service research dryland grazing agriculture information
TRANSCRIPT
ñf nM íñ is^ United States
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Department of ^p^ Agriculture
^ Agricultural ,\ Research
Service
Agriculture Information Bulletin Number 444
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Alfalfa for Dryland Grazing
Abstract
Lorenz, Russell J., Ronald E. Ríes, Clee S. Cooper, Charles E. Townsend, and Melvin D. Rumbaugh. 1982. Alfalfa for Dryland Grazing. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Information Bulletin Number 444, p. 24.
Arthur C. Wilton, chairman Committee on alfalfa for dryland grazing Central Alfalfa Improvement Conference
This publication is a compilation of literature review and concepts by alfalfa breeders, agronomists, and a range scientist on dryland grazing in the Northern Great Plains and other Western States. The authors report on such aspects of alfalfa production as persistence under dryland grazing, physiological characteristics contributing tov/ard longevity, diseases and insects of alfalfa, and availability of sources of germplasm.
KEYWORDS: alfalfa, dryland grazing, crested wheatgrass, Russian wildrye, legumes, drought
Issued June 1982
Preface
Legumes now are being used where, several years ago, their use would have been
impractical and uneconomical. Escalating energy demands and high oil and nitrogenous
fertilizer prices have caused farmers and ranchers to expand legume acreages. In the plains
of the West and in some intermountain areas, this means expanded alfalfa acreages. We
now believe that the alfalfa species-complex, without doubt, is the toughest and most
productive of the legumes for rangeland and dryland pasture use.
With increased interest in dryland legumes generally, and in alfalfa particularly, we cannot
help but realize the research challenges afforded by and the immense benefits to be gained
through dryland alfalfa research. For example, of the nearly 100 million acres of grassland
in the three northern States of the Great Plains—North Dakota, South Dakota, and
Montana—more than 90 percent is grazing land. Alfalfa can increase the productivity of
much of this area. With acreages of such immensity, huge yield increases are not necessary
to escalate our national livestock production. Yet, in specific instances, beef production on
dryland has been doubled by adding alfalfa.
The problem that ranchers and farmers face, however, is continued and reliable production.
All growth, productivity, and persistence factors necessary to ensure continuous production of
a range alfalfa are not yet known. The various types of alfalfa compatible with different
grazing systems or with various rangeland macroenvironments and microenvironments are
qlso unknown.
The problems in alfalfa breeding for rangeland and for dryland pasture may be more diverse
than those encountered in breeding for hay production, particularly where hay is produced
under conditions of adequate soil moisture. Because grazed alfalfa means livestock use,
livestock management must be considered as well as management of the grass-legume
mixture. Alfalfa in rangeland is exposed to varied environments, not only from year to year
but also from location to location. If alfalfa is to be used in these varied environments,
then the specific growth-governing environmental factors must be isolated and
their effect on alfalfa growth must be investigated. Finally, the available alfalfa germplasm
should be surveyed, and the most successful genotypes should be delineated if additional
cultivars of range alfalfa are to be produced and used.
A committee was assembled, therefore, (1) to review the literature concerning the persistence
of alfalfa under dryland grazing; (2) to develop and state, insofar as possible, concepts of
the salient physiological characteristics contributing toward stand longevity under range
conditions; and (3) to suggest germplasm sources that might contribute toward easy
establishment and stand longevity under range conditions.
The committee is a diverse group because the problems are diverse. It consists of three alfalfa
breeders, two research agronomists, and one range scientist. One research agronomist,
throughout his career, has specialized in the physiology of dryland legumes; the other has
specialized in grazing management in the Northern Great Plains. All the group are now in the
Northern Great Plains Region or were situated there previously. All are vitally interested in
dryland alfalfa. This publication is a report of the committee's work.
The approach in this publication has been that each researcher independently review the
literature on a particular phase of alfalfa in dryland agriculture. One section is devoted to
grazing management, one to range ecology, one to physiology related to persistence, one to
pests of alfalfa in rangeland, and one to availability of germplasm. Each section will stand
on its own, yet all contribute to the general knowledge that breeders, range management
specialists, and range scientists must know if alfalfa is to succeed as a dryland legume.
The authors wish to thank the National Alfalfa Improvement Association for sponsoring the
committee.
Contents
Alfalfa in western grazing management systems 1
Introduction 1
Literature review 1
Concluding remarks 3
References 3
Environmental factors and alfalfa persistence in dryland pastures and rangeland ^
Introduction 4
Environmental factors and dryland pasture and rangeland alfalfas 4
Promising alfalfas for dryland pastures and rangelands 6
Summary 6
Literature cited 7
Selection for drought resistance in alfalfa 8
Introduction 8
Influence of drought on plant growth 8
Resistance to drought and its measurement 8
Determining criteria for selecting drought-resistant alfalfas 10
References 11
Diseases, insects, and other pests of rangeland alfalfa 13
A review 13
Literature cited 14
Origins of alfalfa cultivars used for dryland grazing 15
Introduction 15
Root-proliferating alfalfas 15
Rhizomatous alfalfas 17
References 18
Trade names and the names of commercial companies are used in
this publication solely to provide specific information. Mention of a
trade name or manufacturer does not constitute a guarantee or war-
ranty of the product by the U.S. Department of Agriculture or an
endorsement by the Department over other products not mentioned.
Alfalfo In Western Grazing Managment Systems
Russtli J. Lorenz^
Introduction
References showing that legumes in a grass sward increase
herbage yield and crude protein content and improve forage
palatability and digestibility are found easily in both scientific
and popular literature. On a worldwide basis, alfalfa is
considered the most widely adapted and the most useful legume
known. Another fact almost as commonly known is that legumes,
particularly alfalfa, improve animal performance whenever they
are included in the ruminant diet.
Literally thousands of worker-years have been spent on alfalfa
breeding and management research. Volumes have been written
on the merits of alfalfa, and its history parallels that of all
major civilizations. Small wonder, therefore, that alfalfa has been
dubbed "queen of the forages" (7).^
But the Queen is not a simple creature. What is so easily
referred to as "alfalfa" is, in reality, a complex of species
capable of hybridization. Herein lies part of the secret to wide
adaptability and high productivity found in alfalfa. In the past,
scientists, seed producers, farmers, and all concerned with
alfalfa favored the more productive lines—those capable of
producing the most forage on productive soils adequately
supplied with water. Because of bloat potential, few would risk
grazing alfalfa, and certainly no one would try to raise alfalfa
in areas of low precipitation unless these areas could be
irrigated. Consequently, geneticists and agronomists devoted
their lives to selecting plant materials of the upright types
suitable for producing hay and to developing management
systems suited to the more favorable production situations, while
the prostrate and decumbent growth forms with fibrous and
creeping roots, suitable for dryland grazing, usually were
discarded.
The merits of alfalfa were heard by those of us in range
management in the arid and semiarid Great Plains and Western
States. Some tried raising and grazing alfalfa in these areas
with some degree of success but, more often, with poor or even
disastrous results. A few alfalfa breeders did select plant types
adapted to the arid and semiarid lands, notably those at
Swift Current, Saskatchewan, Canada, and at Brookings, S. Dak.
These breeders sacrificed yield in favor of persistence under
grazing and with limited soil water supply. Getting selections
from these lines released as cultivars was difficult, however,
because they did not look like improved lines when tested against
the conventional hay types.
Time and economic conditions do change, and with them demands
and standards also change. Farmers, ranchers, scientists, and
those in agribusiness now are engaged in a meager, but
gratifying, effort to find a legume suitable for grazing use in
semiarid and arid grasslands. At the present time, alfalfa is the
^ Research leader and research agronomist. Northern Great Plains
Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Mandan, N. Dak. 58554.
^ Italic numbers in parentheses refer to References, p. 3.
legume that holds the greatest promise for success (6, 17).
In this report, I will briefly outline the relatively small amount of
information published in the last 20 years, related to grazing
use of alfalfas in the Great Plains and Western States. This
should not be considered an exhaustive review because
information on alfalfa often was included in a rather secluded
fashion in other grazing research reports.
Literature Review
Throughout the years, dryland alfalfa-grass mixtures have been
grazed on a limited basis in the Great Plains of United States
and Canada and in the Western United States. Most of the
research and most of the farmer-rancher usage, however, have
been with alfalfa seeded with crested wheatgrass, Russian
wildrye, or intermediate wheatgrass. Recent development of
interseeding technology opened new management doors by
providing a means of introducing alfalfa and other species to
native range and to established stands of seeded grasslands.
Ranchers or farmers who have successfully grazed alfalfa-grass
mixtures, or have interseeded legumes into native range, often
have their efforts documented in the popular press. In most cases,
these ranchers and farmers ore pleased with the results and are
in favor of developing technology and plant materials to improve
the practice. One Montana rancher expressed his enthusiasm for
alfalfa by publishing in a technical ¡ournal. He includes alfalfa in
a system that works for him (12).
Grazing Trials—Research at Dickinson, N. Dak., compared
crested wheatgrass pastures with crested wheatgrass-alfalfa
pastures (20). Throughout the 7-year trial, the crested wheatgrass-
alfalfa pasture was superior to the crested wheatgrass pasture
in forage and beef production. Yearling steers used as test
animals showed no difference in daily gain per head, although
daily forage consumption averaged 17.5 lb dry matter per head
per day on the crested wheatgrass and 17.0 lb on crested
wheatgrass-alfalfa. The average number of pounds of forage
required per pound of gain was 8.4 on the crested wheatgrass
and 8.1 on the crested wheatgrass-alfalfa.
Research at the Eastern Colorado Range Station north of
Akron (5), at the Archer Substation east of Cheyenne, Wyo. (15),
and at the Northern Great Plains Research Center, Mandan,
N. Dak. (16), all showed an advantage to alfalfa in the mixture
for animal performance as well as for forage production. In the
Colorado research, intermediate wheatgrass-alfalfa pasture
produced 51 percent more forage, had 67 percent greater
carrying capacity, and gave 21 lb greater seasonal gain per
head than did intermediate wheatgrass without alfalfa. Air-dry
forage required per pound of gain was 8.9 lb, and doily air-dry
forage consumption was 15.7 lb per head for the intermediate
wheatgrass-alfalfa; for intermediate wheatgrass alone, air-dry
forage per pound of gain was 8.5 lb and daily air-dry forage
consumption was 13.2 lb per head. The advantage for the
alfalfa-grass mixture in the Wyoming work increased as the
proportion of alfalfa increased, and the intermediate wheatgrass
decreased in the mixture.
1
In the 10-year study at Mandan, yearling steers had average
daily gains of 2.ÓÓ lb for crested wheatgrass alone, 2.Ó3 lb for
crested wheatgrass with 40-N applied annually, 2.53 lb for
crested wheatgrass with 80-N applied annually, and 2.82 lb
for crested wheatgrass with alfalfa. Carrying capacity was
significantly higher for the pastures with the legume than for
the crested wheatgrass alone but significantly less than for those
receiving 40-N or 80-N annually.
A grazing study at Miles City, Mont., compared crested
wheatgrass-alfalfa and Russian wild rye-alfalfa with native range,
but no direct comparison was made with the grass species without
alfalfa (9). For all parameters evaluated, the seeded pastures
exceeded the native range when grazed with Hereford breeding
cows and calves for 5 years. No management problems were
attributed to alfalfa in the mixture, but the authors did question
the effect of fall grazing of regrowth on date of beginning
grazing the following spring or on the amount of forage
produced the following year.
