semantic web landscape 2009
DESCRIPTION
These slides were originally a tutorial presented for the SIG preceding the May 2009 meeting of the PRISM Forum. They attempt to give a survey of the technologies, tools, and state of the world with respect to the Semantic Web as of the first half of 2009.TRANSCRIPT
The 2009 Semantic Web LandscapeTechnologies, tools, and projects
Lee FeigenbaumVP Technology & Standards, Cambridge Semantics
Co-chair, W3C SPARQL Working Group
For PRISM Forum SIG on Semantic WebMay 12, 2009
Much material & wisdom used with gracious permission of:Ivan Herman
W3C Semantic Web Activity LeadBijan Parsia
Co-editor of the core OWL 2 specificationIan Horrocks
Co-chair of the W3C OWL 2 Working GroupPhil Archer
Chair of the W3C POWDER Working Group
Thanks Upfront
May 12, 2009 2
Much material & wisdom used with gracious permission of:Michael Hausenblas
Evangelist for RDFa, Linked Data, and Multimedia SemanticsFabien Gandon
Member, GRDDL and OWL 2 Working GroupsSusie Stephens
Co-chair W3C HCLS Interest GroupEric Prud’hommeaux
W3C team member, Semantic Web expert
Thanks Upfront
May 12, 2009 3
Executive Summary: The Semantic Web in 2009
May 12, 2009 4
The Semantic Web in 2009 is characterized by a healthy environment of stable, broadly-implemented core standard
technologies complemented by a number of continually emerging new standards.
Adopters of Semantic Web technologies in 2009 can choose from a wide range of commercial and open-source interoperable tools
and systems.
Enterprise Semantic Web projects are beginning to move beyond proofs of concept to serious production implementations.
Community projects on the World Wide Web have linked hundreds of public data sets into an emergent Semantic Web.
IntroductionThe data model (RDF)The query language (SPARQL)Adding structure & semantics (RDFS, OWL, RIF)Working in the real world (GRDDL, RDF2RDB)Working on the Web (Linked Data, RDFa, POWDER)
Agenda
May 12, 2009 5
The W3C HCLS interest group set out to use Semantic Web technologies to receive precise answers to a complex question:
A Motivating Example: Drug Discovery
May 12, 2009 6
Find me genes involved in signal transduction that are related to pyramidal neurons.
General search
223,000 hits, 0 results
May 12, 2009 7
Domain-limited search
2,580 potential results
May 12, 2009 8
Specific databases
Too many silos!
May 12, 2009 9
A Semantic Web Approach
Integrate disparate databases…
MeSHPubMedEntrez GeneGene Ontology…
May 12, 2009 10
A Semantic Web Approach (cont’d)
…so that one query…
May 12, 2009 11
A Semantic Web Approach (cont’d)
…(trivially) spans several databases…
May 12, 2009 12
A Semantic Web Approach (cont’d)
…to deliver targeted results…
May 12, 2009 13
1. Agreement on common terms and relationships
2. Incremental, flexible data structure3. Good-enough modeling4. Query interface tailored to the data
model
What’s the trick?
May 12, 2009 14
Names
May 12, 2009 15
Semantic WebWeb of DataGiant Global GraphData WebWeb 3.0Linked Data WebSemantic Data Web
Branding
May 12, 2009 16
“The Semantic Web”Augments the World Wide WebRepresents the Web’s information in a machine-readable fashionEnables…
…targeted search…data browsing…automated agents
What is it & why do we care? (1)
May 12, 2009 17
World Wide Web : Web pages :: The Semantic Web : Data
“Semantic Web technologies”A family of technology standards that ‘play nice together’, including:
Flexible data modelExpressive ontology languageDistributed query language
Drive Web sites, enterprise applications
What is it & why do we care? (2)
May 12, 2009 18
The technologies enable us to build applications and solutions that were not possible, practical, or feasible traditionally.
