Senegal: Food Insecurity and the Need for

Agricultural Reform

By,

John Hennessy

23 March 2015

Module: GGHS40220 Climate Change and Development

Assignment Coordinator: Dr. Gayle McGlynn

UCD/TCD Masters in Development Practice

TCD: 13302388 UCD: 13206035

*The work in this paper is entirely my own and adheres to TCD’s plagiarism regulations

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Abstract

Senegal is a very food insecure country. This is nothing new. Senegal has struggled with food

security since its independence in 1960. The roots of Senegal’s food insecurity can be traced to the

economic and agricultural policies instituted by its colonial ruler France. Senegal’s continuation of French

colonial style agricultural policies and increasing dependence on foreign cereal imports combined with a

wide range of threats posed by climate change could spell crisis for Senegal in the near future. This paper

will explore Senegal’s food security issues and make policy recommendations that will allow Senegal to

finally become food secure.

Keywords: Senegal, food security, climate change, agriculture, water scarcity, agro-forestry

Introduction

Senegal is located in sub-Saharan West Africa on the Atlantic Ocean and is surrounded by Guinea-

Bissau, Guinea, Mali and Mauritania. In 2011 its population was estimated at 13 million with 58% of people

residing in rural areas. Approximately 77% of the workforce within the country is in the agricultural sector

which accounts for 12.4% of Senegal’s GDP (USGS & USAID 2012, p. 1.) The two main cash crops in Senegal,

largely produced for export, are peanuts and cotton. The food staples of Senegal are: rice, millet, sorghum,

corn, and fonio. However, it is important to note that Senegal is a net importer of cereals and its

dependence on foreign cereal imports continues to grow exposing citizens to global price fluctuations.

This is particularly the case with rice which is hugely popular within the country. It is only during good

years that Senegal can meet its needs with cereals other than rice. Food insecurity is nothing new for

Senegal. It has been an issue Senegal has struggled with since gaining independence from France in 1960.

Besides Senegal’s dependence on cereal imports there are a number of other factors that make Senegal

vulnerable to food insecurity.

Very little agriculture in Senegal is done on

irrigated land. Approximately 95% of Senegal’s agriculture

is rain-fed and most Senegalese farmers rely on very basic

farming technology in addition to having little access to

improved seed varieties (Seck et al 2005, p.74.). Much of

Senegal is Sahel, a semi-arid transition zone from the

Sahara in the north to savannah in the south, which has

been identified as a hot spot for vulnerability to climate

change. Climate change is already negatively impacting Figure 1: Planting sorghum using a donkey and planter

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food security in Senegal most notably through warming temperatures and changing and increasingly

erratic rainfall patterns. However Senegal also has to address deforestation, desertification, infectious

diseases, rapid unplanned urbanization, water insecurity, rising sea levels, and ecosystem degradation; all

of which are made worse by climate change and impact food security. Food security in Senegal is an issue

near and dear to my heart having worked in Kolda Region in southern Senegal as an agro-forestry

specialist. Despite Senegal’s history of poor government agricultural policies and the many challenges

Senegal faces, in regard to food security, I believe that through collaborations with the international

community and agricultural policy changes Senegal can finally become food secure.

Literature Review

The roots of Senegal’s poor agricultural

policies since independence can be traced to policies

and systems put in place by the French colonial

administration. Senegal was France’s administrative

and logistical hub for French West Africa. The French

built Senegal’s economy in the 19th and early 20th

centuries to be export commodity driven. Initially the

French-led Senegalese economy was based on

peanut and peanut oil exports to France. France also

started Senegal’s dependence on foreign cereal

imports by encouraging Senegal to import rice from

its Southeast Asian colonies (Masters 2007, p.2.) After

independence President Senghor’s administration

modeled Senegal’s agricultural system on French

administrative control (Cochrane 2013, p.114.) These

trends have not changed through subsequent Senegalese administrations. In fact they have gotten much

worse and have contributed greatly to Senegal’s food insecurity. One notable Senegalese government

initiative that has been added since the French left is the government’s emphasis and promotion of

planting cotton for export.

The Senegalese government’s decision to promote peanut and cotton production for export has

had some disastrous implications for the environment and food security in Senegal. Both peanuts and

cotton rapidly drain the soil of its fertility. As soil fertility decreases so do crop yields and because most

Figure 2: Children weeding a peanut field

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Senegalese farmers cannot afford inputs like fertilizers farmers are constantly expanding the land area

devoted to these two crops. To make matters

worse, for a longtime the Senegalese government

told people they should cut down trees to expand

peanut production. Peanuts like a lot of sunlight so

to some people in the government cutting down

trees seemed like a logical strategy to increase

production. The actual effect was to expose fields

to more wind and water erosion leading to loses of

topsoil and further decreasing the fertility of fields.

This policy also sped desertification and

deforestation. Additionally both of these crops are subject to global price fluctuations and with the overall

trend being downward both products are not nearly as profitable as they once were.

