*' # +*&")!'3 ( +e!$!'(+ =>D e!$!) /e*)!%$*&e *+ %he M("e +"%"+e *'e "!'3 (' ("%*$(%!)(&e%e+$!'e& &(%(e% 4Ke A!$ 15. U!'3 %h! +e!$!'(+ $*&e, e$(&e !'%e++e%(%!*' (#*"% %he h!)( %+")%"+e * %he "#&")%e&*)e('!) )+"%. A% %h! %(3e * %he +*e)%, &(%( +*$ *' %he ?+%%* $*'%h * (%e+h*)6 +e)*+&e& # *'h*+e e!$!) %(%!*'

e+e (/(!(#e.

2



P"#!he& (e+ (#%+()%

K'*e&3e * e!$!) +*e+%!e !' (' e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+e *'e !

ee'%!( *+ "'&e+%('&!'3 %he ()%*+ )*'%+*!'3 +"%"+e&'($!). <e "e &(%( +*$ (%e+h*)6 * %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e%* &e+!/e ( =>D e!$!) /e*)!% $*&e * %he )e'%+( Ch!e *+e(+).A% =S, e ?'& ( h!3h v p 4 .0 6$5 ('& h!3h v pv s 4a1.85('*$( !'3 (*'3 %he $e3(%h+"% (% 27 6$ &e%h, h!)h)*!')!&e !%h ( %+*'3 *+e(+) B*"3"e+ 3+(/!% !3'(. <e !'%e++e%%h! ( ( "#&")%e& %**3+(h!) h!3h, *!# ( *+$e+ e($*"'%*' %he N()( (#. The M("e e(+%h-"(6e '")e(%e& (% %he ">&!#*"'&(+ * %he ('*$( e% h!3h )*e!$!) ! *))"++e& he+e*e+ e!$!) /e*)!%!e */e+!e %he $e3(%h+"%. S(+e (%e+h*)6e!$!)!% *))"+ !%h!' %h! %+")%"+e, "33e%!'3 %h(% !% &!+"%

'*+$( !'%e+()e e!$*3e'e!. Thee ?'&!'3 !$ %h(%"#&")%e& %+")%"+e )(' #e )*'&")!/e %* %he '")e(%!*' * (+3e$e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e, e/e' ! %he "#e-"e'% h!'&e+)*e!$!) ! ('& (%e+h*)6 ()%!/!%.

.1I'%+*&")%!*' The +"%"+e &'($!) * 3+e(% "#&")%!*' *'e e(+%h-"(6e (+e)*$e;. D"e %* %he /(% !')+e(e !' !'%+"$e'%(%!*', 3e*h!)!%)(' '* $( h!3h *+&e+ (%!( /(+!(%!*' !' e'e+3 +ee(e ('&e!$!) ! (*'3 %he $e3(%h+"%. H*e/e+, *"+ "'&e+%('&!'3 *

%he ()%*+ %h(% !'@"e')e %hee (%!( /(+!(%!*' +e$(!' !$!%e&. The Fe#+"(+ 2010 M 8.8 M("e e(+%h-"(6e, h!)h +"%"+e& ('81,700 6$2 (+e( 4L( e% (., 2010(5 * %he "#&")%!*' !'%e+()e#e%ee' %he &*'3*!'3 N()( ('& */e++!&!'3 S*"%h A$e+!)('(%e, ! '* e;)e%!*'. Th! e3$e'% h(& '*% e;e+!e')e& ( (+3e+"%"+e !')e %he 3+e(% 18=7 C*')e)!X' e(+%h-"(6e 4F!3"+e .1(5.

The WD(+!' 3(9 4L*+!%* e% (., 20115 ( +e)*3'!e& ( ( $(%"+ee!$!) 3( ('& 3e*&e%!) $e("+e$e'% ()-"!+e& #e*+e %he 2010e/e'% !'&!)(%e& %+*'3 *)6!'3 * %he $e3(%h+"% !%h!' %he 3(4M%*! e% (., 2012 M*+e'* ('& R*e'(", 2010 R"e33 e% (.,2005. The e(+%h-"(6e '")e(%e& !' %he D(+!' 3(, ('& "#!he&

)*e!$!) ! $*&e !$ #!(%e+( +"%"+e +*(3(%!*' 4L( e%(., 2010( L*+!%* e% (., 2011 M*+e'* e% (., 2012 !3' e% (.,20115, !%h " %* 20 $ * ! a100 6$ '*+%h * %he h*)e'%+e,('& " %* 10 $ * ! %* %he *"%h.

The "#&")%!*' *'e (e+!% $*&e 4L( ('& K('($*+!, 1815 +*/!&e ( )*')e%"( +($e*+6 %* e;(!' %he ! &!%+!#"%!*' *(+3e e(+%h-"(6e. A))*+&!'3 %* %h! $*&e, (+e( * (+3e)*e!$!) ! (+e )("e& # (e+!%!e %h(% (+e !'%e+e!$!)(*)6e&. S%"&!e * %+!6e>! e(+%h-"(6e 4M!)h(e ('& E#e+h(+%>Ph!!, 11 T. O6(&( e% (., 2005 "33e% %h(% (e+!%!e (+e(*)!(%e& !%h h!3h e!$!) /e*)!%!e, ('& %he+e*+e )*$e%e'%$(%e+!(. F*+ "#&")%!*' e(+%h-"(6e, h*e/e+, %**3+(h!) h!3h4e.3. +!&3e, +()%"+e *'e, e($*"'%5 *' %he "#&")%!'3 (%e

=



)(' ()% ( +"%"+e #(++!e+ 4K*&(!+( e% (., 2000 P(+6 e% (., 200R*#!'*' e% (., 2005.

Figure 4.1: a) Locations of past ruptures and segmentation in Chile, after Métois et

al. (2012). Ellipses give the rupture area of each earthquake. The name of each

segment and segment boundaries (dashed lines) are shown. The box denotes the

location of the map in (b). b) Local map with bathymetry/topography (coloured

scale bar). The red star is the NEIC epicentre. Blue contour lines show the

coseismic slip distribution of Moreno et al. (2012). Red circles and white triangles

are the aftershocks and stations, respectively, used in our tomographic inversion.

Black crosses denote the nodes in our 3-D inversion. The grey dashed lines show

the geometry of the subducting Nazca slab, based on the Slab1.0 model (Hayes

and Wald, 2009).

P"#!he& (%e+h*)6 &!%+!#"%!*' *+ %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e 4L('3ee% (., 2012 R!e%#+*)6 e% (., 20125 h* ( +*$!'e'% 3( !'!'%e+()e e!$!)!% (% =00 6$ &e%h, 'e(+ =S. S! $*&e ('&%he (%e+h*)6 &!%+!#"%!*' &e$*'%+(%e %h(% h!)(he%e+*3e'e!% $( e;!% (*'3 %he ("%. I% ! %he+e*+e !$*+%('% %*(e ! (' he%e+*3e'e!% !' %he +"%"+e *'e ! e;+ee& !' !%e!$!) +*e+%!e, ('& he%he+ e )(' !&e'%! (' )*++e(%!*'!%h )*e!$!) !. He+e, e "e %+(/e %!$e &(%( +*$ (%e+h*)6%* +e/e( ( h!3h /e*)!% ('*$( (*'3 %he $e3(%h+"% !'%e+()e !'%he D(+!' 3(.

.2T*$*3+(h!) I'/e+!*' S)he$eF**!'3 %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e, ( )*')e+%e& $"%!'(%!*'( e!$!)



&e*$e'% %**6 ()e %* +e)*+& (%e+h*)6 ()%!/!%. The 'e%*+6)*'!%e& * a10 %(%!*' )*/e+!'3 %he e'%!+e +"%"+e (+e( 4F!3"+e.1#5. <e &e%e+$!'e %he e!$!) %+")%"+e !' %he +"%"+e (+e( "!'3&(%( +*$ %he I'%e+'(%!*'( M("e A%e+h*)6 D(%(e% 4IMAD5. <e("%*$(%!)( &e%e)% e!$!) P> ('& S>(/e (++!/( %!$e +*$

(%e+h*)6 "!'3 (' *%!$!e& STALTA %+!33e+!'3 (3*+!%h$4N!+e e% (., 20105 !%h (' !%e+(%!/e *)(%!*' (3*+!%h$4R!e%#+*)6 e% (., 20125, e'"+!'3 &(%( )*'!%e'). P!)6!'3 e++*+*+ %he ("%*$(%!) ('(! (+e h*' !' F!3"+e .2.

Figure 4.2: Histograms of a) P-wave and b) S-wave onset time pick errors of the

automatic algorithm, based on a subset of 20 events.

<e "e ( %(33e+e& !'/e+!*' )he$e 4e.3. H(#e+('& e% (., 2005 %* 3e'e+(%e %he /e*)!% $*&e. <e e%!$(%e ( #e%>?%%!'3 $!'!$"$1>D $*&e "!'3 %he ELEST (3*+!%h$ 4K!!'3 e% (., 15. F*+%he %*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*', e )h**e = e/e'% 4F!3"+e .1#5+*$ %he ?+% %* $*'%h * (%e+h*)6 #(e& *' ( $(;!$"$(!$"%h( 3( )+!%e+!*' 4*'h*+e e/e'% ^ 17 *Jh*+e e/e'% ^205 ('& %he '"$#e+ * S>(/e !)6 4 05. <e +e-"!+e ( e>

&!%+!#"%e& (%e+h*)6 )(%(*3"e %* e'"+e 3**& +( )*/e+(3e !' %he$*&e. Th! )(%(*3"e !e& a=0,000 P>(/e ('& a1,000 S>(/e*'e% %!$e. <e "e %he SIMUL2000 )*&e 4Th"+#e+, 18=5 %* !'/e+%*+ #*%h v p ('& v v . <e !')*+*+(%e ( '*'>"'!*+$ '*&( ()!'34F!3"+e .1#5 !' %he ;>&!+e)%!*' 4$!'!$"$ * 17 6$5 %* e'"+e h!3h+e*"%!*' he+e +( )*/e+(3e ! 3**&, ('& "'!*+$ ()!'3 !' #*%h%he >&!+e)%!*' 480 6$5 ('& >&!+e)%!*' 410 6$5. T* %e% +e!(#!!% *%he %*$*3+(h!) !$(3e, e ('(e %he $*&e +e*"%!*' $(%+!;4F!3"+e .=5 %* !'/e%!3(%e %he +e*/!'3 )((#!!% * *"+ &(%( ('&$*&e e%>". <e ?'& %h(% %he ( '*&e !' %he *+e(+) (+e e+e*/e&, (+%!)"(+ %h*e !' %he *'h*+e *+e(+). S$e(+!'3

#e)*$e ((+e'% !' %he *"%e+>+!e ('& #e'e(%h %he $(3$(%!) (+). The h(* (+e( * %he $(+!'e *+e(+) (+e (* **+ +e*/e&

7



!')e e "e ('&>#(e& %(%!*' *' !' %he !'/e+!*'. The v pv s $*&e ! !'he+e'% e e +e*/e& &"e %* ee+ S>(/e !)6)*$(+e& %* P>(/e !)6, ('& %he 3+e(%e+ e++*+ (*)!(%e& !%h*'e% %!$e * S>(/e !)6 4F!3"+e .25.

.=Re"% * =>D T*$*3+(h!) I'/e+!*'F!3"+e .( h* %he =>D v p %+")%"+e ('& +e*)(%e& (%e+h*)6e!$!)!% *' *"+ )+*>e)%!*' *+!e'%(%e& e+e'&!)"(+ %* %he+e3!*'( %+e')h (;!. <e *#e+/e ( %he +!$(+ %+")%"+e!&e'%!?e& !' %he =>D /e*)!% $*&e *#%(!'e& *+ *"%h>)e'%+( Ch!e+!*+ %* %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e 4H(#e+('& e% (., 2005.<e '* &e)+!#e +*$!'e'% e(%"+e !' %he $*&e 4e%%e+ +ee+ %*(#ee& !' F!3"+e .(5. The )*'%!'e'%( )+"% * %he S*"%hA$e+!)(' (%e 4(5 4v p * .0.8 6$5, %he %* * h!)h h( %** /e*)!% (+e( 4v p ^ .0 6$5 )*'%!%"%!'3 %he $(+!'e *+e(+)4#5 ('& %he Ce'%+( /(e #(!' 4)5. The )*'%!'e'%( $('%e 4&5 !)h(+()%e+!e& # ( +*$!'e'% "e!'3 !%h v p .0 6$, !'3a200 6$ +*$ %he %+e')h. The %* * %he &*'3*!'3 *)e('!) )+"%4e5, ( &!!'3 %+")%"+e !%h v p a .8 6$ ! e &e?'e& #(%e+h*)6. P>(/e /e*)!% (*'3 %he (%e !'%e+()e ! !$!(+ %*%h(% !'e++e& +*$ *%he+ +e3!*'( e!$!) %"&!e 4H(#e+('& e% (.,200 K+()6 e% (., 2005.



Figure 4.3: Resolution estimate of our best-fitting 3-D (left) v p and (right) v p / vs

model based on analysis of the model resolution matrix. Shading denotes spread

function values and black lines show the 70% contour of the resolution kernel The

resolution limits (white lines) are based on spread function values of 2 and 4 for

the v p and v p / vs model, respectively.

Se)%!*' C>C′ %+(/e+e %he $(!'h*)6 '")e(%!*' +e3!*'. Be'e(%h%he )*(%!'e, e *#e+/e ( +*$!'e'%, 0 6$ !&e, h!3h v p 4 6$5 ('*$( 45 !%h !3'!?)('% +e!e 4" %* 10 6$5. F+*$ (

e!$!) +e+()%!*' +*?e, K+()6 e% (. 42005 (* !'e+ ( h!3h v p ('*$( !' %h! (+e(, !'%e++e%!'3 !% ( e+e'%!'!e& $('%e e&3e$(%e+!( *+ $(?) *e+ )+"%( +*)6 (*)!(%e& !%h (%e P((e**!)3+('!%*!& !'%+"!*'. <e !'e+ (' ee/(%e& v pv s * 1.8 !%h!' %he('*$( 4F!3"+e .#5. A))*"'%!'3 *+ *"+ +e*)(%e& e!$!)!%&!%+!#"%!*' ('& e(+!e+ e%!$(%e * (# !'%e+()e 3e*$e%+4H(#e+('& e% (., 200 H(e ('& <(&, 2005, e &e?'e (



Figure 4.4: a) Cross-sections through the 3-D v p model. The location and

orientation of each profile is shown in Figure 4.1b. The coastline is given by black

triangles. Features of the model are interpreted as follows: (a) continental crust, (b)

forearc basin, (c) central basin, (d ) continental mantle, and (e) subducting oceanic

crust. The blue dashed line is the unperturbed thrust interface. In section C-C ′, ( f )

is a high velocity anomaly located above the plate interface, and (g) is a smaller

high velocity anomaly in the Pichilemu region (section A-A′). b) Cross-section

showing v p / vs along section C-C′. Black dots are relocated aftershocks with M l ≥

3.0, with a minimum of 20 P- and 20 S-picks, respectively. The white lines denote

the resolution limits, based on analysis of the resolution matrix (Figure 4.3).

+e3!*'( %h+"% !'%e+()e e;)"&!'3 %he ('*$(. The ('*$(

8



+*%+"&e (#*/e %he !'%e+()e # (+*"'& 710 6$ 4F!3"+e .5. B!'%e+*(%!'3 *"+ v p $*&e (*'3 %he %h+"% !'%e+()e 4F!3"+e .75,e ?'& %h(% %he $(;!$"$ (*'3>%+!6e e;%e'% * %he ('*$( ! 06$. The '*&( ()!'3 "e& !' %he !'/e+!*' $( $e(' %h(% %he (he!3h% ('& (*'3>%+!6e e;%e'% * %he ('*$( $( #e e;(33e+(%e&.

F+*$ Se)%!*' A>A′ 4F!3"+e .(5, e !'e+ ('*%he+, (#e!% $(e+,h!3h /e*)!% ('*$( 435 !' %he P!)h!e$" +e3!*', a1=7 6$ +*$

%he %+e')h, (*'3 %he %h+"% !'%e+()e 4F!3"+e .7(5.

.D!)"!*' The h!3h v p ('& v pv s ('*$( &e)+!#e& (#*/e "33e% %h(% !% !)*$*!%!*'( !$!(+ %* h&+(%e& *)e('!) )+"% 4H(#e+('& e% (.,2005 *+ $('%e 4C(+*' ('& M!e+, 200=5 %he+e*+e, !% ! * $(?)*+!3!', ('& $"% h(/e *')e #ee' "#&")%e& ( (+% * %he N()((%e. F+*$ *"+ %*$*3+(h!) !$(3e (*'e, e )(''*% +e*/ehe%he+ %h! %+")%"+e +e+ee'% ( !'3e e($*"'%, (' *)e('!)(%e(", *+ ( 3+*" * $(e+ e($*"'%. F"+%he+$*+e, e )(''*%&e%e+$!'e he%he+ !% +e$(!' (%%()he& %* %he "#&")%!'3 (%e *+( e$()e& e(+!e+ !' %he */e++!&!'3 (%e. <e #e!e/e %h(% %h!('*$( ! '*% ( +e!&"( !3'e*" !'%+"!*' (*)!(%e& !%h %he(')!e'% $(3$(%!) (+): %he+e ! '* )*++e(%!*' !%h "+()e *"%)+** (%e P((e**!)T+!(!) 3+('!%*!&. A*, ( h!3h v pv s *"& '*% #e!'&!)(%!/e * ( h!3h>+()%!*'(%e& !'%+"!*' 4Ch+!%e'e', 1H"e' e% (., 2000 Re'e+ e% (., 2005.Se!$!) e/!&e')e * "#&")%e& e($*"'% !' $(' "#&")%!*'*'e ! (#"'&('% 4e.3. H"e' e% (., 2002 K*&(!+( e% (., 2000

P(+6 e% (., 2005. H*e/e+, !% ! !$*+%('% %* )*'%+(!'!'%e++e%(%!*' !%h (&&!%!*'( 3e*h!)( e/!&e')e, ('& %*"'&e+%('& *%e'%!( *"+)e * he%e+*3e'e*" %**3+(h *' %he"#&")%!'3 (#. <e "e& %he E(+%h Ge**%e'%!( M*&e, EGM20084N. K. P(/! e% (., 20085 %* )*$"%e %he +e3!*'( B*"3"e+ ('*$(,"#%+()%!'3 %he 3+(/!% eJe)% * %he "#&")%!'3 (# ( 3!/e' # (+e3!*'( =>D &e'!% $*&e 4T((+( ('& E)h("++e', 20125. The+e"%!'3 *+e(+) +e!&"( 3+(/!% ('*$(, bg*+e(+), ! %he+e*+e &"e%* (%e+( &e'!% /(+!(%!*' (#*/e %he !'%e+(%e ("%.



Figure 4.5: a) Comparison of v p along the plate interface (coloured image, black

contours) with the coseismic slip distribution of Moreno et al. (2012); (blue

contours). The location of the high velocity anomaly beneath the coastline

correlates with a region of relatively low coseismic slip. The two main slip patches

correlate to lower v p along the plate interface. Locations of aftershocks (grey

circles) that lie along or close to the thrust interface are shown, highlighting the

sparse seismicity associated with the anomaly. The red star is the USGS-NEICepicentre. The white line denotes the up- and down-dip resolution limits of our

tomography model. b) Forearc Bouguer gravity anomaly, derived from the model

of Tassara and Echaurren (2012). Black lines are the v p contours from (a) for

comparison.

bg*+e(+) h* ( %+*'3 (%!( )*++e(%!*' !%h v p (*'3 %he$e3(%h+"% 4F!3"+e .7#5. I' (+%!)"(+, %he h!3h v p +e3!*' e(%(+&* %he h*)e'%+e )*!')!&e !%h ( +*$!'e'% 3+(/!% h!3h 4bg*+e(+) c0 $G(5. Th! !3'( +e!'*+)e *"+ !'%e++e%(%!*' %h(% %he('*$( +e+ee'% ( &e'e $(?) #*& *)(%e& *' %* * %he"#&")%e& (#. A $(e+ h!3h v p ('*$( #e* %he )*(% 'e(+=.7S 435 (* )*++e(%e !%h ( 3+(/!% h!3h. <e '*%e %h(% %he+e !'* )*++e(%!*' !%h h!3h v p *+ %he *!%!/e 3+(/!% ('*$( !' %he/!)!'!% * %he A+(")* e'!'"( 4a=.S5, ( (* h*' # %he/e*)!% $*&e * H(#e+('& e% (. 42005. <e %he+e*+e #e!e/e %h(%#e'e(%h %he A+(")* e'!'"(, h!% %he+e $( #e (' "e+ )+"%(&e'!% ('*$(, !% $( '*% h(/e ( !3'!?)('% e!$!) /e*)!%)*'%+(% !%h %he '*+$( )*'%!'e'%( )+"%.<e%e+>&!!'3 '*+$( ("% )(+ h(/e #ee' !&e'%!?e& !' %he$(+!'e *+e(+) <S< * %he !&e'%!?e& ('*$( 4Gee+e' e% (.,

2011(5. Se&!$e'%(+ "'&e+(%!'3 (*'3 %he !'%e+()e ('&"#e-"e'% 3+(/!%(%!*'( )*(e h( #ee' *%"(%e& %* e;(!'

80



%he +ee')e * %hee ("%, h!)h (+e "'""( (*'3 %he )e'%+(Ch!e(' $(+3!'. A'(*3"e $*&e &e$*'%+(%e %h(% e;%e'!*'(("% )(' *+$ !' %he (6e * ( "#&")%!'3 e($*"'% &"e %*e'h(')e& e&!$e'%(+ "'&e+(%!'3 4D*$!'3"e e% (., 20005. I% !%he+e*+e e(!#e %h(% ( %**3+(h!) h!3h ( *')e "#&")%e& !'

%h! +e3!*'. A%h*"3h '* #(%h$e%+!) h!3h ! *#e+/e& *Jh*+e *%he +"%"+e (+e( %*&(, %he+e ! e/!&e')e *+ (% "#&")%!*' * (%**3+(h!) ('*$( +e(%e& %* %he *'e% * )*'%+()%!*'(&e*+$(%!*' (*'3 %he *+e(+) (% =. M( 4F*3"e+( ('& R($*,2005. O)e(' $(3'e%!) ('*$(!e "33e% %h(% %he *!'% *!'%e+e)%!*' #e%ee' %he M*)h( F+()%"+e V*'e 4MFV5 ('& %heCh!e(' %+e')h *"& h(/e #ee' *)(%e& !' %he D(+!' 3(, *$e1=0 6$ '*+%h * !% +ee'% *!%!*'. The )*'%e$*+(+ MFV !(*)!(%e& !%h (' (#"'&(')e * e($*"'%.A &e%(!e& %e)%*'!) +e)*'%+")%!*' * %he N()( (%e )*"& +e/e($*+e (#*"% %he *"+)e * %he "#&")%e& %+")%"+e !' (+%!)"(+, ! !%( *+$e& (% %he +e(&!'3 +!&3e, %he' !% $( h(/e ( )*'"3(%e *'%he P()!?) (%e. I% ! %he+e*+e *+%h '*%!'3 %h(% ( !$e %e)%*'!)+e)*'%+")%!*' 4M`e+ e% (., 20085 +e/e( %h(% %he *+$(%!*'+e3!*' * %he N()( (%e, '* *)(%e& (*'3 %he )e'%+( Ch!e('$(+3!', $( h(/e *+$e& (% ( !$!(+ %!$e %* ( *'e * #(%h$e%+!)he%e+*3e'e!%, '* *)(%e& *' %he P()!?) (%e (% =7S 4F!3"+e.5. A"$!'3 %h(% %he e($*"'% %+")%"+e ! " )*"e& %* %he&*'3*!'3 (%e ('& %h(% %he "#&")%!*' +(%e h( +e$(!'e&)*'%('% %h+*"3h*"% !% &e)e'%, !% *"& h(/e e'%e+e& %he %+e')h(% a1.8 M(.

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81



Figure 4.6: a) Reconstructions of the Nazca and Pacific plates at 20Ma illustrating

that the central Chilean margin (green boxed area) may have formed at a similar

time to an area of bathymetric heterogeneity (red boxed area) on the Pacific plate,now located at ~35°S (b).

S")h %**3+(h!) e(%"+e *' %he (%e !'%e+()e h(/e #ee' h*'%* ()% ( e!%he+ (e+!%!e 4H"e' e% (., 20025 *+ #(++!e+ 4K*&(!+(e% (., 20005. O'e %he*+ %(%e %h(% h!3h +e!e *' %he &*'3*!'3(%e !')+e(e )*"!'3, %he+e# 3e'e+(%!'3 (+3e e(+%h-"(6e4S)h* ('& S$(, 15. C*'/e+e, &($(3e "%(!'e& # %he*/e++!&!'3 (%e &"+!'3 e($*"'% "#&")%!*' $( (/*"+ (e!$!))+ee ('& $( e(+%h-"(6e, !'h!#!%!'3 (+3e +"%"+e +*(3(%!*'

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82



+e3!*' * (% $(%e+!( 4F!3"+e .1 ('& .75 *"& %he' !'&!)(%e%h(% %h! (+% * %he !'%e+()e ! he+e ("% ! ! $(!' (e!$!).I' %h! )(e, %he ">&! #*"'&(+ * %he %+")%"+e +e+ee'% (%+('!%!*' #e%ee' %he *)6e& ('& )+ee!'3 *'e, h!)h !)*'&")!/e %* $( e!$!) e/e'% 4L("%( ('& R!)e, 200=5. I% !

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8=



Figure 4.7: Schematic interpretation based on our tomographic model. Our 3-D

model is cut along two sections: 37.5°S to show the velocity structure of theoceanic lithosphere, and 36°S to show the structure of the forearc. The geometry

of the rupture plane is illustrated between these two sections. The subducted

topographic anomaly which lies beneath the coastal ranges at around 36°S disrupts

the regular megathrust interface; however, we cannot tell whether it is still fully

coupled to the downgoing plate. The red star denotes the hypocentral location of

the mainshock. White lines along the interface show the coseismic slip distribution

(Moreno et al., 2012).

Ch(%e+ 7

ANATOMY OF A MEGATHRUST: THE

2010 M8.8 MAULE, CHILE EARTHQUAKE RUPTURE VONE IMAGED USING SEISMIC

TOMOGRAPHY

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8



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8



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8



Figure 5.1: Geotectonic characteristics and simplified geological map of the

central Chilean margin. Morphotectonic units are from Glodny et al. (2007) and

the geological is map redrawn after Sernageomin (2003), Melnick and Echtler

(2006a) and Vásquez et al. (2011). The red box in the inset map gives the location

of the study area. Labels show the names of the locations referred to in this

chapter.

88



The 3e**3 * %he )*(%( )*+&!e+( 4F!3"+e 7.15 e')*$(e ((%e>P((e**!) (!+e& !'%+"!/e>$e%($*+h!) #e% !%h %* e+!e * $e%(e&!$e'% 4e.3. M(+%!' e% (., 15. The <e%e+' Se+!e)*'%!%"%e *>3+(&e $e%(($$*e!%!) +*)6 !%h !'%e+)((%!*'* $e%(#(!%e &e+!/e& +*$ (' (')!e'% ())+e%!*'(+ +!$. A*'3

%he e(%e+' )*(%( )*+&!e+(, (%e P((e**!) 3+('!%e #(%h*!%h!'%+"&e %he E(%e+' Se+!e. The )*$*!%!*' * %hee 3+('!%e!'&!)(%e ( h(*, )+"%(>&e+!/e& *"+)e 4L")(e' e% (., 2005.A%h*"3h %hee P((e**!) +*)6 &*$!'(%e %he "+()e 3e**3,*"%)+* * T+!(!) "%*' !e (*'3 %he )*(%!'e. S*$e * %hee!'%+"!*' )*'%(!' ((!%e, !'&!)(%!'3 ( $('%e>&e+!/e& $(3$(%!)*"+)e 4-"e ('& F+(', 20085. The !'%+"!*' e+e e$()e&he' %he $(+3!' ( "'&e+3*!'3 *%>*+*3e'!) )*(e ('& +!%!'3,$(+6!'3 %he %+('!%!*'( e+!*& #e%ee' G*'&('(' ($(3($(%!*'('& )*'%e$*+(+ A'&e('>%e "#&")%!*' 4-"e e% (., 20115.

7.=The 2010 M("e e(+%h-"(6eO' Fe#+"(+ 2, 2010, (' Mw 8.8 e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+e& ( 700 6$*'3 *+%!*' * %he M("e e3$e'%. The e(+%h-"(6e '")e(%e&*Jh*+e, 27 6$ +*$ %he )*(%!'e 4F!3"+e 7.25, 4H(e e% (., 201=5.C*e!$!) ! $*&e *+ %he +"%"+e h* %h(% $*% (%e!'%e+()e ! *))"++e& (+*;!$(%e h(( #e%ee' %he %+e')h('& %he )*(%!'e. The $*&e "+%he+ +e/e( %h(% %* (e+!%!ee+e +"%"+e& &"+!'3 %he e(+%h-"(6e: *'e %* %he '*+%h, %he *%he+ %*%he *"%h * %he $(!'h*)6 e!)e'%+e 4F!3"+e 7.25. I' %h! )h(%e+,e +ee+ *' %* %he )*e!$!) ! $*&e * M*+e'* e% (. 420125

('& L!' e% (. 4201=5 !')e %hee (+e #(e& *' ( !&e +('3e *)*'%+(!'% 4Se)%!*' 1.1.25. B()6>+*e)%!*' * %eee!$!) (/e+e/e( %h(% h!3h +e-"e') +(&!(%!*' )($e +*$ ( &eee+ *+%!*' *%he ("%, * h!)h %he */e+( (%%e+' "33e% %+!33e+!'3 *'h!)( &!%!')% *+%!*' * $e3(%h+"% 4K!e+ ('& Ih!!, 20115.F**!'3 %he +"%"+e, $*% (%e+h*)6 *))"++e& (*'3 %he (%e!'%e+()e (% 10=7 6$ &e%h, !%h ( e)*'& #('& (% 07 6$&e%h 4L('3e e% (., 2012 R!e%#+*)6 e% (., 20125. I' Ch(%e+ F*"+,e h*e& %h(% %he +e"%!'3 3( !' e!$!)!% )*!')!&e !%h %he*)(%!*' * ( h!3h P>(/e /e*)!% ('*$(. A'*%he+ e(%"+e * %he(%e+h*)6 e-"e')e ( !'%e'e h(*, '*+$( ("%!'3

e!$!)!% !' %he '*+%h, 'e(+ P!)h!e$" 420125. Be&*+& e% (. 4201=5('& L!' e% (. 4201=5 !'&!)(%e %h(% $*% *%e!$!) &e*+$(%!*'( (e!$!)( +ee(e&, ("$e& %* #e (%e+!. Be&*+& e% (.4201=5 h* %h(% $*% (%e+! *))"++e& e((+& * %he )*(%!'eL!' e% (. 4201=5 "33e% $*% (%e+! *))"++e& ('&(+& * %he)*(%!'e.

7.Se!$!) &(%(

1.1.=Te$*+(+ e!$!) 'e%*+6

F**!'3 %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e, %e($ +*$ Ch!e, %he US ('&

8



E"+*e !'%(e& e!$*$e%e+ !' %he +"%"+e (+e( %* +e)*+&(%e+h*)6 e!$!)!%. The I'%e+'(%!*'( M("e A%e+h*)6De*$e'% 4IMAD5 ! )*$*e& * 10 %h+ee>)*$*'e'%#+*(&#('& !'%+"$e'% *' %he )*'%!'e'%( *+e(+) 4F!3"+e 7.25. M*%%(%!*' e+e &e*e& !%h!' *'e $*'%h (%e+ %he e(+%h-"(6e.

S%(%!*' )*/e+(3e e(6e& #e%ee' A+! ('& Z"'e 2010, !%h $('%(%!*' ()%!/e "'%! Se%e$#e+ 2010. O'h*+e &(%( (*'e,h*e/e+, ! !'")!e'% *+ ())"+(%e !$(3!'3 %he *Jh*+e +e3!*',he+e $*% )*e!$!) ('& (%e+h*)6 ()%!/!% *))"++e&. F*+%"'(%e,(%e+ %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e, UK ('& T(!('ee !'%!%"%!*' &e*e&%* e(+(%e OBS 'e%*+6 !' %he +"%"+e (+e( 4F!3"+e 7.25. The

T(!('ee &e*$e'% ! )*$*e& * 1 OBS !'%+"$e'% %h(%e+e !'!%!( ()%!/e +*$ 17%h Z" %* 8%h A"3"% 2010. The %(%!*'e+e %he' $*/e& '*+%h(+& !' ( e)*'& %(3e +*$ 1%h A"3"% %*%h Se%e$#e+. The UK &e*$e'% h(& 10 OBS !'%+"$e'%*Jh*+e * %he A+(")* Pe'!'"( +*$ A"3"% 2010 %* M(+)h 2011.