A common set of technologies:...enables diverse uses...encourages interoperability
A coherent set of technologies:…encourage incremental application…provide a substantial base for innovation
A standard set of technologies:...reduces proprietary vendor lock-in...encourages many choices for tool sets
A Common & Coherent Set of Technology Standards
May 12, 2009 19
The (In)Famous Layer Cake
May 12, 2009 20
Semantic Web Technology Timeline
1999 2001 2004 2008 20092007
RIF
HCLS
May 12, 2009 21
As technologies & tools have evolved, Semantic Web advocates have progressed through stages:
2009: Where we are
May 12, 2009 22
Report on… Execute on…
Semantic Web vision Initial experiments
Experiments Technology standards
Technology standards Software packages
Software packages Proofs of concept
Proofs of concept Production implementations
2009: Where we are (cont’d)
May 12, 2009 23
http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/sweo/public/UseCases/
2009: Where we’re not
May 12, 2009 24
Semantic Web technologies are not a ‘magic crank’ for discovering new drugs (or solving other problems, for that matter)!
Image from Trey Ideker via Enoch Huang
2009: Where we’re not (cont’d)
May 12, 2009 25
The Semantic Web still suffers from confusing and conflicting messaging, each of which asserts it’s “correct”.
XML vs. RDF?“Ontology” vs. “ontology”?
Semantic Web vs. Linked Data?
Data integration vs. reasoning vs. KBs vs. search vs. app. development vs. …
2009: Where we’re not (cont’d)
May 12, 2009 26
People with appropriate skill sets for designing & building Semantic Web solutions are not widely available.
2009: Where we’re not (cont’d)
May 12, 2009 27
We don’t yet have standard solutions for privacy, trust, probability, and other elements of the Semantic Web vision.
Introduction to the Semantic Web approach
Thanks to Ivan Herman for this example
How does a Semantic Web approach help us merge data sets, infer new relations, and integrate
outside data sources?
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1. Map the various data onto an abstract data representation
• Make the data independent of its internal representation…
2. Merge the resulting representations3. Start making queries on the whole
• Queries not possible on the individual data sets
The rough structure of data integration
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Data set “A”: A simplified book store
ID Author Title Publisher Year
ISBN0-00-651409-X id_xyz The Glass Palace id_qpr 2000
ID Name Home page
id_xyz Ghosh, Amitav http://www.amitavghosh.com
ID Publisher Name City
id_qpr Harper Collins London
Books
Authors
Publishers
May 12, 2009 30
1st: Export your data as a set of relations
May 12, 2009 31
Data export does not necessarily mean physical conversion of the data
Relations can be virtual, generated on-the-fly at query time
via SQL “bridges” scraping HTML pages extracting data from Excel sheets etc.
One can export part of the data
Some notes on the data export
May 12, 2009 32
A B D E
1 ID Titre Original
2
ISBN0 2020386682 A13 ISBN-0-00-651409-X
3
6 ID Auteur7 ISBN-0-00-651409-X A12
11
12
13
TraducteurLe Palais des miroirs
NomGhosh, AmitavBesse, Christianne
Data set “F”: Another book store’s data
May 12, 2009 33
2nd: Export your second set of data
May 12, 2009 34
3rd: start merging your data
May 12, 2009 35
3rd: start merging your data (cont’d)
May 12, 2009 36
4th: Merge identical resources
May 12, 2009 37
User of data set “F” can now ask queries like:“What is the title of the original version of Le Palais des miroirs?”
This information is not in the data set “F”...…but can be retrieved after merging with data set “A”!
Start making queries…
May 12, 2009 38
5th: Query the merged data set
May 12, 2009 39
We “know” that a:author and f:auteur are really the sameBut our automatic merge does not know that!Let us add some extra information to the merged data:
a:author is the same as f:auteurBoth identify a Person, a category (type) for certain resources
However, more can be achieved…
May 12, 2009 40
3rd revisited: Use the extra knowledge
May 12, 2009 41
User of data set “F” can now query:“What is the home page of Le Palais des miroirs’s ‘auteur’?”
The information is not in data set “F” or “A”……but was made available by:
Merging data sets “A” and “F”Adding three simple “glue” statements
Start making richer queries!
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6th: Richer queries
May 12, 2009 43
We can integrate new information into our merged data set from other sources
e.g. additional information about author Amitav Ghosh
Perhaps the largest public source of general knowledge is Wikipedia
Structured data can be extracted from Wikipedia using dedicated tools
Bring in other data sources
May 12, 2009 44
7th: Merge with Wikipedia data
May 12, 2009 45
7th (cont’d): Merge with Wikipedia data
May 12, 2009 46
7th (cont’d): Merge with Wikipedia data
May 12, 2009 47
It may look like it but, in fact, it should not be…What happened via automatic means is done every day by Web users!The difference: a bit of extra rigour so that machines could do this, too
Is that surprising?