Crested wheatgrass and crested wheatgrass-alfalfa pastures were
compared as part of an 8-year study at the Archer Field Station
in Wyoming (2). The 8-year average sheep-days per acre was
121, and the lamb gain per acre was ó4 lb for the crested
wheatgrass alone. For crested wheatgrass with alfalfa, the 8-year
average sheep-days per acres was 164, and the lamb gain per
acre was 9ó tb. The actual daily gains were not reported, but
the authors made the following statement: "Analysis of the daily
gains made by the animals on these different pastures showed
little difference in gains for any given period and for animals of
similar age. Exceptions were found on the blue grama-
buffalograss pasture, where gains were quite low, and on the
grass-legume mixture, where gains were above average."
Mixtures of crested wheatgrass, intermediate wheatgrass, and
Russian wildrye, with and without alfalfa, were evaluated as
spring pasture using sheep [4] at Swift Current, Saskatchewan.
The mixture containing alfalfa exceeded the mixture without
alfalfa for all production parameters evaluated. Six-year averages
for each parameter with alfalfa were 1,020 lb dry matter per
acre; 13.4 lb gain per ewe; 35.3 lb gain per acre; and 333 ewe
days grazing per acre. Without alfalfa, ó-year averages for each
parameter were 750 lb dry matter per acre; 6.0 lb gain per
ewe; 11.0 lb gain per acre; and 257 ewe days grazing per acre.
Bloat is always of concern where alfalfa is included in a pasture;
however, finding reports of research designed to evaluate the
bloat problem or to document management systems designed to
reduce the bloat hazard satisfactorily is difficult. A study at
Swift Current (7) involved grazing pure stands of four alfalfa
varieties: 'Rambler', 'Siberian', 'Grimm', and 'Alfa'. Steers
grazed these pastures for 2 years with a very low incidence of
bloat. Although slight bloating sometimes occurred, no animal
reached the severe stages. Holstein cows grazed these pastures
for 1 year, and virtually no bloat was observed. In all 3 years,
'Rambler' was superior to 'Grimm' and 'Alfa' in yield and
carrying capacity. The authors concluded that alfalfa can be used
successfully for dryland pasture and that certain varieties are
better than others for this purpose.
Interseeding-—Interseeding has been studied at a number of
locations in the Great Plains and Western States (9, 14,18, 19).
Enough successful interseedings have been made to indicate that
technology can be developed for introducing alfalfa into existing
grasslands; however, research involving grazing of interseeded
grasslands is limited.
An interseeded pasture-grazing trial underway at Dickinson,
N. Dak. [13], has been grazed with cow-calf pairs for 2 years.
Below-normal precipitation has kept production from all
treatments low, but the native range interseeded with 'Travois'
alfalfa averaged 32 lb more beef per acre than the next highest
treatment and 67 lb more than the untreated native range. These
results are preliminary but of interest because very litle native
range interseeded with alfalfa has been experimentally grazed.
Persistence—Questions of persistence and longevity are often
raised in discussions of introducing alfalfa into grasslands. Many
very old stands of alfalfa can be found in the Northern Great
Plains of the United States and Canada, and I am sure there are
others in the Western States. Some have been documented {11,
17), and I am aware of several very old stands in the Dakotas
and Montana that have been grazed for many years. A germ-
plasm collection has been made from many of these old stands,
and plans are underway to collect from others.
Campbell (3) conducted a study near Swift Current in which six
grass-alfalfa mixtures were grazed with sheep for 4 years, with
season of use as a variable. Since no treatment without alfalfa
was included, the direct benefit of alfalfa cannot be identified
but its persistence is noteworthy. Campbell's study was
conducted in a low-precipitation area, during 4 years of below-
normal precipitation. The creeping-rooted strain of alfalfa used
was described as being similar to 'Rambler*. It maintained Its
stand in the spring-grazed pastures and persisted strongly in the
autumn-grazed pastures but decreased on the continuously grazed
and summer-grazed pastures. Campbell concluded that this
type of alfalfa would persist and provide excellent pasture when
grown with dryland grass species suited to the low-precipitation
areas of the Northern Great Plains of the United States.
To summarize alfalfa production in Canada, Heinrichs (8) made a
few comments related to use and management of dryland alfalfa
related to persistence. I include them here to remind us that
grazing management systems need to take into account the
increased complexity of adding a species to the system,
particularly if an alfalfa is developed for introduction in native
range or for use in permanent type seeded grasslands, and if it
is expected to become a permanent part of the species complex.
The following are quotations from Heinrichs (8):
-^"The main principle to follow in the utilization of alfalfa is to
avoid frequent cutting or overgrazing.
—"Alfalfa withstands continuous grazing quite well, but it thins
out rapidly when closely grazed. Varieties with wide crowns and
creeping roots survive better under grazing than tap-rooted
types with narrow crowns, provided they are adapted to a
region.
—"Do not cut or graze alfalfa during a ó-week period from September 1 to October 15. At this time, carbohydrate reserves are being stored in the roots in preparation for the long dormancy period, and if top growth is removed reserves will be insufficient and plants will suffer from winter killing."
Concluding Remarks
Introducing alfalfa to arid and semiarid grasslands is a viable means of increasing animal output from a shrinking grazing acreage with a minimum of fossil fuel energy input. We cannot expect alfalfa to miraculously improve all grasslands, but we can learn where to use it and when to use it so we can add it to the collection of alternatives available to the range and livestock managers.
To do this successfully, legume breeders need to know what situations alfalfa will be put into in grazing management systems. This will provide the guidelines for selecting materials capable of performing satisfactorily. In all probability, no one cultivar will be best for all situations. Managers need to know the limitations of available cultivars so they can manage for optimum animal product while maintaining the legume-grassland complex on a long-time basis. With these factors as a common ground, geneticists, physiologists, pathologists, entomologists, agronomists, range scientists, and range animal nutritionists need to apply a team effort to provide the materials and the technology needed to make the system work and to make it available to the livestock manager of the arid and semiarid regions of the Western United States and Canada.
References
(7) Ashford, R., and D. H. Heinrictis. 19Ó7. Grazing of alfalfa varieties and observations on bloat.
Journal of Range Management 20:152-153. (2) Barnes, O. K., and A. L. Nelson.
1950. Dryland pastures for the Great Plains. Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 302. 30 p.
(3) Campbell, J. B. 1961. Continuous versus repeated seasonal grazing of gross-
alfalfa mixtures at Swift Current, Saskatchewan. Journal of Range Management 14: 72-77.
{4) 1963. Grass-alfalfa versus grass-alone pastures grazed in a
repeated-season pattern. Journal of Range Management 16:78-81.
(5) Dahl, B. E., A. C. Everson, J. J. Norris, and A. H. Durham. 1967. Grass-alfalfa mixtures for grazing in eastern Colorado.
Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 529-5. 25 p.
(Ó) Gomm, F. B.
1964. A comparison of two sweetclover strains and Ladak alfalfa alone and in mixtures with crested wheotgrass for range and dryland seeding. Journal of Range Management 17:19-23.
(7) Hanson, C. H., ed. 1972. Alfalfa science and technology. Agronomy Series No. 15,
American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis. (8) Heinrichs, D. H.
1969. Alfalfa in Canada. Canada Department of Agriculture, Publication No. 1377. 28 p.
(9) Houston, W. R., and R. E. Adams. 1971. Interseeding for range improvement in the Northern
Great Plains. Journal of Range Management 24:457-461. (10) and J. J. Urick
1972. Improved spring pastures, cow-calf production, and stocking rate carryover in the Northern Great Plains. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin No. 1451.
{11) Kilcher, M. R., and D. H. Heinrichs. 1966. Persistence of alfalfas in mixtures with grasses in a
semiorid region. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 46:162-167.
{12) Miles, A. D. 1969. Alfalfa as a range legume. Journal of Range
Management 22:205-207. (Î3) Nyren, P. E.
1979. Interseeded pasture grazing trial. In 30th Annual Livestock Research Roundup, Dickinson Experiment Station, Dickinson, N. Dak., December 5, 1979, sec. IV, p. 7-12.
(14) H. Goetz, and D. Williams. 1978. interseeding of native mixed prairie in the Great Plains.
Proceedings of the First International Rangeland Congress, Denver, Colo., August 14-18, 1978, p. 636-638.
(15) Rouzi, F., R. Long, and O. K. Barnes. 1958. Dual purpose pastures for the Shortgrass Plains.
Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 359. 16 p.
{16) Rogler, G. A., and R. J. Lorenz. 1969. Pasture productivity of crested wheotgrass as influenced
by nitrogen fertilization and alfalfa. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin No. 1402.
(17) Rumbough, M. D., and M. W. Pedersen. 1979. Survival of alfalfa in five semiorid range seedings.
Journal of Range Management 32:48-51. (Î8) and T. Thorn.
1965a. Initial stands of interseeded alfalfa. Journal of Range Management 18:258-261.
(19) and T. Thorn. 1965b. Interseeding legumes in South Dakota grasslands.
South Dakota Form and Home Research 16(2):7-9. {20) Whitman, W. C, L. Longford, R. J. Douglas, and T. J. Conlon.
1963. Crested wheotgrass and crested wheatgross-olfalfa pastures for eorly-seoson grazing. North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 442.
Environmental Factors And Alfalfa Persistence In Dryland Pastures And Rangeland
Ronald E. Rits^
Introduction
The use of legumes in dryland pasture and range is considered
beneficial because of increased total forage production,
improved animal performance from the presence of the legume,
increased use of all forage, and the possibility of increased
nitrogen for associated vegetation through the nitrogen-fixing
ability of legumes.
Opinions about these proposed benefits from legumes in pasture
and rangeland differ widely among scientists v/orking on them.
Existing evidence, hov/ever, indicates the need for further study to
better understand the legume-grass association in dryland
pasture and rangeland.
Heinrichs (73)^ proposes that alfalfa, because of its wide
climatic adaptability, is the most promising legume for rangeland
use in the temperate regions of the world. Hanson et al. [11]
briefly discuss the distribution and adaptation of alfalfa. They
reported that alfalfa is distributed worldwide and is well adapted
to widely divergent climatic and soil conditions. Yellow-flowered
alfalfa (Medicago falcata) has survived at temperatures as low
as -62° C (-80° F) and as high as 54° (130°). Because of
this wide distribution and diversity, improving alfalfa by
selection and breeding has been very successful.
Environmental Factors And Dryland Pasture
And Rangeland Alfalfas
Much research on alfalfa has been done since it was introduced
into the United States.
One report comprehensively reviewed and consolidated alfalfa
research results (70). Much of this research was concentrated on
the agronomic use of alfalfa for hay and pasture in humid,
semiarid, and arid climates, and on irrigated alfalfa in arid
climates. Rangeland alfalfa has been studied less. Under dryland
conditions, alfalfa has been used for hay production, in seeded
dryland pastures in association with grasses, and in a few
rangeland seedings. This section discusses the relationship of
environmental factors found under dryland pasture and rangeland
conditions to alfalfa survival and growth.
Wilsie (37) discusses crop adaptations and distribution and the
relationship between crop plants and their environment. He
groups environmental factors into three general categories;
climatic, edaphic, and biotic. Understanding the relationship of
these factors and alfalfas used in dryland pastures or rangeland
communities is essential for the success of such systems.
* Range scientist, Northern Great Plains Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Mandan, N. Dak. 58554. ^ Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 7.
Dryland pastures differ somewhat from rangelands because they
usually are established on marginal cropland of reasonable
topography and under marginal climate for dryland farming.
Associated species may include one to three grass species, and
the pasture will receive moderate to high levels of management.
Rangeland, on the other hand, is usually poorer land than dryland
pastures and has more rough topography and drier climatic
conditions. Associated species usually are more diverse than
dryland pastures, and the range areas usually receive less
management than dryland pastures. The environmental conditions
confronted by alfalfa under these two uses are similar but
perhaps more severe in rangeland.