1.1.C(%(*3"e ee)%!*', *'e% %!$e ('& !'!%!( e/e'%*)(%!*'

F*+ ( e>+e*/e& %*$*3+(h $*&e, e +e-"!+e ( "'!*+$*"+)e>+e)e!/e+ &!%+!#"%!*' ()+* %he +"%"+e (+e( %* e'"+e %h(%+e*"%!*' ! e/e' %h+*"3h*"% %he $*&e. D"e %* %he "'e/e'(%e+h*)6 &!%+!#"%!*', e "e& ( e% * )+!%e+!( %* ee)% %he e/e'%&(%(e%. F+*$ (' ("%*$(%!) )(%(*3"e 4R!e%#+*)6 e% (., 20125, e?+% )h*e e/e'% !%h (+3e $(3'!%"&e 4Ml .05 * %h(% $('

)e(+ *'e% (+e +e)*+&e& %h+*"3h*"% %he 'e%*+6. Se)*'&, e"#&!/!&e& %he (+e( !'%* $(e+ 2700 6$2 #*)6 ('& ee)%e& ('e-"( '"$#e+ * e/e'% !' e()h, e'"+!'3 (' e/e' e/e'%&!%+!#"%!*'. Th!+&, e ee)%e& e/e'% %h(% e+e *)(%e& !%h!'e()h OBS 'e%*+6 &"+!'3 %he!+ *e+(%!*'( e+!*&. F*+%"'(%e,#*%h %he '*+%he+' ('& *"%he+' OBS 'e%*+6 e+e !$"%('e*"()%!/e *+ 17 &( 422081000105 %he+e*+e, ( ( ?'( %e,e )h*e e/e'% *)(%e& #e%ee' %hee %* 'e%*+6 &"+!'3 %h!%!$e.

0



Figure 5.2: Map of the Maule segment along the South Central Chile margin

coloured by bathymetry/topography. The main rupture characteristics of the

Maule earthquake are shown. The purple star shows the epicentre of the

mainshock (Hayes et al., 2013) and the blue contours represent coseismic slip

distribution (> 6 m) in 2 m intervals (Moreno et al., 2012). Triangles correspond

to seismic stations used in the velocity inversions. Black crosses indicate the

horizontal grid nodes used in the 3-D inversion and red circles show the

preliminary locations of 669 earthquakes used in the velocity inversions. Thick

black lines show the location of cross-sections that are shown in this chapter.

1



Thee )+!%e+!( +e"%e& !' (' !'!%!( )(%(*3"e * 10 e/e'%. <e$('"( &e%e+$!'e& *'e% %!$e * P> ('& S>(/e *+ %heee/e'% "!'3 %he SD[ *%(+e 4h%%:&*+ee.e).!/.()."6:8080&;5.B(e& *' *'e% %!$e "')e+%(!'%!e, e (!3'e& e()h *#e+/(%!*' (e!3h% ( **: <e!3h% 0 4^ 0.0 5 <e!3h% 1 40.00.10 5

<e!3h% 2 40.100.20 5 <e!3h% = 40.201.00 5 <e!3h% 4 1.00 5.U!'3 %hee *'e% %!$e, e *)(%e& %he e/e'% !'!&e %he *'e>&!$e'!*'( 41>D5 /e*)!% $*&e * H(#e+('& e% (. 42005 "!'3HYPO1PC 4<. H. K. Lee ('& (&e, 1875. <e +ee)%e& e/e'% !%h(' (!$"%h( $(;!$"$ (!$"%h( 3( 4GAP5 * 20 ('& !%hee+ %h(' 12 P>(/e ('& S>(/e *#e+/(%!*'. <e (* +ee)%e&( *#e+/(%!*' !%h e!3h% * = ('& . A!'3 %hee )+!%e+!(+e&")e& %he !'!%!( &(%(e% # , e(/!'3 ( h!3h>-"(!% )(%(*3"e* e/e'% 4F!3"+e 7.25, )*$+!!'3 =8,000 P>(/e ('& 1=,000 S>(/e *'e% %!$e.

7.7e*)!% !'/e+!*' %+(%e3<e "e& ( %(33e+e& /e*)!% !'/e+!*' )he$e 4e.3. C*!'3 e% (.,2012 H(#e+('& e% (., 2005 !' h!)h e !'/e+%e& *+ 1>D $*&e,**e& # ( )*(+e 2>D $*&e, ( ?'e 2>D $*&e, ('& ?'( ( =>D$*&e. S")h ( %+(%e3 e'"+e %h(% ( $**%h +e3!*'( /e*)!%$*&e !' %he %+e')h>e+e'&!)"(+ &!+e)%!*' )(' #e e%(#!he&!%h*"% /e*)!% (+%e()% 4+*$ %he 1>D $*&e5 !' **+ +e*/e&+e3!*', h!)h $( (Je)% e/e'% *)(%!*'. E%(#!h!'3 ( 2>D $*&e!%h +e!(#e e(+%h-"(6e *)(%!*' ! (' !$*+%('% %e #e*+e+e*/!'3 (' =>D 4%+e')h>(+(e5 /e*)!% /(+!(%!*'. A% e()h %e,

e )h*e &($!'3 /("e +*$ %+(&e>*J )"+/e * &(%( /(+!(')e/e+" $*&e )*$e;!% 4e.3. E#e+h(+%>Ph!!, 185. The!'/e+!*' (+($e%e+ "e& (% e()h %(3e (+e "$$(+!e& !' T(#e7.1.

1.1.71>D !'/e+!*'

<e ee)%e& e/e'% *)(%e& !'!&e %he 'e%*+6 4GAP ^ 1805,e(/!'3 2 e/e'% *+ %he 1>D !'/e+!*'. <e !'/e+%e& *+ P>(/e/e*)!% 4v p5 ('& S>(/e /e*)!% 4v s5 "!'3 ELEST 4K!!'3 e% (.,15. ELEST +e-"!+e %h(% ( %(%!*' (+e *)(%e& !%h!' %he

"e+$*% (e+. H*e/e+, %he 3+e(%e% %(%!*' ee/(%!*' ! 2.2 6$('& &eee% OBS %(%!*' !e 7. 6$ #e* e( e/e ( $*&e !%h(' 8 6$ %h!)6 "e+$*% (e+ ! !$+()%!)(. <e 'e3(%e& %h!+*#e$ # (&*%!'3 %he %+(%e3 * H"e' e% (. 415, e%%!'3%(%!*' ee/(%!*' %* e+* ('& (*!'3 %(%!*' %e+$ %* (#*+#%e$(%!) *'e% e++*+. <e 6e% %(%!*' &($!'3 * !' %he 1>D!'/e+!*' %* e'"+e %h(% !%e %e+$ ())*"'%e& *+ %(%!*' ee/(%!*'('& +e3!*'( 2>D /e*)!% /(+!(%!*'. F*+ %he 1>D !'/e+!*', e%e%e& 2000 !'!%!( $*&e %h(% e+e 3e'e+(%e& # +('&*$e+%"+#!'3 %he /e*)!% * e()h (e+ !' *"+ %(+%!'3 $*&e

4H(#e+('& e% (., 2005. I' e()h !'/e+!*', e "e& (v

pv

* 1.,( &e%e+$!'e& +*$ <(&(%! &!(3+($ ('(!. F+*$ %he 2000!'/e+!*', e ee)%e& %he $*&e !%h %he *e% +**% $e('

2



-"(+e +e!&"( ( *"+ #e% v p $*&e ('& %he' !'/e+%e& *+ ( 1>D v s $*&e.

Inersion step

Min.hori>.spacin

g ;$<

Min.ertic

al

spacing ;$<

?1Po.

een

ts

7a$ping

alues

P 7ataar.

#Pdataar.

σ* @ σ* @

Min. "7$odel

> 7 180 2v p: 100

v s: 100.= 10

0.= 10

0

*7coarse$odel

27 10 180 78

v p:10000

v pv s:===

.10 =1 .22 71

*7 Ane 1 8 210

v p: =000

v pv s:===

.10 28 .21 8

37$odel

1 8 210 v p: ===

v pv s: 0.0 12 .0 22

2inal 37$odelwith

stationcorr.

1 8 210

v p: ===

v pv s: 0

S%(%!*':100

.0 11 .08 20

Table 5.1: Summary of inversion parameters used at each step. GAP = minimum

azimuthal gap.

The #e%>?%%!'3 1>D $*&e 4F!3"+e 7.=(5 h( * v p * 7.1 6$ (%h(* &e%h, !')+e(!'3 %* .1 6$ (% 7 6$ &e%h. e*)!%!e *3+e(%e+ %h(' 6$ (+e +e()he& (% 20 6$ &e%h. The "e+$*%(e+ * %he $!'!$"$ 1>D $*&e ! **+ )*'%+(!'e& &"e %* %he()6 * h(* e/e'% ('& e;e)%e& /e*)!% %+")%"+e &!Je+e')e#e%ee' %he *Jh*+e ('& *'h*+e (+e(. e*)!%!e !' %he"e+$*% (e+ (+e 0.8 6$ *e+ %h(' %he $*&e * H(#e+('&e% (. 42005, ( +e"% * %he 3+e(%e+ ($*"'% * *Jh*+e*#e+/(%!*' !' *"+ %"&.

=



Figure 5.3: Results of the 1-D velocity model inversion. a) 1-D velocity models

showing the range of starting models, range of inverted models (grey shading), and

the preferred velocity model (red line). b) Map of 1-D station delay terms. The

reference station is indicated by the black triangle.

S%(%!*' &e( (+e !$*+%('% *+ 3e'e+(%!'3 ())"+(%e 1>D e/e'%*)(%!*' ! %he "#"+()e h( !3'!?)('% 2>D /e*)!% /(+!(%!*'.<e ?'& (+3e 'e3(%!/e &e( *+ #*%h P>(/e 4 >=.0 5 ('& S>(/e 4 >2. 5 (% OBS %(%!*' *)(%e& *Jh*+e * %he %+e')h (;!4F!3"+e 7.=#5. The P>(/e %(%!*' %e+$ !')+e(e %*(+& %he$(3$(%!) (+), !%h %(%!*' %he+e h(/!'3 %he (+3e% P>(/e &e(



4^ 1. 5. The+e ! (* ( %+e')h>(+(e /(+!(%!*' !' *'h*+e P>(/e%(%!*' %e+$, !%h /("e $*+e *!%!/e %*(+& %he *"%h. I')*'%+(%, S>(/e &e( (+e (+3e ('& *!%!/e (% %(%!*' *' %he)*'%!'e'%( he 4" %* 2. 5. The %e$(%!) %+e')h>e+e'&!)"(+/(+!(%!*' !' %(%!*' &e( $(!' +e"% +*$ &!!'3 %+")%"+e !'

%he "#"+()e, ('& %* ( ee+ e;%e'%, %(%!*' ee/(%!*' &!Je+e')e.

1.1.2>D ('& =>D %*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*'

F*+ %he 2>D ('& =>D %*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*', e "e& SIMUL20004E#e+h(+%>Ph!! ('& M!)h(e, 18 Th"+#e+, 18=5. Th! (3*+!%h$!$"%('e*" !'/e+% *+ e!$!) /e*)!% ('& h*)e'%+((+($e%e+ "!'3 (' !%e+(%!/e &($e& e(% -"(+e $e%h*& !%"e ( &!+e)% !'/e+!*' *+ v pv s %* ())*"'% *+ %he +e&")e& '"$#e+* h!3h>-"(!% S>(/e *#e+/(%!*' )*$(+e& %* P>(/e*#e+/(%!*'. e*)!%!e (+e !'/e+%e& *' ( +e)%('3"(+ 3+!& * '*&e

!%h !'e(+ B>!'e !'%e+*(%!*'. I' e()h !'/e+!*', e &!& '*%!'/e+% *+ %(%!*' )*++e)%!*' ('& 6e% h*)e'%+e ?;e& *+ %he ?+%%h+ee !%e+(%!*'.<e ?+% !'/e+%e& *+ ( )*(+e 2>D $*&e, !' h!)h ( =>D 3+!& ("e&, #"% /e*)!% '*&e !' %he (*'3>%+!6e &!+e)%!*' e+e 6e%?;e&, eJe)%!/e *+$!'3 ( 2>D !'/e+!*'. The 3+!& *+ 2>D !'/e+!*'h(& ( "'!*+$ h*+!*'%( 3+!& ()!'3 * 27 6$ ('& 10 6$ ()!'3!' &e%h. Be'e(%h %he *"%e+ +!e ('& %+e')h, e !'6e& /e+%!)((&()e'% '*&e (% &e%h * 17 6$ *+ 3+e(%e+ &"e %* &!$!'!he& +()*/e+(3e. L!'6!'3 '*&e 4Th"+#e+ ('& E#e+h(+%>Ph!!, 15

(* *+ )*(+e+ '*&e ()!'3 !' (+% * %he $*&e. <!%h*"%!'6!'3 '*&e, e *"'& %h(% %he !'/e+!*' !'%+*&")e& * /e*)!%(+%e()% !' %h! (+% * %he $*&e, #!(!'3 e(+%h-"(6e &e%h#e'e(%h %he *"%e+ +!e. F*+ %he ?'e 2>D ('& =>D !'/e+!*', e "e&( $!'!$"$ h*+!*'%( 3+!& ()!'3 * 1 6$ ('& ( $!'!$"$/e+%!)( ()!'3 * 8 6$. F*+ %he =>D !'/e+!*', e !'%+*&")e& ( e%* '*&e !' %he %+e')h>(+(e &!+e)%!*', e()h 77 6$ ((+%,+*/!&!'3 1= '*&e %* !$(3e /e*)!% /(+!(%!*' !' %he %+e')h>(+(e &!+e)%!*' 4F!3"+e 7.25. Thee '*&( ()!'3 (* *+ ( ?'e++e*"%!*' !$(3e %h(' %h(% * *"+ %*$*3+(h!) $*&e +ee'%e& !'Ch(%e+ F*"+.

F*+ %he )*(+e 2>D !'/e+!*', e "e& e/e'% !'!&e %he 'e%*+64GAP ^ 1805 %* e%(#!h %he $(!' /e*)!% %+")%"+e. N*'e%hee,( %e% h*e& %h(% he' %he )*e% %(%!*' e+e *)(%e& $*+e%h(' 0 6$ +*$ (' e(+%h-"(6e, !% &e%h ( **+ )*'%+(!'e&.

Th! ?'&!'3 ( !$*+%('% *+ e/e'% *)(%e& !' #e%ee' %he %*OBS 'e%*+6 4Che' e% (., 182 F+*h!)h e% (., 1825. The+e*+e,e *' )h*e e/e'% %h(% h(& %he!+ )*e% %* %(%!*' (% ('e!)e'%+( &!%(')e * e %h(' 0 6$. Thee )+!%e+!( +e"%e& !' ()(%(*3"e * 78 e/e'% *+ %he )*(+e 2>D !'/e+!*'. O')e %he$(!' /e*)!% %+")%"+e ( e%(#!he&, e "#e-"e'% +e(;e&%he %(%!*' &!%+!#"%!*' 4GAP ^ 2105 *+ %he ?'e 2>D !'/e+!*' %*!$+*/e +( )*/e+(3e (% %he e&3e * %he 3+!&.

T* !$+*/e %he (%e+( !$(3!'3 )((#!!% * *"+ !'/e+!*', e

7



(!e& (' e;%+( $**%h!'3 %e)h'!-"e. <e e+*+$e& %*(&&!%!*'( !'/e+!*', e()h h!%!'3 %he h*+!*'%( '*&e *)(%!*' #( %h!+& * %he '*&( ()!'3, ('& )()"(%!'3 %he (/e+(3e /e*)!% * %hee. F*+ %he =>D !'/e+!*', e (* )(++!e& *"% %h! (/e+(3!'3 !'%he %+e')h>(+(e &!+e)%!*'. S")h (' (/e+(3!'3 %e)h'!-"e h( #ee'

"e& !' *)( e(+%h-"(6e %*$*3+(h %"&!e 4e.3. C*!'3 e% (.,2012 e.3. H(#e+('& e% (., 2005.

7.I'/e+!*' +e*"%!*'

1.1.Re*"%!*' %e%

O"+ ?+% +e*"%!*' %e% *)"e& *' %he " $*&e +e*"%!*' $(%+!;4MRM5. N*&e !%h 3**& +( )*/e+(3e h(/e (+3e &!(3*'(ee$e'% * %he MRM. N*&e !%h **+ )*/e+(3e h(/e $(&!(3*'( ee$e'% * %he MRM &"e %* %he!+ &ee'&e') *''e!3h#*"+!'3 3+!& *!'%. Th! eJe)% ! 6'*' ( $e(+!'3. <ee%!$(%e& %he $(3'!%"&e * $e(+!'3 # )()"(%!'3 %he +e(&"')%!*' 4SF5, h!)h (ee %he +(%!* #e%ee' *J>&!(3*'( ('&&!(3*'( %e+$ 4T**$e ('& F*"3e+, 185. T* ())"+(%e /!"(!e%he &!+e)%!*' ('& !e * $e(+!'3 * '*&e, e )*'%*"+e& e()h +** %he MRM (% %he 0 /("e * !% )*++e*'&!'3 &!(3*'( ee$e'%.A ('*%he+ +e*"%!*' %e%, e ('(e& %he e'!%!/!% * *"+/e*)!% $*&e %* %he e/e'% )(%(*3"e e ()h!e/e& %h! #e+*+$!'3 ( #**%%+( +e($!'3. C*$(+e& %* *+$( MRM('(!, #**%%+( +e($!'3 ! "e" #e)("e '*!e !

!'%+!'!)( )*'%(!'e& !%h!' %he &(%(e%. C(/e+% e% (. 420005 "33e% %h(% ")h e/e'%>#(e& +e($!'3 h*"& +*&")e !$!(++e"% %* +e($!'3 !'&!/!&"( !)6. <e +('&*$ +e($e& %hee/e'% )(%(*3"e, *+$!'3 ( )(%(*3"e * 7=0 e/e'% 480 * *"+*+!3!'( )(%(*3"e5. O')e %he 7=0 e/e'% e+e )h*e', e+('&*$ )h*e &"!)(%e e/e'%, e'"+!'3 %he )(%(*3"e ( *%he ($e !e ( *+ %he ()%"( !'/e+!*' 478 e/e'%5. U!'3 %he($e !'/e+!*' *+6@*, %he /e*)!% $*&e e+e %he' %*+e& ('&%he +*)e +ee(%e& 100 %!$e.A ( ?'( (e$e'% * !$(3!'3 )((#!!%, e )(++!e& *"%+e%*+!'3 +e*"%!*' %e%. B &e!3'!'3 '%he%!) /e*)!% $*&e,

e (ee& %he )(()!% * *"+ &(%(e% %* +e*/e %he 3e*$e%+('& ($!%"&e * /e*)!% ('*$(!e. <e )()"(%e& '%he%!) %+(/e%!$e "!'3 %he %+"e *"+)e>+e)e!/e+ 3e*$e%+. T* +e@e)% %he %+"e-"(!% * *"+ *#e+/(%!*', G("!(' '*!e ( (&&e& %* %he %+(/e%!$e !%h ( %('&(+& &e/!(%!*' &ee'&!'3 *' *'e% %!$e"')e+%(!'%!e 40.00.20 Se)%!*' 7..25. <e %he' !'/e+%e& %he%+(/e %!$e "!'3 %he ($e *+6@* * *"+ +e( !'/e+!*'. <e&e!3'e& %he '%he%!) /e*)!% $*&e !%h %* *#e)%!/e !' $!'&.F!+%, e e;($!'e& he%he+ *"+ !'/e+!*' )*"& )*'%+(!' %he3e*$e%+ ('& ($!%"&e * h!3h /e*)!% #*&!e !'3 (*'3 %he

(%e !'%e+()e %h(% e !&e'%!?e& !' Ch(%e+ F*"+. Se)*'&, e%e%e& he%he+ e )*"& +e*/e (%e+( /(+!(%!*' * v pv s !' %he"#&")%!'3 *)e('!) )+"%. O"+ !'"% $*&e (* )*$+!e& %he $(!'



&*$(!' * %he Ce'%+( Ch!e "#&")%!*' *'e !&e'%!?e& !' Ch(%e+F*"+ ('& +*$ e(+!e+ %"&!e 4e.3. H(#e+('& e% (., 2005. The ?'(=>D $*&e "e& ( !'"% *+ %he +e%*+!'3 +e*"%!*' %e% ! h*' !'F!3"+e 7. 4v p5 ('& F!3"+e 7.7 4v pv s5.

1.1.82>D $*&e +e*"%!*'MRM ('(! * %he 2>D v p $*&e 4F!3"+e 7.(5 h* %h(% $*%'*&e h(/e (+3e &!(3*'( ee$e'% ('& $$e%+!) +e*"%!*'6e+'e. Th! ?'&!'3 !'&!)(%e %h(% !' $*% (+%, %he $*&e ! e+e*/e& " %* %he %+e')h ('& &*' %* &e%h * 800 6$ #e'e(%h%he Ce'%+( De+e!*'. C*$(+e& %* *"+ %*$*3+(h!) $*&e !'Ch(%e+ F*"+, %he !')"!*' * OBS &(%( &+($(%!)( !$+*/e!$(3!'3 +e*"%!*' * %he $(+!'e *+e(+). Be'e(%h %he $(3$(%!)(+), (% &e%h * 200 6$, &!(3*'( ee$e'% (+e $( !%h (+3e('& e*'3(%e +e*"%!*' )*'%*"+, !'&!)(%!'3 **+ +e*"%!*'.

Re*"%!*' ! (* **+ e% * %he %+e')h, #e'e(%h %he *"%e+ +!e.



Figure 5.4: (left) Synthetic 3-D v p input model and (right) corresponding inversion

results for the restoring resolution test. Locations of the five cross-sections are shown

in Figure 5.2. Black crosses indicate inversion nodes and white dots show the

locations of the 669 earthquakes used. The thick grey line gives regions of the model

with good resolution. Areas with reduced resolution are faded; regions with no

resolution are left blank. The location of the coastline is denoted by the white triangle.

8



Figure 5.5: (left) Synthetic 3-D v p / vs input model and (right) correspondinginversion results for the restoring resolution test. Locations of the five trench-

perpendicular cross-sections are shown in Figure 5.2. White dots indicate the

locations of the 669 earthquakes used in the tomographic inversion. In cross-

section B-B’, we include a low v p / vs anomaly in the subducting oceanic

lithosphere; the inversion is not able to fully recover this anomaly.

F+*$ %he +e"% * %he #**%%+(!'3 %e% 4F!3"+e 7.5, v p ! e)*'%+(!'e& %h+*"3h*"% %he $*&e 4A vp ^ 0.01 6$5, !'&!)(%!'3 %h(%%he $*&e ! !'e'!%!/e %* %he e/e'% ee)%!*' )+!%e+!(. O/e+(, %he

)*'%!'e'%( *+e(+) 4100 6$ &e%h5 ! %he #e%>+e*/e& (+% *%he 2>D v p $*&e. The +e%*+!'3 +e*"%!*' %e% !'&!)(%e %h(% %he!e * +e*/e& e(%"+e /(+!e !%h &e%h &"e %* %he !++e3"(+*"+)e>+e)e!/e+ &!%+!#"%!*'. F*+ e;($e, e (+e "'(#e %*")!e'% +e*/e ( %h!' * /e*)!% %+")%"+e (% 7080 6$ &e%h,")h ( %h(% !$(3e& (% %he #(e * %he )*'%!'e'%( $('%e #H(#e+('& e% (. 42005. Th! **+ +e*"%!*' (% 3+e(%e+ &e%h !&"e %* %he ()6 * !'%e+$e&!(%e &e%h (%e+h*)6 #e'e(%h %heCe'%+( De+e!*' ('& $(3$(%!) (+) 4F!3"+e 7.25.F*+ %he 2>D v pv s $*&e, SF /("e (+e h!3he+ ('& +e*"%!*' 6e+'e(+e (+3e+ %h(' !' %he v p $*&e 4F!3"+e 7.#5. Th! ! !6e &"e %**"+ &(%(e% )*$+!!'3 ee+ S>(/e %h(' P>(/e*#e+/(%!*', ('& ee+ S>(/e *#e+/(%!*' (% (+3e+ e!)e'%+(



&!%(')e. S*$e /e+%!)( $e(+!'3 ! +ee'% (% h(* ('& &ee'*&e #e'e(%h %he $(+!'e *+e(+), #"% */e+(, %he e>+e*/e&(+e( (+e )*$(+(#e %* %h(% * %he v p $*&e 4F!3"+e 7.5. The$(;!$"$ A vp$vs ! 0.0 4F!3"+e 7.5.B(e& *' %he )*$#!'e& !'%e++e%(%!*' * +e"% +*$ *"+ +e*"%!*'

%e%, SF /("e * e %h(' 2.1 ('& .2 +e+ee'% e>+e*/e&(+e( !' %he 2>D v p ('& v pv s $*&e, +ee)%!/e. L(%e+(, e (+e(#e %* +e*/e %he "#&")%!'3 *)e('!) !%h*he+e +*$ %he %+e')h%* 80 6$ &e%h #e'e(%h %he $(3$(%!) (+). B*%h %he $(+!'e ('&)*'%!'e'%( *+e(+) (+e e +e*/e&.

Figure 5.6: Resolution estimate of the 2-D velocity model based on analysis of the

MRM. Black crosses indicate the location of inversion nodes. The different colours

surrounding each node represent the SF value. The black circles show diagonal

elements of the resolution matrix. Green lines represent the 70% contour line of the

resolution kernel. The coastline is given by the black triangle.

100



Figure 5.7: Results of the bootstrap-resampling test showing the spatial

distribution of velocity standard deviation in the 2-D model. The coastline is given

by the black triangle.

1.1.=>D $*&e +e*"%!*'

F+*$ %he +e%*+!'3 +e*"%!*' %e% 4F!3"+e 7.5, %he =>D !'/e+!*' !

(#e %* ())"+(%e +e)*/e+ %he h(e ('& ($!%"&e * %he !'"%('*$(!e. I' %he )*'%!'e'%( $('%e, v p ! */e+e%!$(%e& # 1=('& /e*)!%!e !' %he h(* $(+!'e *+e(+) (+e =0 %** (%.A$!%"&e * h!3h /e*)!% ('*$(!e !' %he "#&")%!'3 )+"% (+ee +e)*/e+e&. L!6e!e, *+ v pv s, %he !'/e+!*' ! (#e %* +e)*/e+$*% e(%"+e * %he !'"% $*&e, #"% ! '*% (#e %* " +e)*/e+(%)he * h!3h v pv s !' %he "#&")%!'3 !%h*he+e 4F!3"+e 7.75. I'%he Ce'%+( De+e!*', h(* $(+!'e *+e(+) ('& )*'%!'e'%($('%e, v pv s /("e (+e e;(33e+(%e& # (+*"'& 2.MRM ('(! * %he =>D $*&e 4F!3"+e 7.85 h* %h(% %he e>+e*/e& (+e( !' e()h )+*>e)%!*' ! !$!(+ %* %h(% * %he 2>D v p

$*&e. N*&e !' %he *"%he+'$*% )+*>e)%!*' h(/e %+*'3$e(+!'3 #e'e(%h %he $(3$(%!) (+). The *Jh*+e +e3!*' ! **++e*/e& (% =S &"e %* %he ()6 * OBS )*/e+(3e %he+e. I' %he'*+%h, h*e/e+, '*&e (+e e +e*/e& " %* %he %+e')h &"e %*&e'e+ OBS )*/e+(3e. A*'3 %he *'h*+e *+e(+), +e*"%!*' ! #e%!' %he '*+%h he+e %he+e ! (#"'&('% )+"%( e!$!)!%. A%h*"3h !%+e*"%!*' ! *e+, v pv s ('*$(!e (+e +e( 4( h*' # %he+e%*+!'3 +e*"%!*' %e%5 #"% ('*$(!e )*"& #e (/e+(3e& */e+ (&!%(')e 3+e(%e+ %h(' %he '*&e ()!'3 4E#e+h(+%>Ph!! e% (.,20075. O/e+(, SF /("e * e %h(' 2.1 !'&!)(%e 3**& +e*"%!*' !'%he =>D v p $*&e. The +e*/!'3 )((#!!% * %he =>D v pv s $*&e !!$!(+ %* %h(% * %he v p $*&e, !%h SF /("e * e %h(' .1!'&!)(%!'3 3**& +e*"%!*'.

101



Figure 5.8: Resolution estimate of our 3-D velocity model based on analysis of theMRM. Features are plotted in the same way as Figure 5.6. Locations of the five

cross-sections are shown in Figure 5.2.

7.Re"% ('& &!)"!*'

1.1.10 De)+!%!*' ('& !'%e++e%(%!*' * /e*)!%$*&e

The 2>D $*&e ! h*' *' ( )+*>e)%!*' !' F!3"+e 7.. The =>D$*&e ! &!(e& *' /e+%!)( ('& h*+!*'%( e)%!*' !' F!3"+e7.10 ('& 7.11, +ee)%!/e. Fe(%"+e &e)+!#e& !' %h! e)%!*')*++e*'& %* (#e !' %he ?3"+e.

102



Figure 5.9: 2-D velocity model plotted on a cross-section orientated

perpendicular to the trench. Crosses indicate grid nodes and white circles give the

2-D locations of events from the tomographic inversion. Based on analysis of the

MRM and the characteristic model tests, limits of well-resolved areas are given

by the thick grey line. Regions with diminished resolution are faded; unresolved

regions are left blank. Labels refer to the following features that are discussed in

the text: mf = marine forearc; oc = oceanic crust; cf = upper forearc crust; cd =

Central Depression; cm = continental mantle. The thick black line indicates the

location of our calculated plate interface. The purple star denotes the hypocentral

location of the Maule earthquake (Hayes et al., 2013). The location of the

coastline is denoted by the white triangle.

Subducting oceanic lithosphere The $*% +*$!'e'% e(%"+e * %he /e*)!% $*&e ! (' e(%>&!!'3 %+")%"+e !%h h!3h v p 4.8.0 6$5, 4(#ee& Woc95. Th!e(%"+e (* h( ( %+*'3 v p 3+(&!e'% ('& ee/(%e& v pv s * 1.801.874P*!*'9 +(%!* * 0.280.25 (*'3 %he $(!' #('& * e!$!)!%.

Thee /e*)!%!e (+e !' (3+ee$e'% !%h +e/!*" %"&!e !' %he (+e(4e.3. C*'%+e+( Ree e% (., 2008 H(#e+('& e% (., 2005 ('&!'&!)(%!/e * e!%he+ h&+(%e& *)e('!) )+"%( $(%e+!( 4e.3. H()6e+('& A#e+, 2005 *+ h!3h *+e @"!& +e"+e. B(e& *' /e*)!%)*'%*"+ (*'e ('& %he h!3h v pv s ('*$(, e (+e "'(#e %* %+()e%he *)e('!) !%h*he+e %* &e%h * $*+e %h(' 70 6$, !'&!)(%!'3%h(% %he )+"% h( ( *e+ *+e +e"+e *+ ! e h&+(%e& (% %hee

&e%h. F+*$ *"+ %*$*3+(h!) !$(3e, e (+e "'(#e %* &e%e+$!'e%he e;()% *)(%!*' * %he *)e('!) M*h*. A"$!'3 ( 6$ %h!)6

10=



)+"% 4e.3. C*'%+e+( Ree e% (., 20085, %he $!&>*e+ *)e('!)$('%e h( v p * .88.7 6$ ('& ( * v pv s * 1.01.4P*!*'9 +(%!* * 0.20.25, "33e%!'3 !% ! '*% h&+(%e&.