May 12, 2009 48
We combined different data sets that...may be internal or somewhere on the Web...are of different formats (RDBMS, Excel spreadsheet, (X)HTML, etc)...have different names for the same relations
We could combine the data because some URIs were identical
i.e. the ISBNs in this caseWe could add some simple additional information (the “glue”) to help further merge data setsThe result? Answer queries that could not previously be asked
What did we do?
May 12, 2009 49
What did we do? (cont’d)
May 12, 2009 50
…the graph representation is independent of the details of the native structures…a change in local database schemas, HTML structures, etc. do not affect the whole
“schema independence”…new data, new connections can be added seamlessly & incrementally
The abstraction pays off because…
May 12, 2009 51
The rest of this tutorial introduces many of these technologies.
So where is the Semantic Web?
Semantic Web technologies make such integration possible
May 12, 2009 52
IntroductionThe data model (RDF)The query language (SPARQL)Adding structure & semantics (RDFS, OWL, RIF)Working in the real world (GRDDL, RDF2RDB)Working on the Web (Linked Data, RDFa, POWDER)
Agenda
May 12, 2009 53
RDF is…
May 12, 2009 54
Resource Description Framework
RDF is…
May 12, 2009 55
The data model of the Semantic Web.
RDF is…
May 12, 2009 56
A schema-less data model that features unambiguous identifiers and named relations
between pairs of resources.
RDF graphs are collections of triplesTriples are made up of a subject, a predicate, and an object
Resources and relationships are named with URIs
RDF is…
May 12, 2009 57
A labeled, directed graph of relations between resources and literal values.
subject objectpredicate
“Lee Feigenbaum works for Cambridge Semantics”
“Lee Feigenbaum was born in 1978”
“Cambridge Semantics is headquartered in Massachusetts”
Example RDF triples
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Lee Feigenbaum
Cambridge Semantics
works for
Lee Feigenbaum 1978
born in
Cambridge Semantics
headquarteredMassachusetts
Triples connect to form graphs
May 12, 2009 59
Lee Feigenbaum
Cambridge Semantics
works for
1978
born inheadquartered
Massachusetts
Boston
lives in
capital
The graph data structure makes merging data with shared identifiers trivial (as we saw earlier)Triples act as a least common denominator for expressing dataURIs for naming remove ambiguity
…the same identifier means the same thing
Why RDF? What’s different here?
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61
Why RDF? Incremental Integration
Flexible Graph Model
URIs for
naming
Agile, Incremental
Integration
RelationalDatabase RDF
May 12, 2009
Triple storesBuilt on relational databaseNative RDF store
Development librariesFull-featured application servers
Types of RDF Tools
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Most RDF tools contain some elements of each of these.
Community-maintained listshttp://esw.w3.org/topic/SemanticWebTools
Emphasis on large triple storeshttp://esw.w3.org/topic/LargeTripleStores
Michael Bergman’s Sweet Tools searchable list:http://www.mkbergman.com/?page_id=325
Finding RDF Tools
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RDF Tools – (Some) Triple Stores
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Tool Commercial orOpen-source Environment
Anzo Both Java
ARC Open-source PHP
AllegroGraph Commercial Java, Prolog
Jena Open-source Java
Mulgara Open-source Java
Oracle RDF Commercial SQL / SPARQL
RDF::Query Open-source Perl
Redland Open-source C, many wrappers
Sesame Open-source Java
Talis Platform Commercial HTTP (Hosted) Virtuoso Both C++
IntroductionThe data model (RDF)The query language (SPARQL)Adding structure & semantics (RDFS, OWL, RIF)Working in the real world (GRDDL, RDF2RDB)Working on the Web (Linked Data, RDFa, POWDER)
Agenda
May 12, 2009 65
Motivating SPARQL
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With a query language, a client can design their own interface.
--Leigh Dodds, Talis
SPARQL is…
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SPARQL Protocol And RDF Query Language
SPARQL is…
May 12, 2009 68
The query language of the Semantic Web.
SPARQL is…
May 12, 2009 69
A SQL-like language for querying sets of RDF graphs.
SPARQL is…
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A simple protocol for issuing queries and receiving results over HTTP. So…
Every SPARQL client works with every SPARQL server!
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SPARQL lets us:Pull information from structured and semi-structured data.Explore data by discovering unknown relationships.Query and search an integrated view of disparate data sources.Glue separate software applications together by transforming data from one vocabulary to another.
