semiochemicals for sustainable pest management · 2020. 6. 29. · ijrar1bjp202 international...

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IJRAR1BJP202 International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews (IJRAR) www.ijrar.org 1482

Semiochemicals for sustainable pest management

Sonawane Bhushan Laxman1, Kushal Thakur1, Bhade Khemraj Shankar1, Jyoti B. Patil1, Pathma J*1

Abstract

Modifying the chemical ecology of insects which could change insect behaviour is an area under exploration and

could provide ample opportunities to manage noxious herbivore pests damaging food crops leading to loss in

agricultural production and causing human health hazards by inflicting poisonous bites and vectoring dreadful

pathogens. Semiochemicals are organic signalling molecules which triggers intra and inter specific

communication among living organisms. Insect pheromones are an important group of intra specific

semiochemicals which have gained commercial importance with respect to pest surveillance and management

programs. They assist in pest monitoring, and mass trapping and cause mating disturbance in insect pests aiding

in pest management. This review highlights the classification of semiochemicals, their mode of action,

techniques involved in pheromone isolation and characterization, commercial formulations available and their

utilization in eco-friendly pest management.

Keywords: Semiochemicals, pheromones, pest management

1. Introduction

Semiochemical originates from a Greek word “semeon” meaning signal or sign. These are biologically active

organic substances which induces behavioural changes in living organisms. Insects use these semiochemicals to:

locate their hosts for food and shelter; avoid competition; organise themselves; evade natural enemies; reach their

mates for courtship etc., Molecular weight of the semiochemicals decides its volatile nature thereby enabling

insect communication and its success in pest management programs. Compounds with molecular weight ranging

between 80-300 with 5 to 20 carbon atoms are volatile in nature and naturally allow long distance

communication in insects (Wilson and Bossert 1963). They include small hydrophobic molecules as well as

water soluble peptides. History of use of pheromones for pest management dates back to 19th century when the

sex pheromone from female Bombyx mori was identified and isolated by Butenandt and his team in 1959

(Butenandt et al. 1959). Olfactory receptors were later identified in drosophila and silk moth (Clyne et al. 1999;

Vosshall et al. 1999; Krieger et al. 2005) which intensified the interest in insect chemical ecology and pheromone

research. The research also entered molecular level and the olfactory receptor of sex pheromone bombykol in

Bombyx mori viz., BmOR-1 and the role of CD36-related receptor in pheromone detection in Drosophila were

documented (Sakurai et al. 2004; Benton et al. 2007). Till date pheromones have been isolated from nearly 1500

insect species. Parallel concepts on insect chemical ecology and development of analytical techniques such as

1Department of Entomology, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

http://www.ijrar.org/



gas chromatography opened up new avenues in exploring the possibilities of using these semiochemicals as an

alternative to hazardous chemical insecticides for pest management (Brossut 1997; Cork 2004). Understanding

the chemical ecology of insects, their behavioural responses to the signalling molecules apart from identifying

the key signalling compound and studying their chemical nature will provide us better insights on their utility in

insect pest management. Extraction and structural elucidation of these natural molecules will enable us to

characterise them and artificially synthesis them without loss in their properties and with improved

environmental stability.

2. Classification

Semiochemicals are molecules of biological origin eliciting a behavioural response in the organisms of the same

species (intraspecific) or different species (interspecific). Based on the origin and the nature of response they

elicit they can be classified broadly as Pheromones (intra specific semiochemicals) and allelochemicals

(interspecific semiochemicals). Pheromones can be further classified as sex pheromones (produced by one sex

which attracts the opposite sex of the same species), aggregation pheromones (attracts both male and females

irrespective of the sex producing the pheromone and in most cases are produced by males), Trail marking

pheromones (chemical communication in ants), Alarm pheromones (chemical communication in aphids and

honey bees) and host marking pheromones (chemical communication in parasiotoids). Allelochemicals can be

divided as Allomones (benefitting the emitter), Kairomones (benefitting the receiver), Synamones (benefitting

both emitter and receiver) and apneumone (substances originating from non-living material benefitting certain

organisms and detrimental to other). Few semiochemicals can also elicit both inter and intraspecific

communication.

3. Mode of action

Use of semiochemicals has become an integral part of eco-friendly integrated pest management and

semiochemicals are considered as ‘new generation pest control agents’(Suckling 2000; Tinzaara et al. 2002).