From the 1960’s into the 1980’s Senegal’s total food production remained stagnant. However

during that same span of time the population more than doubled. That means that per capita food output

declined by 50%. Since the 1980’s Senegal’s agricultural output has doubled but so did the population so

there has been no per capita food output increase from 1980’s levels (Masters 2007, p.2.) Senegal has

one of the fastest growing populations in the world and that trend is not slowing (WFP et al. 2012, p.11.)

Demographic pressure make addressing food security and poverty in Senegal increasingly more difficult.

Adding to Senegal’s food output struggles were several periods of prolonged drought. Nearly all

the literature talks about the droughts of the 1970’s and 1980’s. The droughts severely damaged the

agricultural sector especially in the northern Sahel and desert regions. Damage to ecosystems caused by

the periods of drought allowed the Sahara to creep much further south and northern Senegal has never

recovered. In northern Senegal people rely heavily on herding cattle for their livelihoods and purchase

most of their food stuffs. This makes the people in the north very vulnerable to fluctuating foodstuff prices

and water scarcity in the north has become a very serious problem. With rising temperatures and changing

rainfall patterns cattle herders in the north are likely to see their livelihoods disappear. The droughts were

a wakeup call for many who previously did not understand the risks of climate change. There are parts of

the north where some farming is still possible today however with increasing temperatures that will likely

change. The parts of northern Senegal that plant crops plant varieties that are already at their maximum

temperature limits and barely meet their minimum water requirements. While Senegal has seen rainfall

Figure 3: Harvesting cotton in Sinthian Kortiba

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totals recover somewhat since the droughts they have never returned to pre-drought levels and the

rainfall patterns have become increasingly erratic resulting in more frequent smaller droughts and

increases in the number of flood events.

Senegal is a highly food insecure country. It has been estimated that 15% of rural households and

8% of urban households are food insecure (WFP et al. 2012, p. 14.) In rural areas food insecurity is caused

by a combination of price fluctuation risks and unreliable yields from farming. In urban areas food

insecurity is caused mostly by price fluctuations. Price fluctuations are heavily influenced by Senegal’s

reliance on imported cereals. Between 1984 and 1993 Senegal produced 60% of the cereals it consumed.

From 1994 to 2000 it produced 50% of the cereals it consumed. Today it produces about 40% of the cereals

it consumes (Boccanfuso & Savard 2011, p.213.)

Since the 1960’s Senegal has found it difficult to attract foreign investment to its agricultural

sector. This has contributed to crop output per capita lagging behind both global and sub-Saharan Africa

averages (Vanderkooy 2012, p. 36.) To address food security it is essential to attract foreign agro-

investment for improved agricultural infrastructure, equipment and techniques. More recently however

there has been investment and interest in Senegalese agriculture but not the right kind. The last 10 years

have seen a disturbing number of medium and large-scale agricultural land acquisitions; which in it of

itself is not negative. Rather it’s the nature and structure of these acquisitions that threaten Senegalese

food security. “Local sources report that between 30 to 45 percent of Senegal’s cultivatable land has been

acquired since 2006…….approximately 40 percent of land acquired under ALAs has been granted to

foreign investors, with the rest attributed to non-local Senegalese investors. (Vanderkooy 2012, p. 39.)”

What is so disturbing about this is that Senegal’s government has allowed much of its most productive

land to be acquired in long term leases, there are no environmental assessments done or restrictions on

how the land is to be used, and the benefits in most cases are not being felt by the local population.

Further the vast majority of the production of crops on acquired lands is not going to Senegalese markets

but rather is being shipped abroad.

Another worry for Senegal is its 700km long coastline which is under severe threat from sea level

rise caused by climate change. According to one study of vulnerability and adaptive capabilities of

countries to a 1 meter sea level rise Senegal ranked 8th most at risk in the world (Niang et al. 2010, p. 294.)

Besides the potential loss of low lying land, in regard to food security, it is sources of freshwater that are

of concern. Key sources of groundwater in coastal zones are under threat of saline intrusion. These water

sources are important for humans, plants and agriculture. Loss of these water sources would impact some

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of the Senegal’s most productive agricultural areas and displace hundreds of thousands of people.

Another important aspect of Senegal’s economy and food security is its fishing industry. Sea level rise will

damage or destroy many of Senegal’s mangroves and estuaries. These two habitats are crucial to the

health of Senegal’s fisheries. Predicted rises in ocean temperature and acidity will also have negative

impacts on the country’s fisheries (Silver et al. 2013, p. 670.)

Discussion

In Senegal climate change, food security, water security, and poverty overlap at multiple levels. It

is not possible to address one of these topics without addressing the others and poor policy chooses made

in regard to these topics have innumerable repressions for Senegalese society at large. What we do know

is that Senegal’s population is going to continue to grow rapidly. We also know that climate change will

continue to negatively impact crop yields in a wide variety of ways. Decreasing domestic yields combined

with demographic pressure will reduce Senegal’s ability to meet its food needs. Unless major changes are

made to the agricultural sector and new intelligent government policies are enacted it is likely that Senegal

will see: a rise in the number of undernourished people, people’s incomes will be negatively impacted

effecting purchasing power and prices of commodities at markets will increase and be subject to global

price fluctuations.

