semantics (2) dr. ansa hameed. previously…. semantics: study of meanings why meanings are...
TRANSCRIPT
SEMANTICS (2)
Dr. Ansa Hameed
Previously….
Semantics: Study of Meanings Why meanings are important??? Types of Meanings
Meanings at two levels: Sentential Semantics Lexical Semantics
Today’s Lecture
Lexical Semantics
Lexical Semantics
Definitions: 1.The scientific study of the meanings of Words and
the systematic meaning –related connections between words is known as Lexical Semantics.
2.The branch of Linguistics dealing with the meanings of words is called Lexical Semantics
Principal Goal of Lexical Semantics
The principal goal of Lexical Semantics is to build a model for the structure of the lexicon by categorizing the types of relationship between words .
Semantic Field
Semantic Field refers to the set of words with an identifiable semantic affinity.
The following set (1) is an example of Semantic Field in which all the words refer to the Emotional States , while in set (2), all the words refer to Vessels1. Angry ,Sad, Exuberant , Depressed , Afraid 2. Cup, Mug, Wine glass, Plastic Cup, Goblet,
Tumbler
Semantic Analysis at Word Level
Three types of semantic analysis at lexical level:
Words as ‘containers’ Semantic features ‘roles’ they fulfill Semantic roles ‘relationship’ with other words lexical
relation
Lexical Semantics Analysis
1.Semantic Features: Words as ‘containers’ of meanings Examples: Syntactically correct sentences but
semantically odd. The hamburger ate the man. My cat studies linguistics. The table listens to the radio
This relates to the conceptual components of the words ‘hamburger, cat & table’ not human.
Lexical Semantics Analysis
Semantic properties: The components of meaning of a word.
Meaning as collection of properties/features typically with two possible values (+ / -)
Example of componential analysis:baby is [+ young], [+ human], [+animate]
Lexical Semantics Analysis
Semantic Features:
Lexical Semantics Analysis
2. Semantic Roles: Words are described according to the roles
they fulfill with the situation described in a sentence. The boy kicked the ball
verb indicates action Boy performs the action= agent Ball undergoes the action= theme
The NPs describe the role of entities (people or things) involved in the action, i.e. they have certain semantic (or thematic) roles.
Lexical Semantics Analysis Semantic Roles:
Agent= the entity that performs the action Theme= the entity that undergoes the action Experiencer= one who perceives something Instrument= an entity used to perform an action Location= the place where the action happens Source= the place from which an action
originates Goal= the place where the action is directed
Lexical Semantics Analysis
Examples of Semantic Roles:
John is writing with a penagent instrument
Mary saw a mosquito on the wallexperiencer theme location
The children ran from the playground to the poolagent source goal
Lexical Semantics Analysis
3.Lexical Relationships:
What is the meaning of ‘big’? ‘Large’ or the opposite of ‘small’
What is the meaning of ‘daffodil’? A kind of flower
Analysis in terms of lexical relations- explain the meaning in terms of the relationship with other words
Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy Prototype Homophones and Homonyms Polysemy
Lexical Semantics Synonyms words that have the same meanings or that are
closely related in meaning
E.g. answer/reply – almost/nearly – broad/wide – buy/purchase – freedom/ liberty
‘sameness’ is not ‘total sameness’- only one word would be appropriate in a sentence. E.g. Sandy only had one answer correct on the
test. (but NOT reply)
Synonyms differ in formality E.g. buy/purchase – automobile/car
Lexical Semantics
Synonyms: Some More Examples: Gloomy, Sorrowful, Rueful Happy, Glad, Cheerful Intelligent, Astute, Scintillating
Note: However, true synonyms are rare. In most cases, synonyms may differ in one or more of the following aspects:
A. Difference in origin B. Difference in the shades of meaning C. Difference in socio-expressive meaning D. Difference in stylistic meaning E. Differences in collocation and distribution
Lexical Semantics
Antonymy: Antonymy is the relationship of oppositeness
of meaning. When two or more lexemes or expressions are "opposite" in meaning, they are said to be antonyms. According to the semantic relationship, antonyms can be loosely divided into three categories:
A. Complementary antonyms B. Gradable antonyms C. Relational opposites
Lexical Semantics
Complementary antonyms: dead - alive single - married male –
female Gradable antonyms: hot cold (we can
insert adjectives like warm and cool between them along the continuum. )
Relational opposites : wife - husband student - teacher father -
son
Lexical Semantics
Hyponymy: Words whose meanings are specific
instances of a more general word, i.e. one thing is included (kind of) in another thing. e.g. cats and dogs are hyponyms of the word
animal. In this case cats and dogs are co-
hyponyms share the same ‘superordinate’ Other e.g. daffodil & flower / carrot &
vegetable / ant & insect
Lexical Semantics Hyponymy
Lexical Semantics
Hyponymy vs. Meronymy
Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items. Root, trunk, branch and leaf are meronyms of a tree because they are in the relationship of X is part of Y, or Y has X.