‘Semiochemicals’ are ‘infochemicals’ which provides chemical information that mediates behavioural and

ecological interactions between the organisms such as plants and insects sharing a common ecosystem. These

infochemicals when released into the environment by the emitter are detected by the chemoreceptors present on

different body parts and in many cases concentrated on the antennae of the receiver insect in which a behavioural

change is inflicted. Molecular pathway of olfactory perception involves multi-gene families comprising of

odorant-binding proteins (OBPs), chemosensory proteins (CSPs) and odorant receptors (ORs) with helps in

odour recognition and response (Siciliano et al. 2014). Certain signals are short-lived providing an quick message

such as forewarning danger (alarm pheromone) or reproductive readiness while certain signals reach longer

distances and persist for long time and are involved in attracting the opposite sex, or mark the geographical

boundary etc., Pheromones are target specific and highly safe to other non-target organisms occupying the

ecosystem, highly active in extremely small quantities in range of nanograms, thereby pose no pollution hazard

to the environment. Additionally, insects with protected lifestyle living within plant tissues with lesser

possibilities to be exposed to insecticides can be easily managed by use of pheromones. Thus these




semiochemicals could be exploited for pest surveillance and management programmes with high safety and

feasibility (Witzgall et al. 2010).

4. Use of semiochemicals in pest management programmes

4.1 Pest monitoring

Pest monitoring is an integral part of pest management program and provides timely information on the

occurrence of regular pests and migration of invasive pests both qualitatively and quantitatively which will

enable us to assess risk and take up timely pest control measures based on the economic threshold levels and

integrate all pest management tactics appropriately and thereby avoid potential damage to the crops and

environment (Suckling 2000). Pheromones helps us in monitoring programmes involving pests of agro-

ecosystems, horticulture ecosystems, forest ecosystems, storage products and house-hold pests (Wall 1989;

Burkholder 1990; Borden 1993). Wall et al. (1987) devised an action threshold for Cydia nigricana (pea moth)

based on trap catches and this was the first widely adopted use of infochemical for pest monitoring system. The

sensitivity of pheromones traps to efficiently detect insects in low population density enables effective tracking

of invasive species in the early introduction phase prior to establishment (El-Sayed et al. 2006; Liebhold and

Tobin 2008). However the success of the use of pheromones in pest monitoring programmes is decided by

numerous factors including formulation of pheromones, chemical purity, dispenser quality, release rates, trap

design, trap location, data analysis and interpretation, environmental factors (eg. strong winds), insect species

(strong flyers) and expert decision systems. In few cases the trap catches did not correlate with the damage levels

in the field (Srivastava et al. 1992; David and Birch 1986; Tadas et al. 1994). A strict quality control system is

essential to ensure the success of the pheromones in pest monitoring as well as trapping (Arn et al. 1997).

4.2 Pest management

4.2.1 Attract and affect: In this technique the semiochemical is used as a lure to attract insect towards a

hazardous agent viz., insecticide or pathogen or sterilant which can attract and kill or attract and infect or attract

and sterilize the insect accordingly thereby reducing their population and ecological fitness (El-Shafie and

Faleiro 2017).

4.2.2. Mating disruption: Mating disruption refers to meddling with the process of mating naturally in sexually

reproducing insects by miss-orienting the males to the synthetic pheromones placed in dispensers (micro

capsules/ hollow fibers) resulting in reduced oviposotion (Carde and Minks 1995; Harari et al. 2015). In many

cases female produces sex attractants to attract males and use of these attractants will lure the males and trap

them making them unavailable for mating. Conditions including early eclosion of males and protandry adds

strength to this annihilation technique (Witzgall et al. 2010). Installation of traps containing sex pheromones in

the natural environment creates an artificial signalling thereby reducing the probability of a male reaching the

female resulting in mating disturbance, increasing the probability of females laying unfertilised, inviable eggs

thereby reducing the off-spring population. This technology has found a great success in controlling many

lepidopteran crop pest species including Pectinophora gossypiella (pink boll worm of cotton), Helicoverpa




armigera (highly polyhagous American boll worm), Spodoptera litura (highly polyhagous tobacco caterpillar),

Chilo suppressalis and Scirpophaga incertulas (stem borers of cereals), Cydia pomonella (apple codling moth),