Climatic Factors—Temperature, water supply, and light are the
three most important climatic factors related to plant response.
All elements of climate are interrelated (74). Vegetative
response is affected by all environmental elements interacting to
determine plant establishment, survival, growth, and
productivity.
Alfalfa used for dryland pasture or rangeland would be exposed
to variable climatic conditions. In the areas where dryland alfalfa
can be used, seasonal temperatures range from as high as 49°C
(120°F) to as Iowas —46° ( — 50°). Diurnal temperature
fluctuations of 40° are common. Annual precipitation may
vary from 20 in (50 cm) to below 1 0 in (25 cm) with periods of
drought common at any time. Evapotranspiration rates are high.
Day length and, to a lesser extent, light intensities can also
vary. Aamodt (7) summarizes well the effect of climate on alfalfa.
The most important fact is that alfalfa strains and varieties
differ in their climatic requirements.
These climatic conditions often are tempered by associated
conditions. The effectiveness of precipitation in localized areas
can be influenced greatly by its intensity, type (rain or snow),
duration, and annual and seasonal distribution. Temperatures are
modified by topographic position and aspect (north, south, east,
west). The severity of winter temperatures can be lessened by
the insulating effect of snow cover. Light intensifies can be
modified by topographic position, aspect, and associated
vegetation.
Literature concerning environmental physiology of alfalfa was
reviewed (5). This review reflects the considerable amount of
work done on the germination and growth of current varieties of
alfalfa in relation to specific environmental conditions. In another
report the response of alfalfa to cold, drought, and heat was
reported (75). In both discussions, varieties responded significantly
differently to various environmental conditions. The difference
emphasizes the need to match varieties with environments where
they perform best. Genetic differences also allow for selecting
and breeding new varieties for specific environmental
conditions.
Edaphîc Factors—Edaphic conditions will be a very important
environmental consideration for dryland alfalfa. In the semiarid
and arid regions, soil properties that affect water infiltration and
storage will be of paramount importance to survival and growth
of alfalfa. Soil texture, sodium content, slope steepness, and
vegetative cover are very important in determining the amount
of water infiltration that can take place on a site. Soil texture,
soil depth, and salinity levels greatly infiuence the availability of
soil water for plant growth. Soil properties are more important
to alfalfa survival and growth under dryland conditions than
under higher rainfall or irrigation because the amount of
available water for growth is infiuenced primarily by soil
characteristics and is only slightly controllable by management.
Soils vary greatly across the area where alfalfa may be used in
dryland pastures or rongelands. The properties of these soils have
been documented through soil surveys for much of the area.
Some research has been done on soil water uptake and the
importance of subsoil moisture to alfalfa. Kohl and Kolar {19)
found that Medicago sativa roots preferentially take up water
from areas of high water potential over areas of lower water
potential, but water uptake continues in areas of low water
potential (even below 15 bars). The depth of the roots does not
appear to affect water uptake. Kiesselbach et al. (76) found that
alfalfa yield decreased as subsoil water was depleted by an
alfalfa stand in Nebraska. Irrigating part of the stand replenished
subsoil water and improved yield. Both these findings need to be
considered when alfalfa is used in either dryland pasture or
rangeland.
Redmann [24] found alfalfa varieties were inhibited from
germinating by the osmotic and specific ion effects of various
salts. Again, certain varieties tolerated the osmotic and ionic
effects better. Such osmotic and ionic conditions can be
experienced under certain field conditions when establishing
alfalfa for dryland pasture or range.
The nutrient levels found in the soil where alfalfa can be used
also may be important. Nutritional requirements of alfalfa have
been discussed by Rhykerd and Overdahl [25]. A comprehensive
review of fertilizer experiments with alfalfa from 1915 to 19Ó0
at the University of Connecticut was made by Brown [4] and
provides an excellent review of nutrient requirements of alfalfa.
The articles provide basic nutritional requirements that must be
considered for alfalfa. Under dryland conditions in semiarid and
arid areas, however, nutrients may be less important because of
the limiting nature of water in most years.
Biotic Factors—To date, the relationship of alfalfa to biotic
conditions has been approached mainly from an agronomic
standpoint where considerable management was used. In dryland
pasture, and especially range situations, biotic factors will be
subject to considerably less management control. Dryland
alfalfas will have to withstand insects, rodents, grazing, and
occasional fire. App and Manglitz (2) discuss insects and related
pests in relationship to alfalfa survival and growth. Under
dryland conditions, diseases should be a lesser problem than
under more humid conditions. The primary insect pest is
grasshoppers. Rodents that feed on the roots of alfalfa in a
pasture and range area could pose a substantial problem to
alfalfa survival.
Competition from associated plants in pasture or rangeland will
be important and more severe than under agronomic monoculture
situations. Water available for plant growth is fixed, and
competition for its use will be intense. Alfalfa competes vigorously
for growth factors above and below ground (7). Kilcher and
Heinrichs (17) found alfalfa to be persistent in a mixture of
grasses in a semiarid region. Both these studies indicate that
alfalfa can be a valuable species in dryland pasture and
rangeland.
For alfalfa to become part of pasture or rangeland, and to
maintain itself, it must be established and continue to reestablish
itself because periodical reseeding is not practical. The ability
of an alfalfa to revegetate from roots or stems would be a
considerable advantage. The effect that competition from other
plants will have on seed production and establishment, as well
as on vegetative reproduction, is largely unknown but will be
crucial to the success of dryland pasture or range alfalfa.
Peters and Peters [23] discuss weeds and weed control for
alfalfa. Alfalfa, in general, was found to be susceptible to weed
competition in the seedling stage. Another study reviews
literature on competition between establishing forage species
with reference to alfalfa (3). Tesar and Jackobs [28) discuss
requirements and methods of alfalfa establishment. White [30)
presents information on establishing lucerne (M. sativa) in
uncultivated land in New Zealand. Establishing dryland alfalfa
under semiarid and arid conditions has been a problem, although
good success under favorable precipitation patterns and
amounts has been reported.
The ability of alfalfa to fix nitrogen is important in that it should
supply itself added nitrogen under dryland pasture and rangeland
conditions where nitrogen is often limited. Burton (Ó) discussed
the basics of nodulation and symbiotic nitrogen fixation by
alfalfa. The question of whether extra nitrogen will be available
for associated vegetation is of interest but quite controversial.
Simpson (26) reported lucerne released nitrogen gradually during
an experiment studying the transfer of nitrogen from pasture
legumes to an associated grass under several systems of man-
agement in pot cultures. Wilson and Wyss (32) discuss this
question comprehensively. They point out that under most
conditions where extra nitrogen was found, growth conditions
were excellent. Under dryland pasture and range conditions,
where soil water is often limited, the amount of excess nitrogen
for associated plants may be small. Yet the possibility of
available excess nitrogen exists and needs better understanding
and documentation.
Rangeland alfalfa has to survive and grow under the limited management it vf'iW receive. Conventional management and use of alfalfa are discussed by Graumann and Hanson (9) and Van Keuren and Marten (29). Because alfalfa is a desirable forage species, it is selectively grazed by livestock and v^ildlife. Even under proper stocking rates, the grazing pressure it receives could be quite heavy. A range alfalfa also must be able to survive chemicals and fires used for occasional weed and shrub control in rangelands. An important characteristic of an alfalfa that would best survive heavy grazing and fire would be one with vegetative primoidia close to or below the ground. Smith {27) discusses this characteristic for several alfalfa varieties. Because livestock are under less observation and control, rangeland alfalfa should have a low bloat tendency.
Promising Alfalfas For Dryland Pastures And Rangelands
Heinrichs (73) presents the most probable reasons for the noninclusion of legumes in current range improvement programs as poor survival of legumes under heavy grazing and the wariness of ranchers and farmers about bloat hazard. Lowe et al. (20) discuss in detail the current alfalfa varieties that are adapted to dryland production. Varieties considered as pasture type alfalfa include 'Nomad', 'Rambler', 'Rhizoma', 'Seveira*, 'Teton', and 'Travois'. They further point out that varieties used for pasture have low-set crowns, a procumbent growth habit, drought tolerance, marked fall dormancy, slow recovery from cutting, and a high degree of winterhardiness. These varieties usually produce less forage yield than varieties used for hay. Two papers by Graumann (8) and Heinrichs (12) discuss varieties of alfalfa in more detail concerning their suitability for dryland pasture and rangeland use.
Several varieties of alfalfa, therefore, are now available that could be a beneficial component of dryland pastures and rangelands. The benefits from alfalfa in pasture or rangeland areas need to be better documented and clarified, and better understanding and techniques are needed to establish these varieties. Research is needed on the beneficial minimum management of alfalfa in dryland and range communities along with better documentation of these varieties in relation to bloat incidence.
A review of older papers concerning alfalfa is of great interest from a range ecology standpoint (18, 21, 22), Many of the characteristics described for these early alfalfas are important for the persistence and success of many dominant range plants found today in dryland pastures and rangelands. The ability of selection and breeding programs using these early alfalfa plants to develop better dryland alfalfas, particularly for range use, appears to be excellent.
If the need and benefit of rangeland alfalfa warrants, an added collection of M. falcafa could be made from its original populations. This new collection could serve as a new breeding population to improve alfalfa for use in dryland forage communities.
Summary
From this discussion, the environmental factors limiting alfalfa survival and growth can be summarized as follows. Climate of the semiarid and arid areas where alfalfas would benefit pasture and rangeland involves limited precipitation amounts, often occuring irregularly. Periods of drought are common, and water is the most important single environmental factor. Temperature exhibits wide seasonal and diurnal fiuctuations, and évapo- transpiration rates are high. Winterhardiness is required over a large portion of the dryland pasture and rangeland area. Light intensity is fairly constant throughout the area, with daylength and its effect on fiowering and seed set being more variable.
Soils are most important in how they affect available soil water. Nutrient availability should be of secondary importance because soil water is inherently limiting. Pasture and rangeland alfalfa is subject to such pests as grasshoppers and rodents. Heavy grazing pressure from both livestock and wildlife can be expected. Alfalfa must survive the occasional management use of fire and chemicals for weed and shrub control. Because of limited control over range livestock, alfalfa used in rangeland should provide a low incidence of bloat.
Competition for nutrients and water for establishment, growth, and survival will be intense and largely outside the control of management. The ability of alfalfa to fix and supply itself with nitrogen may give it a competitive advantage in areas where nitrogen is limited. The ability of dryland pasture and rangeland alfalfa to go dormant during periods of unfavorable moisture and temperature, like other persistent dryland plants, would be beneficial.
An alfalfa that best meets these environmental requirements will be most successful in dryland pastures and rangelands. Production can be lower, but persistence and sustained yield under these conditions will determine its value as a component of dryland forage communities.
Uteroffure Cited
(?) Aaomdt O. S.
1941. Climate and forage crops. In Climate and man. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Yearbook of Agriculture 1941, p. 439-458.
(2) App, B. A., and G. R. Manglitz.
1972. Insects and related pests, p. 527-554. In C. H. Hanson,
ed.. Alfalfa science and tectinology. Agronomy Series No. 15, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(3) Blaser, R. E., T. Taylor, W. Griffeth, and W. Skrdla. 1956. Seedling competition in establishing forage plants.
Agronomy Journal 48(1): 1-6. (4) Brown, B. A.
1961. Fertilizer experiments with alfalfa 1915-1960. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 363.
(5) Bula, R. J., and M. A. Mossengole.
1972. Environmental physiology, p. 167-184. In C. H. Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology. Agronomy Series No. 15, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(6) Burton, J. C.