Hyponymy is used to refer to a specific-general semantic relationship between lexical items.
Dog and cat, wolf and tiger are respectively hyponyms (or subordinates) of livestock and wildlife, which in turn are both hyponyms of animal.
Lexical Semantics
Prototypes:
Canary– dove– duck –flamingo –parrot-robin ‘bird’
The best example that belongs to a bird is ‘robin’, but what about ‘ostrich’ and ‘penguin’?
Prototype: Characteristic instance Furniture – chair is a better example than
bench or stool. Clothing – shirts more than shoes
Lexical Semantics
Homonymy:
A word which has two or more entirely distinct (unrelated) meanings, e.g. bank: ‘financial institution’ ; ‘of a river’. Bat: ‘flying creature’ or ‘used in sports’ Race: ‘contest of speed’ or ‘ethnic group
Lexical Semantics
Homophony:
Different words pronounced the same but spelled differently, e.g. two, to and too. Flour and flower Meat and meet Right and write
Lexical Semantics
Polysemy:
A word which has multiple meanings related by extension, e.g. bright: ‘shining’ ; ‘intelligent’ ‘Head’ of the body and the person at the top of a
company. ‘Foot’ of a body and of a mountain and of the bed
or chair. ‘Run’ a person runs, the water runs
Lexical Semantics
Metonymy:
It is "a figure of speech in which an attribute or commonly associated feature is used to name or designate something." A short definition is "part for whole."
What do you think about these sentence? He drank the whole bottle. (container-content) The White House announced. (king-crown) I gave her a hand. (whole-part)
A word substituted for another word with which it is closely associated e.g. bottle is used for water
Lexical Semantics
Collocation
Words tend to occur with other words.
E.g. table/chair Butter/bread Salt/pepper Hammer/ nail
Lexical Semantics
Retronyms
1. a new term created from an existing word in order to distinguish the original referent of the existing word from a later one that is the product of progress or technological development (e.g. acoustic guitar for guitar).
2. a term consisting of a noun and a modifier which specifies the original meaning of the noun e. g .“film camera” is a retronym
Some more Examples: Day Baseball, Silent Movie, Whole Milk, First World War,
Surface Mail(Retronyms do not apply to the ‘individual words ‘ but
rather to the ‘group of words’)
Finally……
Lexical Semantics is primarily concerned with discovering relationships in the lexicon of languages. The different facets of relationships are the basic tools of lexical semantics ,forming its fundamental crux. One type of meaning cannot be characterized in terms of another type .Every Lexical item, conveying a specific meaning is thus unique in itself.
Recap
Lexical Semantics
References Allwood, Jens and Peter Gärdenfors (eds) 1999. Cognitive semantics.
Meaning
and cognition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Kittay, Eva. 1987. Metaphor. Its cognitive force and linguistic structure.
New
York: Oxford University Press. Goodman, S. and Graddol, D. (1996) Redesigning English: new texts, new
identities.
London: Routledge. Hudson , R, A.Sociolinguistics,2nd ed, Cambridge University
press, :Cambridge
Oxfords Advanced Learners’ Dictionary (2005).p.362 Prasad, Tarni,(2012) A Course in Linguistics.New Delhi:PHI Learning Pvt
Ltd. Retrieved from:
http://www.cs.mu.oz.au/research/lt/nlp06/materials/Baldwin/intro.pdf Winkler, E (2007)Understanding Language :A basic Course in
Linguistics ,London :MPG Books