Marine forearc

The *Jh*+e *+e(+) +e3!*' 4(#ee& W#f 95 h( * v p 4.7.276$5 ('& ( h!3h v pv s * 1.2.2. The *)(%!*' * ")h /e*)!%!e !)*'!%e'% !%h e&!$e'% ('& $e%(>e&!$e'% !' %he +*'%( +!$('& *"%e+ e&3e, +ee)%!/e. Th! v pv s )*++e*'& %* ( P*!*'9+(%!* * 0.=10.=. T"! e% (. 420085 +e(%e ")h /("e %**/e++e"+e& e&!$e'% !' ( *+e +e"+e $*&e *+ %he N('6(!())+e%!*'(+ +!$. Be'e(%h %he )*(%!'e, ( %+*'3 h*+!*'%( v p 3+(&!e'% +e+ee'% %he #*"'&(+ #e%ee' %he *"%e+ e&3e ('&%he "e+ )*'%!'e'%( *+e(+). S%"&!e ?'& !$!(+ /e*)!%!e !' %he$(+!'e *+e(+) *"%h * %he M("e e3$e'% 4C*'%+e+( Ree e% (.,2008 H(#e+('& e% (., 2005 ('& !' *%he+ "#&")%!*' *'e

4C*!'3 e% (., 2012 Re'e+ e% (., 2005. O/e++e"+e& @"!&)*"& +e"% +*$ e!%he+ &eh&+(%!*' * %he *)e('!) )+"% 4e.3.K*&(!+( e% (., 2005 *+ %he $e)%!%e>!!%e %+('!%!*' (% 100170C4M**+e ('& S(Je+, 20015. B(e& *' ( %he+$( $*&e *+ S*"%hCe'%+( Ch!e 46e+ e% (., 20115, %he %e$e+(%"+e * %h! h(e%+('*+$(%!*' )*!')!&e !%h %he e(%(+& !$!% * %he +*'%(+!$.

Continental forearc The "e+ )*'%!'e'%( *+e(+) 4(#ee& Wcf 95 #e'e(%h %he C*(%(C*+&!e+( h( ( $*&e+(%e v p * 7.7.0 6$ ('& +e&")e& v pv s *1.1 4P*!*'9 +(%!* * 0.25, )*'!%e'% !%h ( 3+('!%!))*$*!%!*' 4Ch+!%e'e', 15. Th! !'%e++e%(%!*' ! "*+%e&# %he !&e+e(& *"%)+* * 3+('!%e ()+* %he C*(%( C*+&!e+(4F!3"+e 7.15 %h(% !6e e;%e'& %h+*"3h %he "e+ )+"% 4G+*d e% (.,20085. S")h /e*)!%!e )*"& (* )*++e*'& %* $e%(#(!%e ('&$e%(3+e()6e )*$*!%!*' * %he <e%e+' ('& E(%e+' Se+!e,+ee)%!/e 4Ch+!%e'e', 1 K+()6 e% (., 2005. I' %heh(* )+"% 4^ 10 6$ &e%h5, * v p 4^ 6$5 )*++e*'& %*e&!$e'% !' %he Ce'%+( De+e!*' 4(#ee& Wcd95.I' %he *e+ *+e(+), +*$!'e'% h!3h v p ('*$(!e 4.8.0 6$5 !e

#e'e(%h %he )*(% 4F!3"+e 7.10 ('& 7.115. O'e ! *)(%e& (% =S4he+e(%e+ )(e& %he C*#-"e)"+( ('*$( (#ee& WC)95 %he *%he+%* %he '*+%h (% =S 4he+e(%e+ +ee++e& %* ( %he P!)h!e$"('*$( (#ee& WP)95. B(e& *' %he .7 6$ v p )*'%*"+, %heC*#-"e)"+( ('*$( ! " %* 0 6$ !&e ('& 20 6$ %h!)6,!'%e+e)%!'3 %he (%e !'%e+()e (% !% #(e. Th! ('*$( +e+ee'%( !3'!?)('% /e*)!% !')+e(e * 8 +e(%!/e %* %he !'"% 2>D $*&e.

The $(e+ P!)h!e$" ('*$( !e "+%he+ (#*/e %he (%e!'%e+()e. C+")!(, #*%h ('*$(!e h(/e ( !3h% ee/(%e& v pv s *1.81 4P*!*'9 +(%!* * 0.285 ('& ( %+*'3 *!%!/e !3'(%"+e !'%he *+e(+) B*"3"e+ 3+(/!% ?e&, he!'3 %* )*'%+(!' %he!+

)*$*!%!*'. Se)!?)(, %he+e ! ( $*&e+(%e *!%!/e )*++e(%!*'#e%ee' 3+(/!% ('& v p !' %he *e+ *+e(+) 4F!3"+e 7.115.

10



Figure 5.10: 3-D velocity model plotted along five cross-sections, of which the

locations are labelled on the far right and shown in Figure 5.2. Labels refer to the

following features that are discussed in the text: PA = Pichilemu anomaly; CA =

Cobquecura anomaly. Resolution limits are defined in the same way as Figure 5.9.

107



F i g u r

e 5 . 1 1 : a ) 3 - D v p m o d e l p l o t t e d

a s d e p t h s e c t i o n s . L a b e l s r e f e r

t o t h e f o l l o w i n g f e a t u r e s t h a t a

r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e t e x t : m f = m

a r i n e f o r e a r c ;

o c =

o c e a n i c c r u s t ; c f = u p p e r f o r e a r c c r u s t ; c d = C e n t r a l D e p r e s s i o

n ; P A = P i c h i l e m u a n o m a l y ; C

A = C o b q u e c u r a a n o m a l y . R e s

o l u t i o n l i m i t s

a r e

d e f i n e d i n t h e s a m e w a y a s F i g u r e 5 . 9 . ( b ) F o r e a r c B o u g u e r g

r a v i t y a n o m a l y ( C h a p t e r F o u r )

o v e r l a i n b y c o n t o u r s o f v p m o d

e l a t 2 5 k m

d e

p t h . C o n t o u r s a r e g i v e n f o r v p i n t h e r a n g e 7 . 2 5 – 8 . 0 0 k m / s . I n s e t : s c a t t e r p l o t s h o w i n g t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n f o r e a r c B o u g u e r g r a v i t y

.

10



I'%e++e%(%!*' * %he e!$!) /e*)!%!e ('& 3+(/!% !3'( (*)!(%e&!%h %he C*#-"e)"+( ('& P!)h!e$" ('*$(!e )e(+ !'&!)(%e&e'e, "%+($(?) $(%e+!(. <e(6>e+e'%!'!e& e+!&*%!%e 4^205 (% %hee &e%h )(' e;(!' %he /e*)!%!e 4Ch+!%e'e',2005. Se+e'%!'!e& e+!&*%!%e (% %he #(e * %he )*'%!'e'%(

*+e(+) )*"& +e+ee'% ( "#&")%e& *)e('!) %**3+(h!) h!3h, ")h( ( e($*"'%. I'%e(&, *"+ !$+*/e& /e*)!% $*&e !'&!)(%e %h(%%he C*#-"e)"+( ('*$( ! (+3e+ ('& e!$!)( (%e+ %h('+e/!*" h*' !' Ch(%e+ F*"+. G!/e' %hee ?'&!'3, e ?'& (e($*"'% !'%e++e%(%!*' e ("!#e. De'e $(%e+!( !' %he *e+*+e(+) )*"& #e ( &eee+ $('!e%(%!*' * %he P((e**!) 3+('!%e#(%h*!%h h*e/e+, %he ee/(%e& v pv s +"e *"% %he *!#!!% *+e!&"( !'%+"!/e $(%e+!( !'3 (% !% #(e 4H"e' e% (., 2000Re'e+ e% (., 2005.

The "+()e +*e)%!*' * %he "%+($(?) #*&!e )*++e*'&+e(*'(# e !%h %he *)(%!*' * T+!(!) !'%+"!*' 4F!3"+e 7.1('& 7.115. S*"%h * =.7S, ( '*%(#e (#e')e * h!3h /e*)!%#*&!e 4H(#e+('& e% (., 2005 ! )*'!%e'% !%h ( ()6 * T+!(!)!'%+"!*' !' %h! +e3!*' 4F!3"+e 7.15. I' )*'%+(% %* %he P((e**!)3+('!%e, %hee !'%+"!*' )*'%(!' ( %+*'3e+ $('%e *"+)e!3'(%"+e 4-"e e% (., 20115, *!# +e(%!'3 %* %he "'&e+!'3"%+($(?) #*&!e. The T+!(!) !'%+"!*' e+e e$()e& &"+!'3e;%e'!*' 4-"e e% (., 20115 )("e& # e!%he+ (# &e%()h$e'%4P(+(&( e% (., 15, (%he'*he+!) "e!'3 4F+('ee ('&S(e%%!, 20015 *+ (# %eee'!'3 4-"e e% (., 20115. I% !("!#e %h(% (' * %hee $e)h('!$ )*"& h(/e e$()e&

$('%e $(%e+!( #e'e(%h %he (')!e'% /*)('!) (+). Re$'('% * %h!$(%e+!( )*"& '* !e (% %he #(e * %he +ee'%>&( *+e(+).I'%e++e%!'3 %he e$()e$e'% $e)h('!$ +e*'!#e *+ %hee#*)6 * $('%e $(%e+!( &ee'& *' %he!+ +e3!*'( e;%e'%.A%h*"3h (+3e *"%)+* * T+!(!) !'%+"!/e +*)6 h(/e #ee'$(e& '*+%h * %he M("e e3$e'% 4F!3"+e 7.15, %he &* '*%e;%e'& *"%h * %he M("e e3$e'%. G!/e' %he &!)+e%e '(%"+e *%hee #*)6, !% ! *!#e %h(% %he %e)%*'!) +*)e +e*'!#e *+%he!+ e$()e$e'% ( $*+e *)(!e& ('& !$!%e& %* %he )e'%+(Ch!e +e3!*'. U'&e+%('&!'3 %he %+")%"+e ('& e%+**3 * ")h*)(!e& #*)6 * $('%e $(%e+!( !' %he *e+ *+e(+) )+"% )*"&

+*/!&e )*'%+(!'% *' %he 3e'e! * (+) $(3$( ('& )*"& he&!3h% *' *)(!e& (# +*)ee, ")h ( (# $e%!'3.

Continental #antleBe'e(%h %he e(%e+'$*% C*(%( C*+&!e+(, (% &e%h * 27=7 6$,v p e;)ee& .27 6$, &e?'!'3 ( &*$e>h(e& e(%"+e %h(% !+ee'% (*'3 %he $(+3!' 4(#ee& Wc#95. I% *)(%!*', +e3!*'(3e*$e%+ ('& /e*)!% "33e% %h(% !% +e+ee'% %he )*'%!'e'%($('%e e&3e. L*>$*&e+(%e v pv s * 1. 4P*!*'9 +(%!* *0.25 !' !% e%e+' (+% (+e !'&!)(%!/e * "'e+e'%!'!e& $('%e4C(+*' ('& M!e+, 200=5. Be'e(%h %he $(3$(%!) (+), e *#e+/e(+e( * ee/(%e& v pv s, !'&!)(%!'3 h&+(%e& (%he'*he+!) $('%e,(%h*"3h !% e;%e'% ! "'+e*/e&.

10



B !'e)%!*' * %he /e*)!% )*'%*"+ %h(% !'%e+e)% %he (%e!'%e+()e, e ?'& %h(% %he )*'%!'e'%( M*h*, +e+ee'%e& # ( v p *.7 6$, !'%e+e)% %he "#&")%!'3 (%e !'%e+()e (% ( &e%h *770 6$. Th! &e%h e%!$(%e ! !$!(+ %* %h(% * B*h$ 42005 ('& H(#e+('& e% (. 42005, #"% &eee+ %h(' %h(% * D(''*6! e%

(. 4201=5 #(e& *' +e)e!/e+ "')%!*'. F+*$ *"+ e+e)%!/e, h!3hv p ('*$(!e !' %he *e+ *+e(+) )*"& )*'%($!'(%e %he *e++e*"%!*' ('& (%e+( (/e+(3e& +e)e!/e+ "')%!*' !$(3e, +e"%!'3!' ( $!()e& )*'%!'e'%( M*h*.

Plate interface (one The )"+/e& +e3!*' * e!$!)!%, &!!'3 (( +*$ %he %+e')h,&e!'e(%e %he (%e !'%e+()e. T* &e?'e 3e*$e%+ * %he ("%, eee)%e& ( e/e'% %h(% !e !%h!' _17 6$ &e%h * (%e !'%e+()ee%!$(%e 4H(#e+('& e% (., 200 H(e e% (., 20125 ('& ?%%!'3 (e)*'&>*+&e+ *'*$!(. S!')e e!$!)!% &!& '*% +e()h %he %+e')h,

e ?;e& %he h(*e% (+% * %he !'%e+()e %* %he %+e')h (% 6$&e%h 4e.3. C*'%+e+( Ree e% (., 20085. I' =>D, e **e& (!$!(+ *+6@* +**e& # H(e ('& <(& 42005. <e ?'& %h(%*"+ +e/!e& !'%e+()e 3e*$e%+ )*++e*'& %* %he $e(' &e%h *%h+"% $e)h('!$ (%e+h*)6 4A3"+%* e% (., 2012 H(e e% (.,201=5. B +*e)%!'3 %h! !'%e+()e %h+*"3h *"+ =>D /e*)!% $*&e,e )(' (e %he /e*)!% %+")%"+e * %he (%e !'%e+()e. T*())*"'% *+ #*%h h*)e'%+e ('& /e*)!% "')e+%(!'%!e, ee%!$(%e %he e++*+ !' (%e !'%e+()e /e*)!%.A &e)+!#e& (#*/e, e &e?'e& %he 3e*$e%+ * %he (%e !'%e+()e

!%h (%e+h*)6 h*)e'%+e. E++*+ !' %hee *)(%!*' )*"& e(& %*( **+ &e?'e& (%e !'%e+()e. F"+%he+$*+e, !')e %he (%e!'%e+()e +e+ee'% ( h(+ &!)*'%!'"!% !' h!)( +*e+%!e, !%! ( +e3!*' * %+*'3 /e*)!% 3+(&!e'%. C*'e-"e'%, !% ! *!#e%h(% (' !>&e?'e& (%e !'%e+()e $( )("e !3'!?)('% &e/!(%!*'+*$ *"+ )()"(%e& (%e !'%e+()e /e*)!%. F"+%he+$*+e, e()h '*&e! !6e %* )*'%(!' ( $( /e*)!% e++*+ &"e %* '*!e !' %he &(%(e%4F!3"+e 7.5. T* ())*"'% *+ %hee !'%+!'!) /e*)!% e++*+, e "e&*"+ 2>D #**%%+( +e($!'3 +e"% 4ee Se)%!*' 7..25. T*e%!$(%e "')e+%(!'%!e !' (%e !'%e+()e e!$!) /e*)!%, ee+%"+#e& *"+ 2>D !'%e+()e 3e*$e%+ # _= 6$ &e%h 4%he

$(;!$"$ *+$( e++*+ * h*)e'%+( &e%h !' *"+ %*$*3+(h!)!'/e+!*'5 !' ( 100 * *"+ #**%%+(e& /e*)!% $*&e. F+*$ (100 ($e, e %he' *"'& %he 0%h e+)e'%!e !' %he +('3e */e*)!%!e 40 )*'?&e')e e/e5 (*'3 %he !'%e+()e.

The +e"% * %h! e++*+ ('(! (+e h*' # %he 3+e h(&!'3 !'F!3"+e 7.12. <e ?'& "')e+%(!'%!e !' (%e !'%e+()e /e*)!% (+e3+e(%e% (*'3 %he h(*e% *+%!*' * %he (%e !'%e+()e 4" %*0. 6$ !' v p ('& 0.0 !' v pv s5, he+e %he /e*)!% 3+(&!e'% !%+*'3 ('& '*&( /("e (+e **+ )*'%+(!'e& 4F!3"+e 7.5. A% 20=0 6$ &e%h, %he "')e+%(!'% !' v p +e&")e %* 0.== 6$ ('& !' v pv s

%* 0.0=. B(e& *' %hee +e"%, *"+ !'%e++e%(%!*' * %hee3$e'%(%!*' !' e!$!) /e*)!%!e !%h &e%h (*'3 %he M("e$e3(%h+"% 4F!3"+e 7.125 +e$(!' !%h!' *"+ e%!$(%e&

108



"')e+%(!'%!e.A))*"'%!'3 *+ %hee "')e+%(!'%!e, %he /e*)!% %+")%"+e * %he(%e !'%e+()e +e3!*' h* ( )e(+ *'(%!*' * e!$!) +*e+%!e!%h &e%h 4F!3"+e 7.125. G!/e' %he ()!'3 * '*&e !%h &e%h,*"+ $*&e +e+ee'% %he (/e+(3e (%e !'%e+()e /e*)!% */e+ (

%*%( %h!)6'e * 8 6$. The+e*+e, (' %h!' 4^ 6$ %h!)65 */e*)!% (e+ (*'3 %he (%e !'%e+()e 4e.3. H(#e+('& e% (.,2005 (+e "'!6e %* #e !$(3e&. A*'3 %he h(*e% (+% * %he(%e !'%e+()e, #e'e(%h %he +*'%( +!$, v p ! +e(%!/e * 4.6$5 ('& v pv s ! h!3h 41.82.075. Be'e(%h %he *"%e+ e&3e, v p h(+ !')+e(e !%h &e%h 40.0= 6$ e+ 6$5 ('& v pv s &e)+e(e %* 1.8. Be'e(%h %he *e+ *+e(+) )+"%, v p %( $*+e)*'%('% (% .7 6$, #"% +e()he " %* 8.0 6$ he+e %he (%e!'%e+()e !'%e+e)% %he C*#-"e)"+( ('& P!)h!e$" ('*$(!e4F!3"+e 7.125. A% &e%h * 6$, v p &e)+e(e %* . 6$.Be'e(%h %he Ce'%+( De+e!*', v p "+%he+ !')+e(e %* 8.7 6$('& v pv s &e)+e(e %* 1.8. The+e*+e, %he 'e;% *3!)( %e ! %*)*'!&e+ he%he+ %h! e3$e'%e& /e*)!% %+")%"+e * %he (%e!'%e+()e !'@"e')e $e3(%h+"% #eh(/!*"+.

10



F i g u r e 5 . 1 2 : S e i s m i c v e l o c i t i e

s a l o n g t h e p l a t e i n t e r f a c e f r o m

t h e 2 - D m o d e l a s a f u n c t i o n o f d e p t h f o r ( a ) v p a n d ( b ) v p / v s . G

r e y s h a d i n g

h o w s o u r e s t i m a t e d u n c e r t a i n t y . ( c ) H i s t o g r a m o f p l a t e i n t e r f a c e a f t e r s h o c k e a r t h q u a k e d e p t h s a n d n o r m a l i s e d c o s e i s m i c s l i p d i s t r i b u t i o n .

T r e n c h - p e r p e n d i c u l a r s l i p p r o f i l e s t r a v e r s e t h e n o r t h e r n s l i p a s p e r i t y . A f t e r s h o c k h y p o c e n t r e s a r e r e l o c a t e d f r o m t h e c a t

a l o g u e o f

110



1.1.11 C*++e(%!'3 $e3(%h+"% #eh(/!*"+ !%h (%e!'%e+()e /e*)!% %+")%"+e

Preseis#ic coupling of the #egathrust B(e& *' %he *)6!'3 $*&e * M*+e'* e% (. 420105, %he M("e$e3(%h+"% #e*+e %he 2010 e(+%h-"(6e ( %+*'3 )*"e& 405 #e'e(%h %he *"%e+ e&3e, he+e %he (%e !'%e+()e h($*&e+(%e v p 4.27 6$5 ('& ee/(%e& v pv s * 1.88 4F!3"+e 7.1=(5.

The !'%e+()e ( (* %+*'3 *)6e& 4 05 #e'e(%h %he )*(%,(% %he #(e * %he C*#-"e)"+( "%+($(?) #*&. F*+ %he A+(")*e'!'"( +e3!*', M*+e'* e% (. 42015 !&e'%! ( )*++e(%!*'#e%ee' e(6 *)6e& +e3!*' * %he !'%e+()e ('& ee/(%e& v pv s &"e %* h!3h @"!& +e"+e. <e (* *#e+/e ( %+*'3 )*++e(%!*' 4r >0.15 *+ %he +e3!*' *"%h * =S. H*e/e+, e &* '*% ?'& ")h( )e(+ )*++e(%!*' *+ %he h*e +"%"+e *'e. Th! ?'&!'3 !'&!)(%e

%h(% ()%*+ )*'%+*!'3 +ee!$!) *)6!'3 $( )h('3e ()+* %heM("e e3$e'%.

&ucleation and rupture of the Maule earth4ua+e The M("e e(+%h-"(6e '")e(%e& !' ( +e3!*' * h!3h v p 4.2 6$5('& %+*'3 &!>(+(e v p 3+(&!e'%, (% %he e+!he+ * %heC*#-"e)"+( ('*$( 4F!3"+e 7.1=#5. Th! !'e+e')e ! !' !'e !%h

T((+( 420105, h* h* %h(% +"%"+e (*'3 %he A'&e(' $(+3!'3e'e+( '")e(%e (% %he e&3e * *+e(+) &e'!% ('*$(!e. A *)(!')+e(e !' %+e (% %he e&3e %he C*#-"e)"+( ('*$( )*"& h(/ee& %* *'e% * %he +"%"+e.

F**!'3 '")e(%!*', $*% )*e!$!) ! *))"++e& (*'3 %he (%e!'%e+()e #e'e(%h %he *"%e+ e&3e, he+e e ?'& $*&e+(%e v p 4.7 6$5 ('& ee/(%e& v pv s 41.85, 4F!3"+e 7.12 ('& 7.1=#5.C*e!$!) ! ( $!'!$( #e'e(%h %he +*'%( +!$ 4v p ^ .276$ v pv s 1.875 ('& )*'%!'e'%( $('%e e&3e 4v p .7 6$v pv s ^ 1.85. C*e!$!) ! ( +e&")e& #e'e(%h %he *+e(+) he+ev p .27 6$. B*%h h!3h ! (e+!%!e )*++e*'& %* e(6e+ v p 3+(&!e'% !%h &e%h. Th! h*$*3e'e*" /e*)!% %+")%"+e ! (+%&"e %* %he ()6 * h!3h v p ('*$(!e #e'e(%h %he )*(% !' %heC*'%!%")!X' ('& A+(")* +e3!*'. The+e*+e, !% ! *!#e %h(% !*)(!(%!*' &"+!'3 %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e ( (Je)%e& # %he+ee')e * *'3>!/e& $(?) #*&!e !' %he *e+ *+e(+). O/e+(,%he+e ! %+*'3 'e3(%!/e )*++e(%!*' #e%ee' v p ('& )*e!$!) !*+ %he &*'>&! *+%!*' * %he +"%"+e 4F!3"+e 7.15.

111



F i g u r e 5 . 1 3 : D i s t r i b u t i o n o f ( t o p ) v p a n d

( b

o t t o m ) v p / v s a l o n g t h e p l a t e i n t e r f a c e r e g i o n

c o m p a r e d w i t h b e h a v i o u r o f t h e M a u l e

e g a t h r u s t o v e r t h e s e i s m i c c y c l e . L a b e l s r e f e r

t o t h e f e a t u r e s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e t e x t a n d a r e

d e f i n e d i n t h e c a p t i o n o f F i g u r e 5 . 1 0 . a )

C o n t o u r s o f p r e s e i s m i c l o c k i n g o f t h e

e g a t h r u s t ( M o r e n o a n d R o s e n a u , 2 0 1 0 ) ( b l u e

l i n e s ) a r e f o r l o c k i n g o f g r e a t e r t h a n 0 . 7 a n d

g i v e n i n i n t e r v a l s o f 0 . 1 . ( b ) M

a i n s h o c k

e

p i c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n f r o m H a y e s e t a l . ( 2 0 1 3 ) .

C o s e i s m i c s l i p d i s t r i b u t i o n ( M o r e n o e t a l . ,

2 0 1 2 ) p l o t t e d a s f o r F i g u r e 5 . 2 . W h i t e c i r c l e s

g i v e t h e l o c a t i o n o f h i g h f r e q u e

n c y e n e r g y

r e l e a s e d u r i n g t h e M a u l e e a r t h q

u a k e ( K i s e r

a n d I s h i i , 2 0 1 1 ) . ( c ) C o n t o u r s o f

a f t e r s l i p > 1

( Y . N . L i n e t a l . , 2 0 1 3 ) , ( b l u e l i n e s ) p l o t t e d

i n 0 . 2 m i n t e r v a l s . G r e y c i r c l e s s h o w t h e

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e l o c a t e d p l a t e

i n t e r f a c e

a f t e r s h o c k s e i s m i c i t y

.

112



Figure 5.14: a) Scatter plot showing the relationship between coseismic slip and

plate interface vp for 20–40 km depth. The correlation coefficient, r , and a best-

fitting line (black) are shown. Three groups of vp - coseismic slip character are

given by the coloured rectangles. (b) Points remapped to check whether the

correlation is spatially correlated by adopting the approach of Moreno et al.

(2014). This test shows that the pattern of correlation is laterally continuous,

showing a spatial relationship between vp and coseismic slip for the down-dip part

of the rupture.

A% h(* &e%h (*'3 %he ("% 4^ 1 6$5, )*e!$!) ! (+e&")e& # 70 4Y. N. L!' e% (., 201=5. A% %hee &e%h, v p h(+&e)+e(e ('& v pv s (#+"% !')+e(e %* $*+e %h(' 2 4F!3"+e 7.125.C*$(+!*' * ! !%h e!$!) /e*)!% (% h(* &e%h "33e%%h(% */e++e"+e )*'&!%!*' 4S!'e! e% (., 2005 ('& *>+!3!&!%$(%e+!( (% %he #(e * %he +*'%( +!$ !'h!#!%e& !. The$e)%!%e>!!%e %+('!%!*' $( )*'%+!#"%e %* %h! */e++e"+e 4M**+e('& S(Je+, 20015 ('& !'@"e')e %he %+('!%!*' #e%ee' /e*)!%>

%+e'3%he'!'3 ('& /e*)!%>e(6e'!'3 +!)%!*'( #eh(/!*"+ 4S(Je+('& M(+*'e, 200=5.F*+ %he h!3h +e-"e') (+% * %he +"%"+e 4K!e+ ('& Ih!!, 20115,%he+e ! ( %+!6!'3 /!"( )*++e(%!*' !%h /e*)!% %+")%"+e (*'3 %he(%e !'%e+()e 4F!3"+e 7.1=#5. The *)(%!*' * h!3h +e-"e')e'e+3 +ee(e (e(+ %* %e &*' (+*"'& %he h!3h /e*)!%('*$(!e, !%h $*% e'e+3 )*$!'3 +*$ &eee+ +e3!*' * %he(%e !'%e+()e %h(% h(/e !'%e+$e&!(%e v p ('& ee/(%e& v pv s. H!3h+e-"e') e'e+3 +ee(e &"+!'3 (' e(+%h-"(6e )(' #e )("e& #"&&e' )h('3e !' +"%"+e ee& *+ ! 4M(&(+!(3(, 15. B(e&*' )*e!$!) ! &!%+!#"%!*' 4M*+e'* e% (., 20125, e +**e %h(%

%he +"%"+e ( *e& # %he h!3h /e*)!% ('*$(!e #e'e(%h %he)*(%, 3e'e+(%!'3 %*!'3 h(e (% %he &*'>&! %e+$!'(%!*' *

11=



%he +"%"+e.

Postseis#ic defor#ation following the Maule earth4ua+e T* !'/e%!3(%e %he +e(%!*'h! #e%ee' /e*)!% %+")%"+e ('&(%e+h*)6 e!$!)!%, e +e*)(%e& %he " 2010 (%e+h*)6

)(%(*3"e * R!e%#+*)6 e% (. 420125, h!)h ( #(e& *' ("%*$(%!)*'e% %!$e !)6 "!'3 *'h*+e %(%!*' *', !'!&e *"+ =>D /e*)!%$*&e. <e ?'& %e$(%!) &!Je+e')e !' h*)e'%+( *)(%!*'#e%ee' *"+ *)(%!*' ('& %h*e * R!e%#+*)6 e% (. 420125 4F!3"+e7.175. E/e'% !' %he *"%e+ +!e +e3!*' +e*)(%e "+%he+ (( +*$ %he%+e')h, he+e( e/e'% *)(%e& *Jh*+e #e%ee' %he %+e')h ('&)*(%!'e +e*)(%e "+%he+ *'h*+e. <e "33e% %h(% %hee&!)+e(')!e (+e &"e %* %* +e(*'. F!+%, OBS %(%!*' e+e '*%"e& !' %he %+(%e3 * R!e%#+*)6 e% (. 420105 e(&!'3 %* **+)*'%+(!'e& *)(%!*' * *Jh*+e e(+%h-"(6e. Se)*'&, ("%*$(%!)('(! e(& %* e++*+ !' *'e% %!$e !)6!'3. <e *"'& %hee e++*+

%* #e (+3e% *+ S>(/e +*$ e/e'% *)(%e& (+ *Jh*+e. T* $(6e( $*+e +e!(#e e%!$(%e * (%e+h*)6 &!%+!#"%!*', e )*++e)%e& *+%hee $!*)(%!*'. <e )()"(%e& %he (/e+(3e e!)e'%+($!*)(%!*' /e)%*+ (% e()h *!'% *' ( 20 ; 80 6$ 3+!&. <e (**"'& %he (/e+(3e &!Je+e')e !' &e%h (% e()h *!'% *' ( 27 6$ ; 86$ 3+!& *+ e()h * %he ?/e %+e')h>e+e'&!)"(+ )+*>e)%!*'.A%e+ )*++e)%!'3 *+ (%e+h*)6 $!*)(%!*', e ?'& %h(% %heC*#-"e)"+( ('& P!)h!e$" ('*$(!e )e(+ !e !%h!' %he &!%!')%3( * (%e !'%e+()e (%e+h*)6 e!$!)!% 4F!3"+e 7.1= ('& 7.15.I'%e'e )+"%( e!$!)!% (* *))"++e& (*'3 %he e%e+' e&3e *

%he P!)h!e$" ('*$(. I% ! ("!#e %h(% %+")%"+( he%e+*3e'e!%!' %he *e+ *+e(+) !'@"e')e& %he &!%+!#"%!*' * (%e !'%e+()e('& h(* )+"%( e!$!)!% **!'3 %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e.

T*$*3+(h!) !$(3e +*$ Z((' (* h* ( !$!(+ +e(%!*'h!#e%ee' )+"%( h!3h /e*)!%!e ('& (%e+h*)6 e!$!)!% 4K(%* e%(., 201= 2010#5. S!3'!?)('% (%e+! *))"++e& !' +e3!*' *!'%e+$e&!(%e (%e !'%e+()e v p 4.2.7 6$5 ('& ee/(%e& v pv s 41.821.85 4F!3"+e 7.1=5. Th! ?'&!'3 "33e% %h(% (%e+!**!'3 %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e $( h(/e #ee' )*$*!%!*'(&+!/e'.

11



Figure 5.15: Comparison between manually determined hypocentral locations

from our tomographic inversion (from onshore and offshore seismic stations) with

those based on automatic onset time determination (from onshore seismic stations

only); (Rietbrock et al., 2012).

117



Figure 5.16: Relocated and corrected aftershock locations from the full 2010

catalogue corrected for systematic mislocations. Events with a minimum of 12 P-

wave and 12 S-wave observations are shown. Features are plotted in the same way

as Figure 5.10.

7.8De%h>/(+!'3 +"%"+e +*e+%!e ('& ("%%+")%"+e

B(e& *' &e%h /(+!(%!*' * "#&")%!*' *'e +"%"+e)h(+()%e+!%!), L( e% (. 420125 )(! %he $e3(%h+"% !'%* *"+

&!%!')% &*$(!' 4AD5. B(e& *' %he h!)( +*e+%!e ('&e!$*3e'!) )h(+()%e+!%!) * %he M("e $e3(%h+"%, e )(' &+((+(e !%h %h! )(!?)(%!*' 4F!3"+e 7.125. The (%e !'%e+()e#e'e(%h %he +*'%( +!$ 4^ 1 6$ &e%h5 ( (+3e (e!$!)&"+!'3 %he M("e +"%"+e, )*++e*'&!'3 %* D*$(!' A. The h!3hv pv s ('& P*!*'9 +(%!* +*/!&e &!+e)% e/!&e')e *+ *>+!3!&!%$(%e+!( e;!%!'3 (% h(* &e%h %h(% ( +**e& # B!e6 ('&L( 415 %* !'@"e')e (e!$!) #eh(/!*"+ ('& *))(!*'( *,%"'($!3e'!) e(+%h-"(6e. The &e%h * %he (%e !'%e+()e#e'e(%h %he *"%e+ e&3e 41=0 6$5 )*++e*'& %* D*$(!' B, %he$*% e!$*3e'!) (+% * %he $e3(%h+"%. F*+ %he M("e

e(+%h-"(6e, %he 3+e(%e% )*e!$!) ! ('& (%e+h*)6 ()%!/!%*))"++e& !' %h! &*$(!', ('& ! he+e %he (%e !'%e+()e !