Why SPARQL?
May 12, 2009
What automobiles get more than 25 miles per gallon, fit within my department’s budget, and can be purchased at a dealer located within 10 miles of one of my employees?
SELECT ?automobileWHERE { ?automobile a ex:Car ; epa:mpg ?mpg ; ex:dealer ?dealer . ?employee a ex:Employee ; geo:loc ?loc . ?dealer geo:loc ?dealerloc . FILTER(?mpg > 25 && geo:dist(?loc, ?dealerloc) <= 10) .}
Web dashboard SPARQL query
EmployeeDirectory
ERP / BudgetSystem
Web
Dealer 1Dealer 2
Dealer 3
EPA Fuel EfficiencySpreadsheet
SPARQL Query Engine
PREFIX type: <http://dbpedia.org/class/yago/>PREFIX prop: <http://dbpedia.org/property/> SELECT ?country_name ?population WHERE { ?country a type:LandlockedCountries ; rdfs:label ?country_name ; prop:populationEstimate ?population . FILTER ( ?population > 15000000 && langMatches(lang(?country_name), "EN") ) . }ORDER BY DESC(?population)
SPARQL Example: Querying Wikipedia
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Find me all landlocked countries with a population greater than 15 million.
SPARQL Example: Querying Wikipedia
DBPedia SPARQL Endpoint
SPARQL Example: Querying Wikipedia
Query enginesThings that can run queriesMost RDF stores provide a SPARQL engine
Query rewritersE.g. to query relational databases (more later)
EndpointsThings that accept queries on the Web and return results
Client librariesThings that make it easy to ask queries
Types of SPARQL Tools
May 12, 2009 76
Community-maintained list of query engineshttp://esw.w3.org/topic/SparqlImplementations
Publicly accessible SPARQL endpointshttp://esw.w3.org/topic/SparqlEndpoints
Michael Bergman’s Sweet Tools searchable list:http://www.mkbergman.com/?page_id=325
Finding SPARQL Tools
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(Some) SPARQL’able Data Sets
May 12, 2009 78
bio2rdf.org – querying life sciences data
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bio2rdf.org – querying life sciences data
May 12, 2009 80
IntroductionThe data model (RDF)The query language (SPARQL)Adding structure & semantics (RDFS, OWL, RIF)Working in the real world (GRDDL, RDF2RDB)Working on the Web (Linked Data, RDFa, POWDER)
Agenda
May 12, 2009 81
We haven’t seen anything yet that begins to approach the long-term Semantic Web vision
Where’s the magic?
May 12, 2009 82
3 pieces of the Semantic Web technology stack are about describing a domain well enough to capture (some of) the meaning of resources and relationships in the domain
RDF SchemaOWLRIF
From the explicit to the inferred
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Apply knowledge to data to get more data.
RDFS is…
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RDF Schema
Elements of:Vocabulary (defining terms)
I define a relationship called “prescribed dose.”
Schema (defining types)“prescribed dose” relates “treatments” to “dosagees”
Taxonomy (defining hierarchies)Any “doctor” is a “medical professional”
RDF Schema is…
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WOL OWL is…
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Web Ontology Language
Elements of ontologySame/different identity
“author” and “auteur” are the same relationtwo resources with the same “ISBN” are the same “book”
More expressive type definitionsA “cycle” is a “vehicle” with at least one “wheel”A “bicycle” is a “cycle” with exactly two “wheels”
More expressive relation definitions“sibling” is a symmetric predicatethe value of the “favorite dwarf” relation must be one of “happy”, “sleepy”, “sneezy”, “grumpy”, “dopey”, “bashful”, “doc”
OWL is…
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Answer questions ofConsistency
Are there any contradictions in this model?
ClassificationWhat are all the inferred types of this resource?
SatisfiabilityAre there any classes in this ontology that cannot possibly have any members?
What can we do with OWL?