1972. Nodulation and symbiotic nitrogen fixation, p. 229-246. In C. H. Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology. Agronomy Series No. 15, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(7) Chamblee, D. S.
1972. Relationship with other species in a mixture, p. 211-228. In C. H. Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology. Agronomy Series No. 15, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(8) Graumann, H. O.
1958. Progress report: Creeping alfalfa. What's New in Crops and Soils 10:18, 19, 37.
(9) and C. H. Hanson.
1954. Growing alfalfa. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 1722.
(10) Hanson, C. H., ed.
1972. Alfalfa science and technology. Agronomy Series No. 15, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wi«.
(IÎ) H. M. Tysdal, and R. L. Davis.
1966. Alfalfa, p. 127-138. In H. D. Hughes, M. E. Heath, and D. S. Metcalfe, eds.. Forages. Iowa State University Press, Ames.
(72) Heinrichs, D. H.
1963. Creeping alfalfas, p. 317-337. In A. G. Norman, ed.. Advances in agronomy. Academic Press, Inc., New York.
(J3)
1975. Potential of legumes for rangelands, p. 50-61. In R. S. Campbell and C. H. Herbei, eds.. Improved range plants. Range Symposium, Series 1. Society for Range Management, Denver, Colo.
(14) Hildreth, A. C, J. R. Magness, and J. W. Mitchell.
1941. Effects of climatic factors on growing plants. In Climate and man. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Yearbook of Agriculture 1941, p. 292-307.
(15) Jung, G. A., and K. L. Larson.
1972. Cold, drought, and heat tolerance, p. 185-209. In C. H. Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology. Agronomy Series No. 15, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(16) Kiesselbach, T. A., J. C. Russell, and A. Anderson. 1929. The significance of subsoil moisture in alfalfa
production. Journal of the American Society of Agronomy 21(3):241.268.
(77) Kilcher, M. R., and D. H. Heinrichs. 1966. Persistence of alfalfas in mixture with grass in a
semiorid region. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 46:163-167.
(78) Klinkowski, M.
1933. Lucerne: Its ecological position and distribution in the world. Imperial Bureau of Plant Genetics: Herbage Plants 12:1-62.
(79) Kohl, R. A., and J. J. Kolar.
1976. Soil water uptake by alfalfa. Agronomy Journal 68(3):536-538.
(20) Lowe, C. C, V. L. Marble, and M. D. Rumbaugh.
1972. Adaptation, varieties, and usage, p. 391-413. In C. H. Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology. Agronomy Series No. 15, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(27) Oakley, R. A., and S. Garver. 1913. Two types of proliferation in alfalfa. U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Circular 115. (22) and S. Garver.
1917. Medicago fo/cato, a yellow-flowered alfalfa. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 428.
(23) Peters, E. J., and R. A. Peters.
1972. Weeds and weed control, p. 555-573. In C. H. Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology. Agronomy Series No. 15, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
{24) Redmann, R. E.
1974. Osmotic and specific ion effects on germination of alfalfa. Canadian Journal of Botany 52(4):803-808.
{25) Rhykerd, C. L., and C. J. Overdohl. 1972. Nutrition and fertilizer use, p. 437-468. In C. H.
Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology. Agronomy Series No. 15, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wi$.
(26) Simpson, J. R.
1965. The transference of nitrogen from pasture legumes to an associated grass under several systems of management in pot culture. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 16:915-926.
{27) Smith, D.
1955. Underground development of alfalfa crowns. Agronomy Journal 47:588-589.
{28) Tesar, M. B., and J. A. Jackobs.
1972. Establishing the stand, p. 415-435. In C. H. Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology. Agronomy Series No. 15, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(29) Von Keuren, R. W., and G. C. Marten.
1972. Pasture production and utilization, p. 641-658. In C. H. Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology. Agronomy Series No. 15, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(30) White, J. G. H.
1970. Establishment of lucerne {Medicago sativa L.) in uncultivated country by sod-seeding and oversowing. Proceedings of the International XI Grassland Congress, Surface Paradise, Queensland, Australia, p. 134-138.
(37) Wilsie, C. P.
1962. Crop adaptation and distribution. Freeman and Company, San Francisco. 448 p.
(32) Wilson, P. W., and O. Wyss.
1937. Mixed cropping and the excretion of nitrogen by leguminous plants. In Proceedings of the Soil Science Society, p. 289-297.
Selection For Drought Resistance In Alfalfa
Clee S. Cooper, John R. Carlson, and Raymond L Ditterline^
Introduction
LitHe information is available on drought resistance in alfalfa
[Medicago sativa L.) (25).2 Drought reduces yield, quality, plant
height, and vigor (40). The development of adapted dryland
alfalfa varieties would enable limited water resources to be used
more efficiently.
Developing rapid screening and selection techniques would enable
plant scientists to measure many plants for traits linked to
drought resistance and to determine, eventually, which cultivars
are best suited for dryland environments. In searching for
criteria that may permit rapid selection for drought resistance,
the way drought affects plants and the morphological and
physiological characteristics associated with drought becomes
important.
Influence Of Drought On Plant Growth
Drought is a "sustained period of significantly subnormal water
or soil moisture supply" (57). Low rainfall is the basic cause of
drought, but other meteorological factors, such as wind, air
temperature, or radiation, also contribute to water deficit [50],
Nearly all physiological processes within a plant are affected by
water deficit. One study shows that water serves four
general functions in plants: (a) It is a major constituent of
physiologically active tissue; (b) it is a reagent in photosynthesis
and hydrolytic processes such as starch digestion; (c) it is the
solvent in which sugars, salts, and other solutes move in the
plant; and (d) it Is important in maintaining turgor for cell
enlargement and growth (20).
Wright (60) states, "there is little question that aridity seriously
limits germination and initial growth of plants." Moisture stress
may reduce the rate of germination and seedling growth (27) or
alter the metabolism of imbibing and germinating seeds to the
point where internal processes delay or even halt germination
(56).
Most plants show retarded or stunted growth with water stress
(32). Pulgar and Laude (42) observed a reduction in the number
and length of shoots in alfalfa regrowth after stress, that persisted
up to 6 weeks following stress, with no evidence of tissue
mortality. Perry and Larson (40) found a reduction in the
number of stems per plant, the internodes per stem, and the
internode length of the primary stem following water deficits in
alfalfa.
A series of metabolic changes and metabolic and mechanical
injuries occurs in dehydrated tissues. Dehydration of the
protoplasm (30) reduced photosynthetic capacity. Stomatal
^ Cooper (retired) was research agronomist, Agricultural Research
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture; Carlson is graduate
assistant and Ditterline is associate professor. Plant and Soil Science
Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, Mont. 59717.
^ Italic numbers in parentheses refer to References, p. 11.
closure and related reduction in photosynthesis during
drought result in reduced leaf area and activity (32).
Respiration rates may exceed those of photosynthesis during water
stress (32). Structural changes in the protoplasm resulting from
cell water loss may cause mechanical injury (45). Drought retards
differentiation of cells and tissues and hastens their maturation,
which causes decreased development of stems, leaves, and
fruits (29). It also reduces rates of translocation and nutrient
uptake and inhibits synthesis of cytokinins and gibberellins in the
roots (32). Cell division may be infiuenced less by drought stress
than is cell elongation (20). Increased wall thickness and
decreased succulence also result from drought.
Maximum crop yields are dependent on the uninterrupted
maintenance of moisture supplies throughout the season (50),
Plant water balance is affected by a complex combination of
atmospheric, plant, and soil conditions (79/ 25),
Resistance To Drought And Its Measurement
General Forms of Drought Resistance-—Drought resistance
mechanisms in alfalfa are unclear as yet (25). A number of
factors affecting winterhardiness have been studied, however, and
many believe a close relationship exists between mechanisms
affecting cold and drought tolerance. One study states that
(a) plants hardened to cold also become hardened to drought;
(b) drought and cold tolerance both are associated with small
cell size; (c) species, and sometimes varieties within species, have
parallel rankings for drought and cold tolerance; (d) changes in
both drought and cold tolerance are associated with changes in
growth; and (e) many of the physiological changes that occur
during hardening to drought and cold are similar (34).
Another definition of drought resistance includes "the overall
suitability of plants for cultivation under dry conditions" (45),
There are two general categories of drought resistance in crop
plants (51). Drought avoidance refers to the ability of the plant
to evade drought injury. For example, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor
L.) (55) and 'Ladak 65' alfalfa remain quiescent during periods
of drought. Drought tolerance (51), or hardiness (45), refers to
the ability of a plant to survive varying degrees of tissue
desiccation. Both of these mechanisms may be present in a
plant (51).
Morphological and Anatomical Drought Resistance Factors-
Morphological characteristics that reduce water loss help plants
avoid dessication. Awareness of characteristics related to
drought resistance may aid in selecting drought-resistant alfalfas.
Pubescence slows air movement and reduces transpiration. In the
soybean (Glycine max Merr), pubescent leaves reduced
transpiration 1 0 to 20 percent under artificial conditions (59),
One report suggested that pubescence could be incorporated to
a greater extent in soybean cultivars to improve drought
resistance (27). Pubescence, however, is not a common
characteristic of alfalfa and is not likely to become a major
selection trait for drought resistance.
8
Plants with thick cuticles (39) and decreased leaf area [43, 54,
55] have been considered drought resistant. Succulent leaves
avoid desiccation by maintaining a high moisture content during
drought (33, 39).
Growth habit and root proliferation have been related to drought
resistance (36, 38, 49, 54). Koch et al. (28] suggest that slow
regrowth after first cuttings may be a factor conditioning drought
avoidance. They observed that sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia
Scop.) plants were dormant during long periods of drought
stress but that roots continued to absorb water to a depth of Ó4
in (180 cm). Similar results have been obtained with alfalfa (13).
In dry areas, large and highly developed root systems aid plant
survival (33, 38, 55).
Many studies reported the effect of stomata on plant drought
resistance (2, 9, 15, 33, 37, 55]. leave et al. (55) reported that
sorghum's ''ability to swiftly close its stomata" was a factor in
drought resistance. Dobrenz et al. (15) concluded that drought-
resistant clones of blue panicgrass (Panicum anf'idofale Retz.)
had fewer stomata per unit area than drought-susceptible clones.
Muenscher (37] found no constant relationship between
transpiration rate and stomate density or size. He concluded
that the differential water loss observed among species is
governed by a complex of factors and not ¡ust the size and
number of stomata.
Anatomical characteristics in plants also have been studied (6, 8,
45, 53) to determine their role in conditioning plant drought
tolerance. Bula (8) states that low alfalfa yields during hot, dry
summer periods may be explained by less leaf tissue, decreased
leaf area; and smaller, more densely packed, leaf cells. Large
cells in the vascular tissue allow for better translocation of
photosynthates and water, and large intercellular spaces enhance
carbon dioxide diffusion of alfalfa plants grown in growth
chambers. Blum (ó) reports that genotypic differences in sorghum
to dehydration might be caused by differences in cell wall
elasticity. Drought-hardy plants also have been purported (33, 45)
to have smaller cells. Smaller cells, when desiccated, undergo
a smaller proportionate reduction in volume (45).
Physiological Drought Resistance Factors and Selection
Techniques—The literature on the effect of water deficits on
plant physiological processes is extensive and will not be
discussed in detail here. For a list of references on this subject,
see Laude (32].
Selecting for drought resistance has met with limited success. A
number of techniques, most related to plant physiological
processes, have been tried, and these will be presented in this
section.