11



%+")%"+( $*+e h*$*3e'e*".D*$(!' C h*"& %he*+e%!)( !e (% =777 6$ &e%h #e'e(%h %he)*'%!'e'%( *+e(+). H*e/e+, (% =0 6$ &e%h, he+e %he (%e!'%e+()e !'%e+e)% "%+($(?) #*&!e !' %he *e+ *+e(+),)*e!$!) ! ( +e&")e& ('& *%e!$!) ! ( $!'!$( ")h

e!$!) )h(+()%e+!%!) &e/!(%e +*$ D*$(!' C. The+e*+e, e!'%e(& +**e ( 'e &*$(!', W39, *+ %he M("e $e3(%h+"%. A%3+e(%e+ &e%h 470 6$5, %he +e&*$!'(')e * h!3h +e-"e')+(&!(%!*' ('& *)(!e& (%e+h*)6 )"%e+ (3+ee e !%h D*$(!'C, he+e v p !'&!)(%e ( +e%"+' %* '*+$( !'%e+()e %+")%"+e. I% h(#ee' +**e& %h(% %he $(;!$"$ &e%h * %he e!$*3e'!) *'e !!'@"e')e& # %he !'%e+e)%!*' * %he =7070C !*%he+$ !%h %he(%e !'%e+()e 4e.3. H'&$(' e% (., 15. Th*"3h #(e& *' 6e+e% (. 420115, %hee %e$e+(%"+e (+e '*% +e()he& "'%! 70 6$&e%h, * %e$e+(%"+e ! "'!6e %* ( ( +*e !' %he &eee+e3$e'%(%!*' * %he M("e $e3(%h+"%.

7.C*')"!*'I' %h! )h(%e+, e h(/e +ee'%e& ( &e%(!e& e!$!) /e*)!%$*&e 4v p ('& v pv s5 2010 Mw 8.8 M("e, Ch!e e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+e*'e. A &e'e (%e+h*)6 &(%(e% +*$ *'h*+e ('& *Jh*+ee!$!) 'e%*+6 h( (*e& (' !'>&e%h %"& * h!)(+*e+%!e (*'3 %he $e3(%h+"% !'%e+()e ('& !' %he */e+!'3*+e(+).O"+ /e*)!% $*&e h* %h(% %* h!3h /e*)!% ('*$(!e !%h v p .7 6$ !e #e'e(%h %he )*(% !' %he )e'%+( ('& '*+%he+' (+%

* %he +"%"+e *'e (% %he #(e * %he )*'%!'e'%( *+e(+). <e!'%e++e% %hee h!3h /e*)!% ('*$(!e ( (+3e 4" %* 17 6$ %h!)65,&e'e #*&!e * "%+($(?) e+!&*%!%e. A )*$(+!*' !%h %he"+()e 3e**3 "33e% %h(% %hee #*&!e )*"& #e +e!) #*)6 *$('%e.B )*$(+!'3 %he *)(%!*' * %hee #*&!e !%h %he #eh(/!*"+ * %hee(+%h-"(6e, e h(/e h*' %h(% %he $( h(/e (e& ( +*e !')*'%+*!'3 %he &*'>&! ('& (*'3>%+!6e &!%+!#"%!*' * ! &"+!'3%he +"%"+e. I% (* (e(+ %h(% %hee ('*$(!e !'@"e')e& %he*)(%!*' * h!3h +e-"e') e!$!) e'e+3. He')e, *'3>!/e&%+")%"+( ('& )*$*!%!*'( he%e+*3e'e!%!e !' %he *+e(+) )(' ()%

( ( +"%"+e #(++!e+ &"+!'3 (+3e e(+%h-"(6e ('& )(' !'@"e')e %he(*'3>%+!6e e3$e'%(%!*' * +"%"+e (*'3 %he )e'%+( Ch!e$(+3!'.

Thee "%+($(?) #*)6 (+e (* (*)!(%e& !%h ( &!%!')% 3( !'(%e !'%e+()e (%e+h*)6 e!$!)!%. The P!)h!e$" /e*)!%('*$( ()%e& ( ( %+")%"+( &!)*'%!'"!%, !'@"e')!'3 %he *)" * '*+$( ("%!'3 (%e+h*)6 e!$!)!% !' %he */e++!&!'3 )+"%. A% %heh(* e'& * %he e!$*3e'!) *'e, */e++e"+e&, *>+!3!&!%e&!$e'% (% %he #(e * %he +*'%( +!$ !6e !'h!#!%e& h(*+"%"+e &"+!'3 %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e. The $e3(%h+"% ("% #e'e(%h

%he C*#-"e)"+( ('*$( ( %+*'3 *)6e& #e*+e %he M("ee(+%h-"(6e, e% e;e+!e')e& !%%e )*e!$!) !. Th! (+% * %he

11



("% ( +e)*3'!e& # M*+e'* e% (. 420125 ( (' (+e( *+e$(!'!'3 ! &e?)!% (%e+ %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e, ('& h( !')ee;e+!e')e& $!'!$( *%e!$!) !. Th! #eh(/!*"+ +(!e-"e%!*' */e+ %he )"++e'% %(%e * %+e ('& */e+( +he**3!)('(%"+e * %he C*#-"e)"+( ('*$(, h!)h ! &!)"e& !' $*+e

&e%(! !' Ch(%e+ E!3h%.O/e+(, (%e !'%e+()e v p * .7 6$ !'h!#!%e& e!$!) ('&(e!$!) ! #*%h &"+!'3 ('& (%e+ %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e.

The+e*+e, (' "'&e+%('&!'3 * h!)( +*e+%!e (*'3 %he (%e!'%e+()e )*"& he !' &e%e+$!'!'3 %he e!$!) h((+& * ("#&")%!*' *'e. Se!$!) /e*)!% )*"& #e "e& ( ( +*; !' *%he+"#&")%!*' *'e %* e%!$(%e +"%"+e !e *%e'%!( ('& %he +e3!*')*'&")!/e %* h!3h +e-"e') e!$!) e'e+3 +ee(e ('& *)(!(%!*'* h(* )+"%( (%e+h*)6 e!$!)!%.

Ch(%e+

SEISMIC SOURCE IMAGING USING FULL><AEFORM ANALYSIS

S* (+ !' %h! %he!, e h(/e 3(!'e& !'!3h% !'%* %he h!)(+*e+%!e * ( "#&")%!*' *'e # )*'!&e+!'3 e!$!) /e*)!%!e(*'3 +( (%h. A %he +e)e&!'3 %* )h(%e+ h(/e h*', %he+e"% #(e& *' +( %he*+ h(/e "+%he+e& *"+ 6'*e&3e *%+")%"+( he%e+*3e'e!% !' %he /!)!'!% * %he "#&")%!*' (%e!'%e+()e. The 'e;% *3!)( %e ! %* (e %he e(+%h-"(6e *"+)e+*)e %* "'&e+%('& h* %he +"%"+e +e*'& %*, ('& %+e !%+('e++e& #e%ee', "e+ (%e %+")%"+e. I'%e(& * "!'3 +(%he*+, $*&e!'3 * ">(/e*+$ ! "e& ( !% )(' !e& &e%(!e&)*'%+(!'% *' e(+%h-"(6e *"+)e $e)h('!$, ('& # !')"&!'3

*>+e-"e') (/e !% )(' (* #e "e& %* !$+*/e "#"+()e!$(3!'3.I' (+%!)"(+, %he "e * +(>#(e& +*"%!'e %* )()"(%e e(+%h-"(6e$e)h('!$ ! '*% "!%(#e *+ %he %"&!e * "#&")%!*'e(+%h-"(6e. T+(&!%!*'(, *)( $e)h('!$ (+e e;%+()%e& +*$$( (+% * %he e!$*3+($, ")h ( P>(/e *(+!%!e ('& P>S>(/e ($!%"&e +(%!*. H*e/e+, %hee $e%h*& (+e !'(+*+!(%e*+ *Jh*+e "#&")%!*' e(+%h-"(6e, he+e %(%!*' )*/e+(3e !#!(e& %* *'e !&e * %he *)( he+e, e(&!'3 %* '*'>!'e(+!%4K"#* e% (., 20025 ('& "')*'%+(!'e& ("% ('e 4e.3. K!!'3e+,

1805. F"+%he+$*+e, P>(/e *(+!%!e $( #e $( ('& h(+& %*!)6 (% %(%!*' *)(%e& )*e %* '*&( ('e. Thee *)($e)h('!$ +*/!&e !'*+$(%!*' (#*"% ("%!'3 %e (% %he !'!%!(

118



#+e(6 '*% %he e'%!+e *"+)e +"%"+e +*)e *+ !'%e+$e&!(%e ('&%+*'3 e(+%h-"(6e 4Mw 7.75, 4K"#* e% (., 20025.A $*+e (&/(')e& $e%h*& * &e%e+$!'(%!*' ! %* !'/e+% *+ %hee!$!) $*$e'% %e'*+ 4he+e(%e+, MT5, h!)h )(' !e& !'*+$(%!*'*' *"+)e *!%!*' ('& %!$!'3, $(3'!%"&e, *)( $e)h('!$, ( e

( )*'%+(!'% *' e;%e'&e& +"%"+e, ! +e-"!+e&. The MT ! '*+$()()"(%e& "!'3 e!$!) (/e*+$ ('(!. I' %h! )h(%e+, e&e)+!#e %he %he*+ * MT ('& %he!+ &e)*$*!%!*'. <e %he'*"%!'e (' !'/e+!*' *+6@*, (!'3 (+%!)"(+ (%%e'%!*' %* %he%!$e>&*$(!' $e%h*& %h(% ! "e& !' Ch(%e+ Se/e' ('& E!3h%. <eh* he+e %h(% $*% ">(/e*+$ MT !'/e+!*' ("$e 1>D%+")%"+( $*&e. A &e%(!e& !' +e/!*" )h(%e+, ")h $*&e(+e !'(+*+!(%e *+ "#&")%!*' *'e, he+e %he+e (+e %+*'3(%e+( /(+!(%!*' !' e!$!) /e*)!%!e. S"#e-"e'%, e &e)+!#eh* %he $e%h*& * !$"(%!'3 ">(/e*+$ !' ( =>D %+")%"+($*&e ('& %he !$!)(%!*' *+ "'&e+%('&!'3 e(+%h-"(6e MT ('&"#"+()e /e*)!% %+")%"+e.

.1M*$e'% %e'*+ %he*+A e!$!) *"+)e )(' #e &e)+!#e& ( %* *+)e ()%!'3 !' **!%e&!+e)%!*' ('& e(+(%e& # ( $( &!%(')e. Th! )*'?3"+(%!*' !6'*' ( ( !'e(+ &!*e. S")h !'3e )*"e (! %* +e+ee'% +e(e!$!) *"+)e ('& (+e #e%%e+ &e)+!#e& # *+%h*3*'( !'e(+&!*e !' ( =>D )**+&!'(%e %e$: ( e!$!) MT. The )*'&!%!*' *e+* 'e% $*$e'% $e(' %h(% %he MT $(%+!; ! $$e%+!) 4 mij=¿

m ji 5, +e&")!'3 %he '!'e ee$e'% %* !; 4( h*' # %he 3+ee&>

*"% ee$e'% * %he %e'*+5:

mij=[m

11 m

12 m

13

m21

m22

m23

m31

m32

m33

] ( 6.1 )

Th! $$e%+ $e(' %h(% %he ("%>'*+$( /e)%*+ ('& ! /e)%*+(+e !'%e+)h('3e(#e, h*!'3 %he ($#!3"!% #e%ee' ()%!/e ("%('& (";!!(+ ('e, h!)h (+!e +*$ %he e!$!) +(&!(%!*'(%%e+' * ( *!'%>*"+)e. T* +e*/e %h! ($#!3"!%, %"&!e *

(%e+h*)6, "+()e ("%!'3 *+ +"%"+e &!+e)%!/!% (+e 'ee&e& %*&e%e+$!'e %he ()%!/e ('e 4Z*% ('& He++$('', 185. The *!'% (% h!)h %he MT (+e )()"(%e& ! *$e%!$e ("$e& %*%he e(+%h-"(6e h*)e'%+e 4!.e. %he +"%"+e '")e(%!*' *!'%5. B*/!'3 *+ %he *"+)e *!%!*' ('& *+!3!' %!$e * (+3e+e(+%h-"(6e, D!e*'6! e% (. 415 *"'& &!)+e(')!e #e%ee'%he *)(%!*' 3!/e' # %he MT, ('& %h(% * %he h*)e'%+e. I% ()*')"&e& %h(% MT (+e e'!%!/e %* %he +"%"+e centroid: %he*)(%!*' ('& %!$e * 3+e(%e% !. Th", %he centroid #o#enttensor 4CMT5 3!/e ( e!3h%e& $e(' *!%!*' * %he *"+)e !' ()e('& %!$e. Ce'%+*!& %!$e $( #e (+*;!$(%e& ( h( * %he *"+)e

&"+(%!*' 4U&f( e% (., 2015.

11



.2De)*$*!%!*' * %he $*$e'% %e'*+ The &e)*$*!%!*' * %he MT ! '*'>"'!-"e !% )(' #e )(++!e& *"% !'$"%!e (, e()h *+$!'3 &!Je+e'% !'%e++e%(%!*'. Thee!3e'/("e ('& e!3e'/e)%*+ * )*++e*'& %* %he $(;!$"$,!'%e+$e&!(%e ('& $!'!$"$ +!')!( %+e (;e. Th! +e(%!*'h!$e(' %h(% )(' #e %+('*+$e& !'%* (' )**+&!'(%e %e$,he+e !% #(! /e)%*+ (+e e!3e'/e)%*+ * %he %h+ee +!')!(%+e (;e. Th! #(! %e$ +e"% !' %he &!(3*'(!e& MT, :

M =)

1 0 0

0 ) 2

0

0 0 ) 3

( 6.2 )

4Z*% ('& He++$('', 185, he+e A i )*++e*'& %* %he %h+ee+!')!( %+e (;e. De)*$*!%!*' * %he MT )(' %h" #e )(++!e&

*"% "!'3 e!3e'/("e ('& e!3e'/e)%*+ ('(!. The %+()e * M &e)+!#e isotropic )*$*'e'%, h!)h (+e )("e&# /*"$e )h('3e * %he *"+)e. I %he %+()e * M ! *!%!/e, %he*"+)e h( (' !$*!/e )*$*'e'% ! !% ! 'e3(%!/e, %he *"+)e !(+% e;*!/e. C()"(%!*' * %hee /*"$e%+!) )*$*'e'% * %heMT ! )*$e; ('& '*'>!'e(+ 4V(h+(&'!6 e% (., 2008#5 !*%+*)(' (* #e &!)"% %* !'%e++e%. The+e*+e, /*"$e )h('3e ! *%e'

("$e& %* #e 'e3!3!#e)

(¿¿1+) 2+) 3=0)¿

, e(/!'3 %he deviatoric

MT, h!)h )(' #e e;(!'e& ( e-"!/(e'% *+)e 4e.3. Z*% ('&

He++$('', 185: M %*++= M I$,T",-I# + M /VI0T,"I#

( 6.3 )

I' %he )(e * %he &e/!(%*+!) MT, *'e e!3e'/("e ! !'&ee'&e'% ('&%he *%he+ %* (+e e-"( ('& **!%e 4e.3. )

2=−)

3−)

1 5. I% !'*+$( ("$e& %h(% MT * %e)%*'!) e(+%h-"(6e (+e "+e&e/!(%*+!) ( %he *))"+ &"e %* &!()e$e'% (*'3 ( ("% ('e4he(+ &!*)(%!*'5 %h(% +e"% +*$ h!3h )*$+e!/e %+e 4U&f(e% (., 2015.

The &e/!(%*+!) (+% )(' #e "#e-"e'% &e)*$*e& !' $('&!Je+e'% (. O'e $e%h*& &e)*$*e !'%* $(*+> ('& $!'*+>)*"e h*e/e+, $*+e )*$$*' "e& ! &e)*$*!%!*' !'%*co#pensated linear vector dipole 4CLD5 ('& double:couple 4DC5)*$*'e'%:

M /VI0T,"I# = M # + M #+V( 6.4 )

F*+ *$e %e)%*'!) e(+%h-"(6e, ! '* e!3e'/("e e-"( e+*, e%

%he "$ * e!3e'/("e /('!he 4e.3. ) 2=)

3=−)

1

25, %he MT )('

h(/e CLD )*$*'e'% 4Z*% ('& He++$('', 185. The "e *CLD ( ?+% +**e& # K'**J ('& R('&( 4105 *+ &ee

120



e(+%h-"(6e !% ! &e?'e& ( ( "&&e' )h('3e !' he(+ $*&""'*+$( %* %he ("% ('e, !%h*"% /*"$e )h('3e. A CLD!')+e(e, %he -"(&+('% &!%+!#"%!*' * %he *)( $e)h('!$#e)*$e $*+e &!%*+%e&.

T* e%!$(%e %he +e(%!/e )*'%+!#"%!*' * CLD ('& DC, %he

(+($e%e+, B ! &e?'e&:

1=|) min||) max|

( 6.5 )

4D!e*g6! e% (., 1815, he+e ) #in ('& ) #a> (+e %he $(e%('& (+3e% e!3e'/("e * %he &e/!(%*+!) (+% * M, +ee)%!/e.F*+ ( "+e DC *"+)e, 1=0 #e)("e ) min=0 . The e+)e'%(3e)*'%+!#"%!*' * CLD ('& DC )*$*'e'% 4CLD ('& DC,+ee)%!/e5 ! %h" 3!/e' #:

2#+V.=2001 ( 6.6 )

2.# =100(1−2 1) ( 6.7 )

MT !%h ( &e(+%"+e +*$ "+e DC ("%!'3 $( +*/!&e !'!3h% *'e)!( +"%"+e he'*$e'( 4F+*h!)h, 1 Z"!(' e% (., 185.Se/e+( h!)( e;('(%!*' * * DC h(/e #ee' +**e&, e%$(' %"&!e "33e% %h(% '*'>DC )*$*'e'% $( #e (+%!?)!(('& +e-"!+e )(+e" !'%e++e%(%!*'. Ph!)( *+!3!' * '*'>DCe(+%h-"(6e !')"&e "'%e(& @"!& @*, %e'!e> ('& he(+>("%!'3

*' )"+/e& %+")%"+e 4e.3. Z"!(' e% (., 185. N*'>DC e(+%h-"(6e%!)( *))"+ !' /*)('!) ('& 3e*%he+$( (+e(, ( e ( !' &ee4 170 6$5 (+% * "#&")%e& (# 4F+*h!)h, 2005 &"e %*)*$e; +"%"+e $e)h('!$. N*'>DC e(+%h-"(6e $( (* +e"%+*$ !$"%('e*" +"%"+e *' $*+e %h(' *'e ("% 4F+*h!)h, 200V(h+(&'!6 e% (., 2008)5, 4ee Se)%!*' ..5, (%h*"3h $"%!e "#>e/e'% !%h (+(e ("% ('e, ! &!+e)%!*' *+ !'%e+$e&!(%e%+e (;e $( '*% (( !e& ( * DC *+ ( !'3e e/e'%4Z"!(' e% (., 185. M*+e*/e+, A&($*/ ('& fe'i 420105 (+3"e%h(% '*'>DC )*$*'e'% * $*&e+(%e%+*'3 e(+%h-"(6e $(

)*$e +*$ %he +(&!(%!*' &!+e)%!/!% eJe)% * e;%e'&e& +"%"+e.E(+%h-"(6e !%h * DC )(' +e"% +*$ he%e+*3e'e!% ('&('!*%+* * %he h*% $e&!"$ )*e %* %he *"+)e 4A&($*/( ('&S!e', 2010 Z"!(' e% (., 185.V(h+(&'!6 e% (. 42008)5 &e$*'%+(%e %h(% he' %he %!$!'3 *+*!%!*' "e& !' (' MT )()"(%!*' ! !')*++e)%, DC )(' %(6e/!+%"( (' /("e. A%e+'(%!/e, h!3h CLD )*$*'e'% $( (+!e&"e %* e++*+ *+ '*!e !' %he *#e+/e& (/e*+$, (' !')*++e)%E(+%h $*&e, *+ '*'>!'e(+ (/e +*(3(%!*' eJe)%. F*+ $"%!e+"%"+e, DC )(' #e &ee'&e'% *' %he $*$e'% +(%!* #e%ee'"#>e/e'%. DC $( (* #e &ee'&e'% *' %(%!*' )*/e+(3e

4V(h+(&'!6 e% (., 2008)5.F!'(, ('*%he+ &e)*$*!%!*' %h(% ! )*$$*' "e& )*'/e+% %he

121



MT !'%* ("% ('e 3e*$e%+!e. A6! ('& R!)h(+& 41805 &e+!/e&+e(%!*'h! #e%ee' %+!6e, ϕ , &!, δ ('& +(6e, 3 * (he(+ &!*)(%!*' *"+)e 4("% ('e5 ( )((+ e!$!) $*$e'%,

M 0 , ('& !'&!/!&"( MT )*$*'e'%, mij :

M 11=− M 0(sin

δ cos

3sin 2

ϕ +sin 2

δ sin

3sin

2

ϕ )( 6.8 )

M 12=− M 0(sin δ cos 3 cos2ϕ +0.5 sin 2 δ sin 3 sin 2ϕ ) ( 6.9 )

M 13=− M 0(cos δ cos 3 cos ϕ + sin 2 δ sin 3 sin ϕ ) ( 6.10 )

M 22=− M 0(sinδ cos 3 sin 2ϕ −sin 2δ sin 3 cos2ϕ ) ( 6.11 )

M 23=− M 0(cos δ cos 3 sin ϕ −cos2 δ sin 3 cos ϕ ) ( 6.12 )

M 33= M

0sin 2δ sin 3 ( 6.13 )

.=M*$en% %e'*+ !'/e+!*'O'e ( * )()"(%!'3 MT ! %* "e e!$!) (/e ($!%"&e 4e.3.fe'i ('& M!e/, 20085, h!)h (+e !'e(+ "')%!*' * MT)*$*'e'%, )*'%(!'!'3 $*+e !'*+$(%!*' %h(' *(+!%!e (*'e. The!'he+e'% +*#e$ !%h "!'3 ($!%"&e ! %he!+ e'!%!/!% %*%+")%"+( he%e+*3e'e!%!e !' %he "#"+()e. A$!%"&e +(%!* 4PS,PSH *+ SHS5 +e&")e %hee eJe)% ('& )(' (* */e *+ '*'>DC$e)h('!$ 4e.3. H(+&e#e)6 ('& She(+e+, 2002 Ze)h"$%*/ ('&fe'i, 2007 S'*6e, 200=5. H*e/e+, ($!%"&e +(%!* (+e '*'>!'e(+ "')%!*' * %he MT, $(6!'3 !'/e+!*' &!)"% 4Z"!(' e% (.,185.<(/e*+$ !'/e+!*' ! (&/('%(3e*" */e+ *(+!% ('& ($!%"&e$e%h*& #e)("e !% &*e '*% +e-"!+e e+e)% (!$"%h( )*/e+(3e4V(h+(&'!6 ('& C"%X&!*, 2012(5 ('& +e(%!/e e $e("+e$e'%(+e +e-"!+e& %* 3e'e+(%e %(#e *"%!*' 4C($" e% (., 1

D+e3e+ ('& B. S(/(3e, 15. <(/e*+$ )(' #e "e& %* )()"(%e*"+)e>%!$e "')%!*', *"+)e *!%!*' ('& %!$!'3, ( e ( */!'3*+ e;%e'&e& +"%"+e ('& %!$e>&ee'&e'% $e)h('!$ 4Z"!(' e%(., 185. F">(/e*+$ !'/e+!*' )(' #e )(++!e& *"% !' e!%he+ %he%!$e> 4e.3. He++$('' e% (., 20115 *+ +e-"e')>&*$(!' 4e.3.R*$('*!), 1825. D!Je+e'% %e * e!$!) (/e )(' #e "e&!' %he !'/e+!*', !')"&!'3 #*& (/e, "+()e (/e ('& +ee*)!(%!*'. H*e/e+, ( '*%e& # Z"!(' e% (. 4185, %he $e%h*&! !$!%e& # %he ())"+() * !reens functions 4GF5, %he !$"e+e*'e * %he "#"+()e. Fe $e%h*& e;!% %h(% (* GF %* #e)()"(%e& !' )*$e; %+")%"+( $*&e, * $*% (/e*+$!'/e+!*' "e * +e-"e')!e 4e.3. ^ 0.1 H5 %* 'e3(%e %+")%"+(he%e+*3e'e!%.

122



12=



A ?+% !&e'%!?e& # G!#e+% 41=5, %he +e(%!*'h! #e%ee'ee$e'% * GF ('& %he MT (* %he !'/e+!*' * "+()e&e*+$(%!*' *#e+/(%!*'. G+*"'& &!()e$e'%, xs (t ) ! !'e(++e(%e& %* %he MT )*$*'e'%, # = ('& GF, !i= !' %he **!'3+e(%!*'h!:

x$ ( t )=∑n=1

6

Gij ( t )m j( 6.14 )

4e.3. V(h+(&'!6 ('& C"%X&!*, 2012(5, h!)h )(' #e +!%%e' !'3e'e+( $(%+!; *+$ (:

d=Gm ( 6.15 )

I' %he %!$e>&*$(!', d ! ( /e)%*+ )*$*e& * n +e)*+&!'3 **#e+/e& 3+*"'& &!()e$e'% (/e*+$. C*'/e+e, !' %he

+e-"e')>&*$(!', E-'. .17 ! 3!/e' e(+(%e *+ e()h +e-"e')('& d )*'%(!' %he +e( ('& !$(3!'(+ (+% * %he &!()e$e'%e)%+(. Ge'e+(, G ! ( n 46 $(%+!; )*'%(!'!'3 GF )()"(%e&"!'3 a priori %+")%"+( $*&e, ('& m ! ( /e)%*+ )*'%(!'!'3 %he!; 4*+ !' %he )(e * &e/!(%*+!) !'/e+!*', ?/e5 MT ee$e'% 4e.3.

Z*% ('& He++$('', 185. The MT +*#e$ ! */e+>&e%e+$!'e&!')e *#e+/(%!*' %!)( e;)ee& %he '"$#e+ * "'6'*' MT(+($e%e+. Th", E-'. .17 ! 3e'e+( */e& "!'3 e(% -"(+e!'/e+!*':

G

(¿¿ T G)−1

GT

dm=¿

( 6.16 )

I'/e+!*' )he$e *%e' */e *+ " CMT *"%!*' !')e MT)*$*'e'% %!)( %+(&e>*J !%h *)(%!*' 4D!e*g6! ('&<**&h*"e, 18=5. I' %he **!'3 e)%!*', e &e)+!#e %he e(%-"(+e CMT !'/e+!*' )he$e %h(% ! "e& !' Ch(%e+ ('& 8 *%h! %he!.

.T!$e>&*$(!' ">(/e*+$ $*$e'% %e'*+

!'/e+!*'CMT !'/e+!*' )*'!% * e/e+( %(3e, *+ e;($e, %he )(+e"ee)%!*', +*)e!'3 ('& ('(! * e!$!) +e)*+&, h!)h (+e!$*+%('% *+ *#%(!'!'3 %(#e *"%!*'. A' !'%e+()%!/e 3+(h!)((+*()h ! *'e ( %* )(++ *"% %hee %(6. The+e*+e, S*6* ('&V(h+(&'!6 42005 &e/e*e& %he ISOLA>GUI *%(+e ()6(3e, (MATLAB 3+(h!)( "e+ !'%e+()e h!)h "e %he F*+%+(' )*&e *V(h+(&'!6 e% (. 420075 *+ CMT !'/e+!*'. ISOLA (&(% %he K!6")h!('& K('($*+! 4115 MT !'/e+!*' $e%h*& *+ *)( ('& +e3!*'((/e*+$ (!)(%!*'. I' %h! e)%!*', e &e)+!#e ('& e;(!' %he%+(%e3 * %!$e>&*$(!' ">(/e*+$ !'/e+!*' "!'3 ISOLA 4(

"$$(+!e& !' F!3"+e .15. <e ?+% e;(!' !% "(3e *+ !'3e*!'%>*"+)e (+*;!$(%!*' !' Se)%!*' ..=. ISOLA )(' (* #e

12



"e& *+ e;%e'&e& +"%"+e ('& $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e !%"(%!*',h!)h ! "#e-"e'% &!)"e& !' Se)%!*' ...ISOLA h( #ee' "e& !' ( !&e +('3e * %e)%*'!) e%%!'3. E;($e* !% "e *+ (+3e +"%"+e !')"&e %he 2011 M .0 T*h*6">O6!,

Z((' 4V(h+(&'!6 e% (., 20115, %he 2010 M .2 (', T"+6e

4V(h+(&'!6 ('& S*6*, 2015 ('& %he M .= L9A-"!(, I%( 4G(*/!)('& V(h+(&'!6, 20125 e(+%h-"(6e. The (3*+!%h$ h( (* #ee'(!e& %* $(!'%e+$e&!(%e !e& e(+%h-"(6e 4e.3. A3"+%* e% (.,2012 S*6* e% (., 2012 V(h+(&'!6 e% (., 2008#5 ('&$!)+*e(+%h-"(6e 4F*%f6*/ e% (., 20105.

..1P+e>+*)e!'3, ?%e+!'3 ('& %(%!*' ee)%!*'

The +e!(#!!% * CMT !'/e+!*' $(!' &ee'& *' %he -"(!% ('&($*"'% * (/(!(#e (/e*+$, ( e ( %(%!*' )*/e+(3e (!'/e+!*' h*"& #e3!' !%h )(+e" ('(! * (/e*+$ 4F!3"+e

.15. D(%( (+e )!e& *+ )*'%(!' 3!%)he h*"& #e +e$*/e&4D!e*g6! e% (., 1815. F"+%he+$*+e, (/e*+$ h*"& #e)he)6e& *+ %he 'e(+>?e& eJe)% * e+$('e'% &!()e$e'%, %!%!'3('& +*%(%!*' 4V(h+(&'!6 ('& Pej!'3e+, 20105. Thee &!%"+#(')e)(' #e (+%!)"(+ %+*'3 (% * +e-"e')!e 4M(e+)6!' e% (.,20115. Signal:to:noise ratio 4SNR5 h*"& (* #e (ee& %*e'"+e %h(% !3'( (+e '*% &*$!'(%e& # '(%"+( *+ !'%+"$e'%('*!e !%h!' %he +('3e * +e-"e')!e )*'!&e+e&. D"+!'3 +e>+*)e!'3, !'%+"$e'% +e*'e ! +e$*/e& ('& *#e+/e&(/e*+$ (+e )*'/e+%e& %* &!()e$e'%. L!'e(+ %+e'& ('& %he

%+()e $e(' (+e (* +e$*/e& 4F!3"+e .15.

127



Figure 6.1: Schematic workflow of time-domain moment tensor inversion using the

ISOLA software package, showing the steps required and selection of parameters.

The 'e;% %e ! %* #('&( ?%e+ (/e*+$. The ($!%"&e+e*'e * %he ?%e+ ! &e'*%e& # *"+ +e-"e')!e: f 2, f 0, f =, f ,

12



&e?'!'3 ( )*!'e %(e+ (% !% e&3e, ('& ( @(% +e*'e #e%ee' f 0 ('& f 6 4V(h+(&'!6 e% (., 2008)5. The +e-"e') +('3e "e& &ee'&*' e/e+( ()%*+ ('& h*"& #e )(+e" !'/e%!3(%e& %* e'"+e (+e!(#e MT *"%!*' 4F!3"+e .15. The '*!e e/e * %he (/e*+$,&e%e+$!'e& %h+*"3h SNR ('(!, !$!% %he *e% "(#e

+e-"e') 4f 2, f 0<. V(h+(&'!6 ('& C"%X&!* 42012(5 h* %h(% MT*"%!*' (+e $*+e %(#e he' (/e*+$ )*'%(!' * +e-"e')!3'( 4^ 0.07 H5. S!$!(+, %he h!3he% "(#e +e-"e') 4f 6, f 9< !(* '*!e>&ee'&e'%, ee)!( *+ e(6e+ e/e'%, h*e(/e*+$ $( #e )*'%($!'(%e& # %he $!)+*e!$!) '*!e e(6 !'%he +e-"e') +('3e 0.20. H. The "e+ +e-"e') !$!% (*&ee'& *' e!)e'%+( &!%(')e ('& %he ())"+() * GF 4e.3.V(h+(&'!6 ('& S*6*, 2015. I' %he )(e * ( *!'%>*"+)e(+*;!$(%!*' ('& ( &e%( $*$e'%>+(%e "')%!*', %he "e+#('&( )"%>*J 4f 6, f 9< h*"& #e *e+ %h(' %he )*+'e+ +e-"e'),

f c * %he e(+%h-"(6e 4he+e 5 c1

τ , !' h!)h τ ! %he *"+)e&"+(%!*'5. I f 9 D f c, ( *"+)e !%h ?'!%e &"+(%!*' h*"& #e "e&. T*)*$!)(%e %he $(%%e+ "+%he+, 5 c $( #e %(%!*'>&ee'&e'% &"e%* &!+e)%!/!% eJe)%.