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Building Useful OntologiesDeveloping and maintaining quality ontolgies is very challengingUsers need tools and services, e.g., to help check if ontology is:
Meaningful — all named classes can have instances
http://www.aber.ac.uk/compsci/public/media/presentations/OUCL-seminar.ppt
Building Useful OntologiesDeveloping and maintaining quality ontolgies is very challengingUsers need tools and services, e.g., to help check if ontology is:
Meaningful — all named classes can have instancesCorrect — captures intuitions of domain experts
Building Useful OntologiesDeveloping and maintaining quality ontolgies is very challengingUsers need tools and services, e.g., to help check if ontology is:
Meaningful — all named classes can have instancesCorrect — captures intuitions of domain expertsMinimally redundant — no unintended synonyms
Banana split Banana sundae
Large: 373,731 concepts & over 1 million termsNHS version extended to 542,380 classes with
19,828 additional named classes148,821 class drug taxonomy (primitive hierarchy)
OWL reasoner (FaCT++) classified NHS ontology Able to classify whole ontology in <4 hoursInteresting results come from 19,828 additional named classes180 missing subClass relationships were found, e.g.:
Periocular_dermatitis subClassOf Disease_of_face
Example: SNOMED
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Example: SNOMED
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RIF is…
May 12, 2009 97
Rules Interchange Format
Standard representation for exchanging sets of logical and business rulesLogical rules
A buyer buys an item from a seller if the seller sells the item to the buyerA customer becomes a "Gold" customer as soon as his cumulative purchases during the current year top $5000
Production rulesCustomers that become "Gold" customers must be notified immediately, and a golden customer card will be printed and sent to them within one weekFor shopping carts worth more than $1000, "Gold" customers receive an additional discount of 10% of the total amount
RIF is…
May 12, 2009 98
99
Editors/environmentsOiled, Protégé, Swoop, TopBraid, Ontotrack, …
Developing Tools and Infrastructure
May 12, 2009
100
Editors/environmentsOiled, Protégé, Swoop, TopBraid, Ontotrack, …
Reasoning systemsCerebra, FaCT++, Kaon2, Pellet, Racer, CEL, …
Developing Tools and Infrastructure
May 12, 2009
PelletKAON2 CEL
Visualizing and Publishing Vocabularies
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Reusable, public ontologies
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Measurement Units Ontology
The Event Ontology
FOAF
IntroductionThe data model (RDF)The query language (SPARQL)Adding structure & semantics (RDFS, OWL, RIF)Working in the real world (GRDDL, RDF2RDB)Working on the Web (Linked Data, RDFa, POWDER)
Agenda
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Fantasy Land Architecture
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Ontology / Schema+
Custom UI
Custom UI
Custom UI
Custom UI
Custom UI
Custom UI
Reality
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Internet
OracleRDB
DB2XML
LDAP Directory
Custom UI
Custom UI
Custom UI
Custom UI
Custom UI
Custom UI
GRDDL is…
May 12, 2009 106
Gleaning Resource Descriptions from Dialects of Language
GRDDL is…
May 12, 2009 107
A method for authoritatively getting RDF data from XML and XHTML documents.
GRDDL is…
May 12, 2009 108
A mechanism for authoritatively deriving RDF data from families of XML and XHTML
documents.
Community-maintained list:http://esw.w3.org/topic/GrddlImplementations
GRDDL tools
May 12, 2009 109
Most GRDDL tools are adapters to existing RDF stores or SPARQL engines to allow loading or querying data from XML and XHTML sources.
Host System GRDDL toolJena GRDDL Reader for Jena
RDFLib GRDDL.pyRedland (built in)
Swignition (built in)Virtuoso GRDDL “Sponger”
RDB2RDF is…
May 12, 2009 110
Relational Database to RDF
RDB2RDF is…
May 12, 2009 111
A proposed W3C Working Group to define a standard way to map from relational databases
to RDF (and SPARQL).
Survey of existing approaches:http://www.w3.org/2005/Incubator/rdb2rdf/RDB2RDF_SurveyReport.pdf
RDF2RDB tools
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Tool Mapping Approach Dynamic vs. Static (ETL)
Anzo D2RQ configuration graph Both
Asio Tools OWL file, SWRL rules Both
Dartgrid XML file, visual mapper Dynamic
D2RQ D2RQ configuration file Both
R2O R2O XML file Both
RDBtoOnto Constraint rules Static (ETL)
SDS EII Query Engine/OOM XML Both
Triplify SQL config file Linked Data
Virtuoso RDF View Meta-Schema Language Both
What about… everything else?
May 12, 2009 113
Standards don’t yet exist, but many tools exist to derive RDF and/or run SPARQL queries against
other sources of data.
