Selection & DevelopmentSelection & DevelopmentMethod of selection—far-reaching implications.Method of selection—far-reaching implications.

Civil service: affects selection, promotion, and Civil service: affects selection, promotion, and discipline.discipline.Enacted in 1883 with passage of Pendleton Civil Enacted in 1883 with passage of Pendleton Civil Service Act (to eliminate spoils system).Service Act (to eliminate spoils system).Departments gained autonomy and freedom from Departments gained autonomy and freedom from political influence.political influence.Negative aspects: too much protection for Negative aspects: too much protection for incompetent officers. incompetent officers.

Point of entry - lowest level in dept.Point of entry - lowest level in dept.A few departments - lateral entry of sgts, lieuts,. Captains. A few departments - lateral entry of sgts, lieuts,. Captains. Some - chief selected from outside. Some - chief selected from outside. All states—promotion standardsAll states—promotion standards

Selection & DevelopmentSelection & DevelopmentRecruitmentRecruitment

Where: (1) advertisements, tv etc. (2) special interest Where: (1) advertisements, tv etc. (2) special interest groups, (3) public announcements, (4) university groups, (3) public announcements, (4) university career placement/planning offices (5) referrals from career placement/planning offices (5) referrals from current employees.current employees.Police image: presents police as crime-fighters, Police image: presents police as crime-fighters, however may be inconsistent with realities of police however may be inconsistent with realities of police work.work.Ethnic differences in reasons for becoming a police Ethnic differences in reasons for becoming a police officer.officer.

Factors in Deciding to Choose a Police Career, by Ethnic Groupings

Black Hispanic Asian Caucasian Total•Variety 65.5% 62.8% 46.2% 81.8% 68%

(19) (27) (6) (54) (106)Rank 1 1 3 1•Responsibility 51.7% 51.2% 61.5% 53% 51%

(15) (22) (8) (35) (80)Rank 3 2.5 1 3•Serve Public** 62.1% 48.8% 53.8% 43.9% 48%

(18) (21) (7) (29) (75)Rank 2 4 2 4•Adventure** 27.6% 44.2% 30.8% 60.6% 45%

(8) (19) (4) (40) (71)Rank 6 5 5 2•Security 41.4% 37.2% 38.5% 51.5% 43%

(12) (16) (5) (34) (67)Rank 4 7 4 10•Pay 37.9% 51.2% 38.5% 40.9% 41%

(11) (22) (5) (27) (65)Rank 5 2.5 4 5•Benefits 24.1% 39.6% 38.5% 34.8% 33%

(7) (17) (5) (23) (52)Rank 7.5 6 4 7•Advancement 24.1% 30.2% 23.1% 37.9% 31%

(7) (13) (3) (25) (48)Rank 7.5 8 6 6•Retirement 20.7% 22.3% 15.4% 25.8% 22%

(6) (10) (2) (17) (35)Rank 9 9 7 8•Prestige 3.4% 16.3% 15.4% 19.7% 15%

(1) (7) (2) (13) (23)Rank 10 10 7 9

Title VII of the Civil Rights ActTitle VII of the Civil Rights Act Race, color, religion, sex, or national Race, color, religion, sex, or national

originorigin Protected class – Affirmative ActionProtected class – Affirmative Action

Job related qualificationsJob related qualifications B.F.O.Q.B.F.O.Q. Height & WeightHeight & Weight Physical AgilityPhysical Agility

Women and Minority Local Police Officers, 1987, 1990, and 1993Women and Minority Local Police Officers, 1987, 1990, and 1993

0

5

10

15

20

Female All Minorities Black Hispanic

Percent of full-tim

e sworn personnel

Percent of full-time sworn employees who are:

White Black Hispanic Other

All Sizes 100% 80.9% 75.2% 5.7% 11.3% 9.1% 2.2% 6.2% 5.5% .7% 1.5% 1.4% .1%1,000,000 or more 100% 69.2% 61.7% 7.5% 17.7% 12.8% 4.9% 12.0% 10.0% 2.0% 1.2% 1.0% .2%500,000-999,999 100 66.2 60.1 6.1 21.0 16.1 5.0 7.0 6.1 .9 5.8 5.4 .4250,000-499,999 100 71.9 64.5 7.4 17.7 14.3 3.4 9.0 8.2 .9 1.4 1.2 .4100,000-249,999 100 80.6 74.2 6.3 12.4 10.4 2.1 5.4 4.9 .4 1.6 1.5 .150,000-99,999 100 86.3 80.7 5.5 7.2 6.3 .9 5.1 4.7 .5 1.4 1.3 .125,000-49,999 100 89.8 85.1 4.6 5.4 5.0 .5 4.3 4.1 .2 .6 .6 -10,000-24,999 100 91.6 87.1 4.5 5.1 4.8 .3 2.6 2.5 .1 .6 .6 -2,500-9,999 100 92.8 88.9 3.9 4.1 3.8 .3 2.6 2.4 .1 .5 .5 -Under 2,500 100 91.7 89.3 2.3 5.3 5.0 .3 1.9 1.8 .1 1.2 1.1 -

Population served Total Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

Table 12.2 Race and Ethnicity of Full Time Officers in Local Departments,Table 12.2 Race and Ethnicity of Full Time Officers in Local Departments, by Size of Population Served, 1993 by Size of Population Served, 1993

Figure 12.3 Percent of Black Officers in Figure 12.3 Percent of Black Officers in Representative Large Police Departments and Representative Large Police Departments and

Percent in Supervision, 1992Percent in Supervision, 1992

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Seattle

Philadelphia

New York

New Orleans

Los Angeles

Detroit

Dallas

Chicago

% of All Officers % in Supervision

Figure 12.4 Percent of Hispanic Officers in Figure 12.4 Percent of Hispanic Officers in Representative Large Police Departments and Representative Large Police Departments and

Percent in Supervision, 1992Percent in Supervision, 1992

0 5 10 15 20 25

Seattle

Philadelphia

New York

New Orleans

Los Angeles

Detroit

Dallas

Chicago

% of All Officers % in Supervision

Figure 12.2 Percent of Female Officers in Figure 12.2 Percent of Female Officers in Representative Large Police Departments and Representative Large Police Departments and

Percent in Supervision, 1992Percent in Supervision, 1992

0 5 10 15 20 25

Seattle

Philadelphia

New York

New Orleans

Los Angeles

Detroit

Dallas

Chicago

% of All Officers % of Supervisors

Selection & DevelopmentSelection & DevelopmentThe Legal Legacy of Title VII: Determining which The Legal Legacy of Title VII: Determining which candidates are best suited for the needs of the candidates are best suited for the needs of the dept.dept.

The 4/5 rule. A selection rate of a group must be must The 4/5 rule. A selection rate of a group must be must be 4/5 the selection rate of the most successful group.be 4/5 the selection rate of the most successful group.Disparate impact: Standards cannot be used Disparate impact: Standards cannot be used that have a discriminatory impact intended or that have a discriminatory impact intended or otherwise.otherwise.Griggs v. Duke Power CompanyGriggs v. Duke Power Company (1971): High School (1971): High School diploma and 2 written tests disqualified a higher diploma and 2 written tests disqualified a higher percentage of Blacks and could not be shown to affect percentage of Blacks and could not be shown to affect job performance. job performance. Albemarle Power Company v. MoodyAlbemarle Power Company v. Moody (1975): selection (1975): selection and promotion must be job related. and promotion must be job related. If a standard is valid, it can have a disparate impact: If a standard is valid, it can have a disparate impact: Davis v. City of DallasDavis v. City of Dallas (1985). DPD requirement of 45 (1985). DPD requirement of 45 hours university credit. Called bona-fide occupational hours university credit. Called bona-fide occupational qualification (BFOQ)qualification (BFOQ)

Selection & DevelopmentSelection & DevelopmentPreemployment Standards. Preemployment Standards. Age, vision, height and weight, and physical agility Age, vision, height and weight, and physical agility standards. standards.