T+(&!%!*'(, !% ! ("$e& %h(% !&e )*/e+(3e * %he *)( he+e(* *+ ())"+(%e MT +e"% 4e.3. S(%(6e, 1875. H*e/e+,(/e*+$ !'/e+!*' "!'3 !$!%e& %(%!*' 4%* %* %h+ee5 e+*+$#e%%e+ %h(' %+(&!%!*'( %"&!e, ")h ( %h*e #(e& *' P>(/e*(+!%!e "!'3 %he ($e '"$#e+ * %(%!*' 4C($" e% (., 1D+e3e+ ('& B. S(/(3e, 1 V(h+(&'!6 e% (., 2008#5. V(h+(&'!6

('& C"%X&!* 42012(5 !'/e%!3(%e %he eJe)% * %(%!*' )*/e+(3e *'MT +e%+!e/(. Th! %"& *"'& %h(% **+ (!$"%h( )*/e+(3e &*e'*% +e"% !' **+ )*'%+(!'e& ("% ('e h*e/e+, 3**&)*/e+(3e ! !$*+%('% *+ *#%(!'!'3 )e'%+*!& *!%!*' ('& ())"+(%eDC. L!6e!e, K"$(+ e% (. 42015 ?'& %h(% ! %(%!*' )*/e+(3e !+e&")e&, ISOLA )(' ())"+(%e +e*/e %he DC $e)h('!$, #"% !%e+*+$ **+ he' !3'!?)('% CLD )*$*'e'% (+e +ee'%. F*+*"+)e *"%!&e %he 'e%*+6, MT ())"+() &ee'& *' e/e'% &e%h4V(h+(&'!6 ('& C"%X&!*, 2012#5. E(+%h-"(6e !%h h(* &e%h4^ 10 6$5 (+e #e%%e+ +e*/e& %h(' &eee+ *"+)e 400 6$5.

Th! ?'&!'3 (/*"+ %"&!e * *Jh*+e $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e,

h!)h %e'& %* h(/e +e(%!/e h(* &e%h 4^ =0 6$5. T(6!'3 %he%(%!*' )*/e+(3e %* ( $*+e e;%+e$e )e'(+!*, *+6e+ h(/e (*!'/e%!3(%e& MT !'/e+!*' "!'3 %h+ee>)*$*'e'% (/e*+$+e)*+&e& (% ( !'3e %(%!*' 4D+e3e+ ('& He$#e+3e+, 1=V(h+(&'!6 ('& C"%X&!*, 2012(5. Thee %"&!e *"'& %h(% !'3e>%(%!*' MT !'/e+!*' ! $*+e ())"+(%e he' * +e-"e') !3'((+e (/(!(#e, #"% *"%!*' $( ()6 %(#!!%.

..2e*)!% $*&e, *"+)e &e?'!%!*' ('& )*$"%(%!*' *G+ee'9 "')%!*'

A e;(!'e& !' %he +e/!*" e)%!*', 6'*e&3e * %he E(+%h $*&e

12



('& +e"%!'3 ())"+() * )*++e*'&!'3 GF ! )+")!( *+ +e!(#e MT*"%!*'. Ze)h"$%*/ ('& B"('% 42015 )*')"&e %h(% MT)()"(%e& "!'3 *)( (/e*+$ (+e $*+e e'!%!/e %* /e*)!%$*&e ())"+() %h(' %(%!*' )*/e+(3e. T* )()"(%e GF, ISOLA "e( (e+e& 1>D $*&e * v p, v s, &e'!% ('& e!$!) (%%e'"(%!*'

-"(!% ()%*+, '. I' %h! %he!, e "e %he =>D /e*)!% $*&e+ee'%e& !' Ch(%e+ F!/e %* )()"(%e 1>D +*?e. <e 6ee ' ?;e&%* =00 !')e !% ! "'!6e %* (Je)% MT *"%!*' (% %he *+e-"e')!e )*'!&e+e& he+e 4^ 0.0 H5.H*)e'%+e *)(%!*' * e(+%h-"(6e $( #e !'())"+(%e, #"% MT*"%!*' )(' +*/!&e #e%%e+ &e%h e%!$(%e, ee)!( *+ h(*e/e'% 4V(h+(&'!6 e% (., 2008#5 ('& %h*e !%"(%e& *"%!&e * %he'e%*+6 4He++$('' e% (., 20115. M*+e*/e+, *+ !'%e+$e&!(%e(+3e4Mw 7.75 e(+%h-"(6e, ?'!%e +"%"+e eJe)% $( )("e (&!)+e(') #e%ee' h*)e'%+e ('& )e'%+*!& *)(%!*'. F*+ #*%h * %hee +e(*', h!)h (+e !')!&e'%( (!)(#e *+ "#&")%!*'$e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e, ISOLA )(' 3e'e+(%e e% * *"+)e *' (!'e *+ *' ( 2>D ('e 4F!3"+e .15. F!;e&>e!)e'%+e !'/e+!*' %h(%"e ( /e+%!)( !'e * %+!( *!'%>*"+)e 4(*'3 %he &e%h (;!5 (+e)*$$*' !' +e3!*'( CMT %"&!e * $(!'%e+$e&!(%e !e& 4Mw ^7.75 e(+%h-"(6e 4A3"+%* e% (., 2012 H(e e% (., 201= He++$(''e% (., 20115 2>D ('e $( #e )h*e' *+ (+3e e(+%h-"(6e 4e.3.Q"!'%e+* e% (., 201 V(h+(&'!6 ('& S*6*, 2015. O')e %he *"+)e! &e?'e&, GF (+e )*$"%e& 4F!3"+e .15 "!'3 %he &!)+e%e(/e'"$#e+ (3*+!%h$ * B*")h*' 41815 !' %he %!$e>&*$(!'.G+ee'9 "')%!*' $"% #e )()"(%e& " %* +e-"e')!e %h(% (+e

3+e(%e+ %h(' *+ e-"( %* f 9...=Ge'e+( !'/e+!*' *+ !'3e *!'%>*"+)e

I' %h! e)%!*', e &e)+!#e %he 3e'e+( (3*+!%h$ "e& !' ISOLA %*)()"(%e !'3e *!'%>*"+)e MT *"%!*'. ISOLA )(' */e *+e!%he+ %he " MT 4DC CLD ISOTROPIC5, %he &e/!(%*+!) MT 4DC CLD5 *+ *+ ( "+e>DC )*'%+(!'e& *"+)e 4F!3"+e .15. TheK!6")h! ('& K('($*+! 4115 $e%h*& ! (&*%e&, !' h!)h, %he MT4#+=5 ! +e+ee'%e& # %he "$ * !; ee$e'%(+ %e'*+, Mn 4?/e"+e>DC *"+)e ('& *'e e;*!/e *"+)e T(#e .15, e()h

e!3h%e& # an:

mkj=∑n=1

N e

an M n( 6.17 )

he+e &e ! %he '"$#e+ * ee$e'%(+ %e'*+ 4!.e. &e 7 *+ (&e/!(%*+!) MT5.

n Ele$entarytensor

?raphicalrepresentation

128



1 [0 1 0

1 0 0

0 0 0]

2

[1 0 0

0

−1 0

0 0 0

]= [

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 1 0]

[0 0 1

0 0 0

1 0 0]

7

[

−1 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 1

] [1 0 0

0 1 0

0 0 1]

T(#e .1: Ee$e'%(+ $*$e'% %e'*+ "e& !' %he !'/e+!*'$e%h*& * K!6")h! ('& K('($*+! 4115.

T* )()"(%e %he #e%>?%%!'3 MT )*e)!e'%, an , ISOLA $!'!$!e%he &!Je+e')e, ∆ #e%ee' *#e+/e& ('& '%he%!) &!()e$e'%(/e*+$ !' %he %!$e>&*$(!' 4K!6")h! ('& K('($*+!, 115:

∆=∑s=1

N s

∫[ xs ( t )−∑

n=1

N e

an6 sn(t )]2

dt ( 6.18 )

he+e 6 sn(t ) +e+ee'% %he '%he%!) e!$*3+($ 4G+ee'9"')%!*'5 (% e()h %(%!*', s, ('& &s ! %he '"$#e+ * &!()e$e'%+e)*+&. Th! e-"(%!*' )(' #e +e>+!%%e' (:

∆= " x−2∑n=1

N e

an Gn ( t )+∑m=1

N e

∑n=1

N s

"nm am( 6.19 )

he+e:

" x=∑s=1

N s

∫ [ xs ( t ) ]2

dt ( 6.20 )

"nm=∑s=1

N s

∫ [ 6sn(t )6 sm(t )] dt ( 6.21 )

Gn=∑s=1

N s

∫ [ 6sn(t ) xs(t )] dt ( 6.22 )

B e%%!'3:

12



∂ ∆

∂ an

=0 ( 6.23 )

*+ ( /("e * n , %he **!'3 '*+$( e-"(%!*' +e(%!*'h! !

*#%(!'e&:

∑m=1

N e

"nm am=Gm( 6.24 )

F!'(, */!'3 *+ a# 3!/e:

an=∑m=1

N e

"nm

−1

Gm( 6.25 )

Th! */e+>&e%e+$!'e& +*#e$ ! */e& "!'3 e(% -"(+e

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1=0



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( x−s1)− M 2∗G2=0 ( 6.32 )

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1=2



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+e$(!' ( )h(e'3e: *'>3*!'3 &e#(%e h* h* '*'>DCe(+%h-"(6e )(' #e (%%+!#"%e& %* #*%h ("%!'3 )*$e;!% ('&(+%e()% &"e %* ("$%!*' "e& !' (/e*+$ $*&e!'3.

The+e*+e, %he !'%e++e%(%!*' * )*$e; MT +e-"!+e )(+e")*'!&e+(%!*'.R*"3h %**3+(h ('& %+")%"+( he%e+*3e'e!% )(' %+*'3 (Je)%(/e*+$ * e(+%h-"(6e %h(% (+e +e)*+&e& (% %he "+()e. T*!"%+(%e %h! *!'%, (/e*+$ #(e& *' +e(!%!) =>D %+")%"+e )('!$+*/e (/e*+$ ?% !' MT !'/e+!*' # $*+e %h(' 70 4R($*>M(+%f'e ('& M)Me)h(', 20015. =>D eJe)% (+e !6e %* #e+*$!'e'% !' ( "#&")%!*' *'e, e% '* "#!he& %"&!e h(/e

!'/e%!3(%e& %h! %*!). A&/(')e$e'% !' %h! ?e& ! +*#(# !$!%e&&"e %* e/e+( ()%*+, !')"&!'3 %he ()6 * h!3h>-"(!% #+*(&#('&&(%(, %he h*+%(3e * e>)*'%+(!'e& /e*)!% $*&e, ('& %heh!3h )*$"%(%!*'( )*% * =>D !$"(%!*'. The )e'%+( Ch!e"#&")%!*' *'e +*/!&e ( '(%"+( (#*+(%*+ %* (e =>D (/e+*(3(%!*', &"e %* %he (/(!(#!!% * ( &e%(!e& %+")%"+( $*&e4( +ee'%e& !' Ch(%e+ F*"+ ('& F!/e5 ('& e;%e'!/e #+*(&#('&+e)*+&!'3 * (%e+h*)6 **!'3 %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e. I' %he**!'3 )h(%e+, e &e$*'%+(%e h* ">(/e*+$ !$"(%!*')(' #e "e& h* h* MT *"%!*' * *Jh*+e "#&")%!*'

e(+%h-"(6e $( #e #!(e&. <e (* "e =>D !$"(%!*' %*e%(#!h h* %+e ! %+('e++e& +*$ (%e !'%e+()e ! %*

1=7



(&()e'% ("% !' %he "e+ (%e. I' Ch(%e+ E!3h%, e (* (eh* ">(/e*+$ !'/e+!*' )(' #e "e& %* +*/!&e (&&!%!*'()*'%+(!'% *' "#"+()e /e*)!% %+")%"+e.

Ch(%e+

SEISMIC SLIP ON AN UPPER PLATE NORMAL FAULT DURING A LARGE

SUBDUCTION MEGATHRUST RUPTURE Th! )h(%e+ ! +*$ ( (e+ %h(% h( #ee' +e"#$!%%e& (%e+*!%!/e +ee+ee )*$$e'% *+ "#!)(%!*'h( #ee' "#!he& !'&ature !eoscience. The $('")+!% ( ?+% "#$!%%e& *' Z"'e 1,2017 ('&, ())e%e& *+ "#!)(%!*' *' Se%e$#e+ 2=, 2017, ('&"#!he& *'!'e *' N*/e$#e+ 1, 2017. The ! )"++e'% !' +e/!e4+e"#$!%%e& *' A"3"% 11, 20175 !%(e+ ! +!%%e' # S%ehe'H!)6 4$(!' ("%h*+5 ('& A'&+e( R!e%#+*)6 4U'!/e+!% * L!/e+**5.

Th! +ee(+)h ( %he +!$(+ *)" * $ PhD +ee(+)h &"+!'3

Se%e$#e+ M( 201 Z"'e 2017. The Me%h*& e)%!*' ('&S"e$e'%(+ I'*+$(%!*' * %he "#$!%%e& $('")+!% (+e!')*+*+(%e& !'%* %he $(!' #*& * %h! )h(%e+. Th! +ee(+)h (%he +!$(+ *)" * $ PhD +*e)% &"+!'3 Z" 201 Z"'e 2017.

The (!$ * %h! )h(%e+ ! %* (e * ( *"+)e )*$e;!% * ($e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e # e+*+$!'3 $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e!'/e+!*' * *)( +e)*+&e& e!$!) (/e*+$ 4Ke A!$ 25. <e(* "e !$"(%!*' * =>D (/e +*(3(%!*' %* (e *!#e#!(e !' *"+)e $e)h('!$ (+($e%e+. The +e"% !"%+(%e h*! *' %he (%e !'%e+()e +e*'& %* %+")%"+( he%e+*3e'e!% !'%he "e+ (%e (% h*+% %!$e)(e.

1=



M('")+!% (#%+()%

U'&e+%('&!'3 %he &!%+!#"%!*' * ("% ! &"+!'3 (+3e "#&")%!*'

*'e e(+%h-"(6e ! /!%( *+ -"('%!!'3 ())"$"(%!*' ('& +ee(e* %e)%*'!) %+ee &"+!'3 %he e!$!) ))e. S! !'/e+!*' (+e%!)( )*'%+(!'e& %* ( !'3e 6'*' ("% ('e. H*e/e+, !$( *))"+ *' $"%!e ("% &"e %* %+e %+!33e+!'3, +e"%!'3 !'he'*$e'( ")h ( e(+%h-"(6e &*"#e%. <h!e ")h he'*$e'((+e +e*+%e& *+ ("% !%h!' %he "#&")%!'3 (%e, %he+e (+e '*&*)"$e'%e& )(e * +(!& %+e %+!33e+!'3 +*$ %he (%e!'%e+()e %* ("% !' %he */e++!&!'3 (%e. B ('(!'3 *)( e!$!)(/e*+$, e h* %h(% (' Mw .1 e(+%h-"(6e !' %he Ch!e"#&")%!*' *'e, ("$e& %* h(/e ( !$e $e)h('!$ * (%e!'%e+()e %h+"%!'3, ( )*$*e& * %* +"%"+e *' e(+(%e

("%. <!%h!' 12 e)*'&, ( (%e !'%e+()e %h+"% e/e'% %+!33e+e& ((+3e +"%"+e *' (' "e+ (%e '*+$( ("% =0 6$ ((. Th!)*'?3"+(%!*' * ( (+%!%!*'e& +"%"+e ! )*'!%e'% !%h '*+$(("%!'3 !' %he e'"!'3 (%e+h*)6 e-"e')e. O"+ +e"% +*/!&e'e e/!&e')e *+ !'%('%('e*" %+!33e+!'3 * e!$!) ! !' %he"e+ (%e )("e& # ( (%e !'%e+()e +"%"+e. The "e+ (%e+"%"+e ( $(6e& +*$ %eee!$!) (/e*+$ ('& '*% +e*+%e&!' 3*#( $*$e'% %e'*+ *"%!*'. O"+ ?'&!'3 *e 'e)h(e'3e *+ +e(>%!$e %"'($! (+'!'3 %e$ !' %he &e%e)%!*'* h(* "e+ (%e +"%"+e.

.1I'%+*&")%!*'A +e)e'% "))e!*' * (+3e 4Mw 85 e(+%h-"(6e !' )!+)"$>P()!?)"#&")%!*' *'e h( *)"e& (%%e'%!*' *' %he +e(%!*'h!#e%ee' h!)( +*e+%!e ('& %+e &!%+!#"%!*' (*'3 %he$e3(%h+"% (%e !'%e+()e. Se!$!) +"%"+e (*'3 %he $e3(%h+"%)(' #e /!ee& ( $**%h ('& (%!( /(+!'3 (%)he * ! *' (!'3e ("% !' %h! )(e, %he "#&")%!'3 (%e !'%e+()e 4e.3.M*+e'* e% (., 20125. The ("% 3e*$e%+ "e& !' e(+ )*e!$!)! $*&e ! "'&e+!''e& # )e'%+*!& $*$e'% %e'*+ 4CMT5*"%!*' *%e' +e*+%e& # e(+%h-"(6e $*'!%*+!'3 (3e')!e.

A%h*"3h $*+e *h!%!)(%e& ! !'/e+!*' "e )"+/e& ("% #(e&*' +e3!*'( "#&")%!*' 3e*$e%+ 4e.3. H(e e% (., 20125, ! !'e(+ (( (!3'e& %* ( !'3e ("%.A' (%e+'(%!/e +"%"+e )*'?3"+(%!*' ! ! *))"++!'3 *' e(+(%e("% &"e %* %(%!) *+ &'($!) %+!33e+!'3 +*)ee 4F+ee&, 2005,+e"%!'3 !' he'*$e'( ")h ( &*"#e% 4e.3. A$$*' e% (., 20085.A &*"#e% ! %he *))"++e')e * %* 'e(+# e(+%h-"(6e !%h !$!(+$(3'!%"&e. The %!$e &e( #e%ee' +"%"+e )(' +('3e +*$$*'%h 4e.3. A$$*' e% (., 20085 %* e)*'& 4L( e% (., 201=5.M(' &*)"$e'%e& )(e * "#&")%!*' *'e &*"#e% !'/*/e%+!33e+!'3 #e%ee' %he "#&")%!'3 (%e !'%e+()e ('& &ee>+**%e&("% !' %he &*'3*!'3 (%e 4A$$*' e% (., 2008 L( e% (.,2010#5. A%h*"3h %he !$!)(%!*' *+ %"'($! h((+& (+e

1=



!3'!?)('%, %he+e (+e '* +e*+%e& )(e * +(!& %+!33e+!'3 +*$ %he(%e !'%e+()e %* %he "e+ (%e, he+e %he+e (+e )*$e; ("%!'3'e%*+6 4A"&!' e% (., 2008 Me'!)6 e% (., 2005. T* +e*/e%+!33e+e& ("%!'3 !' ")h )(e, &e'e *)( e!$!) *#e+/(%!*'(+e 'ee&e&. A +e3!*' !%h ( "!%(# &e'e 'e%*+6 *

e!$*$e%e+ ! %he )e'%+( Ch!e "#&")%!*' *'e (%e+ %he Mw 8.8M("e e(+%h-"(6e !' 2010. The e'"!'3 (%e+h*)6 e-"e')e ()(%"+e& !' &e%(! # %he I'%e+'(%!*'( M("e A%e+h*)6De*$e'% 4e.3. Be)6 e% (., 201 R!e%#+*)6 e% (., 20125.

Briginti$e;U(C<

Longitude ;=<

Latitude;=<

7epth

;$<!e%.

"7relocate

d20:20:17 >=.82 >=8. =

Th! %"&37

relocated

20:20:17 >=.= >=8.7 2=

C#;Chile<

20:20:11 >=. >=8.= 18

Ce'%+*S!$*X3!)*

N()!*'(420115

U#?#EIC

20:20:1 >=.== >=8.= 2USGS>NEIC

420115

?2'

?EB2B 20:20.1 >2.== >=8.2= 12

GFV>GEOFON

420115Table 7.1: Hypocentral estimates for the Araucania earthquake.

He+e, e *)" *' %he (+3e% !'%e+(%e (%e+h*)6 * %he M("ee-"e')e: %he Mw .1 A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e %h(% *))"++e& *' 2

Z('"(+ 2011 (% 20:20:18 UTC 4T(#e .15. B(e& *' CMT *"%!*'&e+!/e& +*$ %eee!$!) (/e*+$ 4F!3"+e .1 T(#e .25, %heA+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e (e(+ %* #e ( W%+(!3h%*+(+&9 (%e!'%e+()e %h+"%!'3 e/e'% 4E6%+$ e% (., 2012 U'!%e& S%(%eGe**3!)( S"+/e N(%!*'( E(+%h-"(6e I'*+$(%!*' Ce'%e+, 20115.

I% e!)e'%+e( +e3!*' !e %h(% ()%e& ( ( #(++!e+ &"+!'3 %he 10Mw .7 (&!/!( 4M*+e'* e% (., 2005 ('& 2010 Mw 8.8. M("e4M*+e'* e% (., 2012 R!e%#+*)6 e% (., 20125 e(+%h-"(6e 4F!3"+e.15. M*+e*/e+, %he "e+ (%e !' %h! (+e( ! he(/! ("%e&4Me'!)6 e% (., 200 M*+e'* e% (., 20125. The+e*+e, %he A+(")('!(e(+%h-"(6e ! (' !&e( )('&!&(%e %* e;($!'e *!#e )*''e)%!*'#e%ee' %he (%e !'%e+()e ('& "e+ (%e ("%.

1=8



Figure 7.1: Location map of the Araucania earthquake. Stations used for moment

tensor inversion are labelled by their corresponding station code. Other stations

are used for hypocentre relocation only. Shading indicates rupture areas of great

earthquakes in 1960 (Moreno et al., 2009) and 2010 (Moreno et al., 2012). Inset:

Regional plate tectonic setting.

I' %h! )h(%e+, e "e ( $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e !'/e+!*' * +e3!*'(e!$!) &(%( 4S*6* ('& V(h+(&'!6, 200 V(h+(&'!6 e% (., 20075.C*$(+e& %* $*+e )*'/e'%!*'( ! !'/e+!*' (*'3 +e>&e?'e&("% ('e 4M*+e'* e% (., 20125 ('& !'3e *!'%>*"+)e CMT!'/e+!*' 4E6%+$ e% (., 20125, e )(' +e%+!e/e !'&!/!&"()e'%+*!& %!$e ('& (* $"%!e ("%!'3 %e *' ( 3+!& * %+!(*!'%>*"+)e. A &e%(!e& "'&e+%('&!'3 * =>D )+"%( /e*)!%%+")%"+e 4Ch(%e+ F*"+ ('& F!/e5 e'"+e +e!(#e (/e*+$!'/e+!*'. S'%he%!) %e% h* %h(% e )(' ())"+(%e +e*/e (+('3e * e;%e'&e& *"+)e )*'?3"+(%!*' !%h *Jh*+e +"%"+e "!'3*'h*+e e!$!) %(%!*'. A' !'/e+!*' * *#e+/e& (/e*+$+e/e( %h(% %he A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e ( )*$*e& * %*+"%"+e: %he ?+% &"e %* %h+"%!'3 *' %he (%e !'%e+()e %hee)*'&, ee/e' e)*'& (%e+, *))"++e& &"e %* ! *' (' "e+(%e '*+$( ("%.

.2M(!'h*)6 h*)e'%+e +e*)(%!*'<e $('"( !)6e& P> ('& S>(/e *'e% %!$e (% #*%h *'h*+e ('&*Jh*+e %(%!*' (% ^ 170 6$ &!%(')e 4F!3"+e .15. The *'e% %!$ee+e %he' !'/e+%e& *+ %he h*)e'%+( *)(%!*' !'!&e *"+ *)( =>D

/e*)!% $*&e 4Ch(%e+ F!/e5. O"+ +e*)(%e& h*)e'%+e !e(+*;!$(%e h(( #e%ee' %he )*(%!'e ('& I( M*)h(, =0

1=



6$ %* %he '*+%h * %he USGS )e'%+*!& ('& 3CMT *"%!*' 4F!3"+e.1, T(#e .15. The h*)e'%+( &e%h * 2= 6$ ! )*'!%e'% !%h%he *)(%!*' * %he "#&")%!'3 (%e !'%e+()e, #(e& *' *"+!'&ee'&e'% e%!$(%e * +e3!*'( (# 3e*$e%+ 4Ch(%e+ F!/e5. The(+3e &!)+e(') !' %he CSN 4Ce'%+* S!$*X3!)* N()!*'(5 *)(%!*'

4=0 6$ +e(%!/e %* *"+ =>D +e*)(%!*'5 ! &"e %* =>D e!$!) /e*)!%/(+!(%!*' %h(% )(''*% #e ())*"'%e& *+ "!'3 ( 1>D /e*)!% $*&e"!'3 *'h*+e %(%!*' *'. Th! $!*)(%!*' ! (* &e$*'%+(%e&# *"+ *' *)(%!*' "!'3 ( 1>D /e*)!% $*&e 4T(#e .15.

Centroid Mo$ent tensor !e%.

Long. ;=<

Lat.;=<

7epth

;$<

odalplane "

odalplane *

@7C

Mw

!egional CM(

>=.= >=8.7 2=

=7181

18= 8 .0

/hisstudy

U#?#EIC;wphase<

>=.=7 >=8.= 2 1111

7118

.1USGSNEIC

420115

?lo&alCM(

>=.8 >=8.1 1

0071=

1888 .1

E6%+$e% (.

420125

Table 7.2: Single point-source CMT solutions for the Araucania earthquake. Nodal

planes are described by strike/dip/rake (°).

.2.1D(%( ee)%!*' ('& +*)e!'3

F*+ %he (/e*+$ !'/e+!*' * %he A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e, e "e&#+*(&#('& ('& %+*'3>$*%!*' %(%!*' %h(% e+e *)(%e& *'h*+e!%h!' (' e!)e'%+( &!%(')e * 200 6$ +*$ %he A+(")('!(e(+%h-"(6e. <e "e& (/e*+$ +*$ %(%!*' %h(% h(/e ( h!3h!3'(>%*>'*!e +(%!* 4 105 !' %he +e-"e') +('3e 0.010.10 H4F!3"+e .25. D"e %* %he )*e +*;!$!% * *$e %(%!*' %* %he

e(+%h-"(6e, e e;)"&e& (/e*+$ +e)*+& %h(% e+e e!%he+)!e&, h(& *'3 e+!*& &!%"+#(')e, *+ !'%+"$e'% %!% eJe)%.

Thee -"(!%>)*'%+* )he)6 +e"%e& !' ( e% * e/e' %(%!*'4!')"&!'3 %* %+*'3>$*%!*' %(%!*'5 *)(%e& '*+%h ('& e(% * %heA+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e 4F!3"+e .15.

10



Figure 7.2: Signal-to-noise ratio analysis for stations used in the single and

multiple point-source inversions. The dashed vertical lines denote the approximate

frequency range used.

.2.2I'/e+!*' (3*+!%h$

I%e+(%!/e &e)*'/*"%!*' 4ID5 4V(h+(&'!6 e% (., 20075 ! "e& *+ %he$"%!e *!'%>*"+)e !'/e+!*' * &e/!(%*+!) $*$e'% %e'*+. ID*+6 # !'/e+%!'3 *+ %he #e%>?%%!'3 *)( $e)h('!$ ('& %!$!'3* *"+)e *+ ( +e)+!#e& e% * *!'% %* $!'!$!e %he L2 $!?%#e%ee' *#e+/e& ('& '%he%!) (/e*+$. A 3+!& e(+)h ! %he'e+*+$e& %* ee)% %he *"+)e *!%!*' %h(% +*&")e %he h!3he%)*++e(%!*' #e%ee' *#e+/e& ('& '%he%!) (/e*+$. The ?+%!'/e+!*' e;(!' %he ">(/e*+$ "!'3 ( !'3e *"+)e, %he'%he%!) * h!)h (+e %he' "#%+()%e& +*$ %he *#e+/e&(/e*+$. The +e$(!'!'3 (/e*+$ (+e %he' "e& %* !'/e+% *+"#e-"e'% "#>e/e'% 4V(h+(&'!6 e% (., 20075. A%e+ %he +e%+!e/(

* e()h "#>e/e'%, R ! )()"(%e& ('& $('"( (ee& %*e'"+e %h(% $"%!e "#>e/e'% (+e +e-"!+e& # %he &(%( ('& %he(/e*+$ (+e '*% *e ?%%!'3 )*++e(%e& '*!e.F*+ $*$e'% %e'*+ !'/e+!*', e "e %he *%(+e ()6(3e, ISOLA4S*6* ('& V(h+(&'!6, 2005. I' %he !'/e+!*', %he $*$e'%>+(%e *%he *"+)e ! +e)+!#e& ('& ! *"'& # $('"( e(+)h!'3 *+ %he*"+)e e'3%h %h(% +*&")e %he $(;!$"$ R. I %he $*$e'%>+(%e* %he *"+)e ! h*+%e+ %h(' %he $!'!$"$ !'/e+%e& e+!*&, %he' %he*"+)e )(' #e +e+ee'%e& # ( &e%( "')%!*'. T* 'e3(%e (+%!()%+*&")e& # ID, e (* %e% %he %(#!!% * *"+ $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e *"%!*' "!'3 '*'>'e3(%!/e e(% -"(+e 4he+e(%e+, NNLS5!'/e+!*' 4V(h+(&'!6 ('& S*6*, 2015. I' %he NNLS (+*()h, %he&*"#e>)*"e *)( $e)h('!$ (% e()h *"+)e ! +e)+!#e&. A%

11



e()h %+!( *!'%>*"+)e *!%!*', %he $*$e'% +(%e ! +e+ee'%e& #( e% * h!%e& %+!('3e. The e!3h% * e()h %+!('3e ! %he'!'/e+%e& *+ "!'3 NNLS. I' %h! )h(%e+, e "e *'e>e)*'& %+!('3eh!%. The $*$e'% * e()h *"+)e )(' #e )*'%+(!'e&, h!)h%(#!!e %he !'/e+!*', (%h*"3h %he e;()% /("e * %*%( $*$e'%

&*e '*% &+($(%!)( !'@"e')e *"+)e %!$!'3 *+ *!%!*'4Q"!'%e+* e% (., 2015. The !'/e+!*' ! e+*+$e& *' #('&(>?%e+e& &!()e$e'%(/e*+$. The eJe)% * &!Je+e'% 1>D /e*)!% $*&e ( %e%e&%he ?'( *"%!*' e+e )()"(%e& "!'3 ( /e*)!% $*&e(+*+!(%e *+ %he )*(%!'e * *"%h>)e'%+( Ch!e 4F!3"+e .=5. <e('(e& %he eJe)% * &(%( e++*+ ('& !$e+e)% G+ee'9 "')%!*'# %e$(%!)( +e$*/!'3 !e)e * &(%( +*$ %he !'/e+!*'4()66'!?'35. <he+e "#"+()e %+")%"+e ! )*$e;, +e$*/( *)e+%(!' %(%!*' $( h(/e ( (+3e eJe)% *' %he ?'( *"%!*' 4S*6*('& V(h+(&'!6, 201=5. B(e& *' %he ('(! * !3'(>%*>'*!e +(%!*4F!3"+e .25, e "e& ( *e+$*% +e-"e') !$!% * 0.02 H%h+*"3h*"% %h! )h(%e+. The "e+ +e-"e') !$!% ( &ee'&e'%*' %he *"+)e (+($e%e+!(%!*' "e& 4!'3e *+ $"%!e *"+)e5.