Epiphyas postvittana (light-brown apple moth) and Lobesia botrana (European berry moth in vineyards) etc.,

and coleopteran pests such as Cylas formicarius, C. puncticollis, C. brunneus (sweet potato weevils) etc (Carde

and Minks 1995; Cork et al. 1996; Tamhankar et al. 2000; Downham et al. 2001; Witzgall et al. 2008; Reddy and

Guerrero 2010). However this technique also has some limitations which includes potential risk of mated females

intruding the treated area unless this technique is employed over a large area. Thus success of this technique

requires a large scale community participation rather than adaptation by individual farmers (Carde and Minks

1995; Staten et al. 1997). Additionally, very high population of the targeted insect which will reduce the

competition between natural and synthetic lures also hinders the success of this technique (Carde and Minks

1995). Furthermore the lures should be designed to release the attractant at sufficient strength to disrupt natural

mating. However, this technique will fail to control long lived species with ability to undergo multiple mating’s

as the effectiveness of mating disturbance lies in a large proportion of males failing to mate the females

(Suckling 2000). Mechanisms of mating disruption includes competitive attraction or false trail following

(density-dependant), Camouflage (density-independent), desensitization and sensory imbalance (El-Shafie and

Faleiro 2017).

4.2.3. Mass trapping: This is a method of attracting and trapping adult insects in large numbers by installing

more number of pheromone traps which will reduce the insect population in the subsequent generation (Birch

and Haynes 1982). The success of mass trapping using sex pheromones again depends on various factors and is

decided by the number of traps deployed, trapping frequency, nature of insects involved, integration of this with

other crop management tactics including crop sanitation etc. High insect population density, high reproductive

rate of females, polygamous nature of males and availability of a number of natural attractant sites are factors

responsible for diminishing the success rate of mass trapping using sex pheromones (Cuthbert et al. 1977; Birch

and Haynes 1982; Weislein 1992; James et al. 1996; Tamhankar et al. 2000). Mass trapping technology could be

effective in insects with limited dispersal ability and slow population build up with longer life span and lower

fecundity (k-stratergies) (Giblin-Davis et al. 1996a). ‘Trap spillover’ is another mechanism which might cause

increased damage to the host crop surrounding the traps making the traps less effective in certain cases as

reported with Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica (Switzer et al. 2009).

4.2.4. Push-pull strategy: This strategy involves the use of two different semiochemicals (an attractant and

repellent) stimulating a contradictory behaviour in target pests and their natural enemy complex. In depth

knowledge on arthropods chemical ecology is essential to utilize this strategy for successful pest management.

This stratergy involves use of semiochemicals that make the protected resource unattractive to the pests (push)

and attracting them towards a lure (pull) where they can be destroyed (Pyke 1987; Cook et al. 2007).

5. Factors affecting the effectiveness of use of pheromones for pest management

Numerous factors that decide the success of utilization of pheromones for pest management programmes

includes trap color, trap design, pheromone dose, pheromone release rate, spatial and temporal patterns of trap




arrangement (De Groot and De Barr 1998; Giblin-Davis et al. 1996b); environmental factors including wind

velocity, direction, temperature, rainfall, humidity (Jansson et al. 1989; Sappington and Spurgeon 2000), pest

density, pest biology and physiology (age, sexual maturity, response to pheromones, mating status) etc., (Jansson

et al., 1991; Tinzaara et al. 2002). Another important edaphic factor deciding the success of utilization of

semiochemical in pest management is the large scale adaptation of the strategy over a wide area (Witzgall et al.

2010). Additionally, synergistic effect of certain host plant volatiles with the insect pheromones have been

reported and reviewed (Light et al. 1993; Reddy and Guerrero 2010).

6. Isolation, identification and synthesis of semiochemicals

Isolation and structural elucidation of semiochemical is a tedious process involving numerous steps and

sophisticated instrumentation (Silverstein et al. 1967). Basic steps involved includes compound extraction,

bioactivity evaluation, bioactive compound identification, chemical synthesis and bioactivity evaluation of the

synthesised compound and mass production etc., Compound extraction can be done by various methods such as

solvent-assisted extraction followed by distillation, Static/ Dynamic Headspace Sampling, Solid-Phase

Extraction, Solid-Phase Micro-Extraction etc., Confirmation of bioactivity with suitable bioassays,

Electroantennography, Single Sensillum Recording, Audiovisual Analysis, Sensor based detection and

behavioral studies (Linear/ Two-Path/ four or more path Olfactometry, Wind-Tunnel Assay/ no-choice tests etc).