LDAP Directories
May 12, 2009 114
Squirrel RDFhttp://jena.sourceforge.net/SquirrelRDF/
Excel spreadsheets
May 12, 2009 115
Anzo for Excelhttp://www.cambridgesemantics.com/products/anzo_for_excel
Excel spreadsheets
May 12, 2009 116
Semantic Discovery Systemhttp://insilicodiscovery.com/installation/index.php
Web-based data sources
May 12, 2009 117
Virtuoso Sponger Cartridgeshttp://virtuoso.openlinksw.com/dataspace/dav/wiki/Main/VirtSponger
Unstructured Text
May 12, 2009 118
Calaishttp://www.opencalais.com/
Unstructured Text
May 12, 2009 119
Zemanta Web Servicehttp://developer.zemanta.com/
IntroductionThe data model (RDF)The query language (SPARQL)Adding structure & semantics (RDFS, OWL, RIF)Working in the real world (GRDDL, RDF2RDB)Working on the Web (Linked Data, RDFa, POWDER)
Agenda
May 12, 2009 120
A simple set of 4 guidelines for publishing RDF data on the Web (over HTTP)
Developed by Tim Berners-Lee in 2006
1. Use URIs as names for things• Globally unique identity
2. Use HTTP URIs • Everyone has a Web browser/client
3. When someone looks up a URI, provide useful information• …in the form of RDF data
4. Include links to other URIs• Foster discovery of additional information
Linked Data is…
May 12, 2009 121
The Linking Open Data Project is...
A community project started within the W3C Semantic Web Education & Outreach group in 2007
A wealth of existing, open Web-based data sets exposed in RDF and linked together
A growing number of publicly available SPARQL endpoints
The first steps of “The” Semantic Web? No longer easily measured or depicted!
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The LOD “cloud”, May 2007
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The LOD “cloud”, March 2008
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The LOD “cloud”, September 2008
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The LOD “cloud”, March 2009
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Application specific portions of the cloud Notably, bio-related data sets (in light purple)
some by the W3C “Linking Open Drug Data” task force
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Sindice - Another view of data on the Web
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Many tools we’ve already seen publish RDF data according to linked data principles
E.g. Talis platform, Virtuoso, TriplifyOthers sit on top of existing systems and make the data available as Linked Data
E.g. pubby
Tools: Publishing linked data
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Tools: the Data Browser
May 12, 2009 130
World Wide Web : Web pages :: The Semantic Web : Data
World Wide Web : Web browser :: Linked Data Web : Data browser
Tabulator: Generic Data Browser
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Disco Hyperdata Browser
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OpenLink Data Explorer
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Marbles Linked Data Browser
May 12, 2009 134
DBPedia Mobile
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DBPedia Mobile
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DBPedia Mobile
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DBPedia Mobile
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QDOS – your online digital status
139May 12, 2009
BBC Music Beta
140May 12, 2009
On the current Web…Content publishers decide what can be done with the data (via links, script)
On the Semantic Web…Content publishers publish actionable dataContent consumers decide how to act on it
Producer-oriented Web to consumer-oriented Web
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UltraLink
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UltraLink is Novartis’s solution for cross-linking over 1,500,000 biologic and chemical terms, including synonyms, taxonomies, and
pointers into data repositories.
What if an acquisition brings with it a new Web-based corpus of pathway data that uses terms not recognized by the annotators?
New text miners must be created & deployedFinding & consuming data are too tightly coupled
UltraLink
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RDFa is…
May 12, 2009 144
RDF in Attributes
RDFa is…
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A collection of HTML attributes that allow RDF to be embedded directly in Web pages.
Don’t Repeat Yourself (DRY)In-context metadata (copy & paste)Authoritative (no screen scrapig)
Why RDFa?
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Who’s using RDFa?
May 12, 2009 147
STW Thesaurus for Economics
RDFa in action
May 12, 2009 148
POWDER is…
May 12, 2009 149
Protocol for Web Description Resources
groups of online resourcesdescriptions applied to
150
http://www.slideshare.net/fabien_gandon/powder-in-a-nutshell-presentation
onedescription
many resources
151
grouping mechanisms...
... list URIs... domain names, paths ... regular expressions on URIs
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descriptionsmay be grouped
153
queriesare on individual resources
description…• Which resources does the DR describe?• What is the description?• Who has created the description?• When was the description created?• Until when is the description considered valid?• From when is the description considered valid?• Does anybody agree with this description?• Do other descriptions exist about this group of resources?
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in order to...
trust
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protectauthorize
adapt
searchmonitor