Figure 7.3: 1-D velocity models tested in this study based on our local

tomographic model (Chapter Five). Model B (Coastline) was used for the final

source solutions.

.=S'%he%!) %e%

.=.1Re*/!'3 )((#!!% * $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e

Be*+e !'/e+%!'3 %he +e( &(%(, e %e%e& %he e+*+$(')e * *"+!'/e+!*' %+(%e3, ('& !% (#!!% %* +e*/e $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e

12



# !$"(%!'3 e/e+( &!Je+e'% *"+)e )*'?3"+(%!*'. <e %he'!'/e+%e& %hee '%he%!) (/e*+$ ( #*%h !'3e ('& $"%!e*!'%>*"+)e $*&e. He+e, e &e)+!#e %he +e"% "!'3 !%e+(%!/e&e)*'/*"%!*' 4ID5. B(e& *' 3*#( CMT *"%!*' 4F!3"+e .1, T(#e.25, e ("$e& %h(% %he )("(%!/e ("% ('e ( %he h(*,

e(%(+& &!!'3 "#&")%!'3 (%e !'%e+()e. <e &e!3'e& ( 2>D3+!& * %+!( *!'%>*"+)e %h(% !e !' %he ($e *+!e'%(%!*' ( %he$e3(%h+"% ("% 4F!3"+e .5, ())*+&!'3 %* +e3!*'( (%e !'%e+()e3e*$e%+ 4Ch(%e+ F!/e5. The ('e * %+!( 3+!& *!%!*' (e%h+*"3h %he h*)e'%+e * %he A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e.

1=



Figure 7.4: Synthetic source recovery tests for different source configurations (A-D). The

number above each beach ball represents the input and recovered centroid time of each

source. For the single-source inversion, focal mechanisms are coloured by %DC. For the

multiple source inversion results, focal mechanisms are coloured by the Kagan angle

(minimum rotation angle) with respect to the corresponding input beach ball.

G!/e' %he e')*"+(3!'3 +e"% +*$ %he %(%!*' )*/e+(3e %e%, *"+'e;% %e ! %* )*'!&e+ he%he+ )e+%(!' *"+)e )*'?3"+(%!*' $(#!( +e%+!e/( * MT (+($e%e+. P+e/!*" &*)"$e'%e& e;($e *"!'3 ISOLA %* +e*/e $"%!e "#>e/e'% ("$e& ( ?;e& *)($e)h('!$ 4Q"!'%e+* e% (., 201 V(h+(&'!6 ('& S*6*, 2015. T*(&/(')e %hee +e/!*" %"&!e, *"+ *#e)%!/e !' %h! )h(%e+ ! %*(e *"+)e )*$e;!% &"e %* %+!33e+!'3 *' 'e(+# ("%.

The+e*+e, e %e%e& ( )*$#!'(%!*' * "#>e/e'% ("%!'3 %e. O"+*"+ $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e )e'(+!* ('& )*++e*'&!'3 +e"% (+e

"$$(+!e& !' F!3"+e . ('& T(#e .=.

1



F*+ $*% * %hee )(e, %he !'/e+!*' +e*/e %he %!$!'3 * %he%* "#>e/e'% %he +e(%!/e $*$e'% * %he *"+)e ! (*+e)*/e+e&. H*e/e+, *+ !'3e *!'%>*"+)e !'/e+!*', %he+e)*/e+e& $*$e'% +ee(e &*e '*% (( e-"( %he "$ * #*%h!'"% "#>e/e'%. Th! &!)+e(') ! (+%!)"(+ '*%!)e(#e he+e

#*%h "#>e/e'% (+e +e/e+e ("%!'3 4C(e A ('& B5, h!)h (*+e"% !' ( *e+ /(+!(')e +e&")%!*' 4R5. I$*+%('%, ((+% +*$he+e %he *Jh*+e "#>e/e'% ! (+3e+ ('& +"%"+e e(+!e+ 4C(eD5, %he &*"#e>)*"e e+)e'%(3e 4DC5 +*$ %he !'3e>*"+)e!'/e+!*' ! h!3h, *%e'%!( $(6!'3 *"+)e )*$e;!% 4R!/e+(('& K('($*+!, 2015. I' %h! )(e, %he +e%+!e/e& $e)h('!$ ! $*%!$!(+ %* %he ?+% "#>e/e'%. <e e)"(%e %h(% %he +e"% $()*$e +*$ %he )*$e; "e+*!%!*' * h!3h ($!%"&e *'3 e+!*&(/e +*$ %hee %* e/e'% he' %he (++!/e (% %he %(%!*'. Th!+e"% *))"+ &"e %* %he "'e/e' &!%+!#"%!*' * %(%!*' ('& $e('%h(% e $( '*% #e (#e %* +e*/e ( &*"#e% !'/*/!'3 ( (+3e+*Jh*+e +"%"+e *))"++!'3 #e*+e ( $(e+ e/e'% %h(% ! *)(%e&)*e+ %* %he %(%!*'. B(e& *' R ('& "#>e/e'% +e%+!e/(e+*+$(')e, %he #e% *"+)e )*'?3"+(%!*' *+ *"+ 'e%*+6 ! %he)(e * ( %h+"% e/e'% **e& # ( $(e+ e;%e'!*'( +"%"+e"+%he+ *Jh*+e 4C(e C5.

17



R e c o v e r e d S o u r c e s

M u l t i p l e - s o u r c e i n v e r s i o n S

u b - e

v e n t I I

R o t .

a n g l e 1 1 1 2

1

M e c h .

5 / 3 / 9 7

1 / 5 9 / 9 0

1 / 5 9 / - 8 9

2 1 0 / 1 1 / - 6 1

t ( s )

2 0

2 0

2 0

1 9

P o s . 3

3 1 6

1 6

3 2

S u b - e v

e n t I

R o t .

a n g l e 3 3 2 1

2

M

e c h .

4 / 9 / 9 6

3 5

1 / 8 / 8 6

0 / 9 / 9 2

1 7 8 / 3 9 / - 9 9

d t ( s )

1 0 1 0 1 0 4

P o s . 3 3 3 3 3 3 1

S i n g l e - s o u r c e

i n v e r s i o n %

D C

9 0

9 7

9 9

7 2

M e c h .

2 9 / 1 2

/ 1 8

4 / 8 9 / - 9 7

1 5 / 1 9 / 1 1 1

2 1 8 / 9 / - 4 9

d t ( s )

1 2

1 0

1 0

1 9

P o s

4 1

3 3

3 3

3 2

I n p u t s o u r c e s

S

u b - e v e n t I I

M e c h .

3 5 7 / 1 0 / 9 0

0 / 6 0 / 9 0

0 / 6 0 / - 9 0

3 5 7 / 1 0 / 9 0

P o s 1 6 1 6 1 6 3 3

S u b - e v e n t I

M e c h .

3 5 7 / 1 0 / 9 0

3 5 7 / 1 0 / 9 0

3 5 7 / 1 0 / 9 0

0 / 6 0 / - 9 0

P o s . 3

3 3 3

3 3

1 6

1



( t = 1 0 s )

: R e s

u l t s

y n t h

e t i c

C a s e A B C D

.=.2Re(%!/e "')e+%(!'% e%!$(%e

A ( e)*'& '%he%!) %e%, e -"('%! %he +e(%!/e "')e+%(!'% !'*"+)e $e)h('!$ )("e& # +e&")e& (!$"%h( )*/e+(3e *' %he)((#!!% * %he !'/e+!*' %* +e*/e *"+)e *)(%e& (+ *Jh*+e.He+e, e 3e'e+(%e& 1>D '%he%!) *+ ( +('3e * !'3e>*"+)e("%!'3 %e *)(%e& *Jh*+e 4T(#e .5. <e "e& ( %** !' ISOLA%* )()"(%e %he*+e%!)( "')e+%(!'% !' G+ee'9 "')%!*'. S")h ('

"')e+%(!'% e%!$(%e ! +e(%!/e #e)("e &(%( /(+!(')e ! "'6'*'.H*e/e+, +e(%!/e "')e+%(!'%!e )(' #e )()"(%e& #e%ee' %* e%* %(%!*' )*'?3"+(%!*'. A 7D e++*+ e!*!& ! )*$"%e& ('& ($e(' K(3(' ('3e 4K(3(', 115 ! 3!/e', +*/!&!'3 (' e%!$(%e *%he e++*+ !' *)( $e)h('!$ (+($e%e+, !%h +ee)% %* %he #e%>?%%!'3 *"%!*'. <e )*$"%e& "')e+%(!'%!e *+ %* )e'(+!*: *'e"!'3 %he +e( %(%!*' )*/e+(3e 4F!3"+e .15, %he *%he+ "!'3 ('e%*+6 !%h e+e)% (!$"%h( &!%+!#"%!*'. The +e"% +*$ %h!%e% (+e h*' !' T(#e .. <e *"'& %h(% e++*+ "!'3 %he ()%"(%(%!*' )*/e+(3e (+e *' 12= 3+e(%e+ %h(' %h*e "!'3 (e+e)% 'e%*+6 "')e+%(!'%!e (+e $(e+ he' ( '*&( ('e%+!6e !' %he ($e &!+e)%!*' ( %he 'e%*+6 4'*+%h>e%5. Thee+e"% !$ %h(% e )(' %+"% %he *)( $e)h('!$ * *Jh*+ee!$!) *"+)e "!'3 *"+ %(%!*' &!%+!#"%!*'.

The +e3!*'( CMT *"%!*' +*/!&e ( 3**& ?% %* %he *#e+/e&(/e*+$ (% $*% %(%!*' 4F!3"+e .75. The )e'%+*!& !e )*e %**"+ +e*)(%e& e!)e'%+e !% $e)h('!$ ! )*'!%e'% !%h %he%eee!$!) GCMT ('& USGS *"%!*' 4F!3"+e .1, T(#e .25,!'&!)(%!'3 %h+"%!'3 (*'3 %he (%e !'%e+()e. A h!3h &*"#e>)*"ee+)e'%(3e 4DC5 !'&!)(%e& # %he 3*#( 485 ('& *"+ +e3!*'(*"%!*' 4875 "33e% ( !$e ("%!'3 %e. <he' e !')+e(e%he "e+ +e-"e') !$!% %* 0.0 H, (/e*+$ /(+!(')e+e&")%!*' 4R5 h(+ &e)+e(e ('&, (% %he "e+ !$!% * 0.08 H,e '*%!)e %* )e(+ (++!/( !' %he *#e+/e& (/e*+$ 4F!3"+e .,F!3"+e .5. <e (* ?'& %h(% ( %he "e+ +e-"e') #('&( )"%>*J !')+e(e, DC 3+(&"( &e)+e(e. Th! %+e'& )*'%!'"e "'%!(+*"'& 0.07 H, (#*/e h!)h DC #e)*$e h!3h. The+e*+e, %he'e;% %e ! %* )*'!&e+ he%he+ ( )*$e; *"+)e )(' #e +e*/e&"!'3 h!3he+ +e-"e') (/e*+$ ('& ( $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e(+($e%e+!(%!*'.

1



Input %ocal$echanis$ at

source position"8

;striediprae<

2ocal $echanis$uncertainty ;$eanagan angle D=<

@ Error due to actualstation conAguration!eal

stationconAguration

Ideal station

conAguration

0101700 .8 =.1 17

000700 .8 =.81 2

07700 .27 =. 12

00700 7.22 =.8 =8

0007>00 .8 =.81 2

=127>11 7.=0 =. =

0000180 7.=2 =.8 =8

070180 7.=8 =.88 =

Table 7.4: Relative uncertainty estimates of different faulting styles for a single

point-source offshore (source position 16). Uncertainties are calculated for both

our actual station distribution (Figure 7.1) and a network of ideally distributed

stations.

.M"%!e *!'%>*"+)e *"%!*'<e ?+% )(++!e& *"% ( $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e !'/e+!*' "!'3 ID, !'h!)h %he &e/!(%*+!) $*$e'% %e'*+ $e)h('!$ * #*%h *"+)ee+e (*e& %* /(+. A %*>*!'%>*"+)e $*&e ! ( *3!)(

+*3+e!*' (' Mw e(+%h-"(6e ! !6e )*$*e& * '* $*+e%h(' %* %* %h+ee (%)he * ! 4V(h+(&'!6 ('& S*6*, 2015. The3+!& * *!'% *"+)e ( 6e% %he ($e ( *+ %he !'3e *!'%>*"+)e !'/e+!*'. F*+ %he *"+)e>%!$e "')%!*', e *"'& %h(% !%h!')+e(!'3 e'3%h * %he %+!('3e, %he %*%( $*$e'% 3+(&"(!')+e(e, h!e he+e( R ('& DC * e()h *"+)e +e()he ($(;!$"$ (% 18 4F!3"+e .85. <e %he+e*+e ?;e& %he %+!('3ee'3%h * e()h *"+)e %* 18 *+ %he ID $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e!'/e+!*', (%h*"3h %he *!'%>*"+)e $e)h('!$ +e$(!' )*'!%e'%*+ &!Je+e'% %+!('3e e'3%h, "33e%!'3 ( %(#e *"%!*'.

18



Figure 7.5: Single source inversion results. a) Comparison between the observed

(black) and synthetic (red) waveforms. Waveforms are filtered in the frequency

range 0.02–0.04 Hz. Station names are shown on the right and the components are

labelled at the top. Numbers next to waveforms denote corresponding variance

reduction. b) Grey beach balls show solution variability based on jackknifing tests,

labelled with the station removed in each inversion. The coloured grid represents

the correlation between waveforms for each trial point-source position

(numbered). Solutions that lie within 90% of the maximum VR are plotted in

black. The highest correlation solution is plotted in red. The red star denotes the

epicentre of the Araucania earthquake.

1



Figure 7.6: Double-couple percentage (%DC) and variance reduction (VR) of the

single point-source versus frequency. A transition occurs at 0.057 Hz, where VR

suddenly decreases because the waveforms cannot be explained by a single point-

source alone. This change is illustrated by representative waveforms at low and

high frequencies.

C*$(+e& !%h %h(% * "!'3 %he ?+% *"+)e (*'e 4R 0.75,!'%+*&")%!*' * %he e)*'& *"+)e !3'!?)('% !')+e(e %he

(/e*+$ ?% 4F!3"+e .(5 # =0 4R 0.=5, I' *+&e+ %* %e% %he%(%!%!)( /(!&!% * ?%%!'3 %he (/e*+$ "!'3 %he e)*'& "#>e/e'%, e (e %he !3'!?)(')e * %he /(+!(')e +e&")%!*' "!'3%he @ %e%. S!$!(+ %e% h(/e #ee' +e/!*" )(++!e& *"% *+$"%!e *!'%>*"+)e $*$e'% %e'*+ !'/e+!*' 4A&($*/( e% (.,2008 S!6!', 185.E()h $*&e ! )h(+()%e+!e& # %he /(+!(')e #e%ee' '%he%!) ('&*#e+/e& (/e*+$:

,

[¿¿i−$ i ]2

/=∑ ¿

( 7.1 )

he+e ('& S +e+ee'% %he *#e+/e& ('& '%he%!) &(%(,+ee)%!/e.

170



F i g u r e 7 . 7 : C o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e

o b s e r v e d ( b l a c k ) a n d s y n t h e t i c

( r e d ) w a v e f o r m s a t h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s ( 0 . 0 2 – 0 . 0 8 H z ) s o l u t i o n

u s i n g a s i n g l e

.

171



Figure 7.8: Correlation (black line) and total moment (red dashed line) of the

multiple point-source solution as a function of triangle length using iterative

deconvolution. Beach balls above and below the line give the best-fitting

mechanism for Events I and II, respectively.

<e %he+e*+e &e?'e %he +(%!*:

% = / (model 2) / (model 1)

( 7.2 )

h!)h ! )*$(+e& !%h %he @ %e% /("e (% &!Je+e'% )*'?&e')ee/e ('& *+ &!Je+e'% &e3+ee * +ee&*$, dof ., he+e

do5 = N − M . N )*++e*'& %* %he '"$#e+ * &(%( *!'%, ('& M! %he '"$#e+ * +ee (+($e%e+ 4M 7 *+ ( &e/!(%*+!) !'/e+!*'5.D(%( (% * +e-"e')!e (+e )e(+ )*++e(%e&, #"% e ("$e %h(%%he &(%( (+e "')*++e(%e& he' %he (/e*+$ (+e ($e& !%h!'%he %"&!e& e+!*& +('3e 4D+e3e+ ('& <**&, 20025 4 12 #(e&*' *"+ *( ?%e+ )*+'e+5. M*$e'% %e'*+ (+e )()"(%e& */e+ (%!$e !'&* %h(% ! 27. !' e'3%h. B(e& *' *"+ * ( ?%e+)*+'e+ +e-"e'), %h! %!$e !'&* +e&")e %* 1. , h!)h +e"%!' 77 &(%( *!'% *+ e()h )*$*'e'%. F*+ ( %h+ee )*$*'e'%('& e/e' %(%!*', e %h" h(/e ( %*%( * 1=70 &e3+ee *+ee&*$. The /(+!(')e +(%!*, @ #e%ee' *"+ !'3e ('& %*>*!'%>*"+)e $*$e'% %e'*+ !'/e+!*' e-"( 1.281, h!)h ! $")h3+e(%e+ %h(' %he )+!%!)( @ /("e * 1.0 (% ( )*'?&e')e e/e *.7. C*'e-"e'%, e (+3"e %h(% %he !'%+*&")%!*' * ( e)*'&*!'%>*"+)e ! %(%!%!)( !3'!?)('% !%h ( h!3h )*'?&e')e.

F("%!'3 %e (% e()h %+!( *!'%>*"+)e *!%!*' (+e )*'!%e'%,!%h h(+ )*++e(%!*' $(;!$( 4F!3"+e .#5. B(e& *' *"+ +e"%,e )(' )*'?&e'% !&e'%! %he **!'3 +e$(+6(#e e-"e')e *

e/e'%, h!)h )(' #e +e3(+&e& ( ( )*e>()e& &*"#e% 4CSD5,#*%h !' %!$e ('& ()e. Sh*+% (%e+ '")e(%!*', E/e'% I 4Mw .85

172



+"%"+e& %he $e3(%h+"% #e'e(%h %he )*(%. N* $*+e %h(' %e/ee)*'& (%e+, E/e'% II 4Mw .5 +"%"+e& %* %he *"%h>e% (% (h(*e+ &e%h ('& !%h (' *#!-"e '*+$( ("%!'3 $e)h('!$. A( %e% * *"%!*' %(#!!%, e e+*+$ ()66'!?'3 %e% # +e$*/!'3*'e %(%!*' (% ( %!$e +*$ %he !'/e+!*'. The +e"% * %hee %e%

(+e h*' !' T(#e .7 ('& &e$*'%+(%e +e$(+6(# )*'!%e'%)e'%+*!& *!%!*' ('& *)( $e)h('!$ *+ E/e'% I ('& II. The ()66'!?'3 %e% %he+e*+e !'&!)(%e %h(% %he ee)%e& $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e *"%!*' ! '*% &ee'&e'% *' *'e !'3e (/e*+$.F"+%he+$*+e, ( %h+ee>*!'%>*"+)e (+*;!$(%!*' &!& '*%$e('!'3" !$+*/e %he (/e*+$ ?% 4R 0. = !')+e(e !'R )*$(+e& !%h %* *!'%>*"+)e5.S!')e ID !'/e+% *+ %he ?+% *!'%>*"+)e #e*+e "#e-"e'%)()"(%!'3 %he e)*'& *"+)e, e )(++!e& *"% ( %e% %* &e%e+$!'ehe%he+ E/e'% II ! &ee'&e'% *' %he )h*e' *)(%!*' ('& ("%!'3%e * E/e'% I. N*+$(, e ())e% %he *"+)e *!%!*' %h(%+*&")e %he h!3he% (/e*+$ )*++e(%!*'. H*e/e+, *+ %h! %e%,e ?;e& %he *!%!*' * E/e'% I ('& )h*e %he )*++e*'&!'3 #e%>?%%!'3 $e)h('!$. <e )(++!e& *"% %he %e% (% ( %+!( *!'%>*"+)e(&()e'% %* P*!%!*' == 4%he #e%>?%%!'3 *!%!*' * E/e'% I5. The+e"% * %h! %e% (+e h*' !' T(#e .. F*+ ( #"% *'e *!%!*' *E/e'% I, %he *!%!*', %!$!'3, ('& $e)h('!$ * E/e'% II +e$(!')*'!%e'% !%h %he )h*e' *"%!*'. <he' E/e'% I ! ?;e& %*P*!%!*' 27, %he MT *"%!*' * E/e'% II (e(+ e %(#e. P*!%!*'27 ! 'e;% %* P*!%!*' 1 4%he *)(%!*' * E/e'% II +*$ ID F!3"+e.5, * %h! &!)+e(') ! e;e)%e& #e)("e %he !'/e+!*' %+!e %*

e;(!' #*%h e/e'% (% P*!%!*' 27 !%h ( !'3e *"+)e. I' "$$(+,e ?'& %h(% %he E/e'% II *"%!*' ! %(#e !%h +ee)% %* %he e;()%*!%!*' ('& $e)h('!$ * E/e'% I.<e "e& NNLS %* %e% %he )e+%(!'% * %he *"%!*' *#%(!'e& # ID.

T* e(+)h *+ %he #e%>?%%!'3 *"+)e )*'?3"+(%!*', e e+*+$e&%* !'/e+!*': *'e !' h!)h %*%( $*$e'% ( )*'%+(!'e& # %heID *"%!*' %he *%he+ !' h!)h $*$e'% ( (*e& %* /(+. <e%e%e& $(' *"+)e *!%!*' ('& ("%!'3 %e *+ E/e'% I ('& II"!'3 NNLS, #"% e *"'& %h(% %he h!3he% R )($e +*$ %he %*>*!'%>*"+)e )*'?3"+(%!*' *"'& !%h ID. U!'3 %he $e)h('!$3!/e' # %he ID *"%!*', e %he' )(++!e& *"% ( 3+!&>e(+)h */e+ (

*!#e )*$#!'(%!*' * %he %*>*!'%>*"+)e *)(%!*' "!'3 %heNNLS. A e;e)%e&, %he $*$e'%>)*'%+(!'e& !'/e+!*' ! $*%!$!(+ %* %he ID *"%!*' 4F!3"+e .105. Ne/e+%hee, #*%h!'/e+!*' +*&")e +e"% )*'!%e'% !%h %he ID *"%!*'.I$*+%('%, %he +e"%!'3 *"+)e>%!$e "')%!*' *#%(!'e& # NNLSh* %h(% #*%h e/e'% h(/e ( !$!(+ %!$e "')%!*' %* %he 18 %+!('3e *"+)e "e& !' ID 4F!3"+e .)<. I' "$$(+, e ?'& '*#!( !' %he +e"% )("e& # %he !'/e+!*' $e%h*&.

.7C*$(+!*' !%h (%e+h*)6 *)(%!*' ('&

$e)h('!$A %h*+*"3h ('(! * (%e+h*)6 ! 'ee&e& #e)("e %he+e (+e '*

17=



(/(!(#e CMT *"%!*' +*$ 3*#( (3e')!e %he (+3e% +e)*+&e&(%e+h*)6 h(& Mb . 4#(e& *' %he USGS>NEIC )(%(*3"e5. <ee(+)he& )*'%!'"*" (/e*+$ +*$ *)( *'h*+e ('& OBS%(%!*' !' %he =0 &( **!'3 %he $(!'h*)6. T* e'"+e +e!(#e*)(%!*', e +e*)(%e& e/e'% %h(% h(& ( $!'!$"$ * ?/e P>(/e

('& %h+ee S>(/e *#e+/(%!*'. The +e*)(%!*' ( e+*+$e& !' (!$!(+ ( %* %h(% * %he $(!'h*)6 4Se)%!*' .25. The (/e+(3e%('&(+& e++*+ !' &e%h * *"+ (%e+h*)6 +e*)(%!*' ! 1.2 6$. <e(* !'/e+%e& *+ !'3e *!'%>*"+)e $*$e'% %e'*+ *"%!*' *(%e+h*)6 !' %he +e-"e') +('3e 0.070.11 H. The 3+!& e(+)h( )(++!e& *"% */e+ ( +('3e * &e%h, )e'%+e& *' e()h h*)e'%+e*)(%!*'. Ce'%+*!& &e%h e+e 3e'e+( )*'!%e'% !%hh*)e'%+( &e%h. S*"%!*' -"(!% ( %e%e& "!'3 &!Je+e'%)*$#!'(%!*' * %(%!*' ('& /e*)!% $*&e, ( e ()+*)he)6!'3 !%h ?+% $*%!*' *(+!%!e.L*)(%!*' ('& $e)h('!$ * (%e+h*)6 4F!3"+e .115 )*'?+$"*+% *"+ CSD !'%e++e%(%!*'. F+*$ *"+ +e*)(%e& e/e'%, !% !)e(+ %h(% %he+e (+e %* &!%!')% 3+*" * (%e+h*)6 4F!3"+e.11(5. O'e 3+*" ! *)(%e& !' %he )*(%( +e3!*' 4he+e(%e+, G+*"A5 %he *%he+ =00 6$ %* %he *"%h>e% 4he+e(%e+, G+*" B5.G+*" B (%e+h*)6 h(/e h(*e+ &e%h, *)(%e& !%h!' %he$(+!'e *+e(+), " %* 6$ (#*/e %he (%e !'%e+()e 4F!3"+e .11#5.<e *#%(!'e& 1 CMT *"%!*' +*$ %he (%e+h*)6 e-"e')e 4F!3"+e.11<, ( * h!)h h(/e &e%h !' (3+ee$e'% !%h %he!+ h*)e'%+(*)(%!*'. N*+$( ("%!'3 $e)h('!$ &*$!'(%e (%e+h*)6 G+*"B. G+*" A (%e+h*)6 )*$+!e $!;e& ("%!'3 %e, #"%

!'%e+(%e %h+"% ("%!'3 ! $*% )*$$*'.

17



Figure 7.9: a) Observed (black) and synthetic (red) waveforms for the best-fitting high

frequency (0.02–0.08 Hz) solution using two point-sources. Station names are

labelled. Numbers alongside each waveform component denote VR. Blue and green

shading denotes the contribution from each event. b) Waveform correlation for each

event as a function of trial point-source position (numbered). The time shifts of

Events I and II are shown. Black beach balls are solutions that lie within 90% of the

best-fitting solution’s (red beach ball) VR. The red star denotes the earthquake’sepicentre. c) Resulting moment-rate function obtained using NNLS.

177



.=>D (/e*+$ +*(3(%!*' eJe)%A "!'3 *)(%!*' &!)+e(') #e%ee' E/e'% II ('& (%e+h*)6G+*" B 4F!3"+e .11(5 +(!e %he -"e%!*' * *!#e *)(%!*' #!(!' %he $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e !'/e+!*'. S* (+, e h(/e )*$"%e&

'%he%!) e!$*3+($ # )()"(%!'3 G+ee'9 "')%!*' !' ( 1>D/e*)!% $*&e. H*e/e+, !' %he h(* +e3!*' * "#&")%!*'*'e, %he+e (+e %+*'3 (%e+( /e*)!% 3+(&!e'%, (+%!)"(+ !' S>(/e /e*)!% 4F!3"+e .11#, Ch(%e+ F!/e5. The+e*+e, ( $*+e+e(!%!) /e*)!% $*&e )(' !$+*/e (/e*+$ ?% ('& $(6e *"+)e!'/e+!*' $*+e %(#e.

T* ())*"'% *+ (%e+( /e*)!% /(+!(%!*', e !$"(%e& (/e*+$!' *"+ =>D /e*)!% $*&e 4Ch(%e+ F!/e5 "!'3 %he e)%+( ee$e'%)*&e SPECFEM=D 4K*$(%!%)h e% (., 20105. F*+ %he !$"(%!*', e)*'%+")%e& ( he;(he&+( "'%+")%"+e& $eh 4F!3"+e .125 "!'3%he GEOCUBIT *%(+e ()6(3e 4C((+*%%! e% (., 20085. The (%e+(+e*"%!*' (% %he "+()e ! 7 6$, )*(+e'!'3 (% ( +e?'e$e'% (e+47 6$ &e%h, h!)h ! (' (/e+(3e M*h* &e%h *+ %he +e3!*'4Ch(%e+ F*"+ ('& F!/e5. The $eh h*'*"+ "+()e +e!e ('&#(%h$e%+ %* e'"+e %h(% %**3+(h!) eJe)% *' (/e*+$+*(3(%!*' (+e ())"+(%e !$"(%e&. O"+ $eh &*e '*% )*'%(!'&!!'3 3e**3!)( &!)*'%!'"!%!e !' %he "#"+()e, ")h ( %he*)e('!) M*h*, &"e %* %he ()6 * )*'%+(!'% *' !% 3e*$e%+. Th!$eh h( #ee' &e!3'e& *+ !$"(%!*' %h(% (+e ())"+(%e " %*0.= H, e (#*/e %he $(;!$"$ +e-"e') * *"+ *"+)e!'/e+!*', e'"+!'3 '"$e+!)( %(#e !$"(%!*'.

<e 3e'e+(%e& =>D '%he%!) %h(% e+e #(e& *' *"+ %*>*!'%>*"+)e *"%!*' ('& "e& %hee ( !'"% %* ( $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e!'/e+!*' "!'3 1>D G+ee'9 "')%!*'. <he+e(!e %he *!%!*' *E/e'% I +e$(!' %(#e, e ?'& %h(% %he !'/e+!*' h!% E/e'% II 126$ %* %he *"%h 4+*$ *!%!*' 1 %* 17 F!3"+e .1=5. S!$!(+,he' e !$"(%e %he (/e*+$ +*$ E/e'% II (% %he *)(%!*' *(%e+h*)6 G+*" B 4*!%!*' 15, e ?'& ( !$!(+ *"%h(+& h!%,( !$!e& +*$ %he +e( &(%( !'/e+!*'. The+e*+e, !% ! !6e %h(%E/e'% II *))"++e& 12 6$ '*+%h(+& !%h +ee)% %* %he *+$(!'/e+!*' +e"% * F!3"+e .. Th! +e"% &e$*'%+(%e %he!$*+%(')e * =>D %+")%"+( $*&e %* *#%(!' ())"+(%e *"+)e

(+($e%e+ * *Jh*+e "#&")%!*' e(+%h-"(6e.

17



S%(%!*'+e$*/e&

Eent I Eent II

T!$eh!%

45

S*"+)e

*)(%!*'

N*&(

('e 1

MwF*)(

$e)h.

T!$e

h!% 45

S*"+)e

*)(%!*'

N*&(

('e 1

MwF*)(

$e)h.

one 10. == =78 .8 2=. 1 =127>11 .

F2*8 1=.8 ==0=12

.8 2=. 1=1=>

12 .

FC+5 10. == =71=8 .8 2=. 1=20=>

120 .

L++3 10. ==0120=

. 22. 1

=21=0>

12.8

FC+6 10. == ===7 .8 2=. 1=21=>

120 .

L"+" 10. == =2== . 2=. 1 =10>12 .8

FC+* 10. == =27=8 .8 2=. 1 =20=>12 .

F2*5 10. == ===1 .8 22. 1 =20=2>12 .

Table 7.5: Source stability of the multiple point-source solution based on the

results of removing one station at a time from the inversion (jackknifing). These

jackknifing results are compared with the best-fitting solution obtained using all

available stations. Source location refers to the grid position illustrated in Figure

7.9b. Stations are ordered in epicentral distance. These results show the

remarkably consistent mechanisms for both sub-events, indicating independence

from the exact set stations used in the inversion.

17



Eent I Eent II

S*"+)e*)(%!*'

T!$eh!%45

N*&(('e 1

M

w

F*)($e)h.

S*"+)e*)(%!*'

T!$eh!%45

N*&(('e 1

M

w

F*)($e)h.

9estAttingsolution

== 10. =708

.8 1 2=. =127>

11.

2iGedlocations%orEent I

1 1=. 112172

.8 1 2=.2 =1=>

1==.

= 11.8 811=

.

8

1 2=.2 =12=>

1=7

.

2 10.0 120122

.8 1 2=.2 =0>

1=.

2 8.8 1=02.8 1 2=.2

=10=>1=

.

27 . ==2107

. 11.2 ===80

0.8

=2 10.==1170

7.8 1 2=.7

=1==>1==

.