Departments must comply with ADEA (Age Departments must comply with ADEA (Age Discrimination in Employment Act). Discriminatory if Discrimination in Employment Act). Discriminatory if individuals over 40 are discouraged from applying.individuals over 40 are discouraged from applying..Minimum height requirements: challenged by .Minimum height requirements: challenged by women. women.

Vanguard Justice Society v. HughesVanguard Justice Society v. Hughes: 5'7" requirement : 5'7" requirement discriminates against 95 percent of women. discriminates against 95 percent of women.

Physical agility. Must be job related. In recent years Physical agility. Must be job related. In recent years it has moved toward health-based testing instead of it has moved toward health-based testing instead of physical endurance. physical endurance.

Selection & DevelopmentSelection & Development

Residency. Two types of requirements.Residency. Two types of requirements.a. a. Must reside in jurisdiction.Must reside in jurisdiction.

b. b. Must relocate within specified period of time. Must relocate within specified period of time.

c. c. About 92% of state and 25% of municipal About 92% of state and 25% of municipal departments have a residency requirement. departments have a residency requirement.

d. d. ROP (Resident Office Requirements): provide ROP (Resident Office Requirements): provide officers with low interest or free/low rent housing officers with low interest or free/low rent housing in selected troublesome areas (low income/high in selected troublesome areas (low income/high crime). crime).

Selection & DevelopmentSelection & DevelopmentEducation.Education.

1993 study of 3000 departments. Only 1 1993 study of 3000 departments. Only 1 percent require a college degree; 865 require percent require a college degree; 865 require only a high school diploma.only a high school diploma.Population 100,000 to 250,000: rate is 7 Population 100,000 to 250,000: rate is 7 percent.percent.50,000 to 100,000: 17 percent require 2-year 50,000 to 100,000: 17 percent require 2-year degree.degree.

Why is degree development so slow? Why is degree development so slow? Discrimination toward minorities. (Unfounded)Discrimination toward minorities. (Unfounded)Fear of lawsuit if education is not linked to job Fear of lawsuit if education is not linked to job activities. (Unfounded) activities. (Unfounded) Inertia: fear of change. Inertia: fear of change.

Selection & DevelopmentSelection & Development General suitability.General suitability. Background investigation. Background investigation. Based on the candidates personal history. Based on the candidates personal history.

Includes military records, family background, credit record, Includes military records, family background, credit record, employment history, drug use.employment history, drug use.

Candidates highly rated generally show low level of Candidates highly rated generally show low level of misconduct (Cohen and Chaiken, NY police recruit study).misconduct (Cohen and Chaiken, NY police recruit study).

Drugs: Dallas requires “no recent or excessive histories of Drugs: Dallas requires “no recent or excessive histories of marijuana use.” (marijuana use.” (Davis v. City of DallasDavis v. City of Dallas, 1985). , 1985).

1995 BJS survey: 80 percent of departments required 1995 BJS survey: 80 percent of departments required applicants to take a drug test.applicants to take a drug test.

Dept leniency toward past drug use.Dept leniency toward past drug use. In Baltimore County, more than 50 percent of successful In Baltimore County, more than 50 percent of successful

candidates have had drug use in their past. Automatic candidates have had drug use in their past. Automatic rejection for use of hallucinogens.rejection for use of hallucinogens.

Most stringent: FBI: no illegal drugs other than experimental Most stringent: FBI: no illegal drugs other than experimental use of marijuana. Candidates who have been “rehabilitated” use of marijuana. Candidates who have been “rehabilitated” might be considered. No previous drug use while on a post of might be considered. No previous drug use while on a post of public trust. Past 10 years only experimental marijuana, absent public trust. Past 10 years only experimental marijuana, absent mitigating circumstances.mitigating circumstances.

Selection & DevelopmentSelection & Development Polygraph examination.Polygraph examination.

Its accuracy is disputed and controversial.Its accuracy is disputed and controversial. Stress of polygraph results in false positives. Stress of polygraph results in false positives. Some departments still ask about sexual preferences or Some departments still ask about sexual preferences or

lifestyle. lifestyle. Psychological standards. Psychological standards.