Germination Against Stress—Several workers have attempted to
relate germination in sodium chloride, mannitol, and similar
solutes to drought or cold hardiness. Rodger et al. (44) found a
significant negative relationship between the ability of seeds from
alfalfa cultivars to germinate against an osmotic stress and
winterhardiness of mature plants. Dotzenko and Dean (17)
reported similar results. Larsen and Smith ¡3 7) and Heinrichs
(24) concluded that germinating alfalfa in sugar or salt solutions
is not a reliable method for differentiating alfalfa varieties into
winter hardiness classes. Younis et al. (63) found no correlation
between seed germination at low potentials and drought tolerance
in mature alfalfa plants.
Cooper (12) evaluated winterhardiness of crested wheatgrass
(Agropyron deserforum] previously selected for differential ability
to germinate in mannitol. Crested wheatgrass clones differed in
winterhardiness, but differences were not related to germination
againsî osmotic stress. Sharma (46) found that five forage species
differed in ability to germinate in sodium chloride, mannitol, and
polyethylene glycol, but tolerance to germination in these solutions
was not necessarily an acceptable index of drought tolerance in
mature plants. From the studies cited above, we feel that
germination against stress holds little promise as a rapid technique
for selecting drought-resistant alfalfa lines.
Leaf Water Potential—Relative turgidity (RT) of leaves.
RT=: Fresh wt — dry wt
X 100, is a simple and inexpensive Turgid wt — dry wt
laboratory method that should be considered as a technique for
measuring drought resistance. Measuring leaf-water potential is
more complex, requires more expensive equipment, and is time
consuming. Sullivan (51) discusses a number of water potential
measurements as follows:
(1) Vapor equilibrium. This method is equivalent to diffusion
pressure deficit (DPD) and suction tension and requires
inexpensive and simple equipment. The basis of the method is to
allow several preweighed leaf discs or tissue sections to come
to vapor pressure equilibrium with a series of solutions with
known water potentials in laboratory ¡ars. This method has
limited application in plant breeding because only a small number
of samples can be handled.
(2) Liquid exchange. This method involves changes in volume or
length of tissue strips after immersion in solutions of known
osmotic pressure. It has not been particularly useful.
(3) Vapor pressure. This technique measures vapor pressure of
water in the air of a chamber in which a tissue sample is sealed
and which is in equilibrium with the sample. This is a popular
technique and usually is measured with a thermocouple
psychrometer. An advantage is that the osmotic potentials of
plant tissue, soils, and solutions can be measured. A disadvantage
is that it is relatively expensive and requires considerable time
and skill in setting up apparatus.
(4) Beta gage. This technique measures leaf density when a
Beta radiation source is placed on one side of a leaf and a Beta
detector is placed on the other side. Beta gage measurements
have been related closely to RT and DPD in some studies but not
in others. It is likely to be too time consuming and inaccurate
for determinations with large numbers of samples.
(5) Osmotic potential of cell sap. Freezing point depression of
expressed sap is the most popular method of determining
osmotic potential. The method is limited for selection in breeding
because of the time required in making determinations.
Stomatal Measurements—Leaf porometers, which measure
internai resistance to gas flow, are used to measure stomatal
closure and leaf diffusion resistance. Leaf porometer
measurements are reasonably rapid and may be used to monitor
diurnal changes in stomatal behavior that may be related to
drought resistance. Stomata impressions are taken with silicone
rubber or acrylic resins sprayed on leaves.
Stomata length and density have been evaluated in five alfalfa
cultivars and in two experimental lines differing widely in
winterhardiness (10). Although winterhardy types had higher
stomate densities than the nonhardy types, additional work is
needed along these lines to study the relation of stomata density
to drought resistance of alfalfa.
Measuring Desiccation Tolerance—Desiccation injury from heat,
cold, or drought is measured most often by vital staining of tissue
[52] or by measuring electrical conductivity of electrolytes
exosmosed from leaf disc (?4). For screening purposes,
desiccation tolerance is difficult to control and tests are time
consuming (53). Because desiccation tolerance often is correlated
with cold or heat tolerance (34), it is often easier to impose the
latter stresses. Sullivan et al. (52) reported that heat tests with
leaf discs were good indicators of both heat and drought
tolerance. Cooper (//) stressed orchardgrass (Dacfylis glomerafa
L.) seedlings by emersing tops of plants in water at 50°C (122°F)
for 60 s. Photosynthetic rate was reduced 70 percent for 1 to 5 h
following treatment but recovered to nearly normal 1 week
later. Heat tolerance of plants increased with age to 31 days of
age and then plateaued. Laude (32) heat stressed two red brome
(Bromus rubens L.) ecotypes in air at 54° (1 29°) for 41/2 h, and
then grew them to maturity. Height, number of leaves, and tillers
of both ecotypes were depressed significantly, but one was more
depressed than the other. Wright et al. (61, 62) used a
programed artificial heat environment to evaluate large numbers
of seedlings and precisely select superior genotypes within a
species for drought tolerance.
Ethylene Determination—increased ethylene content in drought-
stressed plants appears to affect leaf abcission. Ethylene
production in petioles of intact cotton plants increased within
hours when water deficits developed (35). Water stress also
resulted in increased ethylene production in orange (Cifrus
simens'is Osbeck) leaves (4) and broad bean (Vicia faba L.) (5).
Because ethylene content increases with drought stress, drought-
resistant lines of a species may be delineated by measuring
ethylene following stress. Ethylene is measured readily by gas
chromatography, and techniques for its extraction from plants can
be simplified. The physiological roles of ethylene in plants and
measurement techniques are discussed in an excellent review by
Pratt and GoeschI (4 7). The most common techniques are some
variation of placing stressed material in sealed glass containers
and withdrawing samples after a period of time (23, 35) or by
extracting ethylene from plant tissue under vacuum (5).
Proline Accumulation—Free proline accumulates in leaves of
many plants following water stress. This proline accumulation
represents a major pathway of N metabolism. Hanson et al. (23)
cite many papers that show the main source of free proline
accumulated during drought $fress is synthesis of proline from
carbohydrate via a-ketoglutarate and glutamate. Several research
groups have studied genetically controlled accumulation of proline
in field crops. In rice (Oryza safiva L.) (3) and sorghum (7), field
drought ratings and proline accumulation were not positively
correlated. Singh et al. (47) found that proline accumulating
ability of 10 lines of barley was positively correlated with their
grain yield stability. More recently Hanson et al. (23) in a
detailed study with a drought-resistant and a drought-susceptible
barley cultivar concluded that proline accumulation followed
water stress and that differences in proline accumulation could
be accounted for by differences in internal water status. In their
studies, the drought-susceptible cultivar accumulated proline faster
than the resistant cultivar. They further conclude that selection
for high-proline accumulation would likely result in genetic
advance toward susceptibility to water sUess rather than drought
resistance. Using proline as a selection tool appears to be
questionable and its determination is probably too time consuming
to be of practical value in a breeding program.
Chlorophyll Stability Index—In 1958, Kaloyereas (26)
proposed the chlorophyll stability index as a technique for
evaluating drought resistance. This index is the difference in
chlorophyll light absorption readings from heated and unheated
leaves. He found that the critical temperature was 55° to 56° C
(131° to 133° F) for loblolly pine (Pinus iaeda L.) seedlings.
Above this temperature, chlorophyll degradation proceeded
rapidly. Significant correlation was found between chlorophyll
stability and drought resistance of pine. The method, however,
has found use, possibly because of the time required extracting
chlorophyll and determining the light absorption. With the advent
of such equipment as the portable refiectance meter for
estimating chlorophyll concentrations of leaves (58), the
chlorophyll stability index technique may warrant further
consideration as a screening tool.
Determining Criteria For Selecting Drought Resistant Alfalfas
A major problem in breeding for dryland alfalfa is defining the
objective. Do we want drought tolerance, avoidance, or both?
Do we want plants that can persist on range under stress but are
low yielding, or do we select for higher yield and possibly a
shorter lifespan?
Survival and drought tolerance are important during the seedling
stage. During establishment, any factor that increases rate of
germination, root elongation, and seedling vigor also increases
chances of seedling survival under dryland or rangeland
conditions. In areas where surface soils dry quickly following a
rain, seeds must germinate and roots must grow quickly into
moist soil layers. Thus, speed of germination and rate of root
elongation are drought-avoidance mechanisms. Factors have been
reported by workers as components of vigor for a number of
species (61), One researcher discusses those relevant to the
growth of the legume seedling. Speed of germination and root
elongation have been shown to be related to first season growth
of birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.) (11),
10
The value of rates of seed germination and root elongation in
alfalfa need further clarification. Rate of root elongation is
more rapid for A4, faicafa than for M. satîva in the seedling stage
(48). This may explain the greater hardiness of the wild alfalfas.
Selection for branched or fibrous root-type alfalfa seedlings
appears to be heritable (Carlson, John R., Ph.D. thesis,
Montana State University, 1981).
On rangeland, alfalfa seedlings may become subjected to drought
stress for short or long periods. Selection for drought tolerance
(growth during stress) and the ability to withstand tissue
dehydration would be important to survival. Screening tests are
needed to differentiate drought-tolerant from nontolerant
seedlings. One of the easiest and quickest ways may be the
ability of the seedlings to form new leaf tissue under applied
artificial drought or to resume growth following stress.
Once alfalfa becomes established, both tolerance and avoidance
mechanisms become important. While selection of early maturing
cereals has increased water use efficiency and yield in the Great
Plains, this may not be true for alfalfa. Alfalfa grows best at
warm temperatures. A later maturing variety may be more
productive than an earlier one in that optimum leaf area index
is more likely to coincide with the period of maximum incident
solar radiation in June when soil water is still available.
In most of the West, little regrowth is made after alfalfa matures
in late June and early July because soils are often at or near
wilting point in both July and August. Thus, selecting alfalfa with
'Ladak' type growth (rapid early season growth; slow late-season
growth) should help avoid drought. In contrast, regrowth types
that grow 6 to 8 in (15 to 20 cm) before water becomes
unavailable are likely to have low levels of carbohydrates going
into the winter. Drought at this time would be analogous to a
hard frost in the fall that occurs before growth is adequate for
stored reserves. In Montana, we recently selected both regrowth
and nonregrowth types from a 50-year-old dryland alfalfa field
with average precipitation of 13 in (32 cm). It may be possible
to select plants that will reg row rapidly in years with extra
water after first bloom but go dormant in other years.
One approach to determining which characteristics are most
important for a dryland or rangeland alfalfa may be to develop
divergent populations of alfalfa for many traits—for example,
regrowth versus nonregrowth, heat tolerant versus nonheat
tolerant, and tap versus fibrous root—from a common germplasm
pool and to test these populations over a broad range of
droughty conditions. Characterizing the populations that perform
the best may allow us to determine which trait or traits are most
closely related to drought resistance and should be selected for
in a breeding program.
We are initiating this approach in Montana, even though we know
the research will be time consuming, expensive, and there are
no guarantees for success. We believe a truly superior drought-
resistant alfalfa cannot be developed without a better
understanding of the traits involved and their interactions.
References (7) Adato, I., and S. Gazit.
1974. Water-deficit stress, ethylene production and ripening in
avocado fruits. Plant Ptiysiology 53:45-46.
(2) Aivin, Paulo, de T.
1959. Stomatal opening as a practical indicator of water stress
in plants. Proceedings of the 9th International Botany
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(3) Anonymous.
1975. Annual report for 1974. International Rice Research
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1974. Genotypic responses in sorghum to drought stress.
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1976. Genotypic responses in sorghum to drought stress.
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Crop Science 16:428-431.
(8) Bula, R. J.
1972. Morphological characteristics of alfalfa plants grown at
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1966. Winterhordiness of orchordgross and crested wheotgross
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1970. Consumptive use of water by alfalfa in western Nebraska.