= 12. =010=8

.8 1 2=.2 =12>

12.

0 1=.0 ===0

.8

1 2=.2 =172>1==

.

Table 7.6: Dependence of Event II solution on the position and mechanism of

Event I.

178



Figure 7.10: Best-fitting solutions (within the 98th percentile) for the two-point-

source, high frequency solution using the moment-constrained NNLS. The colour

of each beach ball indicates the centroid time of each source.

.D!)"!*' ('& )*')"!*'B(e& *' *"+ (%e+h*)6 ('(e ('& =>D (/e*+$ !$"(%!*' !%! '* )e(+ %h(% E/e'% II +"%"+e& *' ( '*+$( ("% (% 'e(+ %he#(e * %he */e++!&!'3 )+"% 4F!3"+e .11, F!3"+e .15. G+*" B(%e+h*)6 (+e *)(%e& )*e %* %he +*$!'e'% M*)h(>!(++!)( ("%*'e 4F!3"+e .115. Th! ("% $( #e +e(%e& %* %+*'3 /e*)!%)*'%+(% !' %he $(+!'e *+e(+) #e'e(%h I( M*)h(, he+e G+*" B(%e+h*)6 (+e *)(%e& 4F!3"+e .15. C+"%( ("%!'3 !' %he +e3!*'! e+/(!/e ('& $( e;%e'& %h+*"3h %he e'%!+e )+"% 4eeE')*"+e 15 4H!)6 ('& N!+e, 2012 Me'!)6 e% (., 2005 !% !("!#e %h(% %he 3e*$e%+ * ("% 'e%*+6 #e)*$e $*+e)*$e; (% %he #(e * %he *+e(+) !%h *!#e )*'"3(%e ("%!'34F!3"+e .15. S!$!(+ ("% e+e *"'& !' %he +"%"+e (+e( * %he

2011 T*h*6" e(+%h-"(6e 4T"! e% (., 201=5, (%h*"3h !' )*'%+(% %*%he A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e, %hee e+e *)(%e& )*e+ %* %he +e3!*'

17



* 3+e(%e% )*e!$!) !. <e e)"(%e %h(% %hee ("% (+e)*$+e!*'( &"+!'3 %he !'%e+e!$!) e+!*&, #"% ( %+e !'/e+!*')("e& # %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e 4H(+&e#e)6, 20125 $( (/*"+*%e!$!) e;%e'!*'. B(e& *'O' %he #(! * (+*;!$(%e ("%(+e( +*$ )(!'3 +e(%!*' 4B(e+ e% (., 20105, %he %* ("%

('e * E/e'% I ('& II !6e &* '*% !'%e+e)%. The+e (+e e/e+(*!#e $e)h('!$ *+ %he %+!33e+!'3 * ( +"%"+e # ( +e)e&!'3e(+%h-"(6e. D'($!)( %+!33e+e& +"%"+e * %he '*+$( ("% !!6e %he &*$!'('% (!"+e $e)h('!$ 3!/e' %h(% E/e'% II9 )e'%+*!&%!$e )*!')!&e !%h %he ((3e * h!3h ($!%"&e S>(/e (++!/(+*$ E/e'% I, ( h*' # ( =>D (/e*+$ !$"(%!*' 4F!3"+e .175.H*e/e+, e )(''*% )*$e%e +"e *"% %(%!) %+e %+('e+ (%he %+!33e+!'3 $e)h('!$()%!'3 ( ( (+%!( %+!33e+.

T* *"+ 6'*e&3e, %hee +e"% (+e %he ?+% &*)"$e'%e& )(e *(%e !'%e+()e %h+"%!'3 !'%('%('e*" ()%!/(%!'3 ( (+3e +"%"+e!' %he */e++!&!'3 (%e %h+*"3h &'($!) %+!33e+!'3. P(% "#&")%!*'*'e &*"#e% h(/e #ee' !&e'%!?e& # * DC !' %he!+ CMT*"%!*' 4L( e% (., 2010#5. C*'/e+e, !' %he )(e * %heA+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e, %he * +e-"e') !'3e *!'%>*"+)e*"%!*' * #*%h %he 3*#( ('& +e3!*'( CMT *"%!*' &!& '*% !e&( * DC. Th! &!)+e(') ! (* h*' # *"+ '%he%!) %e%. I%! *!#e %h(% %he h*+% %!$e &e( ('& $( &!%(')e #e%ee'E/e'% I ('& II $(6 +"%"+e )*$e;!% !' %eee!$!) CMT*"%!*'.

The+e*+e, e !'/e%!3(%e& he%he+ %he &*"#e>*"+)e )*'?3"+(%!*'* %he A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e )*"& (* #e &e%e)%e& !' +e3!*'(

(/e*+$. <e )*$(+e& %he A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e %* *%he+!$!(+>!e& (%e+h*)6 * %he M("e e-"e')e, %he M(+)h 2012Mw .1 C*'%!%")!X' ('& %he M(+)h 2010 Mw . P!)h!e$"e(+%h-"(6e. 3CMT *"%!*' ('& &e%(!e& %"&!e 4R"! e% (., 201=R&e+ e% (., 20125 * %hee e(+%h-"(6e h* %h(% %he *+$e+ ! (%+(!3h%*+(+& (%e !'%e+()e %h+"%!'3 e/e'%, he+e( %heP!)h!e$" e/e'% *))"++e& *' ( '*+$( ("% !' %he */e++!&!'3 (%e.

The+e*+e, e (+e (#e %* &!+e)% )*$(+e ( !$e (%e !'%e+()e%h+"% ('& (' "e+ (%e e/e'% !%h ( )*$e; &*"#e% !'/*/!'3#*%h ("%!'3 %e.

10



Figure 7.11: a) Map and b) cross-section showing locations and focal mechanismsof aftershocks (Groups A and B) and mainshock events (labelled EV-I and EV-II).

Faulting style is classified on principal stress orientations (Frohlich, 1992) and

minimum rotation angle with respect to plate interface thrust faulting (Hayes et al.,

2013), accounting for plate interface geometry (black line; Chapter Five). We plot

the revised location of Event II, based on 3-D waveform modelling. Mapped faults

are shown (Melnick et al., 2009; Melnick and Echtler, 2006b); MVFZ = Mocha-

Villarrica fault zone. The cross-section background is from our P-wave velocity

model (Chapter Five). The star denotes the hypocentre of the Araucania

earthquake; the triangle shows the coastline.

11



Figure 7.12: 3-D view of the hexahedral mesh used for the 3-D waveform

simulations. This mesh honours surface relief and bathymetry, but does not

contain dipping geological discontinuities at depth.

<e *)"e& *"+ (%%e'%!*' *' %he )*e% e+$('e'% GSN %(%!*'%h(% ( *e+(%!'3 *+ #*%h e(+%h-"(6e, TRQA, !' A+3e'%!'(, h!)h! *)(%e& +*"3h e-"!&!%('% 485 +*$ ( %h+ee e(+%h-"(6e.C*$(+!*' * '*+$(!e& *e+ e)%+( *+ %hee %h+ee e/e'%4F!3"+e .15 +e/e( ( 3+e(%e+ +**+%!*' * h!3h +e-"e') e'e+3+*$ %he A+(")('!( ('& P!)h!e$" e(+%h-"(6e, (+%!)"(+ !' %he+e-"e') +('3e 0.10.2 H. The+e*+e, e e)"(%e %h(% %he(+%!%!*'!'3 * %he A+(")('!( +"%"+e !'%* %he "e+ (%e 3e'e+(%e$*+e h!3h +e-"e') e'e+3 )*$(+e& %* ( !'3e>*"+)e (%e!'%e+()e +"%"+e. I% ! *!#e %h(% h!3he+ +e-"e') +(&!(%!*' !&"e %* ! *' $*+e !$$(%"+e ("% !' %he "e+ (%e )*$(+e& %*%he +e"$(# $*+e $(%"+e $e3(%h+"% ("% 4Ch* e% (., 2005.

Thee )h(+()%e+!%!) $( (!& !%h %he &e%e)%!*' * !$!(+ (%e!'%e+()e > "e+ (%e &*"#e% !' %he "%"+e, (%h*"3h +e-"e'))*'%e'% $( &ee'& *' e/e+( *%he+ *"+)e (+($e%e+, ")h (+"%"+e &"+(%!*'.

12



Figure 7.13: Recovery of 3-D synthetic waveforms using the inversion based on 1-D

Green’s functions. In each case, input sources are based on the result from our real

data inversion. On the right, the source position of Event II is placed at source

position 17. In each case, the 1-D inversion results in a systematic southward shift,

as shown by the arrows.

1=



Figure 7.14: Schematic interpretation of the Araucania earthquake rupture. Plate

interface thrusting (Event I) triggered a rupture along an extensional fault in the

overriding plate (Event II). It is likely that two great earthquakes in 1960 and 2010

brought both faults closer to failure. As shown by ancient submarine landslide

deposits in the area (Geersen et al., 2011b), a larger-scale rupture in the overriding

plate has the potential to act as a tsunamigenic earthquake. Beach balls represent the

focal mechanisms of both mainshock events. The inset shows the interpreted

structure of conjugate normal faulting with the background colour representing v p / vs

(Chapter Five).

CMT *"%!*' +*/!&e& # 3*#( +e*+%!'3 (3e')!e (+e ())e%e&# %he e!$**3!)( )*$$"'!% ('& *+$ %he #(! * !!'/e+!*' ('& e;($!'(%!*' * %he %+e ?e&. CMT (+e, %he+e*+e,( !(+ * e(+%h-"(6e )!e')e, e% *"+ +e"% +e)*$$e'& %he!+)(+e" "e !' %he )(e * ! *' $"%!e ("% ('e. The 'e+e)e&e'% e% # %h! %"& (* +ee'% ( 'e e+e)%!/e *+%"'($! h((+& (e$e'% !' "#&")%!*' *'e. Re/e+e ("% (e ( '*+$( ("% )*"& %he*+e%!)( #e !$$e&!(%e %+!33e+e&# $e3(%h+"% !, )("!'3 (+3e e(@**+ &!()e$e'%. A !&e

/(+!e% * "e+ (%e ("%!'3 h( #ee' !$(3e& !' "#&")%!*'*'e. F*+ e;($e, %ee>&!!'3 '*+$( ("% h(/e #ee'!$(3e& !' %he "e+ (%e (*'3 %he '*+%he+' Ch!e 4/*' H"e'e ('&R('e+*, 200=5 ('& *"%he+' Pe+" $(+3!' 4A"&!' e% (., 20085.F"+%he+$*+e, ( (+3e "e+ (%e +e/e+e ("%!'3 e/e'% +e)e&e&%he 201 Mw 8.2 P!(3"(, '*+%he+' Ch!e e(+%h-"(6e 4G*'e e%(., 20175 ('& #()6%h+"% ("% (+e !&e+e(& !' %he S"$(%+("#&")%!*' *'e 4S!'3h e% (., 20105.

1



Figure 7.15: Three-component velocity traces of the simulated seismic wavefield

of Event I ‘seen’ by Event II. The waveform is bandpass filtered at 0.02–0.15 Hz.

The 3-D simulation is generated in the same way as described in Section 7.60; a

receiver is placed at the centroid location of Event II. The known centroid times of

Events I and II are shown. Although we cannot pinpoint the exact nucleation timeof Event II, it is clear that the arrival of high amplitude S-waves from Event I is

coincident with the possible nucleation stage of Event II, based on its source

duration of 18 s.

B(e& *' *"+ 6'*e&3e * e!$!) /e*)!% %+")%"+e !' %he +e3!*'* %he A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e 4Ch(%e+ F*"+ ('& F!/e5 ('& )(!'3+e(%!*'h! * "#&")%!*' *'e e(+%h-"(6e ("% &!$e'!*'4B(e+ e% (., 20105, e )()"(%e& %he e;e)%e& e(@**+ %(%!)&!()e$e'% +*$ ( +"%"+e !' %he "e+ (%e. A"$%!*' e+e#(e& *' (' (+*;!$(%!*' * &!*)(%!*' ("%!'3 !' (h*$*3e'e*" h(>()e 4Y. O6(&(, 125. L* v s 42.2 6$5 !'%he $(+!'e *+e(+) 4F!3"+e .1 Ch(%e+ F!/e5 )*++e*'& %* ( *e++!3!&!%, ('& he')e ( 3+e(%e+ ! *+ ( 3!/e' ("% (+e( ('& e!$!)$*$e'%. O"+ )()"(%!*' h* %h(% (' Mw .0 +"%"+e !' %he "e+(%e )*"& +e"% !' "#%('%!( /e+%!)( e(@**+ &!()e$e'% *1.2 $. I %h! )e'(+!* e+e )(e& " %* ( (+3e+ +"%"+e 4Mw .75,! *' %he *+e(+) ("% )*"& )("e ( *)(!e& %"'($! *' %he)*'%!'e'%( he, (%h*"3h %he "e+ !$!% * +"%"+e !e !)*'%+*e& # %he %h!)6'e * %he $(+!'e *+e(+)3e*$e%+ ('&

+!)%!*'( +*e+%!e * %hee ("% 4F!3"+e .115. A %"'($! $( #e)("e& # %(%!) /e+%!)( &!()e$e'% *+ %h+*"3h "#$(+!'e

17



('&!&e 4F!3"+e .15 h!)h h(/e *))"++e& *)( !' %he (%4Gee+e' e% (., 2011#5.

Figure 7.16: Regional recordings of the M w 7.1 2011 Araucania (plate interface

thrusting and upper plate normal faulting), 2012 M w 7.1 Constitución (plate

interface thrusting only) and 2010 M w 7.1 Pichilemu (upper plate normal faulting

only) earthquakes at the permanent GSN station, TRQA in eastern Argentina. The

left-hand panel shows the normalised frequency (top) spectra and traces for each

component: a) west; b) east; c) vertical. The map in the right-hand panel shows the

location of the three earthquakes, corresponding CMT solutions and the location of

station TRQA.

Ye% !%h*"% *)( %+*'3>$*%!*' !'%+"$e'%, GPS 'e%*+6, *+ )*e!'e)%!*' * +e3!*'( (/e*+$, 'e(+>?e& %+!33e+e& +"%"+e $(#e &!)"% %* &e%e)%. <e e)"(%e %h(% %he ()6 * e/!&e')e *+E/e'% II !' !'3e>*"+)e CMT *"%!*' $( +e"% +*$ !' (+% +*$%he e;()% h*+% %!$!'3 #e%ee' %he %* *"+)e. The+e*+e, e

+e)*$$e'& %h(% %he (#!!% * %eee!$!) CMT !'/e+!*' %* +e*/e&!Je+e'% &*"#e% )*'?3"+(%!*' ! 3!/e' ( " (e$e'%.

1



F"+%he+$*+e, %he+e ! ( 'ee& %* +e>e/("(%e CMT *"%!*' *+ (+3ee(+%h-"(6e "!'3 *)( ('& +e3!*'( (/e*+$ !' "#&")%!*'*'e 3*#( %* e;($!'e he%he+ CSD !'/*/!'3 %he "e+ (%e(+e "#!-"!%*"

Ch(%e+ 8

S YNTHESIS: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE INTERPLAY BET<EEN MEGATHRUST PHYSICAL HETEROGENEITY AND SEISMIC SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS

A "'&($e'%( -"e%!*' !' e(+%h-"(6e e!$**3 !: (+e (%!(&!%+!#"%!*' * "#&")%!*' *'e e(+%h-"(6e (*'3 ("% +('&*$,*+ &* e)!?) h!)( +*e+%!e !' %he /!)!'!% * %he (%e!'%e+()e e')*"+(3e *+ !'h!#!% +"%"+e\ I' %he +e/!*" )h(%e+, e!&e'%!?e& e/e+( *"+)e * )*$*!%!*'( ('& %+")%"+(

he%e+*3e'e!% !' %he +"%"+e *'e * %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e. <e '*(%%e$% %* '%he!e %hee 6e ?'&!'3 %* (&/(')e *"+"'&e+%('&!'3 * %he h!)( ()%*+ %h(% 3*/e+' (+3ee(+%h-"(6e.

The+e h(/e #ee' $(' )*$+ehe'!/e %"&!e "#!he& *' *%he+(+3e $e3(%h+"% +"%"+e, ")h ( %he 2011 Mw .0 T*h*6", Z(('e(+%h-"(6e. The+e*+e, !' %h! %he!, e h(/e %he "'!-"e**+%"'!% %* )*$(+e ('& )*'%+(% %hee e(+%h-"(6e. F*+!'%(')e, (%h*"3h #*%h e(+%h-"(6e h(& !$!(+ $(3'!%"&e, %he(+e )h(+()%e+!e& # &!Je+e'% ! &!%+!#"%!*'. The M("ee(+%h-"(6e ( ( #!(%e+( +"%"+e !%h $*% ! *))"++!'3 (*'3%he )e'%+( (+% * %he e!$*3e'!) *'e 4e.3. M*+e'* e% (., 20125!' )*'%+(%, %he T*h*6" e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+e& ( !'3e (e+!% )*e%* %he %+e')h 4O(( e% (., 20115. U'&e+%('&!'3 %he h!) %h(%"'&e+!e %h! /(+!(#!!% h( !$*+%('% !$!)(%!*' *+ "#&")%!*'*'e e(+%h-"(6e h((+& *' ( 3*#( )(e.<e ?+% )*'!&e+ %he +*e * *)( he%e+*3e'e!% !' )e'%+( Ch!e ('&!% !$!)(%!*' *+ "%"+e e(+%h-"(6e h((+& (*'3 %he S*"%hA$e+!)(' "#&")%!*' $(+3!'. <e %he' %"+' *"+ (%%e'%!*' %* %he(+3e+>)(e (%%e+' * h!)( +*e+%!e !' %he e'%!+e e!$*3e'!)*'e. <e "% *"+ "'&e+%('&!'3 * =>D he%e+*3e'e!% !'%* &!+e)%

+()%!)e # !$"(%!'3 !% !'@"e')e *' e!$!) (/e +*(3(%!*',h!)h )(' !$+*/e "#"+()e !$(3!'3 ('& e(+%h-"(6e *"+)e

1



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$e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e 4H(+&e#e)6, 2012 H(e3(( e% (., 20125.F"+%he+$*+e, "e+ (%e ("% %h+*"3h*"% %he Ch!e "#&")%!*'*'e h(/e ()%e& ( '*+$( ('& +e/e+e ("% &"+!'3 %he!+ *'3>%e+$ h!%*+ 4A$e'&!'3e+ ('& G*'e, 2010 A+*' e% (., 201=Me'!)6 e% (., 2005. The A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e ! !%"(%e& !' ("'!-"e *!%!*' #e%ee' %he +"%"+e (+e( * %* * %he (+3e%$e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e e/e+ +e)*+&e& 4F!3"+e .15 ('& e(6 (%e!'%e+()e )*"!'3 * e %h(' 77 4M*+e'* e% (., 20115.

The+e*+e, %* "'&e+%('& e!$!) h((+& (*)!(%e& !%h"#&")%!*' *'e "e+ (%e ("%!'3, !$*+%('% -"e%!*' %* (6(+e, !')"&!'3: 15 I "e+ (%e ("% +e()%!/(%!*' $*+e !$!%e& %*

$e3(%h+"% e3$e'% #(++!e+\ 25 I "e+ (%e ("%!'3 !$!%e& %*(+3e $(3'!%"&e e(+%h-"(6e, *+ &* $(e+ e/e'% (* *))"+\ T*('e+ %hee -"e%!*', e h(/e )()"(%e& &e%(!e& !'3e *!'%>*"+)e $*$e'% %e'*+ *"%!*' *+ 77 $*&e+(%e !e&(%e+h*)6 4Mw =.77.85 * %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e. I' (&&!%!*' %* *"+*' ('(!, e "e& "#!he& $*$e'% %e'*+ )(%(*3"e *A3"+%* e% (. 420125 ('& H(e e% (. 4201=5, ( e ( %h*e +*$%he GCMT +*e)% 4E6%+$ e% (., 20125.

Thee ("%!'3 $e)h('!$ *"%!*' (+e h*' !' F!3"+e 8.1. F+*$*"+ $*$e'% %e'*+ *"%!*', !% (e(+ %h(% %he+e (+e $('

'*+$( ("%!'3 e/e'% (% %he *"%he+' e'& * %he +"%"+e ('&*Jh*+e * C*')e)!X', )*e %* S('%( M(+!( I('&. B*%h * %hee(+e( (+e he+e %he+e ( +e&")e& )*e!$!) !. H*e/e+, %he

12



(+3e+ )(%(*3"e * A3"+%* e% (. 420125 "33e% %h(% e/e+(e;%e'!*'( e(+%h-"(6e (* *))"++e& !' %he +e3!*' * 3+e(%e% !.M*+e*/e+, (!&e +*$ %he (+3e 3+*" * '*+$( ("%!'3 e/e'% !'%he P!)h!e$" (+e(, H(e e% (. 4201=5 h* '*+$( ("%!'3e(+%h-"(6e %h+*"3h*"% %he +"%"+e (+e(. I e +e$*/e %he

!'%e+(%e %h+"% ("%!'3 e/e'% ('& )*$#!'e %hee )(%(*3"e, !% !)e(+ %h(% e;%e'!*'( e/e'% (+e !&e+e(& 4F!3"+e 8.25. F+*$ %he)+*>e)%!*', $*% e;%e'!*'( e(+%h-"(6e (+e *)(%e& !' %he"e+ (%e 4F!3"+e 8.25. The+e*+e, !% ! )e(+ %h(% "e+ (%e'*+$( ("% (+e '*% *' !$!%e& %* +e3!*' !%h *e+ )*"!'3('& &* '*% (e(+ %* *e ()% ( +"%"+e #(++!e+ ( *+ *"%he+'Pe+" 4A"&!' e% (., 20085 ('& '*+%he+' Ch!e 4/*' H"e'e ('&R('e+*, 200= !)%*+ e% (., 20115. N*+$( ("%!'3 e(+%h-"(6e*)(%e& !' %he h(* $(+!'e *+e(+) (#*/e %he +e3!*' * h!3h)*e!$!) ! $( #e ('(*3*" %* %he (+3e e;%e'!*'( %+")%"+e!$(3e& !' %he +"%"+e (+e( * %he 2011 T*h*6" e(+%h-"(6e 4T"! e%(., 201=5. F"+%he+$*+e, he' e ?%e+ *"% (%e !'%e+()e %h+"%e/e'%, !% #e)*$e ((+e'% %h(% "e+ (%e +e/e+e ("% e+e(* ()%!/(%e&, (+%!)"(+ !' %he A+(")* e'!'"( (+e(. Thee$e)h('!$ !$ ( )*$e; (%%e+' * )*'"3(%e +e/e+e ('&'*+$( ("% !' %he "e+ (%e 4F!3"+e 8.25.

1=



Figure 8.1: Comparison of our preliminary aftershock moment tensor catalogue

(top left) with those already published for the period ending December 2010(Agurto et al., 2012; Hayes et al., 2013). Solutions from the global CMT project

(Ekström et al., 2012) are also shown (bottom right). Faulting mechanisms are

classified based on the plunge angle of principal stresses (Frohlich, 1992). Reverse

faulting style is chosen from the minimum rotation angle with respect to a

reference solution representing pure plate interface thrusting based on slab

geometry (Chapter Five).

O/e+(, +*$ (!/e "#"+()e !$(3!'3 * ( "#&")%!*' *'e, (&e%(!e& %"& * +"%"+e )*$e;!% (*)!(%e& !%h ( (+3e

!'%e+(%e e(+%h-"(6e, ('& $e)h('!$ * $(e+ (%e+h*)6, eh(/e h*' %h(% e!$!) *"+)e +*)ee !' )e'%+( Ch!e (+e

1



%+*'3 !'@"e')e& # "e+ (%e 3e**3!)( %+")%"+e. S* (+, eh(/e *' )*'!&e+e& *)(!e& he%e+*3e'e!% ('& !% eJe)% *'(*'3>%+!6e /(+!(%!*' !' (%e !'%e+()e /e*)!%. I% ! *+%h #+!'3!'3*"+ "'&e+%('&!'3 * h* */e+( (%e !'%e+()e /e*)!% %+")%"+e+e(%e %* e!$!) )h(+()%e+ * %he $e3(%h+"% !' ( $*+e 3*#(

)*'%e;%, ('& h* e )(' #e3!' %* !'%e++e% ")h %+")%"+e.

8.2Ph!)( +*e+%!e * %he e!$*3e'!) *'e:+e)*')!!'3 3*#( *#e+/(%!*'

I' %he +e/!*" e)%!*', e )*'!&e+e& %he eJe)% * *)( %+")%"+(he%e+*3e'e!% !' %he "e+ (%e *' "#&")%!*' *'e e!$*3e'!))h(+()%e+. N* e )*'!&e+ #+*(&e+ )(e /e*)!% %+")%"+e * %he(%e !'%e+()e !%e, h!)h e +ee'%e& *+ %he M("e +e3!*' !'Ch(%e+ F!/e. A%h*"3h 3e*h!)!% h(/e #ee' (#e %* $( %he&e%h /(+!(%!*' !' e'e+3 +ee(e ('& e!$!) ! (*'3 %he

$e3(%h+"% 4L( e% (., 20125, 6'*e&3e ! ()6!'3 *' %he h!)(+*e+%!e )*'%+*!'3 %h! e3$e'%(%!*'. U!'3 *"+ &e%(!e& /e*)!%$*&e * %he (%e !'%e+()e !' %he )e'%+( Ch!e "#&")%!*' *'e,e h(/e #ee' (#e %* )*'%+(!' %he h!)( ()%*+ %h(% 3*/e+' %he&e%h e3$e'%(%!*' * ( $e3(%h+"% +"%"+e. I' "$$(+, e*"'& %h(% %he +e3!*' * h!3h )*e!$!) ! ! !$!%e& %* ( *+%!*' * %he (%e !'%e+()e !%h h!3h v p 3+(&!e'%, +!!'3 +*$ .2.0 6$+*$ 182 6$ &e%h, ('& $*&e+(%e ee/(%e& v p $v s * 1.8=.B(e& *' *"+ +e"%, e $( #e (#e %* )*'%+(!' +"%"+e *%e'%!("!'3 e!$!) /e*)!%!e. H*e/e+, %* /e+! %h! +e(%!*'h!, e'ee& %* )*$(+e *"+ ?'&!'3 *+ %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e !%h *%he+e>+e)*+&e& $e3(%h+"% +"%"+e. F*+ %h! "+*e, e %"& %he'*+%h>e(% Z((' "#&")%!*' *'e !' %he +e3!*' * %he 2011 T*h*6"e(+%h-"(6e, h!)h ! !"$!'(%e& # %he h!3h>+e*"%!*' =>D /e*)!%$*&e * Y($($*%* e% (. 42015.

The+e (+e !$!(+!%!e ('& &!Je+e')e #e%ee' %he (%e !'%e+()e/e*)!% +*?e %h+*"3h %he +e3!*' * 3+e(%e% ! *+ %he M("e('& T*h*6" e(+%h-"(6e 4F!3"+e 8.=5. The v p 3+(&!e'% * %he T*h*6"(%e !'%e+()e ! +e$(+6(# !$!(+ %* %h(% * M("e !' %he &e%h+('3e 17=7 6$. U'&e+%('&!'3 %he $e)h('!$ * %h! /e*)!%3+(&!e'% ! !$*+%('% #e)("e !% (e(+ %* #e )*++e(%e& !%h %he

&e%h * $(;!$"$ ! !' #*%h )(e 4F!3"+e 8.=5, h!)h $( he%* e;(!' h %he (+3e% $e3(%h+"% +"%"+e %e'& %* ! !'D*$(!' B * %he (%e !'%e+()e 4L( e% (., 20125.

17



F i g u r e 8 . 2 : M a p a n d c r o s s - s e c t i o n s o f i n t r a p l a t e a f t e r s h o c

k m e c h a n i s m s c o m b i n e d f r o m

t h e d i f f e r e n t c a t a l o g u e s s h o w n

i n F i g u r e 8 . 1 .

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f p o s s i b l e

u p p e r p l a t e f a u l t g e o m e t r i e s a r

e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n s . F A P = f r o n t a l a c c r e t i o n a r y p r i s m ; P A W =

n t l e .

1



Figure 8.3: Comparison of the relationship between plate interface structure (left:

v p, centre: v p / vs and megathrust slip for the Maule, Chile and Tohoku, Japan

earthquakes. The Maule profiles are drawn in a similar way to Figure 5.12, using

the coseismic slip model of Moreno et al. (2012). Seismic velocities for theTohoku megathrust come from Yamamoto et al. (2014) and coseismic slip is from

Gusman et al. (2012). The arrows indicate the depth offset in maximum v p / vs and

coseismic slip between both rupture zones.

G!/e' %he &!Je+e')e !' #+*(&>)(e )h(+()%e+!%!) #e%ee' %he)e'%+( Ch!e ('& '*+%h>e(% Z((' "#&")%!*' $(+3!', e ?'& %h!!$!(+!% !' (%e !'%e+()e /e*)!% %+")%"+e "++!!'3. F*+!'%(')e, %he (3e * %he P()!?) (%e (% %he T*h*6" %+e')h ! 1=0M(, he+e( %he N()( (%e *Jh*+e * )e'%+( Ch!e ! 100 M(

*"'3e+ 4e.3. M`e+ e% (., 20085. G!/e' %he (3e &!Je+e')e, ('&he')e, %he+$( &!%!')%!*' * %he )+"% !' %hee %* e;($e, e"33e% %h(% %he %ee v p 3+(&!e'% ! '*% %he+$( )*'%+*e&. A'(%e+'(%!/e e;('(%!*' ! !')+e(!'3 )*'?'!'3 +e"+e, h!)h $(+e"% !' $e%($*+h!) h(e )h('3e * *)e('!) )+"% $(%e+!(")h ( #((% ('& 3(##+*. H*e/e+, %he *)e('!) )+"% ! '*%e;e)%e& %* "'&e+3* $(*+ $e%($*+h!) h(e )h('3e "'%! %hee)*3!%e %+('!%!*' (% (+*"'& 7 6$ &e%h 4e.3. B*%*)6, 201=H()6e+ ('& A#e+, 2005. A'*%he+ $e)h('!$ $( (+!e +*$ *+e+e"+e )h('3e !' *)e('!) )+"%. P+e/!*" %"&!e 4e.3. A"&e% e%(., 200 K(%* e% (., 2010(5 !'e+ h!3h @"!& +e"+e !%h!'