Bioactive compound identification by various analytical techniques viz., gas chromatography coupled with:

Flame Ionization Detectors (GC-FID) or electroantennography (GC-EAG)/ Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) or

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). Additionally semiochemical identification can also be done through

‘reverse chemical ecology’ approach which utilises molecular biology and bioinformatics tools (Leal et al. 2008).

If the pheromones are of glandular origin as in case of lepidopterans the gland can be detached for

semiochemical extraction. However this method has many disadvantages including the inclusion of non-targeted

compounds with targeted semiochemical as emitted by the active organ and hence in situ volatile collection

through head space collection is more advantageous. Other methods include passing pure air onto the insect

trapped in an aeration chamber and trapping the exhaust air on columns with suitable absorbent (Super Q), or

subjecting the air from outlet to GC-MS analysis using or solid phase micro-extraction (SPME) technique where

the volatiles from the test sample carrier by the air passed are trapped in needle like fiber coated with silica

positioned in a cylinder resembling a syringe. The fiber is inserted into an inlet maintained at high temperature to

vaporise and elute the trapped compounds for analysis by GC or GCMS (Pawliszyn 2000). Mass spectroscopic

analysis (MS) and proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) helps in identification of active compounds.

Differential analysis by 2D NMR spectroscopy (DANS) can help in identification of small bioactive molecules at

very low concentrations from a mixture of compounds (Robinette et al. 2011; Soroker et al. 2015). Advanced

molecular tools enable us to decipher the chemical signals involved. An odarant binding protein was used to

identify an ovipositional attractant compound in mosquito by use of ‘Reverse chemical ecology approach’ (Leal

et al. 2008; Pickett et al. 2010). Further research and use of electrophysiological imaging will enable odorant

receptors ligand identification and their expression in heterologous cell system for high-throughput screening




(Wetzel et al. 2001; Hallem et al. 2006; Kiely et al. 2007) or the combined use of structural chemistry, bio

informatics and statistics software could calculate physicochemical odor metrics which inturn predicts the

neuronal responses (Haddad et al. 2008). Few extensively studied and commercially available semiochemicals

for pest management is tabulated (Table 1).

7. Conclusion

Growing population with shrinking land and other resources is a challenge to agriculturists to produce quality

food to assure demand supply balance. The situation is in turn aggravated by climate change posing threat to crop

production. Climate change has a tremendous impact in the crop pests and had enhanced their pest status,

intensified their vector and migration potential adding to their noxious and invasive nature. Continuous use of

chemical insecticides to tackle the pests has led to insecticide resistance, pest resurgence and replacement. Use of

eco-friendly pest control alternatives is the need of the hour. Use of semiochemicals could be an effective

alternative but requires interdisciplinary research involving entomologists, molecular biologists, chemists and

ecologists for understanding the pest biology, chemical ecology, molecular mechanisms involved and successful

identification of bioactive molecules eliciting a behavioural change in insects so as to synthesise them and utilize

them to manipulate insect behaviour in the agro-ecosystems. In addition, the success of integration of

semiochemicals in pest management is decided by a large scale adaptation of this technique, cost effectiveness

and efficacy of the method utilized for field application. Intense focussed research and combination of classical

techniques with advanced technology could work out marvels and identify better, eco-friendly, cost effective

solutions for sustainable pest management.




Table 1 Pheromones for pest management

Infochemical class Associated Insect Order Key compound References

Sex pheromone Helicoverpa armigera Lepidoptera Helilure ((Z)-11-hexadecenal (I) and (Z)-11-

hexadecen-1-ol(II),

Nesbitt et al. (1979)

Sex pheromone Spodoptera litura Lepidoptera Spodolure: (Z,E)-9,11- and (Z,E)-9,12-

tetradecadienyl acetate (Z9,E11-14:Ac;

Z9,E12-14:Ac). / cis-9, trans-11- and cis-9,

trans-12-tetra-decdien-1-ol acetates

Tamaki et al. (1973)

Sex pheromone Pectinophora

gossypiella

Lepidoptera Gossyplure: blend of cis and trans isomers of

7,11-hexadecadienyl acetate

Hummel et al. (1973)