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1959. Germination of six alfalfa varieties at three levels of
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11
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1964. The effect of water stress on plant growth. Journal of
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(22) Guinn, G.
1976. Water deficit and ethylene evolution by young cotton
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1977. Evaluation of free proline accumulation as an index of
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1959. Germination of alfalfa varieties in solutions of varying
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Canadian Journal of Plant Science 39:384-394.
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1958. A new method of determining drought resistance. Plant
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1960. The effects of limited moisture on germination and
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1959. The role of water in the physiology of plants. Advances
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1963. Association of various morphological characters and seed
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1971. Drought influence on physiological processes and
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1951. Frost, drought and heat resistance. Annual Review of
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1956. The hardiness of plants. Academic Press: New York
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1972. An effect of water stress on ethylene production by
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1960. Breeding for creeping root in alfalfa, Medicago media
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1915. A study of the relationship of transpiration to the size
and number of stomates. American Journal of Botany 2:
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1960. Transpiration of alfalfa determined from soil water
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1931. Plant anatomy as conditioned by light intensity and
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1974. Influence of drought on tillering and internode number
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1969. Physiological roles of ethylene in plants. Annual Review
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1974. Regrowth of alfalfa after heat stress. Crop Science
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1967. Use of area-weight relationship to estimate leaf area in
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1959. Drought tolerance of plants. Advances in Agronomy
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1973. Simulation of drought and its effect on germination of
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1972. Proline accumulation and varietal adaptability to drought
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1961. Flora of cultivated plants of USSR. Israel Program for
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1971. Techniques for measuring plant drought stress, p. 1-18.
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Continued at bottom of next page.
12
Diseases, Insects, And Other Pests Of Rangeland Alfalfa^
Charles E. Townsend
A Review
Information on the importance of diseases, insects, and other
pests on rangeland alfalfa is sparse. Frequently, the information
is observational and must be documented by properly designed
investigations.
The distribution and importance of the various diseases, insects,
and nematodes that attack alfalfa in the United States have been
discussed (2).^ Some report that common leaf spot (Pseudopeziza
medicaginis [Lib.] Saac), yellow leaf blotch (Lepfofrochiia
medicaginis [Fckl.], syn. Pseudopeziza jonesii [Nannf.]), spring
blackstem (Pfïoma medicaginis Malbr. & Roum. var. medicaginis],
summer blackstem and leaf spot [Cercospora medicaginis Ell. &
Ev.), and rust (Uromyces striatus Schroet.) are the most destructive
foliar pathogens in dryland areas (9). Bacterial wilt [Corynebac-
terium insidiosum [McCull.] H. L. Jens.) may be important in low
areas where moisture accumulates. Root and crown diseases are
more prevalent in older stands, and viruses may be important
under some conditions.
Of the various species of insects that attack alfalfa, the spotted
alfalfa aphid (Therioaphis maculata Buckton), pea aphid
(Acyrfhos/pon pisum Harris), alfalfa weevil {Hypera posfica
Gyllenhal), potato leafhopper (Empoosca fabae Harris), and
several species of grasshoppers are considered important in
dryland areas (9). Of these, grasshoppers are potentially the
most important on rangeland. Outbreaks are most common in
the Northern Great Plains, but the migratory characteristics of
some species make grasshoppers a particularly destructive pest
[16). There are many species of grasshoppers, but five species—
the lesser migratory grasshopper (Melanoplus sanguinipes P.),
the differential grasshopper (M. differenfiaiis Thomas), the red-
legged grasshopper (M. femur-rubrum DeGeer), the two-striped
grasshopper (M. biviffatus Say), and the clear-winged grasshopper
[Camnula pellucida Scudder)—cause 90 percent or more of the
damage to crops on cultivated lands (15). The relative importance
of species changes as one species is replaced by another [18).
An excellent review has been presented on forage losses caused
by rangeland grasshoppers (ó).
^ Joint contribution of the Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, and the Colorado State University Experiment Station,
Fort Collins, Colo. 80523.
^ Research geneticist, Crops Research Laboratory, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, Colo. 80523.
^ Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cifed, p. 14.
Continued
{57) Viets, F. G., Jr.
1971. Effective drought control for successful dryland agriculture,
p. 57-76. In K. L. Larson and J. D. Eastin, eds.. Drought
injury and resistance in crops, CSSA Special Publication No. 2,
Crop Science Society of America, Madison, Wis.
{58) Wallihan, E. F.
1973. Portable reflectance meter for estimating chlorophyll
concentrations of leaves. Agronomy Journal 65:659-662.
(59) Wolley, J. T.
1964. Water relations of soybean leaf hairs. Agronomy Journal
56:569-571.
(60) Wright, N. L.
1970b. Water use in relation to management of blue panicgross
{Panicum antidotale Retz.). Journal of Range Management
23:193-196.
{61)
1971. Drought influence on germination and seedling emergence,
p. 19-44. In K. L. Larson and J. D. Eastin, eds.. Drought injury
and resistance in crops, CSSA Special Publication No. 2,
Crop Science Society of America, Madison, Wis.
{62) and A. K. Dobrenz.
1970a. Efficiency of water use and seedling drought tolerance of
Boer lovegrass {Eragrostic curvula Nees). Crop Science 10:1-2.
{63) Younis, N. A., F. E. Stickler, and E. L. Sorenson.
1963. Reaction of alfalfa varieties to moisture stress in the
seedling stage. Agronomy Journal 55:177-181.
Some researchers have discussed the food habits and preferences
of grasshoppers in the grasslands of the north-central Great
Plains (70, 11). Some species of grasshoppers feed on many
different plant species while others are very selective and feed on
only a few. Some grasshoppers might even be considered
beneficial because they feed primarily on undesirable forbs.
Species that are destructive to cultivated crops may or may not
be of importance in grasslands. For example, A^. biviffafus and
M. differenfiaiis are not considered to be of economic importance
in grasslands and M. femur-rubrum is only of limited importance.
On the other hand, M. sanguinipes is polyphagous in its feeding
habit and is one of the most destructive species on both
grasslands and cultivated lands. M. packardii (Scudder) prefers
legumes but is of limited importance. Schisfocerco ¡ineata
(Scudder) has a definite preference for native legumes, and
species that prefer native legumes also might be expected to
attack alfalfa and other introduced legumes.
Grasshoppers have been controlled primarily by spraying with
insecticides because little is known about resistance mechanisms
or whether such mechanisms even exist in crop plants. To be
effective, the control program must be initiated at the proper
time and on all of the infested rangeland in an area. Which
grasshopper species will be the most serious in rangeland can
be determined by making an egg survey in the fall or spring
and by observing the nymphs and adults of the different species
during the spring and summer (13). With this method, proper
control measures may be initiated later during the same year or
in the following year.
13
Biological methods show considerable promise for grasshopper control. Of the parasites used, the protozoan Nosema locusfae Canning has potential value (4, 5). One of the problems with this method, however, is the time required for the protozoan to reach population densities that will control the grasshoppers. N. locusfae also was found compatible with a chemical insecticide, indicating that if insecticides could be used to reduce the existing grasshopper population, then N. locusfae would keep the grasshopper population under control (12), Other recent studies have shown that species of rangeland grasshoppers were variable in their acceptance of the wheat bran bait that is used to distribute the insecticide and N. tocusfae {14], This finding suggests that various bait formulations of N. locusfae and chemical insecticides might be used to control the many species of rangeland grasshoppers.
The general topics of breeding for disease, insect, and nematode resistance in alfalfa have been discussed (7, 8, 17). The importance of having multiple-pest resistance in rangeland alfalfa is not known, but the thin stands found in range seedings and the semiarid environment reduce the severity of most insect and disease pests. Introducing a legume into the rangelands, however, may cause certain species of insects, primarily grasshoppers, to increase. The effects that nematodes might have on the culture of rangeland alfalfa are not known.
Pocket gophers, which occur only in the Western hemisphere, probably present a greater hazard to alfalfa culture on rangelands than any other pest. Four species are found in Colorado: the mountain pocket gopher (Thomomys falpoides), the valley pocket gopher (T. boffae), the plains pocket gopher (Geomys bursarius), and the Mexican pocket gopher [Crafogeomys casfanops), {!] Pocket gophers feed on both above-ground and below-ground plant parts, but the root system is damaged most. They prefer plants with large, fleshy roots (3j. Alfalfa plants with creeping roots are damaged less than plants with taproots. The value of creeping-rooted alfalfa in rangeland infested with pocket gophers has not been established.
In range seedings in eastern Colorado, alfalfa seldom lasts longer than 10 years because of pocket gophers. Most control methods are not economical in rangelands, but the burrow-builder method, which consists of an artificially constructed burrow containing poisoned bait, may be the most promising. Assessing the true damage to alfalfa by gophers, rabbits, and other pests in small rangeland nurseries is difficult because such plantings attract pests from large areas.
Literature Cited (1) Anonymous.
19Ó0. Pocket gophers in Colorado. Colorado Agricultural
Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 508-S, 26 p.
(2) Barnes, D. K., F. I. Frosheiser, E. L. Sorensen, and others.
1974. Standard tests to characterize pest resistance in alfalfa
varieties. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural
Research Service, ARS-NC-19. 23 p.
(3) Hansen, R. M., and A. L Ward.
1966. Some relations of pocket gophers to rangelands on Grand
Mesa, Colorado. Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station,
Technical Bulletin No. 88, 22 p.
(4) Henry, J. E. 1971. Experimental application of Nosema locusfae for control
of grasshoppers. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 18:389-394.
(5) K. Tiahrt, and E. A. Oma.
1973. Importance of timing, spore concentrations, and levels
of spore carrier in applications of Nosemo locusfae
(Microsporida:No$ematidae) for control of grasshoppers.
Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 21:263-272.
(6) Hewitt, G. B.
1977. Review of forage losses caused by rangeland grasshoppers.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publication
No. 1348, 22 p.
(7) Hunt, O. J., L. R. Faulkner, and R. N. Peoden.
1972. Breeding for nematode resistance, p. 355-370. In
C. H. Hanson, ed., Alfalfa science and technology, American
Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(8) Kehr, W. R., F. I. Frosheiser, R. D. Wilcoxson, and D. K. Barnes.
1972. Breeding for disease resistance, p. 335-354. In
C. H. Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology, American
Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(9) Lowe, C. C, V. L. Marble, and M. D. Rumbaugh.
1972. Adaptation, varieties, and usage, p. 391-413. In
C. H. Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology, American
Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(TO) Mulkern, G. B., K. P. Pruess, H. Knutson, and others.
1969. Food habits and preferences of grassland grasshoppers
of the north central Great Plains. North Dakota Agricultural
Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 481, p. 32.
(17) D. R. Toczek, and M. A. Brusven.
1964. Biology and ecology of North Dakota grasshoppers. II.
Food habits and preference of grasshoppers associated with
the Sand Hills Prairie. North Dakota Agricultural Experiment
Station, Report No. 11, 59 p.
(12) Mussgnug, G. L, and J. E. Henry.
1979. Compatibility of malathion and Nosema locusfae Canning
in Me/anop/u$ sanguinipes (F.). Acrida 8:77-81.
(T3) Newton, R. C, C. O. Esselbaugh, G. T. York, and H. W. Prescott.
1954. Seasonal development of range grasshoppers as related
to control. Mimeograph Report No. E-873, p. 18.
(14) Onsager, Jerome A., J. E. Henry, R. Nelson Foster, and R. T. Stoten.
1980. Acceptance of wheat bran bait by species of rangeland
grasshoppers. Journal of Economic Entomology 73:548-551.
(Ï5) Parker, J. R.