Most common MMPI: Minneapolis Multiphasic Personality Most common MMPI: Minneapolis Multiphasic Personality Inventory), CPI (California Personality Inventory). Also Inventory), CPI (California Personality Inventory). Also popular for police: the Inwald Personality Inventory(IPI). popular for police: the Inwald Personality Inventory(IPI).

Considerably controversial: are they job related? Some Considerably controversial: are they job related? Some are racially biased. Do not predict job performance. are racially biased. Do not predict job performance.

Medical records. Medical records. Almost all departments: require a medical exam to weed Almost all departments: require a medical exam to weed

out potential liabilities. out potential liabilities.

Selection & DevelopmentSelection & Development

Preemployment screening.Preemployment screening. Written and cognitive tests. Written and cognitive tests. Oral interview. Oral interview. Americans with Disabilities Act. Americans with Disabilities Act.

Prohibits discrimination against qualified Prohibits discrimination against qualified individuals with a disability. individuals with a disability.

Candidates must be given a conditional offer Candidates must be given a conditional offer of employment prior to taking tests related to of employment prior to taking tests related to the disability. No questions related to the disability. No questions related to disabilities, unless it can be demonstrated disabilities, unless it can be demonstrated that the disability is related to future job that the disability is related to future job performance. performance.

Officer DevelopmentOfficer Development Recruit training. Recruit training.

Usually through Peace Officer Standards and Training board. Usually through Peace Officer Standards and Training board. Some states: all training is carried out prior to hiring. The department Some states: all training is carried out prior to hiring. The department

does not have to carry the cost of the training. does not have to carry the cost of the training. Increasingly: testing for literacy skills. Low standards result in marginal Increasingly: testing for literacy skills. Low standards result in marginal

employees. employees. Quantity of training: 400 to 1000 hours. More training increases Quantity of training: 400 to 1000 hours. More training increases

knowledge base. knowledge base. Program orientation. Program orientation.

Stress or non-stress? Stress = military boot camp. Stress or non-stress? Stress = military boot camp. Berg, 1990: no evidence that stress training is more valid Berg, 1990: no evidence that stress training is more valid

or successful than nonstress training. or successful than nonstress training. Earle (1973) nonstress training produces better recruits.Earle (1973) nonstress training produces better recruits.

Philosophy and Instructional methods. Philosophy and Instructional methods. Training - instructing the individual how to do the job.Training - instructing the individual how to do the job. Education: provision of a general body of knowledge that Education: provision of a general body of knowledge that

explains why things are the way they are and on which decisions explains why things are the way they are and on which decisions are made. are made.

Reliance on training: insufficient because a great deal of policing Reliance on training: insufficient because a great deal of policing requires capacity for reasoning instead of rule application. requires capacity for reasoning instead of rule application.

Officer DevelopmentOfficer Development Course content. Course content.

Traditionally, training under-represents non-law Traditionally, training under-represents non-law enforcement aspects of the job. enforcement aspects of the job.

Too much emphasis a macho notion of police work.Too much emphasis a macho notion of police work.

Average training: 425 classroom hours, 215 field training Average training: 425 classroom hours, 215 field training hours.hours. Most recent research:Most recent research:

State police: 823 hoursState police: 823 hours County: 760 hours.County: 760 hours. Municipal: 640 hours.Municipal: 640 hours. Sheriffs: 436 hours. Sheriffs: 436 hours. Largest municipal police departments: 1120 hours.Largest municipal police departments: 1120 hours.

Hot topic: Ethics: currently, 83% require some ethics training, Hot topic: Ethics: currently, 83% require some ethics training, mostly 4-hour segments. mostly 4-hour segments.

Hot topic 2: De-escalation of force. Training non-aggressive Hot topic 2: De-escalation of force. Training non-aggressive force that reduces use of violence. force that reduces use of violence. Virtual reality training. Programming 3-dimensional Virtual reality training. Programming 3-dimensional

experiences into computers.experiences into computers.

Officer DevelopmentOfficer Development Field Training. Field Training. Characteristics.Characteristics.

On the job or apprentice training. On the job or apprentice training. FTO: Field training officer. FTO: Field training officer.