Sex pheromone Tuta absoluta Lepidoptera triene, (E, Z, Z)-3,8,11- tetradecatrien-1-yl

acetate

Svatos et al. (1996)

Sex pheromone Leucinodes orbonalis Lepidoptera (E)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (E11-16:Ac) Cork et al. (2001)

Sex pheromone Cydia (=Laspeyresia)

pomonella

Lepidoptera Codlemone: trans-8, trans-10-Dodecadien-1-ol Roelofs et al. (1971)

Synthetic attractants Noctuid moths Lepidoptera Phenylacetaldehyde, β-myrcene, 3-methyl-1-

butanol and acetic acid

Haynes et al. (1991); Heath et al.

(1992); Landolt and Alfaro (2001);

Landolt et al. (2006, 2007)

Sex pheromone Agriotes sp. Coleoptera Geranyl octanoate Toth et al. (2008)

Sex pheromone Xylotrechus quadripes Coleoptera (S)-2-hydroxy-3-decanone Hall et al. (2006)

Aggregation pheromone Oryctes rhinoceros Coleoptera Ethyl 4-methyloctanoate, Hallett et al. (1995)




Aggregation pheromone Ips duplicatus Coleoptera Ipsdienol and E-myrcenol, Schlyter et al. (2003)

Aggregation pheromone Rhynchophorus

palmarum

Coleoptera Rhynchophorol: (4S)-2-methyl-(5E)-hepten-4-

ol

Rochat et al. (1991); Oehlschlager

et al. (1992)

Aggregation pheromone Rhynchophorus

ferrugineus

Coleoptera Ferrugineol: (4S,5S)-4-methyl-5-nonanol and

4-methyl-5-nonanone

Giblin-Davis et al. (1996); Perez

et al. (1996)

Aggregation pheromone Cosmopolites

sordidus

Coleoptera Sordidin Reddy et al. (2009)

Aggregation pheromone Anthonomus grandis Coleoptera Grandlure Tumlinson et al. (1969)

Synthetic pheromone

blend

Popillia japonica Coleoptera Japonilure with floral compounds, eugenol,

geraniol and phenethyl propionate

Switzer et al. (2009)

Anti-aggregation

pheromones

Dendroctonus

ponderosae

Coleoptera verbenone Gillette et al. (2009a)

Anti-aggregation

pheromones

D. pseudotsugae, Coleoptera methylcyclohexenone (MCH) Gillette et al. (2009b)

Feeding Attractants Diabrotica virgifera

virgifera

Coleoptera Cucurbitacin (plant metabolite) Toth et al. (2007)

Lure Agrilus planipennis Coleoptera Volatile Sesquiterpenes from Fraxinus

pennsylvanica

Crook et al. (2008)

Alarm pheromones Various aphids

species

Hemiptera (E)-β-farnesene Bowers et al. (1972)

Synthetic Bactrocera cucurbitae Diptera Cue-lure Witzgall et al. (2010)




Parapheromones and

attractants

Synthetic

Parapheromones and

attractants

Bactrocera dorsalis Diptera Methyl eugenol Witzgall et al. (2010)

Synthetic Sex

pheromone and food

attractant

Bactrocera oleae Diptera (1,7)-dioxaspiro-[5,5,]-undane (olean), n-

nonanal, α-pinene, ethyl dodecanoate and

ammonium bicarbonate

Mazomenos and Haniotakis

(1985); Broumas et al. (2002)

Synthetic

Parapheromones and

attractants

Ceratitis capitata Diptera Trimedlure Witzgall et al. (2010)

Feeding Attractants Musca domestica Diptera Muscalure: (Z)-9- tricosene Butler et al. (2007); Geden et al.

(2009).

Synthetic lure Glossina spp., Diptera Mixture of 1-octen-3-ol, 3-n-propyl phenol,

and 4-methylphenol (p-cresol) plus acetone or

methyl ethyl ketone in a separate dispenser

Bursell et al. 1988; Vale et al.

(1988)

Synthetic lure Lucilia cuprina Diptera Blend of 2-mercaptoethanol, indole, butanoic

acid, and sodium sulfide

Ward and Farrell (2003); Urech et

al. (2004)

Attractants (food baits) Social wasps Hymenoptera Mixture of acetic acid, with isobutanol or

heptyl butyrate or butyl butyrate

Landolt et al. (2000)




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