1952. Grasshoppers. In Insects. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Yearbook of Agriculture 1952, p. 595-605.
(J6) R. C. Newton, and R. I. Shotwell.
1955. Observations on mass flights and other activities of the
migratory grasshopper. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Technical Bulletin No. 1109, 46. p.
(77) Sorensen, E. L, M. C. Wilson, and G. R. Manglitx.
1972. Breeding for insect resistance, p. 371-390. In C. H.
Hanson, ed.. Alfalfa science and technology, American Society
of Agronomy, Madison, Wis.
(78) Wakeland, Claude.
1961. The replacement of one grasshopper species by another.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Product Research Report No. 42,
9 p.
14
Origins Of Alfalfa Cultivars Used For Dryland Grazing
M«lvin D. Rumbaugh^
Introduction
The alfalfa cultivars and strains considered here were selected
because of their intended use and areas of adaptation. 1 included
only those specifically suggested by researchers or consumers as
being well suited for range or pasture in semiarid and nonhumid
temperate climates. The order of presentation is based in
part on the type of roots and crowns and in part according to
the chronology of introduction, licensing, registration, or release,
with some adjustments for ease of discussion.
Root-Proliferating Alfalfas
Medicago falcafa. The name 'Siberian' has been used to identify
seed stocks and populations of M. falcafa L. seeded on a limited
acreage in the Northern Great Plains and included in
experimental plantings in Western States and provinces. I believe
that many of these, if not most, descended from introductions
distributed by N. E. Hansen of the South Dakota agricultural
experiment station between 1898 and 1937.
The following M. falcafa accessions were collected during a 1906
expediation (Î9):2
P.I. 20717 Kharkof Province, southeastern Russia 20718 Omsk, Siberia 20719 Omsk, Siberia 20720 Irkutsk, eastern Siberia 20721 Samara Province, Volga River region 20722 Saratov Province, central Volga River region 20724 Tomsk, Siberia 20725 Don Province, lov/er Volga River region, southeastern
Russia 20726 Samara Province
This listing was repeated in a later publication [20). Hansen's
collections in a 1908 trip included the following:
P.I. 24452 V/estern Siberia (Hansen called this his 'Obb Siberian") 24453 Western Siberia (named 'Omsk 1908 Siberian' to differentiate
it from P.I. 20718 and 20719, although Hansen considered them to be agronomicaily similar)
24454 Eastern Siberia (collected north of Irkutsk near the western shore of Lake Baikal)
24455 Siberia (collected along the Irtysh River, 10 miles north of Semipolatinsk)
2445Ó 'Siberian alfalfa' (collected in the Gobi Desert in Manchuria)
Three accessions were obtained from previous introductions:
P.I. 27268 Selection from Hansen's plot of P.I. 24452 from Siberia 27375 Karkof (propagated from cuttings of P.I. 20717) 27394 Samara, Russia (a seed increase from P.I. 20721)
Two other accessions of considerable importance were from seeds
collected by a contact in Russia and mailed to Hansen. These
were:
P.i. 28070 Semipolatinsk, southwest Siberia 28071 Orenburg Province. This A4, falcata cannot be considered as
originating in Siberia but is similar to the 'Siberian' strains in adaptation. Hansen described it as having a small proportion of blue-flowered plants {20).
Seed and plants of these stocks were distributed widely for many
years. In 1912, for example, seeds of nine accessions were
advertised for sale by the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment
Station. Three of these were 'Siberian' alfalfas; one was called
'Semipolatinsk', which might also be 'Siberian', and an additional
offering was A4, falcafa from Samara. Seeds of 'Semipolatinsk'
were distributed as recently as 1922. Hansen described the
strain as having the strongest growth of the M. falcafa
collections (22).
Rooted plants were also disseminated in large quantities. More
than 50,000 were shipped to one recipient, and this practice
continued at least as late as March 20, 1920. On that date, on
order was filled for plants of both 'Cossack' and 'Orenburg*. An
old price list shows that 'Semipolatinsk' seed was sold at $5.00
per pound and l-yeor old plants of 'Cossack' were sold by mail,
postpaid, for $1.00 per hundred (15). The distribution of
Hansen's introductions and their use in cultivar development have
been described (40).
Publications of the period indicate that any ^1. falcafa might
hove been described as 'Siberion' alfalfa by some authors. In one
classification of alfalfas, the authors (37) attempted to correct
this by explaining, "In a fifth group are included the various
forms of the yellow-flowered species, sometimes referred to as
'Siberian' alfalfas. This term, however, is misleading since not
all of the yellow-flowered alfalfas come from Siberia."
All known root-proliferating cultivars now used ore related to
one or more of Hansen's introductions. This trait was first
described in a publication after the discovery was mode in a
nursery at Highmore, S. Dak., in 1912 (36). The annual report
for that season states, "Many plants of S.D. 55 at Highmore
show peculiar root systems. Laterals from the main roots of
plants often extend for a distance of from 30 to 36 inches, then
send stems to the surface. These laterals, parallel to the surface,
are from 6 to 10 inches below the surface" [(13) p. 64]. S.D. 55
is known to be on increase of P.I. 28071, the accession of
M. falcafa collected from Orenburg. One year later, the some
trait was found in P.I. 24455 from Semipolatinsk (14), A third
strain exhibiting the trait was referred to in a 1914 annual report,
which states, "This root characteristic has now been found in
P.I. 28071, 24455, and 28070" (?5). One other accession
from Orenburg, P.I. 23625, was similar to P.I. 28071 (36). I
believe all modern root-proliferating cultivars ore derived in port
from af least one of these four strains. The contributions of the
germplosm collected by Hansen to recently developed cultivars
hove been described in great detail (40).
^ Research geneticist. Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Utah State University, logon, Utah. 84332. ^ Italic numbers in parentheses refer to References, p. 18.
16
'Siberian' alfalfa is grown for forage on a limited scale in the
western Dakotas. Fields designated as 'Orenburg' remain in
hay production in Wyoming and Montana. Seeds of these strains
have been used for range and pasture experiments. The 'Siberian'
strain tested on a mountain range in Utah was found to be
inferior in persistence and forage yield to 'A-1Ó9', 'Ladak', and
'Rhizoma' (7). Others determined that a strain of 'Siberian'
obtained from near Coal Springs, S. Dak., persisted and was
productive 23 years after planting at a lower elevation than
the Utah experiment {41, 43). Numerous dryland seedings of
M. falcofa in Montana have been summarized (Ió). In some
trials, the M. faicafa was identified as 'Orenburg' and in others
as 'Ladak'. 'Semipalatinsk' was the most productive alfalfa
tested in a dryland experiment conducted between 1953 and
19Ó3 in eastern Oregon {45).
*Rambler'. The first root-proliferating cultivar of alfalfa was bred
{32) and released in 1955 {26). The early breeding program
leading to its development has been described {25).
'Rambler' is a seven-clone synthetic with parentage tracing to
the cultivar 'Ladak' and 'Rhizoma' and to a Siberian strain of
M. faicafa L., introduced to North America by Hansen. The 'Ladak*
and 'Siberian' seed stocks were planted at the research station,
Swift Current, Saskatchewan, in 1934, and were subjected to
intensive natural selection through several years of severe drought
and winterkill. Surviving 'Siberian' plants were selected on the
basis of root proliferation and upright growth habit; 'Ladak'
plants were selected for high seed yield. The clones retained
were further evaluated by agronomic trials of their selfed,
backcross, and controlled-cross progenies.
•Rhizoma' and 2,300 related plants were established in 1940, but
only 45 survived the unusually harsh winter of 1940-41. Several
of these were crossed with chosen plants of the 'Siberian'
populations, and their progenies were used for further selection.
After examining 10,000 plants for root proliferation in 1947,
the selections subsequently were tested for combining ability.
Between 1949 and 1951, a number of experimental synthetics
were formed and tested. The best among these was named
'Rambler'. The seven parental clones have the following origins:
3 clones: 'Ladak' X ('Ladak' X 'Siberian')
2 clones: {'Ladak' X 'Siberian') X ('Ladak' X 'Siberian') 'Ladck'
1 clone: ('Rhizoma' X 'Ladak') X 'Siberian' ('Ladak' X 'Siberian')
1 clone: 'Siberian' ('Ladak' X 'Siberian') X 'Siberian' ('Ladak' X
'Siberian')
None of the parental plants were related; hence, the genetic base
of the cultivar is quite broad.
*Travois'. This root-proliferating cultivar was derived from
germplasm introduced by Hansen and subjected to natural
selection for many years in two environments. An undetermined
number of the 10 parental clones were selected from among
progenies tracing to seed stocks obtained in 1948 from Canadian
scientists. These seed stocks were from the 'Ladak'-'Siberian'
population, which ultimately gave rise to the cultivar, 'Rambler'
(42, 44).
A search of old alfalfa fields resulted in the discovery of eight
root-proliferating hybrid plants in Perkins County, S.Dak. (1).
Adjoining fields of 'Cossack' and 'Semipalatinsk' (P.I. 24455)
were sown in 1912 with seed from Hansen. Introgression
occurred, and the root-proliferating plants found in the 'Cossack'
stand in 1950 were distinct, morphologically, from the
noncreeping forms (2). Each was 3 to 4 ft (90 to 120 cm) in
diameter, markedly delayed in recovery height, yellow or
variegated flowered, and sickle podded. These plants were
included in the breeding effort, which ultimately resulted in the
release of 'Travois'.
The selection process emphasized lateral spread by root
proliferation, growth habit, rapid recovery following cutting, and
resistance to bacterial wilt and to foliage and stem diseases.
'Roomer'. This seven-clone, cree ping-rooted, synthetic cultivar
was also developed in Saskatchewan {27, 28). Parental
background included strains of M. faicafa and the cultivars
'Cossack', 'Hardistan', 'Ladak', 'Rambler', 'Ranger', and
'Rhizoma'. The breeding method was based on selecting desirable
plants grown in spaced plantings, intercrossing them, growing
progeny lines, selecting within the best of these polycross-progeny,
testing the selections, and then using the best parent plants to
form the synthetic {31). Flowers are strongly variegated, and the
seed pods have one and one-half to three loose coils. 'Roomer',
winterhardy and drought resistant, was licensed for sale in
Canada in 1966.
*Drylander'. Tested under the experimental designation of Sc.
Syn. 3651, this yellow-flowered alfalfa, M. media Pers., was
developed at the research station at Swif^ Current and licensed
in 1971 for use in Canada (29). It is a synthetic from 15 yellow-
flowered clones selected from a large number in old breeding
nurseries that had been overseeded with bromegrass. Traits
considered included longevity, creeping rootedness, competitive
ability, seed set, and resistance to pod shattering. Additional
clonal trials for seed yield and disease resistance were followed
by progeny tests for creeping rootedness and winterhardiness.
Approximately 70 percent of the plants of 'Drylander' are
creeping rooted. This is 10 percent more than 'Rambler' or
'Roomer'. 'Drylander' is more winterhardy than 'Rambler' or
'Roomer' and as tall as 'Rambler'. Sixty-eight percent of the
plants of this cultivar were not diseased in a bacterial wilt trial.
Seed production averaged 78 percent of 'Vernal' in Canadian
tests with leaf-cutter bees as pollinators. This was less than the
seed yield of 'Rambler' or 'Roomer'.
'Drylander' is well adapted for hay and pasture use on dryland
in the Canadian Prairie region {30); competes well with crested
wheatgrass, Agropyron crisfafum (L.) Goertn, and with Russian
wild rye, Elymus junceus Fisch.; and is recommended in Canada as
a mixture component with these grasses.