"#&")%!'3 *)e('!) )+"%. M*+e e/!&e')e * %h! !'%e++e%(%!*' !h*' # ee/(%e& v pv s * 1.8= (% 1217 6$ &e%h 4F!3"+e 8.=5v pv s +e$(!' +e(%!/e )*'%('%, !'&!)(%!'3 *+e +e"+e ! h!3h('& )*e %* )*'?'!'3 +e"+e, #(e& *' Ch+!%e'e' 4185 ('&$*&e!'3 * e!$!) +e+()%!*' &(%( # S"&!)h ('& O+)"%% 41805.A e ( *$e !$!(+!%!e, %he /e*)!% +*?e +*$ %hee %*$e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e h* ( +e$(+6(#e &!Je+e')e. A% 18 6$&e%h, v pv s * %he M("e (%e !'%e+()e "&&e' &e)+e(e +*$2.1 %* 1.8=. A !$!(+ &e)+e(e *))"+ !' %he T*h*6" +"%"+e*'e, (%h*"3h (% ( h(*e+ &e%h * 10 6$ 4F!3"+e 8.=5. <e )('

)*++e(%e %h! &!)+e(') ( %* %he /(% &!Je+!'3 +"%"+e %e*+ %hee %* e(+%h-"(6e. M*% )*e!$!) ! $*&e *+ %he

1



M("e e(+%h-"(6e h* %h(% %he +"%"+e &!& '*% e;%e'& %* %he%+e')h $*% ! %*e& (% (+*"'& %he ($e &e%h * %h! h(+)h('3e !' v pv s. The ">&! !$!% * +"%"+e ! (* /e+!?e& # %he()6 * (%e !'%e+()e (%e+h*)6 e!$!)!% (% %hee &e%h 4F!3"+e7.125. I' )*'%+(%, !3'!?)('% ! * =0 $ e;%e'&e& %* $")h

h(*e+ &e%h 481 6$5 &"+!'3 %he T*h*6" e(+%h-"(6e 4L( e%(., 2011 O(( e% (., 2011 S!$*' e% (., 20115. The (#*/e ?'&!'3 !'&!)(%e ( &!+e)% +e(%!*'h! #e%ee' h!)(+*e+%!e 4( e;+ee& # e!$!) /e*)!% %+")%"+e5 !%he!$*3e'!) *%e'%!( * %he "#&")%!*' $e3(%h+"%. The "&&e'&e)+e(e !' v pv s ! &!+e)% +e(%e& %* %he ($*"'% * @"!& (%"+(%e&e&!$e'% (% %he #(e * $(+!'e *+e(+) ('& (*'3 %he "#&")%!*')h(''e. Thee &!Je+e')e !6e +e"% +*$ %he e&!$e'%(%!*'%e * e()h $(+3!'. The )e'%+( Ch!e "#&")%!*' *'e ! ('())+e%!*'(+ $(+3!' !%h ( %h!)6 %+e')h ? * 2.02.2 6$4G+e/e$ee+ e% (., 200=5 ('& ( e>&e?'e& "#&")%!*' )h(''e%h(% ! " %* 1 6$ %h!)6 4C*'%+e+( Ree e% (., 2008 G+e/e$ee+e% (., 200=5. I' )*'%+(%, %he '*+%h>e(% Z((' "#&")%!*' $(+3!' !e+*!/e, !%h =70 $ * e&!$e'% (% %he %+e')h 4K*&(!+( e% (.,2012 N(6($"+( e% (., 201=5. Th! &!Je+e')e "33e% %h(% ( !&e+/*"$e * */e++e"+e& ('& /e*)!%>%+e'3%he'!'3 e&!$e'%*/e+!e %he M("e $e3(%h+"%. F"+%he+$*+e, %he )*$e%e'% +*)6+($e*+6 ('& #()6%* * M("e +e3!*' ! (% ( 3+e(%e+ &!%(')e+*$ %he %+e')h. The+e*+e, e !'e+ %h(% %he h!)( +*e+%!e *%he T*h*6" $(+3!' (* h(*e+ #+!%%e (!"+e (*'3 %he (%e!'%e+()e, !')+e(!'3 !% %"'($!3e'!) *%e'%!(. F*+ %he )e'%+(

Ch!e "#&")%!*' *'e, e(@**+ 3e*&e%!) *#e+/(%!*' 4B`+3$(''('& Ch(&e, 2015 (+e +e-"!+e& %* )*'?+$ %he +!)%!*'()h(+()%e+!%!) * %he h(*e% (+% * %he $e3(%h+"%.

8.=F"%"+e *"%**6: A!)(%!*' * %+")%"+(he%e+*3e'e!% %* =>D e!$!) (/e+*(3(%!*' !$"(%!*'

A &!)"e& !' Se)%!*' .7, %he "e * (/e*+$ !$"(%!*' !'h!3h he%e+*3e'e*" $e&!( )(' !$+*/e *"+ !$(3!'3 * #*%he(+%h-"(6e *"+)e $e)h('!$ ('& "#"+()e %+")%"+e. I'

Ch(%e+ Se/e', e h(/e (+e(& h*' %he /("e * %hee'"$e+!)( !$"(%!*' # &e$*'%+(%!'3 h* %+")%"+(he%e+*3e'e!% )(' #!( *"+)e (+($e%e+ !' $"%!e *!'%>*"+)e$*$e'% %e'*+ !'/e+!*'. The )e'%+( Ch!e "#&")%!*' *'e+e+ee'% (' e;)ee'% %e% #e& *+ "#&")%!*' *'e =>D ">(/e*+$ !'/e+!*' &"e %* %he **!'3 +e(*':

1 The+e ! (' e;)ee'% )*/e+(3e * #+*(&#('& e!$!)!'%+"$e'% +*/!&e& # %he I'%e+'(%!*'( M("e A%e+h*)6De*$e'%.

2 A (+3e &(%(#(e * +e)*+&e& e!$!) (/e*+$ +*$'"$e+*" $*&e+(%e>!e& (%e+h*)6 e;!%.

= A &e%(!e& %+")%"+( $*&e * %he "#"+()e ! (/(!(#e+*$ %he *)( e(+%h-"(6e %*$*3+(h %"&!e &*)"$e'%e& !'

18



%h! %he!. Re!(#e $*$e'% %e'*+ *"%!*' (+e (/(!(#e *+ $('

(%e+h*)6 4Se)%!*' 8.1.25.I' %he )*'%e;% * %he *+6 )(++!e& *"% !' %h! +*e)%, )()"(%!'3 %hee'!%!/!% 6e+'e (*)!(%e& !%h (&*!'% *"+)e )(' he h!3h!3h%

%he %+e'3%h ('& *!#e e(6'ee * *"+ =>D /e*)!% $*&e('& $*$e'% %e'*+ *"%!*'. T* $(6e ( +e!$!'(+ (e$e'% * %he *%e'%!( *+ ( &e%(!e&">(/e*+$ %"& !' )e'%+( Ch!e, e 3e'e+(%e& =>D (/e*+$!$"(%!*' *+ (%e+h*)6 * %he M("e e-"e')e. D"e %* e;%e'&e&*"+)e eJe)%, e )(++!e& *"% !$"(%!*' *+ $( %* $*&e+(%e!e& e/e'% 4Mw ^ 7.75 * *"+ $*$e'% %e'*+ )(%(*3"e 4F!3"+e8.1, %* e%5 %* (/*!& e;%e'&e& *"+)e eJe)%. He+e, e +ee'%+e"% +*$ %he !$"(%!*' * *'e * %hee (%e+h*)6 !% *"+)e(+($e%e+ (+e h*' !' T(#e 8.1 ('& !% *)(%!*' ! h*' !'F!3"+e 8..

1



Brigin

ti$e

;U(C<

LatitudeLongitu

de

Centroi

d

depth

Mo$ent tensor

Mw

Mrr Mtt M pp Mrt Mrt M pp

EGponen

t

;dyne.c

$<

=00=201008:12:7.

=.7S =.00< 18 6$ .0 >0.10.=

>0.20.=0

1.18

0.2

22

Table 8.1: Source parameters of the test event used for the 3-D waveform

simulation described in this section.

The =>D !$"(%!*' ! )()"(%e& *' ( $eh )+e(%e& "!'3 %heGEOCUBIT *%(+e, ( *"%!'e& !' Se)%!*' .7.2. The $eh !!$!(+ %* %h(% &e!3'e& *+ %he A+(")('!( e(+%h-"(6e 4Se)%!*'

.05 !'%e(&, e "e ( (+3e+ /*"$e %* !')*+*+(%e %he 700 6$*'3 +"%"+e (+e( * %he M("e e(+%h-"(6e. F"+%he+$*+e, e "e (?'e+ $!'!$"$ ee$e'% ()!'3 * 2000 $ 4F!3"+e 8.75, (*!'3%(#e (/e +*(3(%!*' !$"(%!*' %* #e )(++!e& *"% " %*+e(%!/e h!3h +e-"e')!e * 0.7 H.

Figure 8.4: Location and faulting mechanism of the event described in Table 8.1

that has been used to simulate seismic wave propagation the central Chile

subduction zone. Red triangles denote stations with high-quality broadband

recordings of this event (Figure 8.6).

180



Figure 8.5: 3-D image of the mesh (as viewed from the south) that is used to

generate the high frequency 3-D waveform simulations inside the entire rupture

zone of the Maule earthquake.

<e %he' )*$(+e '%he%!) %+()e %* %he )*++e*'&!'3 *#e+/e&(/e*+$ %h(% h(/e h!3h !3'(>%*>'*!e +(%!* 4 =5 4F!3"+e 8.5.<e ?'& e;)ee'% ?% (% $(' %(%!*' " %* h!3h +e-"e')!e40.7 H5, h!3h!3h%!'3 %he +e!(#!!% * *"+ =>D /e*)!% $*&e ('&$*$e'% %e'*+ *"%!*' * %h! e(+%h-"(6e. H*e/e+, *+ $('%+()e, %he+e ! ( h(e h!% #e%ee' %he S>(/e * %he +e&!)%e&('& *#e+/e& (/e*+$, he+e %he *#e+/e& S>(/e (++!/ee(+!e+ )*$(+e& %* %he '%he%!). Th! ?'&!'3 !'&!)(%e %h(% *e+S>(/e /e*)!%!e $( #e +ee'% !' %he "#"+()e, h!)h (+e '*%&e)+!#e& # %he *+!3!'( /e*)!% $*&e.

T* !'/e%!3(%e %h! &!)+e('), e "e %he (&*!'% $e%h*& 4e.3. T+*$ e% (., 20075 %* )()"(%e %he /*"$e%+!) e'!%!/!% *+e)!?) e!$!) (+($e%e+ "!'3 ?'!%e>+e-"e') 6e+'e. Thee6e+'e (+e ( "')%!*' * %he !'%e+()%!*' #e%ee' %he e(+%h-"(6e('& (&*!'% (/e?e& %he (%%e+ ! 3e'e+(%e& # )*'!&e+!'3 %!$e>+e/e+e& !3'( (% %he %(%!*' ( *"+)e 4e.3. L!" ('& T+*$,

200 M(3'*'! e% (., 2015. <e )()"(%e (&*!'% %+()e # "!'3 (!$e (/e*+$ $!?% 4T+*$ e% (., 20075, h!)h ! %he -"(+e&&!Je+e')e #e%ee' %he *#e+/e& ('& '%he%!) &(%( 4e.3. K+!)he+e% (., 20175, *+ ( !'&* %(+%!'3 (% %he P>(/e *'e% 4F!3"+e 8.5('& e'&!'3 27 e)*'& (%e+ %he %he*+e%!)( S>(/e (++!/( %!$e.

181



Figure 8.6: Representative velocity waveform fits comparing 3-D synthetics with

observed waveforms for the simulated test event. Waveforms are bandpass filtered

at 0.05–0.45 Hz. Locations of these stations are shown in Figure 8.4. Orange lines

indicate P-wave onset times.

The (/e+(3e& ?'!%e>+e-"e') 6e+'e * he(+ $*&"" e'!%!/!% !h*' !' F!3"+e 8.. Be*+e &e)+!#!'3 ('& !'%e++e%!'3 e(%"+e *%he 6e+'e, !% ! !$*+%('% %* %(%e %h(% %he /*"$e%+!) e'!%!/!%h*' !' F!3"+e 8. ! '*% $**%he&, * h!3h +e-"e') @")%"(%!*'&"e %* '"$e+!)( '*!e (+e +ee'%. Ne/e+%hee, *'e * %he $(!'e(%"+e !' %he ee)%e& +e-"e') #('& 40.070.7 H5 ! h!3he'!%!/!% )*e %* #*%h %he +e)e!/e+ ('& %he e(+%h-"(6e *"+)e !'%he )*'%!'e'%( *+e(+). Th! *"+)e>+e)e!/e+ e'!%!/!% (%%e+' !)*$$*' %* ?'!%e>+e-"e') 6e+'e 4M(3'*'! e% (., 2015. H!3he'!%!/!% %* "#"+()e %+")%"+e (% h(* &e%h 4!%h!' %he"e+ 7 6$5 ! !6e ( )*'e-"e')e * %he ()6 * +e*"%!*' !' *"+%*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*', &"e %* %he ()6 * h(* e!$!) *"+)e.

182



L* +e!&"( e'!%!/!% !' %he )e'%+( )*'%!'e'%( *+e(+) +e"%+*$ %he h!3h +e*"%!*' !' *"+ %*$*3+(h!) !'/e+!*' 4Ch(%e+F!/e5. The *%he+ $(!' e(%"+e * %he 6e+'e ! h!3h +e!&"(e'!%!/!% !%h!' %he "e+ *+%!*' * %he $(+!'e *+e(+). <ee)"(%e %h(% %h! (%%e+' $( #e &"e %* !$!%(%!*' !' *"+ e!$!)

/e*)!% $*&e &"e %* $e(+!'3 )("e& # $*% *"+)e !'3 (*'3%he (%e !'%e+()e. Th! h!3h e'!%!/!% $( $('!e% !%e ( %heh(e *Je% #e%ee' *#e+/e& ('& '%he%!) (++!/( !' F!3"+e 8..O/e+(, %hee +e!$!'(+ +e"% h* %h(% %he "e * " =>D(/e*+$ !'/e+!*' "!'3 $"%!e (%e+h*)6 )*"& he %* +e?'e!$(3e * "#&")%!*' *'e %+")%"+e ('& (%e !'%e+()e +*e+%!e(% (' "'+e)e&e'%e& )(e * !$(3!'3.

Figure 8.7: Unfiltered isotropic sensitivity kernel of shear modulus (normalised),

as viewed from the south, with a vertical slice through the hypocentral region of

the studied event. Elevation exaggeration = 2:1.

Ch(%e+

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE <ORK

Th! %"& e% *"% %* "'&e+%('& %he h!)( ()%*+ %h(% 3*/e+'*$e * %he (+3e% e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+e !' %he *+&. T* !'/e%!3(%e%h! %*!), e *)"e& *' !$(3!'3 h!)( +*e+%!e ('& )*$e;

+"%"+e +*)ee !' %he (+e( * %he 2010 Mw 8.8 M("e e(+%h-"(6e!' Ch!e. He+e, e +e*'& %* %he 6e +*e)% (!$ ('& +ee(+)h

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18



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C*'%+e+(>Ree, E., F"eh, E.R., G+e/e$ee+, I., 2010. Te)%*'!))*'%+* *' e&!$e'% ())+e%!*' ('& "#&")%!*' *J *"%h )e'%+(Ch!e: I$!)(%!*' *+ )*e!$!) +"%"+e +*)ee * %he 10('& 2010 $e3(%h+"% e(+%h-"(6e. Te)%*'!) 2.

C*'%+e+(>Ree, E., Z(+(, Z., G+e/e$ee+, I., R"!, S., C(++!*, D.,2012. A#+"% )h('3e !' %he &! * %he "#&")%!'3 (%e #e'e(%h'*+%h Ch!e. N(%"+e Ge*)!. 7, =2=7. &*!:10.10=8'3e*1

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17



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18



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20



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S(%(6e, K., 187. EJe)% * %(%!*' )*/e+(3e *' $*$e'% %e'*+!'/e+!*'. B. Se!$*. S*). A$. 7, 171.

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=70. &*!:10.1027ZB0022S)h*, D.<., H"e'e, *', R., (!e+, T.L., H*e, D.G., 180.

218



Se&!$e'%(+ $(e ('& )*')e% (#*"% %e)%*'!) +*)ee (%"'&e+%h+"% *)e(' $(+3!'. Ge**3 8, 778.&*!:10.11=0001>1=418058^7:SMACAT2.0.CO2

S)h*, C.H., 18. E(+%h-"(6e ('& +!)%!*' (. N(%"+e =1, =

2. &*!:10.10=8=0

S)h*, C.H., S$(, C., 1. The eJe)% * e($*"'% "#&")%!*' *'e!$!) )*"!'3. Ge**3 27, 80. &*!:10.11=0001>1=415027^08:TEOSSO2.=.CO2

S)h(+%, S.Y., R*6*6, Z.M., 200. S* ! e/e'% ('& e!$!)%+e$*+ (% )!+)"$mP()!?) "#&")%!*' *'e. Re/. Ge*h. 7,RG=00. &*!:10.102200RG000208

Se+!('!, G., C(+)!*'e, Z.M., P+!**, E., 12. N"$e+!)( !$"(%!*' *!'%e+()e (/e # h!3h>*+&e+ e)%+( $*&e!'3 %e)h'!-"e. Z.A)*"%. S*). A$. 2, 27. &*!:10.11211.0728

Se+'(3e*$!', 200=. M(( Ge*X3!)* &e Ch!e: /e+!X' &!3!%(.Se+/!)!* N()!*'( &e Ge**3f( M!'e+f(, S('%!(3*, Ch!e.

S!eh, K., N(%(!&((, D.H., 2000. Ne*%e)%*'!) * %he S"$(%+('("%, I'&*'e!(. Z. Ge*h. Re. 107, 282728=2.&*!:10.1022000ZB00120

S!eh, K., N(%(!&((, D.H., Me%'e+, A.Z., She', C.C., Che'3, H., L!,K.S., S"(+3(&!, B.<., G(e%6(, Z., Ph!!#*!(', B., E&(+&, R.L.,2008. E(+%h-"(6e S"e+))e I'e++e& +*$ Se(>Le/e Ch('3eRe)*+&e& !' %he C*+( * <e% S"$(%+(. S)!e')e =22, 118. &*!:10.112)!e')e.11=78

S!$*e, M., A/*"(), Z.>P., C(%%!', R., He'+, P., 200. The S"$(%+("#&")%!*' *'e: A )(e *+ ( *)6e& ("% *'e e;%e'&!'3 !'%*%he $('%e. Z. Ge*h. Re. 10, B1002.&*!:10.102200=ZB00278

S!$*', M., M!'*', S.E., S(&e', A., O+%e3(>C"()!(%!, F., Z!('3, Z.,Oe', S.E., Me'3, L., A$"e+*, Z.>P., <e!, S., Ch", R.,He$#e+3e+, D.., K('($*+!, H., He%('&, E., M**+e, A.<., <e##,F.H., 2011. The 2011 $(3'!%"&e .0 T*h*6">O6! e(+%h-"(6e:$*(!)6!'3 %he $e3(%h+"% +*$ e)*'& %* )e'%"+!e. S)!e')e==2, 121127. &*!:10.112)!e')e.120=1

S!'3h, S.C., H('('%*, N., M"6%!, M., R*#!'*', D.P., D(, S.,Ch("h(', A., C(+%*', H., G+(%()*, B., M!&'e%, S., D((&!h(+&(,

Y., H(+*'*, H., 2011(. Ae!$!) *'e ('& e(+%h-"(6e

e3$e'%(%!*' (*)!(%e& !%h ( &ee "#&")%e& e($*"'% !'S"$(%+(. N(%"+e Ge*)!. , =08=11. &*!:10.10=8'3e*111

21



S!'3h, S.C., H('('%*, N.D., Ch("h(', A.P.S., 2011#. E'h(')e&+e@e)%!/!% * #()6%h+"% !' %he +e)e'% 3+e(% S"$(%+('e(+%h-"(6e +"%"+e *'e. Ge*h. Re. Le%%. =8, L0=02.&*!:10.1022010GL022

S!'3h, S.C., H('('%*, N.D., Ch("h(', A.P.S., Pe+$('(, H., De'*e,M., He'&+!('(, A., N(%(!&((, D.H., 2010. E/!&e')e * ()%!/e#()6%h+"%!'3 (% %he NE M(+3!' * Me'%((! I('&, S<S"$(%+(. Ge*h. Z. I'%. 180, 0=1. &*!:10.1111.1=7>2[.200.078.;

S!6!', S.A., 18. I'%e++e%(%!*' * '*'m&*"#em)*"e e(+%h-"(6e$e)h('!$ &e+!/e& +*$ $*$e'% %e'*+ !'/e+!*'. Z. Ge*h.Re. 1, 7=17. &*!:10.102ZB01!B01007=1

S$!%h, G. L., M)Ne!, L. C., <('3, K., He, Z., He'%*)6, T.Z., 201=. The+$( %+")%"+e ('& $e3(%h+"% e!$*3e'!) *%e'%!( * %heM(6+(' "#&")%!*' *'e, Ge*h. Re. Le%%., 0, 172817==.&*!:10.10023+.70=

S'*6e, Z.A., 200=. FOCMEC: *)( $e)h('!$ &e%e+$!'(%!*', !':Lee, <.H.K., K('($*+!, H., Ze''!'3, P., K!!'3e+, C. 4E&.5,I'%e+'(%!*'( H('&#**6 * E(+%h-"(6e E'3!'ee+!'3 Se!$**3,P(+% B. A)(&e$!) P+e, S(' D!e3*, S(' D!e3*, . 121=0.

S*#!e!(6, M., Mee+, U., S)h$!&%, S., G%e, H.Z., K+()6, C.M.,

200. Ae+!% 3e'e+(%!'3 "e+ )+"%( *"+)e +e/e(e& # #/("e ('& !*%(%!) +e!&"( ('*$( 3+!& !' %he (+e( *A'%*(3(%(, Ch!e. Z. Ge*h. Re. 112, B12=08.&*!:10.102200ZB00

S*6*, E.N., V(h+(&'!6, Z., 201=. E/("(%!'3 Ce'%+*!&mM*$e'%m Te'*+ U')e+%(!'% !' %he Ne e+!*' * ISOLA S*%(+e.Se!$*. Re. Le%%. 8, 77. &*!:10.18702201=0002

S*6*, E.N., V(h+(&'!6, Z., 200. ISOLA ( F*+%+(' )*&e ('& ( M(%(#GUI %* e+*+$ $"%!e>*!'% *"+)e !'/e+!*' * e!$!) &(%(.

C*$"%. Ge*)!. =, .

S*6*, E.N., V(h+(&'!6, Z., 200. A M(%(# GUI *+ "e !%h ISOLAF*+%+(' )*&e. Ue+n 3"!&e.

S*6*, E.N., V(h+(&'!6, Z., K!+(%!, A., Z('6i, Z., G(*/!), F., N*/*%',O., K*%ee)6i, Z., Se+e%!&(6!, A., Tee'%!, G.>A., 2012. The

Z('"(+ 2010 E(!* e(+%h-"(6e e-"e')e !' %he e%e+'C*+!'%h G" 4G+ee)e5. Te)%*'*h!) 7=0>7=1, 2=0.&*!:10.101.%e)%*.2012.01.007

S*'3, T.>R.A., S!$*', M., 200=. L(+3e %+e')h>(+(e 3+(/!%/(+!(%!*' +e&!)% e!$*3e'!) #eh(/!*+ !' "#&")%!*' *'e.

220



S)!e')e =01, =0. &*!:10.112)!e')e.108777

S(+6e, R., T!$('', F., H*/!", N., H!!e+, Z., 2010. S"#&")%e&e(@**+ +e!e %* +"%"+e !' S*"%h A$e+!)(' 3+e(%e(+%h-"(6e: I$!)(%!*' *+ +"%"+e #eh(/!*"+ !' %he 2010

M("e, Ch!e e(+%h-"(6e. E(+%h P('e%. S)!. Le%%. 28, 8.&*!:10.101.e.2010.0.02

Se')e+, C., G"##!', D., 180. T+(/e>%!$e !'/e+!*' *+!$"%('e*" e(+%h-"(6e *)(%!*' ('& /e*)!% %+")%"+e&e%e+$!'(%!*' !' (%e+( /(+!'3 $e&!(. Ge*h. Z. I'%. =, 711. &*!:10.1111.1=7>2[.180.%#0212.;

S!'e!, G.A., S(Je+, D.M., U'&e+**&, M.B., 200. H&+*3e**3!)+e*'e %* %h+eem&!$e'!*'( %e$e+(%"+e /(+!(#!!%, C*%(R!)( "#&")%!*' $(+3!'. Z. Ge*h. Re. 111, B00=.&*!:10.102200ZB00==

S"&!)h, P., O+)"%%, Z., 180. Pe%+**3 ('& *+*!% * (' *)e('!))+"%( !%e: Re"% +*$ (/e *+$ $*&e!'3 * e!$!)+e+()%!*' &(%(. Z. Ge*h. Re. 87, 101==.&*!:10.102ZB087!B0=010

S%e+', T.A., D(/e, F.Z., 10. Dee e!$!) e;+e!*' * ( *+e('&#(!': T(+('(6! #(!', Ne Ve(('&. Ge**3 18, 82.&*!:10.11=0001>1=4105018^0:DSEOAF2.=.CO2

S%+(e+, M., M**+e, G.F., K!$"+(, G., K!%($"+(, Y., K*, A.Z.,L(e$('%, S., P(+6, Z.>O., S)+e(%*', E.Z., S", [., U'&e+**&, M.B.,Vh(*, [., 200. O+!3!' ('& e/*"%!*' * ( ( ("% !' %heN('6(! ())+e%!*'(+ e&3e. N(%"+e Ge*)!. 2, 872.&*!:10.10=8'3e*0

S6e, L.R., 11. A%e+h*)6 *'e * 3+e(% e(+%h-"(6e, e!$!)!%3(, ('& e(+%h-"(6e +e&!)%!*' *+ A(6( ('& %he Ae"%!('. Z.Ge*h. Re. , 8021801. &*!:10.102ZB0!0=208021

fe'i, Z., M!e/, A., 2008. S*"+)e $e)h('!$ * $!'!'3 !'&")e&e!$!) e/e'% r Re*"%!*' * &*"#e )*"e ('& '*' &*"#e)*"e $*&e. Te)%*'*h!) 7, =17.&*!:10.101.%e)%*.200.0.021

T(e, C., L!", Q., M(33!, A., T+*$, Z., 2010. Se!$!) %*$*3+(h *%he *"%he+' C(!*+'!( )+"% #(e& *' e)%+(>ee$e'% ('&(&*!'% $e%h*&. Ge*h. Z. I'%. 180, ==2.

T(e, C., L!", Q., M(33!, A., T+*$, Z., 200. A&*!'% %*$*3+(h *

%he *"%he+' C(!*+'!( )+"%. S)!e')e =27, 882.&*!:10.112)!e')e.11728

221



&*!:10.102ZB0!B121

T+eh", A.M., B(6e, R.Z., <!!($, M.C., 2012. S"#&")%e&e($*"'% ('& +e)e'% e(+%h-"(6e #e'e(%h %he )e'%+(C()(&!( *+e(+). Ge**3 0, 10=10. &*!:10.11=0G=20.1

T+*$, Z., T(e, C., L!", Q., 2007. Se!$!) %*$*3+(h, (&*!'%$e%h*&, %!$e +e/e+( ('& #('('(>&*"3h'"% 6e+'e. Ge*h.

Z. I'%. 10, 1721. &*!:10.1111.1=7>2[.200.027=.;

T(!, .C., Ne%%e, M., E6%+$, G., D!e*'6!, A.M., 2007. M"%!eCMT *"+)e ('(! * %he 200 S"$(%+( e(+%h-"(6e. Ge*h.Re. Le%%. =2, L1=0. &*!:10.1022007GL02=81=

T"!, T., I%*, Y., K!&*, M., O(&(, Y., F"!$*%*, H., Ah!, Z., K!'*h!%(,M., M(%"*6(, T., 2011. P*%e'%!( %"'($!3e'!) ("% * %he 2011*J %he P()!?) )*(% * T*h*6" E(+%h-"(6e. E(+%h P('e% S()e=, 8=18=. &*!:10.70e.2011.07.028

T"!, T., K(($"+(, K., K('($(%", T., K(((, T., F"!6"+(, K., I%*, Y., T"+", T., K!'*h!%(, M., 201=. E;%e'!*' * )*'%!'e'%( )+"%# ('e(%!) &e*+$(%!*' &"+!'3 %he 2011 T*h*6">*6!e(+%h-"(6e: The +*e * e;%e'!*'( ("%!'3 !' %he 3e'e+(%!*' *( 3+e(% %"'($!. E(+%h P('e%. S)!. Le%%. =, 78.&*!:10.101.e.2012.12.0=8

T"!, T., T*6"($(, H., C*%( P!('!, P., M**+e, G.F., 2008. EJe)%!/e%+e ('& *+e +e"+e !' %he N('6(! ())+e%!*'(+ +!$ *J%he M"+*%* Pe'!'"(, *"%he%e+' Z(('. Z. Ge*h. Re. 11=,B1101. &*!:10.102200ZB007002

U&f(, A., M(&(+!(3(, R., B"*+', E., 201. S*"+)e $e)h('!$ *e(+%h-"(6e. C($#+!&3e U'!/e+!% P+e, C($#+!&3e.

Ue'*, T., Sh!#"%('!, T., I%*, K., 2008. C*'?3"+(%!*' * %heC*'%!'e'%( M*h* ('& Ph!!!'e Se( S(# !' S*"%he% Z(('De+!/e& +*$ Re)e!/e+ F"')%!*' A'(!: Re(%!*' %* S"#)+"%(

E(+%h-"(6e. B. Se!$*. S*). A$. 8, 2122.&*!:10.187012008001

U$, Z., Th"+#e+, C.H., 18. A (% (3*+!%h$ *+ %*>*!'% e!$!)+( %+()!'3. B. Se!$*. S*). A$. , 28.

U'!%e& S%(%e Ge**3!)( S"+/e N(%!*'( E(+%h-"(6e I'*+$(%!*'Ce'%e+, 2011. M.2 > A+(")('!(, Ch!e p<<< D*)"$e'%q. URLh%%:e(+%h-"(6e."3.3*/e(+%h-"(6ee/e'%(3e"000h-u)!e'%!?)o%e'*+ 4())ee& 7.2.175.

U'!%e& S%(%e Ge**3!)( S"+/e N(%!*'( E(+%h-"(6e I'*+$(%!*'Ce'%e+, 201. E(+%h-"(6e !%h 1,000 *+ M*+e De(%h 100>

22=



<(()e, L.M., Be(/(', Z., 2010. D!/e+e * ! #eh(/!*+ (% %heH!6"+('3! "#&")%!*' $(+3!', Ne Ve(('&. Z. Ge*h. Re.117, B1202. &*!:10.1022010ZB001

<(()e, L.M., Re'e+, M., C*)h+(', U., B(''!%e+, S., B(+'e, P.M.,

Be++$(', K., D*'e, G., E#e+h(+%>Ph!!, D., F(3e+e'3, A.,E!, S., N!)*, A., M)C(J+e, R., Be(/(', R.Z., He'+, S.,S"%he+('&, R., B(+6e+, D.H.N., L!%)h?e&, N., T*'e'&, Z.,R*#!'*', R., Be, R., <!*', K., P*e+, <., 200. Ch(+()%e+!!'3%he e!$*3e'!) *'e * ( $(*+ (%e #*"'&(+ "#&")%!*'%h+"%: H!6"+('3! M(+3!', Ne Ve(('&. Ge*)he$., Ge*h.,Ge*%. 10, Q1000. &*!:10.102200GC00210

<('3, D., M*+!, Z., 2011. F+e-"e')>&ee'&e'% e'e+3 +(&!(%!*' ('&("% )*"!'3 *+ %he 2010 M8. 8 M("e, Ch!e, ('& 2011M.0 T*h*6", Z((', e(+%h-"(6e. Ge*h. Re. Le%%. =8,L22=08. &*!:10.1022011GL072,

<('3, K., 2010. Ge*h!). F!'&!'3 ("% !' ("% *'e. S)!e')e=2, 17217=. &*!:10.112)!e')e.11222=

<('3, K., B!e6, S.L., 201. I'/!%e& +e/!e (e+: F("% )+ee )("e&# "#&")%!*' * +*"3h e(@**+ +e!e. Te)%*'*h!) 10, 12.&*!:10.101.%e)%*.201=.11.02

<('3, K., B!e6, S.L., 2011. D* "#&")%!'3 e($*"'% 3e'e+(%e *+

%* (+3e e(+%h-"(6e\ Ge**3 =, 81822.&*!:10.11=0G=187.1

<('3, K., H", Y., 200. A))+e%!*'(+ +!$ !' "#&")%!*'e(+%h-"(6e ))e: The %he*+ * &'($!) C*"*$# e&3e. Z.Ge*h. Re. 111, B010. &*!:10.1022007ZB000

<(%%, A.B., K*e+, A.A., R*#!'*', D.P., 2010. Se($*"'%"#&")%!*' ('& e(+%h-"(6e.

<e, R.E., B(6e, R.Z., S"3!($(, Y., S)h*, D.<., D!'%e+$(', P.A.,

200=. B(!'m)e'%e+e& (e+!%!e !' 3+e(% "#&")%!*' *'ee(+%h-"(6e: A !'6 #e%ee' !, "#!&e')e, ('& "#&")%!*'e+*!*'\ Z. Ge*h. Re. 108, 270. &*!:10.1022002ZB00202

<h!%e, D.Z., 18. T*>D!$e'!*'( Se!$!) Re+()%!*' T*$*3+(h.Ge*h. Z. I'%. , 22=27. &*!:10.1111.1=7>2[.18.%#008.;

<!33e+, P.Z., S)h$!%, M., A+('e&(, M., A)h, G., B(&"h', S., G!ee,P., He!'*h', <.>D., M(+%f'e, E., R!)(&!, E., Re+, P., 1.

(+!(%!*' !' %he )+"%( %+")%"+e * %he *"%he+' Ce'%+( A'&e&e&")e& +*$ e!$!) +e+()%!*' !'/e%!3(%!*', !': Te)%*'!) *%he S*"%he+' Ce'%+( A'&e. S+!'3e+, . 2=8.

227

seismic properties and processes along the subduction plate interface: the februrary 2010 mw 8.8...

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