Three phases in many programs.Three phases in many programs. Phase 1: regional academy training, and additional Phase 1: regional academy training, and additional

department-specific training.department-specific training. Phase 2: Recruit assigned to FTO on rotating bases, across Phase 2: Recruit assigned to FTO on rotating bases, across

all three shifts. all three shifts. Daily observation reports. Daily observation reports.

Phase 3: Recruit assigned a solo beat outside the training Phase 3: Recruit assigned a solo beat outside the training district. Evaluated every couple of weeks by supervisor. district. Evaluated every couple of weeks by supervisor. Final 2 weeks: plainclothes FTO rides along with recruit. Final 2 weeks: plainclothes FTO rides along with recruit.

Higher EducationHigher Education

Is higher education necessary for Is higher education necessary for police work? police work?

High school requirement High school requirement implemented for police was at a time implemented for police was at a time when most nationally did not get HS when most nationally did not get HS diploma: hence police were highly diploma: hence police were highly educated for the era. educated for the era.

Most federal agencies require Most federal agencies require bachelor’s.bachelor’s.

Higher EducationHigher Education Vollmer: advocate of college education. Vollmer: advocate of college education.

Officers trained in soc, psych, technical, crime prevention. Should include Officers trained in soc, psych, technical, crime prevention. Should include a liberal arts emphasis. a liberal arts emphasis.

Helped establish the first police school in higher education at Berkeley, Helped establish the first police school in higher education at Berkeley, (became part time faculty member in 1916 and full time in 1932) CA. (became part time faculty member in 1916 and full time in 1932) CA. Became patriarch of American Policing.Became patriarch of American Policing.

1920s and 1930s—several departments established. Wichita State 1920s and 1930s—several departments established. Wichita State University, San Jose State, Michigan State, U. of ChicagoUniversity, San Jose State, Michigan State, U. of Chicago

Early programs—typically called police science. Early programs—typically called police science. Focus of programs: administration and supervision. Also practical applications of the Focus of programs: administration and supervision. Also practical applications of the

“science” of policing. “science” of policing. Focused on training needs, not knowledge expansion. Focused on training needs, not knowledge expansion.

““College cops” (Education) resisted by many police College cops” (Education) resisted by many police agencies.agencies.

Factors leading to educational expansion.Factors leading to educational expansion. Increase in crime through the 1960s. Gallup poll: found that crime was Increase in crime through the 1960s. Gallup poll: found that crime was

“most serious issue.” “most serious issue.” Ghetto riots. Spurred the government and public into action. Ghetto riots. Spurred the government and public into action. 1964 presidential election: focused on “crime in the streets.”1964 presidential election: focused on “crime in the streets.” Serious-ongoing minority-police problems. Serious-ongoing minority-police problems. President’s Commission (1967): Challenge of crime in a free society. President’s Commission (1967): Challenge of crime in a free society.

Focused on quality of police personnel and recommended higher Focused on quality of police personnel and recommended higher education for all. All officers should have B.A.s.education for all. All officers should have B.A.s.

Higher EducationHigher Education Evidence for expansion in educationEvidence for expansion in education

Type of AgencyCounty Municipal Sheriff

State(n=30) (n=454) (n=167)

(n=49)4-yr 3% 2% 1% 4%2-yr 13% 7% 5% 16%

Table: Changes in Police Education Table: Changes in Police Education Level by YearsLevel by Years

College Level 1960 1970 1974 1988

No College 80.0% 68.2% 53.8% 34.8%

<2 Years 10.0% 17.2% 15.8% 20.5%

2-3 Years 7.3% 10.9% 21.5% 22.1%

>4 Years 2.7% 3.7% 8.9% 22.6%

Higher EducationHigher Education Positive effects of college on individual police officer Positive effects of college on individual police officer

performance indicators:performance indicators:1. 1. Fewer citizen complaints.Fewer citizen complaints.2.2. Perform better in academy training.Perform better in academy training.3. 3. Lower absenteeism. Lower absenteeism. 4. 4. Fewer disciplinary problems. Fewer disciplinary problems. 5. 5. Fewer injuries on the job. Fewer injuries on the job. 6. 6. Tend to use deadly force less often. Tend to use deadly force less often. 7. 7. Effects of occupational development.Effects of occupational development.

a. More likely to be promoted. a. More likely to be promoted. b. More likely to seek out leadership roles. b. More likely to seek out leadership roles. c. More innovative. c. More innovative. d. Less likely to become involved in “individual d. Less likely to become involved in “individual

liability.”liability.”e. Broader understanding of civil rights issues. e. Broader understanding of civil rights issues. f. College educated officers better able to adapt f. College educated officers better able to adapt

to the complex needs of policing.to the complex needs of policing.