16
'Kane*. Creeping-rooted plants from the research station at Swift
Current were crossed with wilt-resistant plants from the station at
Saskatoon in 1952. Spaced plant nurseries of F^, F2, from
intercrossed F^ plants, and backcross progenies, were established
at Lethbridge in 1952, 1955, and 195Ó. Selection for the
creeping-rooted habit of growth, recovery after cutting, vigor,
and resistance to bacterial wilt was followed by polycross progeny
tests in 1959 to 19Ó3. Six F^ clones with high combining ability
were the parents of experiment strain Syn. LC-B tested from 1965
to 1970 and licensed as 'Kane' in 1971 (17, 18).
'Kane' yielded 4 percent more forage than 'Roomer' over 42
station years at 10 locations in western Canada. Winterhardiness
and wilt resistance were equal to or better than those of
'Roomer'. Seed yield with leaf-cutter bees averaged less than
'Beaver', 'Ladak', 'Rambler', or 'Roomer'. Sixty percent of the
plants of 'Kane' showed some expression of the creeping-rooted
character in spaced plantings or thin stands. Flower color is
predominantly blue and purple but includes various shades of
yellow and variegated types.
'Roverde'. This is a cultivar merchandized by the L. Teweles Seed
Company. Breeding and parentage are unrecorded, but
descriptions of the cultivar are similar to that for 'Travois', and it
is believed to be a variety cross of 'Travois' X 'Teton'.
'Spredor'. This is a proprietary cultivar bred by the research staff
of Northrup, King and Company, and approved for
certification in 1974. It was developed by intercrossing and
selecting for persistence, wilt resistance, and vigor, with emphasis
on developing root proliferation in a high percent of the
population. Original parentage traces to four clones from the
cultivar 'Travois', one from 'Rambler', one from 'Vernal', and one
M. sativa from Arabia, P.I. 183262.
'Spredor' was intended primarily for overseeding rangeland and
for use in permanent or semipermanent pastures. Area of
adaptation is reported to be the Central and Northern United
States and Southern Canada (4). Plants of this cuüivar have
highly variegated flowers, low set crowns, a prostrate or
semiprostrate growth habit, and early fall dormancy. 'Spredor'
is resistant to bacterial wilt. An improved cultivar, 'Spredor 2',
with superior seed-yield potential, will be marketed by Northrup,
King and Company in 1981.
Xancreep*. The breeding program, which resulted in the cultivar
'Concreep', was initiated in 1954 by H. V. A. Daday of the
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO) Division of Plant Industry in Australia. The goal was to
combine the creeping habit and underground stem crown of
'Rambler' with the summer and winter vigor of 'Hunter River',
'Hairy Peruvian', and 'African' (5). Twenty-five creeping-rooted
plants selected from 400 plants of 'Rambler' and 5 clones
obtained from Swift Current were crossed with 20 plants selected
from a population of 3,000 plants of 'African', 'Hairy Peruvian',
and 'Hunter River'. The F^ plants were intercrossed and
backcrossed to 'Rambler' (8). These progenies formed the basic
germplasm pool subjected to the combination of family and
individual selection that resulted in the cultivar 'Concreep' (9).
In Australia, 70 percent of the plants of 'Concreep' show the
creeping trait. It has yielded more forage in temperate ciimrtes
than 'Hunter River' and is on equally prolific seed produce .
Survival is superior to any of the parents. 'Concreep' perorms
poorly in regions with hot, dry summers or with a subtr pical
climate (TO).
'Victoria'. 'Victoria' has been described as producing "wide, low
crowns, a much-branched taproot with an inherent capacity to
spread by means of creeping roots or rhizomes, a large number
of relatively small stems per crown, and a semi-decumbent growth
habit" (38). It is a nine-clone synthetic, tracing to the following
source materials:
two clones: Canada Ma 5110
two clones: Canada Sc 3513 one clone: Canada ScMa 531 one clone: Nebraska A224
two clones: 'Rhizomo' one clone: unknown
These parents were selected on the basis of polycross and Si
progeny performance from among 50 clones chosen from source
nurseries of 500 creeping-rooted or rhizomotous plants.
The suggested oreo of probable adaptation includes all or port of
the States of Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois,
Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee.
Rhîzomatous Alfalfas
'Sevelra'. Limited information about this strain was published by
Hanson et al. [24]. it is a selection from an old stand in the
dryland area of southern Idaho, and detailed history of its
origin was written (6). Hansen sent seed samples of numerous
alfalfas to A. E. Yoder, who homesteoded on the Sunnyside
Desert in 1908. The seeds were planted on a site that received
less than 10 in (25 cm) of annual precipitation. Three populations,
'Grimm', 'Orenburg', and 'Semipolotinsk', appeared to be
outstanding. These three were allowed to cross-pollinate and oil
other alfalfa plants were rogued. Further natural and moss
selection resulted in 'Sevelro*. The name was derived from that
of the Seven-L Ranch, where the cultivar hod been grown since
1918.
The growth habit of 'Sevelro' plants is quite variable. They range
from upright to procumbent, and flower color is extremely
variegated. Some plants do show considerable rhizome
development under dryland conditions. 'Seveira' is believed to
be less winterhardy than 'Ranger* but is quite drought resistant.
It is best adapted to dryland range and pasture in the western
States. In 1958, the estimated acreage of 'Sevelro' comprised
less than 0.01 percent of the total U.S. alfalfa plantings, and its
use has declined since that time.
'Nomad'. The origins of this cultivar ore somewhat obscure. It
was developed from persistent alfalfa plants growing on a
Klomath County, Oreg., dryland form at 4,500 ft (1,350 m)
elevation, where precipitation averaged 11 in (27.5 cm) per year {24).
17
The field where the 'Nomad' source material was found was
seeded to alfalfa in 1918 (33). By 1925, the stand was believed
gone, and the field was plowed and cropped for 17 years.
W. F. Cyrus selected surviving plants for creeping habit, leafmess,
seed set, and hardiness after the E. F. Burlingham Seed
Company took over the farm in 1943.
Plants of 'Nomad' are hardy but susceptible to bacterial wilt.
Some have well developed rhizomes that enable the plants to
spread in certain environments. Forage and seed yields are
relatively low under good growing conditions. This cultivar often
is recommended for use in range revegetation programs. No seed
of 'Nomad' was available from the originating company in
August 1977(39).
'Rhizoma'. 'Rhizoma' is a broad-crowned, wilt-susceptible,
variegated cultivar developed at the University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, by mass selection from a cross between
'Grimm' and a yellow-flowered alfalfa identified as 'Don' [35].
'Rhizoma' was released in 1947 (24) under the Canadian license
number 483.
'A-169'. This is an Alfalfa Improvement Conference designation
for Nebraska experimental population 03-Ó03. The population
was based on hybrids involving M. falcafa, M. glutinosa, a
Turkistan selection, and a spreading alfalfa from Turkey,
P.I. 107298. •A-169' yielded more forage than 'Ladak', 'Rhizoma',
or 'Siberian' in a 15-year-old high-altitude test in Utah (7).
'A-224'. This cultivar is a synthetic of four clones with a
spreading or rhizomatous growth form. The clones were selected
by the Alfalfa Improvement Conference from the breeding
programs in Pennsylvania (C87), Iowa (C63), and Nebraska (C53,
C130) ¡46). Origins of the clones as recorded (47) were as
follows:
C53 A wilt-resistant survivor from the polycross progeny of another
clone, C8, which itself was a wilt-resistant survivor from seed
from a natural crossing block involving hybrids between a
spreading introduction from Turkey (P.I. 107298), a 'Ladak'
selection, M. fakaia (P.I. 69137), and M. glutinosa.
C63 A rhizomatous selection from Woodside Golf Course, Des Moines,
Iowa.
C87 A selection from the Nebraska single cross 1124 X 1128.
C130 A wilt-resistant survivor from the polycross progeny of clone
Cl 1. Cl 1 was the Fi of a cross between a selected 'Ladak'
plant with cream-colored flowers X (selection from an old
Turkestan field X Cossack).
'A-224' yielded more hay than 'Nomad' or 'Seveira' but less than
'Rhizoma' when tested under dryland conditions in northeastern
Wyoming (34). It was the highest yielding of the four cultivars
at the Archer station in southeastern Wyoming.
'Teton\ In 1914, Hansen made an interspecific cross of two of
his alfalfa collections. The M. sativa I. parent was described as
Hansen's 'Select Turkestan' (P.I. 20711) from Tashkent in Russian
Turkestan. The M. falcata L. parent was Hansen's yellow-flowered
'Siberian' alfalfa (P.I. 24455), which he collected as seed from
wild plants near Semipalatinsk in Siberia (2, 23). A spaced-plant
nursery was established in which some plants survived until 1949.
At that time, certain survivors were selected for a breeding
program.
Clonal and progeny testing for resistance to bacterial wilt and
to common leafspot, low wide crowns, vegetative vigor, and seed
yield led to a four-clone synthetic released in 1958. 'Teton' was
intended to be used for either hay or grazing. In South Dakota,
it appeared to persist under grazing better than 'Nomad' or
'Rhizoma' and to develop more and longer rhizomes than
'Rhizoma*.
'College Glutinosa*. This cultivar was cited as being similar in
rhizome development to 'Rhizoma', 'Nomad', 'Seveira' and
'Teton' (M). The name implies at least partial origin from
M. glutinosa.
References
(7) Adams, M. W.
1956. Creeping alfalfa. South Dakota Farm and Home
Research VI 1:74-77, 95.
(2)
1958. Events associated with introgression of root proliferation
into domestic alfalfa. Agronomy Journal 50:761.
(3) and George Semeniuk.
1958. Teton alfalfa. South Dakota Agricultural Experiment
Station, Bulletin No. 469.
(4) Alfalfa Variety Review Board.
1974. Report of meeting of the National Certified Alfalfa Variety
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(5) Australian Country Magazine.
1968. New grazing lucerne is here and the name is 'Cancreep'.
Australian Country Magazine 24:10-11, 53, 96.
(6) Beck, J. O. [No date.] Seveira alfalfa. Albert Dickinson Company,
Nampa, Idaho.
(7) Bleak, A. T.
1968. Growth and yield of legumes in mixtures with grasses on
a mountain range. Journal of Range Management 21:259-261.
(8) Daday, H.
1962. Breeding for creeping root in lucerne (Medicogo sativa L.).
I. The initial response to selection. Australian Journal of
Agricultural Research 13:813-820.
(9)
1968. Registration of Cancreep lucerne. Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organization. Plant
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— J. W. Peak, T. Launders, and others. (10) 1968. Seasonal growth of an Australian cultivar of creeping-
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1971. Associations between characters in populations of
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18
(12) Falrchild, D.
1909. Seeds and plants imported during the period from
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{13) Gary er, S.
1912. A report of alfalfa and clover investigations conducted
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(U)
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1974. Forage species for the Northern Intermountain Region.
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1961. Registration of varieties and strains of alfalfa. Agronomy
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{28)
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1968. Alfalfa in Canada. Canada Department of Agriculture,
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{33) Jackmann, E. R., and R. G. Fowler, Jr.
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{34) Long, R. L.
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{35) Nilon, R. A.
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{36) Oakley, R. A., and S. Gorver.
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(37) and H. L. Westover.
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{39) Rumbaugh, M. D.
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{40)
1978a. N. E. Honsen's contributions to alfalfa breeding in North
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(47)
1978b. Characteristics of on old stand of dryland alfalfa.
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(42) J. D. Colburn, and G. Semeniuk.
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{43) and M. W. Pedersen.
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{44) G. Semeniuk, R. Moore, and J. D. Colburn.
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{47)
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JÎ-U.S. Government Printing Office : 1982 -522-011/3797 19