As temperatures increase and rainfall patterns continue to change and become more erratic.

Water scarcity is going to become a larger and larger issue impacting Senegalese society at large and

threatening food security. The impact of water scarcity will be felt most in the north. In the not too distant

future all of northern Senegal will not be able to produce crops and it will become impractical and

unsustainable to herd cattle there. The result will be a mass movement of northern Senegalese people to

cities and the south. The days of cattle herding in Senegal are numbered. The Senegalese government

should promote the keeping of new sedentary hand fed cattle species. As the population rises Senegal

will need to expand its agriculture onto arable land that’s currently pasture. The government should also

promote investing in ruminant animals such as sheep and goats which are more environmentally friendly.

Senegal needs to do away with its practice of monoculture and needs to rethink its promotion of

planting cotton and peanuts. These two crops negatively impact soil fertility and do not fetch a high price

on the market. Farmers need to diversify what they’re planting. There needs to be a strong emphasis on

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agro-forestry. Agro-forestry can improve soil

fertility, food security, increase income, improve

eco-systems, protect forests, and improve local

climate conditions. The benefits of agro-forestry

systems will not be felt overnight. Initially this will

require the government to invest in agricultural

education programs and the government should

temporarily subsidize investment by farmers who

implement agro-forestry systems. Planting wind

breaks that are fire resistant and generate income

such as cashew trees should be promoted or the use of nitrogen fixing trees that block wind and improve

soil fertility. Many of these trees, not cashew trees, have leaves that can be used for animal fodder as

well. Green manure and mulching can help prevent wind and water erosion and improve soil moisture

content. Intercropping also allows farmers to improve the local diet and protects farmers against price

shocks at the market to specific crop varieties; nitrogen fixing species can be used here as well. The use

of fruit trees should also be promoted for income generation and to improve local nutrition. Lastly in areas

where there is cattle grazing live fencing should be promoted. Varieties can be chosen that have a number

of the benefits I have already mentioned. These systems are initially labor intensive but overtime less

labor is required and the benefits far outweigh the initial labor input requirements.

The Senegalese government needs stop its practice of signing long term leases of productive

arable land to foreign and non-local investors without conducting environmental assessments and

insuring that the local population will benefit from any deal that is signed. It has been alleged that many

of these deals involve a high level of corruption. If that is the case the Senegalese government needs to

punish those illegally benefitting from the exploitation of Senegalese land and break those illegal contracts

so that the land can be reclaimed. The Senegalese government desperately needs agro-investment but it

must be to the benefit of Senegal.

Concluding remarks

Climate change, food security, water security, and poverty are intertwined. Senegal cannot

address one without addressing the others. For Senegal to finally achieve its goal of being food secure it

will need to move away from its policy of promoting monoculture and encourage farmers to diversify

what they plant. The government will have to invest heavily in agricultural education systems and should

Figure 4: A mango grafting formation in Sinthian Kortiba

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promote agro-forestry. The country cannot afford to give away any more of its productive arable land

unless it is to the benefit of the Senegalese people. Senegal needs to work with the international

community to come up with solutions that address sea level rise. Senegal has neither the technical

expertise nor capital to implement large scale infrastructure projects that protect its coast and coastal

water resources. This is an area the international community must step up and help Senegal to ensure her

food security. The problems facing Senegal in regard to food security are numerous and daunting in scale

but I believe that through agricultural policy changes and collaboration with the international community

Senegal can become food secure.

References and Recommended Reading

Boccanfuso & Luc Savard 2011, ‘The Food Crisis and its Impacts on Poverty in Senegal and Mali: Crossed Destinies’, Development Policy Review, vol. 29, pp. 211-247. Cochrane, L 2013, ‘Land Degradation, Faith-Based Organizations, and Sustainability in Senegal’, Culture, Agriculture, Food and Environment: The Journal of Culture and Agriculture, vol. 35, pp. 112-124. Masters, W 2007, ‘Distortions in Agricultural Incentives in Senegal,’ World Bank’s Development Research Group, Working Paper 41, pp. 1-18. Niang et al. 2010, ‘Impact of climate change on the Senegalese coastal zones: Examples of the Cape Vert Peninsula and Saloum estuary’,Global and Planetary Change, pp. 294-301. Seck et al. 2005, ‘Case Study 4: Senegal Adaptation and Mitigation Through “Produced Environments”: The Case for Agriculture Intensification in Senegal’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 36. pp. 71-86. Silver et al. 2013, ’Climate change, urban vulnerability and development in Saint-Louis and Bobo-Dioulasso: learning from across two West African cities’, Local Environment, vol. 18, pp. 663-677. USGS & USAID 2012, ‘A Climate Tread Analysis of Senegal’, USGS, pp. 1-4. Vanderkooy, A 2012, ‘Rethinking agricultural land acquisitions as a form of agricultural investment in Senegal’, Undercurrent Journal, vol. 11, pp. 36-49. WFP et al. 2012, ’Climate risk and food security in Senegal: Analysis of climate impacts on food security and livlihoods’, WFP, pp. 1-48. *All photos included in this paper were my own