Higher EducationHigher Education Higher Education and Discrimination.Higher Education and Discrimination.A. Title VII civil rights act: employment barriers that discriminate are A. Title VII civil rights act: employment barriers that discriminate are

illegal, whether or not intended. illegal, whether or not intended.

B. However, if an employment practice is job related, it may be allowed B. However, if an employment practice is job related, it may be allowed as a requirement – Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (BFOQ as a requirement – Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (BFOQ exception).exception).

C. Survey of educational levels among Anglo, Latinos and Blacks: Anglos C. Survey of educational levels among Anglo, Latinos and Blacks: Anglos tend overall to have lower levels of educational attainment in policing tend overall to have lower levels of educational attainment in policing than the other groups. Table 11.7. than the other groups. Table 11.7.

D. When gender is examined, women have a full year more of education. D. When gender is examined, women have a full year more of education. Why? Why?

1. 1. Women believe they need stronger credentials to Women believe they need stronger credentials to compete.compete.

2. 2. Police agencies more rigid in screening women. Police agencies more rigid in screening women. 3. 3. Women coming into police come from other occupations Women coming into police come from other occupations

requiring a degree. requiring a degree.

E. In other words, the trend toward higher education does not negatively E. In other words, the trend toward higher education does not negatively affect either minorities or women. affect either minorities or women.

Educational Levels by Race/Ethnicity and Educational Levels by Race/Ethnicity and Minority Representation in Police Minority Representation in Police

OrganizationsOrganizationsGroup Mean % in National% No Some Graduate

Yrs. Police college under- degree(%) graduate (%)

work (%)

Black 13.6 12.3 12.1 28 63 9Hispanic 13.3 6.4 8.0 27 68 5White 13.7 80.3 76.9 34 62 4Other 13.8 1.0 3.0 19 73 8

Higher EducationHigher Education College Education as a Minimum Standard for Police College Education as a Minimum Standard for Police

Employment. Employment. Conclusion: evidence shows that higher education is useful Conclusion: evidence shows that higher education is useful

for police.for police. Education will move the police toward truly professional Education will move the police toward truly professional

status.status. Support for College Education Requirement. Support for College Education Requirement.

Challenges of community policing. More discretion. More problem Challenges of community policing. More discretion. More problem solving. Capacity to think through problems. Need for cultural solving. Capacity to think through problems. Need for cultural sensitivity. In the current era, quality of high school education has sensitivity. In the current era, quality of high school education has declined. Students inadequately prepared for fundamental needs of declined. Students inadequately prepared for fundamental needs of policing. policing.

Societal changes. Need for cultural sensitivity and ethnic Societal changes. Need for cultural sensitivity and ethnic recognition. Courses needed in cultural diversity, ethics, cross-recognition. Courses needed in cultural diversity, ethics, cross-cultural comparisons, foreign languages. Officers so educated are cultural comparisons, foreign languages. Officers so educated are better equipped to deal with complex multi-ethnic jurisdictions. better equipped to deal with complex multi-ethnic jurisdictions.

Technological changes. Laptop computer. Dramatic expansion of Technological changes. Laptop computer. Dramatic expansion of data-collection capabilities. Emphasis on solution-oriented policing. data-collection capabilities. Emphasis on solution-oriented policing. Computer sophistication necessary. Computer sophistication necessary.

Officers have to be able to develop ways to self-evaluate the quality Officers have to be able to develop ways to self-evaluate the quality of their work in an objective format—research methodologies.of their work in an objective format—research methodologies.